UNIVERSITY OF ZULULAND

FACULTY OF ARTS

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION SCIENCE

COMMUNICATION SCIENCE 1

ACOM111

LECTURER: MISS A. REDDY

EXT: 7038

OFFICE: A2-48

CITY CAMPUS

RICHARDS BAY

E-MAIL: avashni.r@gmail.com

Welcome

Thank you for registering for Communication Science (ACOM 111) and

welcome to the course. I trust that you will find this course rewarding

and enriching. The purpose of this module is to introduce you to the

basic principles of communication and to create an awareness of the

skills and competencies needed to communicate effectively. The

prescribed book for this course is - Communication Studies: an

introduction by Shiela Steinberg. The study guide is also available on

the website www.comsci.uzulu.ac.za

Learning Outcomes

• Enhancing your learning skills and developing a variety of learning strategies

• Developing your self-responsibility skills

• Working effectively with other learners in a group

• Motivating yourself to make a positive contribution towards your community

• Considering and improving your communicative competence

• Stimulating your thoughts on communication as a science

• Identifying, formulating and solving practical communication problems experienced personally or

in your community

• Being sensitive to multicultural communication

• Encouraging you to pursue your studies in communication science

• Becoming a successful life-long learner.

Venue & Dates

• Lectures

• Assessments

Days Venue Time Mondays A1 - 38 08h30Wednesdays A1 - 38 08h30Thursdays A1 - 38 12h30

Assessments Dates Weight 1st term test 22 March 15%Major Assignment 1 18 April 20%2nd term test 17 May 15%

Course OutlineSTUDY UNIT COURSE OUTLINE ACOM 111 – COMMUNICATION SCIENCE 1

Week 1 Introduction to Communication Science

1 Week 2 Brief History of Communication

2 Week 3 Communication and Human Needs

3 Week 4 The Communication Process

4 Week 5 Perception, Listening and Feedback

5 Week 6 Nonverbal Communication

6 Week 7 Language and Communication

7 Week 8 Intrapersonal Communication

8 Week 9 Interpersonal Communication

9 Week 11 Small Group Communication

10 Week 12 Public Speaking

Tentative datesUNIT WEEK CONTENTS

13 Feb – 17

Feb

Welcome

Overview of course

Learning outcomes

Guidelines and Rules

1 20 Feb – 24

Feb

The Stages of Human Communication

2 27 Feb – 2 Mar Purposes of Communication

Effects of Communication

Maslow’s theory

Communication as a scientific discipline

Communication competence

UNIT WEEK CONTENTS

3 5 Mar – 9 Mar Defining Communication

Dimensions of Communication

Components of the Communication Process

Models of the Communication Process

4 12 Mar – 16

Mar

Perception

Listening

Feedback

5 19 Mar – 23

Mar

Functions of Nonverbal Communication

Aspects of Nonverbal Communication

Categories of Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal skills

UNIT WEEK CONTENTS

6 10 Apr – 13 Apr Uses of Language

Language as a system of signs

Social phenomenon of Language

Communicative functions of language

7 16 Apr – 20 Apr The self

Self-concept

Intrapersonal variables

Perception of others

Improving accuracy of your perceptions

UNIT WEEK CONTENTS

8 23 Apr – 4 May Buber’s theory of interpersonal relationships

Interpersonal communication and self-disclosure

Interpersonal communication and needs

Interpersonal communication and assertiveness

Presentation skills

9 7 May – 11 May Defining a group

Advantages and disadvantages of small groups

Group characteristics

Communication networks in small groups

Leadership and discussion in groups

Differences between interpersonal and group

communication

UNIT WEEK CONTENTS

10 14 May – 18 May Determining the purpose of your talk / speech

Analyzing the audience

Selecting a topic

Researching the topic

Writing the speech

Organisational techniques for specific purposes

Preparing the delivery

Visuals

Evaluating speeches

Course Rules & Responsibilities1. Attendance to Lecturers

• Attendance to lecturers is compulsory. An attendance register will be taken at every

lecture. Should you become ill, submit a copy of the medical certificate to your lecturer.

Any other reasons for your absenteeism will have to be given to your lecturer in writing. 2. Assessments and tests

• These must be written according to the official time-table. If a student is prevented from

doing so, the student must inform the lecturer before the commencement of the test

• The student must also produce a medical certificate, covering the full period of absence,

immediately upon return.

