Well Behaved Women Rarely Make History

Colonial women and their lives

OK to begin lets set the sceneAll the women in the class need to leave– Why? Because in early America only a very few

women received and educationBut before you do …If you are married I need to know who your husband is and why he let you leave the houseIf you are not married I need to know if you have had sex and when and with whoOdd questions that could get me fired today, but questions that in Early New England the courts had a right to ask of all women

Many chose America to escape English class/political/religious structuresFemale subordination, far more basic to transported intact– not to tamper with traditional roles and institutions but

to re-create them as soon as possible Women’s lives rarely entered the foreground of events – visible women of 17th C– usually those brought briefly into center stage by

catastrophe or devianceideology of subordination remained intacthazards and needs of their new environment affected women’s roles.

Women’s life in the South

Balance of sexes skewed e.g. Chesapeake– Four out of the five individuals were men

One colonist reported “they grow very sensible of the Misfortune of Wanting Wives”Without women colonial ventures were in danger of being wrecked1619 VA House of Burgesses petitioned that wives as well as husbands be eligible for grants of free land, arguing that in a new plantation – “it is not known whether man or woman be the most

necessary.”

finding a suitable spouse

“If any Maid or single Woman have a desire to go over, they will think themselves in the Golden Age, when Men paid a Dowry for their Wives; for if they be but civil, and under 50 years of Age, some honest Man or other will purchase them for their Wives”

Not that she would have owned dowry When married - stripped of their legal rights– Wife’s possessions became her husband’s

she was unable to – do business on her own – sue – borrow money – sign contracts

“The husband and wife are one, and the husband is that one.”

Early Virginia attempted yet another remedy to the sexual disparityLondon recruiters began searching for marriageable women– offering free passage for girls of good reputation

Came with recommendations from their kinfolk and acquaintances attesting to their good character and domestic skills– Of the 57 women who arrived in 1621– median age was 20

One of her parish elders noted Anne Richards was a “woman of an honest life and conversation . . . and so is and ever hathe bynne esteemed,” Allice Burges, at 28, was one of the oldest and said to be skillful in the art of brewing beer – important in place where the water was generally undrinkablewe don’t know what happened to most of the women but presence speaks to the scarcity of women in this new colony

When they married, new husbands had to reimburse the company with 120 pounds of good leaf tobacco

Between 1620 and 1622 about 150 “pure and spotless” women came to the colony as “tobacco brides”

A change – for a while at least

Women found themselves in a place where gender role temporarily suspended due to conditions“a very civil woman” who could nonetheless “carry a gunn in the woods and kill deer, turkeys . . . shoot down wild cattle, catch and tye hoggs . . . and perform the most manful exercises as well as most men in these parts.”–William Bryd, a well known seventeenth

century diarist

Farms were almost all isolated– No easy connections

With this isolation, you better hope that you like your spouse – virtually impossible to get a divorce

But…thanks to the malarial swamps, few people wound up married for lifeMany marriages were brief – four out of ten immigrants died within six

years often of malaria, typhoid, or dysentery

Under such circumstances, family life took on a tentative quality.patchwork families made up of widows, widowers, and several degrees of stepchildren Colonies crowded with widows, many of them managing large estates Men named their wives as executorHighly unusual in England

In some cases, pure affection “All I have I leave her, and if I had more she should enjoy it,” wrote John Smithson of Maryland in his willBut often, sheer practicality.– many people had no close relatives in America who could

be trusted to oversee an estateFew women stayed single long in the South – some went through five or six husbands.

newly empowered widows weren’t willing to give up control in order to acquire a helpmeet.Married only whey they had legal assurance that they could determine the disposition of their restates

Indentured servants also derived several benefits from the region’s unbalanced sex ratiosVirtual certainty of marriage and a far greater choice of spouses than poor women in EnglandThe people who colonized South didn’t develop any new philosophies – just didn’t have the resources to enforce the

old rules that most of them still adhered to in theory

Despite this laxity, court cases suggest that gender norms DID matter in early colonial southern colonies For instance, Ann Fowler was sentenced to twenty lashes in 1637 for defaming a county justice with the somewhat undeferential suggestion that he could “Kiss my arse”