• Should the student not write that test for non-medical reasons, then they will receive 0%

(zero) for that test. There will be no re-evaluation under these circumstances.

3. Assignments

• Assignments are to be submitted during the lecture period (unless

otherwise stipulated by your lecturer)

• Meet deadlines and due dates as stipulated in the course outline.

• Marks will be deducted for each day that the assignment is not late.

• Submit original work, no plagiarizing or cheating. 4. Semester-end examination

• You will write a 3-hour examination at the end of the semester. This mark

will contribute the other 50% of the final mark.

5. Consultation Times

• Students are welcome to consult the lecturer regarding problems during

the times stipulated by the lecturer.

General Guidelines

• Dates of assignments and assessments are provided in advance so

that you have adequate study and preparation time. If you miss an

assignment deadline, your assignment will not be accepted and you

will be given a ZERO. Should you experience problems, speak to

your lecturer before the assignment is due and not on the due date.

• Assignments must be TYPED.

• Font size should be 12 and you should use either Arial/Times New

Roman.

• Use 1.5 line spacing.

Cover Page

• Name and Surname

• Student registration number

• Due date

• The Topic

• Lecturer’s name

Content of written assignment

• Your written assignment should consist of the following:

• Table of contents

• An introduction – this should briefly explain how you intend to answer the

question (provide aims of the assignment)

• The main section of your assignment will consist of all the readings. This must

be arranged in a logical way and should be the most important part of your

assignment. You should ensure that you have answered the question.

• Your conclusion should consist of a summary of the main points.

• List of references/bibliography

A brief history of Communication

• Can you imagine life without your blackberry, facebook, mixit or

twitter???

• Did you ever wonder how communication began or how it

originated?

• Communication has changed dramatically over the past decade.

This is due to the rapid development of new technologies. The art

of communication science has evolved with time and has

undergone various stages to get where it is today.

Stages in the history of human communication

• Communication as we know it today evolved over a period of time

and went through various stages. In early civilisations there was a

need to communicate and instruments such as a ram’s horn,

drumbeats and smoke signals were used and during the Middle

Ages, homing pigeons were used to transmit messages. In modern

times communication is often available by means of pressing a

button ( phoning someone, sending a message via your cellular

phone, typing a letter on computer or switching on the television)

Age of Speech and Language

• The development of communication did not replace anything preceding it. Gestures, the

development of language and the need for interaction with others merely contributed

towards modern-day methods of expression.

• It is not very clear how language originated. Some believe words imitated sounds that

accompanied gesture; others believe words came from expression of emotion (crying or

laughing) while another school of thought believes that language resulted because of group

activities (like working together).

• There are more or less 3,000 languages spoken worldwide today. In South Africa we have

eleven official languages and each of these languages has been influenced by other existing

languages. Many language characteristics in your mother tongue have been taken over from

older languages.

Age of Writing

• In prehistoric times drawings and pictures of animals and people

in cave paintings and cuneiform were used to communicate.

• For generations cave paintings provided people with a way of

recording customs and traditions

• Wedge shaped strokes on clay tables ( known as cuneiform-

pictographic writing in which symbols represented objects)

represented ideas. Sounds were later added to identify pictures

and in about 3500 BCE ( Before the common era), the Sumerians

used words that sounded similar to create meaning ( for example

“bee” and “leaf” created “belief”). A complete cuneiform system

had more than 600 signs and a cuneiform script discovered in

1929 contained an alphabet of consonants.

Age of Print

• In medieval Europe the preservation of learning was one of the major

responsibilities of the monks. One way this task was done, was by

meticulously copying entire texts onto papyrus (paper had not been

invented yet). Crafts men and manuscript copyists also participated in

this activity to ensure that books were made available and that

information was communicated to people.

• In the West, however, at around 1438, the German printer Johan Guttenburg

invented a mould for casting individual letters in metal and published the first

book in the 1450’s. The Gutenberg Bible (1455) was the first work in Europe to

be printed with movable type ( about 200 copies were printed).

• News-sheets an early form of the newspaper were later developed, which

flourished and circulated rapidly.

• Society was easily influenced with the spread of books and information as

they could share their knowledge. More people began to read and write.

• However the release of the newspaper became the first true mass

communication medium.

Age of Electronic Mass Media

• In modern times personal computers have become known as

Multimedia PC’s because various forms of media, such as

cameras, telephones, videos, compact disks and images can be

integrated to enhance the accessibility and distribution of

information.

• Mass media is the term used to denote radio, newspapers,

television and the Internet- media that can be used to reach the

masses.

Radio - Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian that was familiar with the work of Samuel

Morse, invented the first “wireless telegraph” and patented it in England in 1896. On

12 December 1901 he transmitted his first transatlantic message between

Newfoundland in America and Poldu in England. Today Marconi is credited as the

father of Radio. The South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) was established

on 1 August 1936.

Film - Two Frenchmen, Niepce and Daguerre invented film during the 19th century. By

the early 20th century the movie camera and projector were available and motion

pictures became an important source of entertainment. By 1905 cinemas were built in

Europe and United States. In South Africa film can make an important contribution to

the democratisation and development that needs to take place.

• Television - Television means “to see at a distance”. It is

transmission of images and sounds to distant screens by

means of electrical or radio waves. John L. Baird showed the

live television pictures in London in 1926. The first television

service in South Africa was introduced on 5 January 1976.

Today SABC channels broadcast in all 11 languages reaching

an estimated 18 million people.

Information Age

• Also known as the computer or digital age.

• The rapid development of technology has provided

greater access to information, in terms of both speed

and information.

• The explosion brought about by computer technology

has led to the revision of many laws regulating access

to and communication of information.

The Internet

• The internet makes use of almost any kind of electronic transmission

promoting the sharing of information, enhancing business transactions in

terms of reducing time to send and access information and supporting global

interaction between organisations and people.

• The Internet can be regarded as a universal library, the worlds first viable

commercial democracy. The Internet is not free and users have to register

with a service provider and also pay for the time spent on the Internet.

Some websites provide information free of charge while others rely on

subscription fees.

E-mail - E-mail has become an essential part of communication within and

between organisations. It has replaced letters, faxes and telephone calls in

both business and personal lives. E-mail is fast, cheap and reliable.

The World Wide Web (WWW) - is a part of Internet in which information is

presented. Tim Berners-Lee created it in 1989 at the CERN Particle Physics

Laboratories in Switzerland. The WWW combines words, graphics, video and

sound, adds colours and includes advertising and downloadable texts and

programmes. It is possible to search for information on almost any topic using

a key word or phrase. A collection of papers belonging to the same

organisation is called a “web site”.

Newsgroups and chatrooms - newsgroups and chatrooms enable people who

share the same interests from all over the world to communicate. A chatroom is

an electronic gathering place for people with similar interests.

Teleconferencing - is a way to hold meetings with people who are in different

distant locations and is a substitute for face-to-face communication.

Videoconferencing and Audioconferencing use telephone and video technology.

Telecommuting - enables people to work at home three or four times a week.

They are connected to the main office by a computer and is widespread in the

United States.

Activity

1. The five major stages of the development of human communication

are distinguished according to different stages:

a) List them in historical order.

b) Write down the medium or technological development that characterised each age.

2. Briefly describe the most important social outcome of the

development of the age of electronic mass media. .

3. To which electronic mass media are you exposed daily and how has the use of these enriched

your life?

The Functions of Communication

• Ever wondered why we communicate???

• Think about your everyday activities…

• When we communicate we have some

purpose in mind.

Purposes of Communication

• The most important purpose of

communication is to satisfy a personal or

social need.

• Needs can be described as the requirements

of life.

• The various purposes of communication are..

Physical & Psychological needs : physical

needs refer to the basic needs required to

survive (food, water, shelter & air).

Psychological needs refers to the need of

socialising and communicating with others.

Relationships : the development and

maintenance of relationships with others.

Sense of self : communication which allows

us to gather an insight into ourselves and

develop self-concept of who we are by the

way people respond to us.

Information : society cannot function

without information. Information is obtained

and shared for various reasons.

Decision making : decisions can be made

consciously or unconsciously. It can also be

made together with others.

Persuasion : we often communicate to

persuade others to think the way we do.

Mass media is used extensively for

persuasion.

Effects of Communication

• The use of communication can have two effects.