I am the Youth and Education Programs Intern and we have a class from West Park coming to the University on November 20, from 2:10-2:55 to learn about the pilgrims and the tradition of Thanksgiving. I was wondering if you or anyone else in your department would be interested in doing a 20 minute presentation on how Thanksgiving was started (we can have sample foods, crafts, or whatever… it can be as fun as you would like it to be)? If there is a class that is interested that would be great also. I know that it is the day before Thanksgiving break but it will be a great opportunity for the elementary kids to get a taste of higher education. Please let me know if you are interested or the names of anyone who might be.  Thanks,Ashley Cochran Youth & Education Programs InternASUI Center for Volunteerism & Social ActionIdaho Commons 301PO Box 442535, Moscow, ID 83844-2535Phone: (208) 885-9442    Fax: (208) 885-6944

Life in the northern colonies

On the surface at least, New England settlement provided a stark contrast to women’s lives in the South. Most immigrants arrived in family unitsclimate of the northern colonies extended life expectancy to 65 for men and slightly less for women – 5 years longer than the average in England

and 10 years more than the southern colonies marriages might last a quarter of a century or more, and large families abounded – on average women had between 6-7 children

No woman was expected to remain unmarried for long –nor did Puritan authorities wish to

encourage the single state. “It would be a bad president [sic],” the MA governor told one applicant, Deborah Holmes, “to keep hous alone.”Family was the ideal and the base for society

Unlike the southern colonists, the“Wives are part of the house and family,” announced a New England minister, “and are to be under the husband’s government.” Male as head of family had absolute authority over the householdA woman had a right to the love and support of her spouse but, – did not have a right to question his judgment.

Marriage recognized as a civil contract based on mutual consent of both partiesStatutes outlawed or limited physical abuse of wives – in 1641 MA prohibited wife beating – “unless it be in his own defense upon her

assault.”Puritans in zeal to promote family granted absolute divorce with the right to wed againMajor innovation– In England marriage was a sacrament only

the wealthy, mainly men, were able to terminate unions

Divorces were granted for desertion, bigamy, failure to provide, and adulterySomething that did not happen frequently MA only granted 27 divorces between 1639 and 1692 – most for desertionThe courts ruled on at least two other matters concerning men and women: premarital sex and adultery

If a child arrived before a marriage was nine months old, the couple could be hauled into court and charged with fornication and punished with nine lashes “upon the Naked back” or a steep fineAdultery was a more serious matter. Puritans defined adultery as sex between a married woman and any other man than her husbandA married man who strayed was only guilty of fornication

Deputy husbandsMany businesses theoretically operated by men actually conducted by their wives Widows managed lands, shops, groceries, bookstores, taverns, and worked on occasion as blacksmiths, butchers, and gunsmiths

The widow as feme sole (unlike feme covert) own buy, sell property, sue and be sued, make contracts, administer estates, and hold power of attorneyThis latitude is in the public’s interest. A destitute widow or spinster could drain a community’s resources

Goodwives and not so goodwives

Poetry of Anne Bradstreet Banishment of Anne Hutchinson

Anne Bradstreet model of a Puritan’s private writing “Religious Experiences”– intended to convey

the “spiritual advantages” to her 8 children

written not for self-glorification but in humility – “not to sett forth myself but the glory of God.”

Bradstreet’s poems give us a better sense of gender roles in Puritan society

used her learning for private benefit not for public trouble making or “meddling” in the affairs of menUnlike……

Anne Hutchinson in the 1630sWoman of status –middle-aged wife of a landowner,

merchant, and public official43 when family (of 14 children) emigrated to MA in 1634Her services as a midwife gave her entrée into many homes but,Talents as a theological attracted even more attention

60-80 townsfolk – gathering in the

Hutchinson home to hear Anne’s learned discussion of weekly sermons

Argued that gift of heaven was freely bestowed by God attained through a direct relationship with him

Held powerful sway over followers – people of substance

One male newcomer to Boston reported that when he arrived in town he was approached by “a little nimble tongued Woman” who urged him to visit “one of her own Sex” who “Preaches better Gospell than any of your black-coates that have been at the University.”