Intentional effects : refers to the direct and

predictable response expected from the

communicated message.

Unintentional effects: refers to the indirect

influences and unpredictable response from the

communicated message.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Self -actualisation

esteem

social

safety

survival

• Survival – most basic needs such as the physical wellbeing of a person.

• Safety – feeling free and secure from danger with order in our lives.

• Social – forming meaningful and close relationships with others.

Satisfying the need to be accepted, loved, appreciated and belong to a

group.

• Esteem – the need to be respected by others and yourself. Allowing

yourself to become successful by enhancing your self – image.

• Self-actualisation – fulfilling your potential and achieving all that you

can as a human being. This is the most difficult need.

According to Maslow’s theory, people are motivated to progress

from the most basic needs ( to survive) to achieving the highest

level of needs (to fulfill ones potential and to become all that

one is capable of becoming). Maslow believed that motivation

deals with conscious and unconscious drives and a primary level

need has to be satisfied before the next level of needs can be

satisfied. Maslow proposed that those people who have fulfilled

their need for self-actualisation can become aware of the fullest

potential of humans at large.

Communication as a scientific discipline

• In modern age there has been a demand for the

scientific study of communication to determine

whether effective communication is taking place at

institutions.

• Tools such as scientific study, theories, concepts,

models and communication research is used to test

our knowledge and assumptions of communication.

Communication competence

• The success of your communication with your partner will depend on a number

of factors, such as communication competence. You will, among other things,

have to formulate the words carefully in order to express yourself clearly and

concisely. You will have to understand and interpret nonverbal communication

and also display the correct and most acceptable nonverbal behaviour.

• Communication is a competence which one can learn. Communication skills can

be improved by understanding 1) the communication process; 2) different

communication categories; 3) elements of communication; 4) verbal and

nonverbal communication and by 5) developing effective listening skills.

The Communication Process

Defining Communication

• There is no single approach to communication.

• As years went along theorists developed,

changed or modified communication theories.

• Three definitions of communication will be

discussed.

The first theory looks at communication as a

linear (one-way) process. Communication

can be defined as the ‘sending or receiving of

messages’ or ‘the transmission of messages

from one person to another’.PERSON X MESSAGE PERSON Z

The second theory is more complex. Along with the

transmission, it includes the interpretation and meaning of

messages. Communication can be seen as a two-way process

in which people exchange messages. Here communication

can be defined as ‘a dynamic process of exchanging

meaningful messages’.

PERSON X MESSAGE PERSON Z

The last theory also views communication as a dynamic

process of exchanging messages but as a transaction in

which the participants develop a relationship between

them. It focuses on the quality of the relationship in

which participants negotiate di, transfer and

interpretation of messages. Communication becomes a

reciprocal process. Communication is defined as ‘a

transactional process of exchanging messages and

negotiating meaning to establish and maintain

relationships’.

Dimensions of Communication

• Are we able to communicate without using

words???

• Communication can take place in various

dimensions such as verbal and nonverbal; oral and

written communication; formal and informal

communication; intentional and unintentional

communication.

Verbal and nonverbal communication

Verbal communication – refers to spoken or written

signs called words, which make up a language.

Nonverbal communication – refers to communication

without spoken messages, it deals with body language

such as gestures, touch, facial expressions and use of

space.

Verbal and nonverbal communication work together

to convey the meaning of a message.

Oral and written communication

Oral communication – refers to messages

that are transmitted aloud. Daily we speak

and listen to others.

Written communication – involves mainly

words and is taking place as you read this

slide. It also has a nonverbal dimension.

Formal and informal communication

Communication within this context depends largely on

the situation we in.

Formal communication – is well structured, more

attention is paid to the way in which we use verbal and

nonverbal communication. We express ourselves clearly

and avoid using of slang. A scene at work or an interview.

Informal communication – communicating with ease,

less structured. A scene at a friend’s party.

Intentional and unintentional communication

Intentional communication – refers to

communication with a specific goal in mind.

Unintentional communication – refers to

occasions when communication takes place

without the communicator being aware of it.

Components of the communication process

• The communication process can be viewed as a system. A system is

composed of interdependent parts working together to achieve an

intended goal. Example: a car – the individual parts work together so

that it can function efficiently.