Fall 1637, summoned before the General Court– with the governor

presidingShe stood alone, facing a panel of men. The meeting room doors were held open so the crowd of eager bystanders could hear.

For a long time she did very well, matching Governor Winthrop Bible citation for Bible citationBut she was doomed to lose eventuallyBanishedReverend Mather urged women in his congregation to remember that “she is but a Woman and many unsound and dayngerous principles are held by her.”

Anne was guilty of heresy and sedition But also of role reversal –she was told at her trial that “You have rather bine a Husband than a Wife, and a Preacher than a hearer, and a Magistrate than a subject.”

After expulsion from MA in 1637, Anne her husband, and younger children and followers relocated to RIShe will question RI authorities and the family will re-locate to NY where Anne and all but one of her younger children are killed by Indians in 1643The Puritans see this as divine retribution

ConclusionWith these differences tempting to debate the relative advantages of Chesapeake women– seemed to profit from their low numbers

New England women– longer life expectancy and greater chance at a stable

family lifeBut the contrast between these two modes of seventeenth century settlement obscure the commonality of female experience throughout the colonies. Housewife and subordinate

BACKGROUND

Salem in midst of change mercantile elite developing –prominent people less willing be town

leaderstwo clans–Putnams and the Porters competing for control of the village and its pulpit

debate was raging over how independent Salem Villagetied more to the interior agricultural regions, should be from Salem a center of sea trade.

1688, John Putnam – an influential elder of Salem Village,

invited Samuel Parris, – a marginally successful planter and merchant in

Barbados, to preach in the Village church A year later Parris accepted theHe moved to Salem Village with his wife Elizabeth, – six-year-old daughter Betty, – niece Abagail Williams, – Indian slave Tituba, acquired by Parris in

Barbados.

The terror begins

February 1692 Betty Parris became strangely ill. – dashed about, – dove under furniture, – contorted in pain, – complained of fever.

The cause of her symptoms may have been some combination of stress, asthma, guilt, boredom, child abuse, epilepsy, and delusional psychosis.

There was another theory Cotton Mather – "Memorable Providences," Described the suspected witchcraft of an Irish washerwoman in Boston

Easy to believe in 1692 in SalemIndian conflicts less than 70 miles away –Town crowded with refugeesPhysical reminders that the devil was close at hand Sudden and violent death occupied minds.

Talk of witchcraft increased when other playmates of Betty including – eleven-year-old Ann Putnam– Seventeen-year-old Mercy Lewis – Mary Walcott

began to exhibit similar unusual behavior William Griggs, a doctor called to examine the girls Supernatural origin.

Mary Sibley, proposed counter magicTold Tituba to bake a rye cake with the urine of the afflicted victim and feed the cake to a dog. – Dogs were believed to

be used by witches as agents to carry out their devilish commands.

Suspicion already begun to focus on Tituba, – known to tell tales of omens, voodoo, and witchcraft

Participation in the urine cake episode made her obvious scapegoat

girls "turned themselves from a circle of friends into a gang of juvenile delinquents.“ People of period complained young

people lacked piety and sense of purpose

Contorted into grotesque poses complained of biting and pinching

sensations. Suspected affliction of the girls

became an obsession.

Betty Parris and Abigail Williams named their afflicters –witch-hunt began.–consistency of accusations

suggests stories planned First three to be accused were Tituba, Sarah Good, and Sarah Osborn

Tituba was an obvious choice Good was a beggar and social misfitOsborn was old, quarrelsome, and had not attended church for over a year. Putnams brought complaint to county magistrates Jonathan Corwin and John Hathorne– scheduled examinations for the suspected

witches for March 1, 1692 in Ingersoll's tavern. hundreds showed up examinations moved to meeting house.

Might have ended but…. Tituba After first adamantly denying any guilt Claimed she was approached by a tall man from Boston– obviously Satan– Who as a dog or a hog and

asked her to sign in his book and to do his work

Yes, Tituba declared, she was a witchShe and four other witches –including Good and Osborn had flown through the air on their poles. Accusations continued

Dorcas Good –four-year-old

daughter of Sarah Good

First child to be accusedArrested, kept in jail for eight months watched her mother get carried off to the gallows “cry her heart out, and go insane”

Mather urged Chief Justice Stoughton to credit confessions and admit "spectral evidence”Ministers were looked to for guidance

judges also allowed the "touching test“ defendants asked to touch afflicted to see if their touch would stop their contortionsAlso examination of the bodies of accused for evidence of "witches' marks“

Evidence that would be excluded from modern courtrooms –hearsay, gossip, stories, unsupported

assertions, surmises generally admitted. Accused witches had no legal counselCould not have witnesses testify under oath on their behalf No formal avenues of appeal.