• A concept is a word with a specific meaning. Communication terms

or concepts that you will study in this unit include: encoding,

context, message and feedback. Examples will be used to explain

and elaborate each term.

People : people involved in the communication process are

called the communicator (message source) and the recipient

(message receiver). Communication is a dynamic process

people therefore interactively play both roles.

The communicator (message source) intentionally forms

purposeful messages and expresses them through verbal and

nonverbal signs.

The recipient (message receiver) is an active participant who

receives and interprets the message, then responds to the

message and becomes the communicator and the partner

becomes the recipient.

Message : communication takes place through the sending and

receiving of messages. The message has content which is conveyed

during the communication encounter. Messages have a meaning

that must be understood and interpreted.

Sign and code : signs represent something such as an idea and a

code is a system for using signs. You have already learned that

communication is both verbal and nonverbal, and that both work

together to convey the message. You also know that nonverbal

signs such as gestures can sometimes be confusing because people

from different cultures use these gestures in different ways.

Encoding and decoding : encoding is the process

of transforming ideas into verbal and nonverbal

signs (create messages); decoding is the process of

taking the verbal and nonverbal messages and

giving it a meaning.

Medium and channel : these are links between the

communicator and the recipient. The medium is

the physical means of transmitting messages. The

channel is the route which the messages travel.

Meaning : The reason that meaning is so difficult

to define is that it is an abstract concept . The best

way of explaining meaning now is to define it as

being the outcome or product of communication.

Interpretation : involves adding you own meaning

to what is being conveyed. Interpretation depends

largely on social (shared) and individual (personal)

meanings.

Noise : refers to anything that distorts the message. Noise is

anything that makes the recipient receive a message that the

communicator did not intend to convey. There are three

types of noises:

- External noises : stimuli in the environment that distracts

your attention.

- Internal noises : people’s thoughts or feelings that may

interfere with communication.

- Semantic noises : interferences caused by different meanings

of words.

Feedback : feedback does not always have

to be verbal. It is any response given by the

participants when communicating with each

other. Even silence communicates a message.

Context : refers to the different settings in

which the encounters take place

Models of the communication process

• Models help to describe and explain the communication process.

• The models capture essential features and help us to visualise

the communication process more clearly.

• Four theories will be discussed

- Laswell’s view of communication

- Shannon and Weaver’s view of communication

- Schramm’s view of communication

- Transactional model

Laswell’s view of communication Emphasises the effect of the message on the recipient.

Communication is a one-way process, the communicator

influences others through the content of the message.

The communicator is the only active participant in the

process.

It is not a technical model as it draws attention to the

importance of the content of the message.

Shannon and Weaver’s view of communication Shannon and Weaver were mainly concerned with finding solutions to

technical problems, especially noise, which caused distortions during the

transmission process. Also called a technical model

A channel with a lot of noise makes communication between the

communicator and the recipient very difficult.

Schramm’s view of communication

His model is primarily concerned with the path that a message follows

from communicator to recipient.

Communication is seen as a dynamic interaction by two active

participants and as a two-way process.

The importance of feedback is highlighted.

Communication here may be interpersonal or mass communication.

Transactional model Uses all elements from previous models and builds on them to show

that the communication process is a transaction.

the transactional model illustrates the view of the communicator and

recipient. Both participants receive and send messages at the same time.

In other words, they are simultaneously involved in negotiating

meaning. The type of relationship that develops between them is a

crucial outcome of the communication encounter.

Perception, Listening and Feedback

• Have you ever gotten lost because you did not pay attention to the directions given to you???

• Missed an appointment because you got the times wrong???

• These examples illustrate why listening plays a vital role in the communication process.

Perception When we talk about perception, we are referring to your five senses. That is hearing,

sight, touch, taste and smell. These five senses provide you with a great deal of

information about the world and the people around you.

we store perceptual information ( i.e information we get through our five senses) in

our memory. Because we remember information , our perception of new experiences

is to a certain extent, determined by our past experiences. The simple example of

touching a hot stove illustrates this point. Once we’ve burned ourselves on a stove, we

will be far more careful in future.

However the point is that our perceptions of what has happened and what is

happening are sometimes so inaccurate that they give us the wrong impression of

people and events around us, and even of ourselves and how others see us.

But understanding how it occurs and the consequences it could have can help us to

improve our communication with ourselves and with the people whom we meet.