First accused witch to be brought to trial was Bridget Bishop.

Almost sixty years old, owner of a tavern critical of her neighbors, reluctant to pay her bills,

Bishop was a likely candidate for an accusation of witchcraft

Trial June 2, 1692field hand testified that he –saw Bishop's image stealing eggs and

transform herself into a cat. Deliverance Hobbs and Mary Warren, both confessed witches– testified that Bishop was one of themA villager named Samuel Grey told the court –Bishop visited his bed at night and

tormented him.

Chief Justice Stoughton signed death warrant, on June 10, 1692, Bishop was carted to Gallows Hill and hanged One of the judges, Nathaniel Saltonstall– resigned from the

court.

Not all defendants were as disreputable as Bridget Bishop.

Rebecca Nurse was a pious, respected woman

Whose specter according to Ann Putnam, Jr. and Abagail

Williams attacked them in mid March of 1692Ann Putnam, Sr. added her complaint that Nurse demanded that she sign the Devil's book, then pinched her.

Nurse was one of three Towne sisters

all identified as witches All were members of a Topsfield

family that had a long-standing quarrel with the Putnam family

jury returned a verdict of not guilty

Displeased Chief Justice Stoughton

Told the jury to go back and consider again Jury reconvened, this time guilty On July 19, 1692, Nurse rode with four other convicted witches to Gallows Hill.

Persons who scoffed at accusations of witchcraft risked becoming targets

One man critical of the trials paid with his life.

John Proctor An opinionated tavern

owner who openly denounced the witch-hunt.

George Burroughs. identified by several of his accusers as the ringleaderAnn Putnam claimed that Burroughs bewitched soldiers during a failed military campaign against Wabanakis in 1688-89

Burroughs continued to insist on his innocence

And recited the Lord's Prayer perfectly

something witches were thought incapable of doing

the crowd reportedly was "greatly moved.“

One victim not hangedGiles Corey spent five months in chains in a Salem jail with his accused wife, had nothing but contempt for the proceedings.

Hoping that by avoiding a conviction his farm–that would otherwise go the state might go to his two sons-in-law, Corey refused to stand for trial. The penalty for such a refusal was peine et fort, or pressing.

Three days after Corey's death On September 22, 1692 8 more convicted witches – including Giles' wife Martha were hanged. The last victims of the witch hunt.

Increase Mather urged the court to exclude spectral evidence.

Phips ordered court to exclude spectral evidence 28 of the last 33 witchcraft

trials ended in acquittals. In May of 1693, Phips

released from prison all remaining accused or convicted witches.

In the endnineteen convicted witches were executed four accused witches had died in prisonGiles Corey, had been pressed to death. About one to two hundred other persons were arrested and imprisoned on witchcraft charges. Two dogs were executed as suspected accomplices of witches.

Scholars have noted differences between the accused and the accusers in Salem.

Most accused lived to the south of, and were generally better off financially, than accusers.

The accused and the accusers generally took opposite sides in a congregational schism that had split the Salem community before the outbreak of hysteria.

The families that included the accusers had--for the most part--played leading roles in forcing Burroughs to leave Salem.

Suggests that property disputes and congregational feuds played a major role in determining who lived, and who died, in 1692.

A period of atonement began Samuel Sewall, one of the judges, issued a public confession of guilt and an apology. Several jurors came forward to say that they were "sadly deluded and mistaken" in their judgments.Reverend Samuel Parris conceded errors of judgment, but mostly shifted blame to others.

Parris was replaced as minister of Salem village by Thomas Green Governor Phips blamed the entire affair on William Stoughton. Stoughton, clearly more to blame than anyone for the tragic episodeRefused to apologize or explain himself.