- The two major causes of this sort of distortion are

perceptual inaccuracies and the fact that any perception

process is always subjective ( subjective means that we

interpret things from our own point of view).

- perceptual inaccuracies : which is figure is longer??

- look how easy it is to be deceived by the evidence of your

own eyes.

- The perception process occurs in three

principle stages:

selection

organisation

Interpretation

-These stages take place relatively

unconsciously and almost simultaneously.

Listening

A great deal of time is spent on listening.

But the major limitations in establishing and maintaining relationships

is the inability of partners to listen efficiently.

The listening process consists of four stages:

sensing and attending : sensing the sound vibrations, once identified

your brain attends to these sounds.

Understanding and interpreting : understand and interpret the

meaning of the message.

Remembering : storing the meanings received and recall later on.

Responding: providing feedback to the speaker.

• Types of listening

Listening for enjoyment

Comprehensive or discriminative listening

Critical listening

Conversational and reflective listening.

Feedback

Verbal and nonverbal feedback by partners in communication indicate the

level of understanding or agreement between them.

Feedback indicates whether the message is understood and perceived

positively or negatively.

Successful communication depends on the giving and receiving of feedback.

Nonverbal communication

• Nonverbal communication is used to describe all

intentional and unintentional messages that are

not written or spoken.

• Body movements, gestures, facial expressions, tone

of voice, eye movement and the use of space, time

and touch are all part of nonverbal communication.

Functions of nonverbal communication

We cannot study nonverbal messages in isolation. We always study

them in relation to the verbal part of the message because, together,

they make up the total message.

Nonverbal functions in the following ways:

• Reinforces the verbal message

• Adds to ( or complements) the verbal message

• Replaces the verbal message

• Contradicts the verbal message

• Regulates the flow of messages

Aspects of nonverbal communication

Nonverbal messages are sometimes misunderstood

Three possible reasons are:

Leakage : leaking information about ourselves that we

cannot hide.

Contextual : nonverbal communication primarily conveys

relational information (emotions and feelings) depending

on the context.

Culture: different cultures have different codes of

acceptable behaviour in different situations.

Categories of nonverbal communication • Kinesics: “Kine” means motion or movement. Movement of ones body, arms, legs, face

or eyes are therefore included in the word kinesics.

• Proxemics: comes from the word “proximity” which refers to closeness or nearness in

space.

• Haptics: has also been described as “tacesics” which refers to our tactile sense ( our

sense of touch)

• Chronemics: comes from the word “chronological” which means arranging events

according to dates or a time sequence.

• Paralanguage: “Para” can mean beside or by the side of something; the something in this

case is language. That is way the word paralanguage includes the quality of the speakers

voice, hesitations between words, and other sounds, as well as the speed or rate or the

volume and pitch of the speakers voice.

Language and Communication

- Language denotes different things to different people, but language

consists of signs (arbitrary and symbolic) , has different levels of

meaning (denotative and connotative) and has various functions, uses

and purposes.

- Language is needed for people to interpret their social world, to

think about experiences and to share information with others because

language is the tool by means of which communication processes are

mediated. None of the intrapersonal or interpersonal communication

processes would be possible without the use of verbal language.

• Uses of language

- Language is our primary means of exchanging messages.

- We can discuss our feelings, thoughts and experiences of

the world by using languages.

• The three possible levels of meaning of words which can

be distinguished are the

- Denotative level of meaning

- Connotative level of meaning

- Mythological or ideological level of meaning

• Functions of language - The following communicative functions of language can generally be

distinguished:

1. Referential function: conveys concrete, objective information about the

content of the message. Example : news reporting or science writing.

2. Expressive function : ability to communicate our emotions, beliefs and

opinions and attitude towards a subject. Example : debating a sensitive

topic

3. Conative function : use of language to persuade the recipient. Example :

political speeches and adverts.

1. Phatic function : use of language for making and

sustaining contact with others. Idle chatter which can

be meaningless. Example : weather and greetings.

2. Poetic function: use of language for intrinsic pleasure

and draws attention to sound, diction and syntax.

Example : poetry and proverbial sayings.

3. Metalinguistic function : explore and reflect upon a

message. Example : phrases like “understand” or “you

know”.

• Language as a system of signs

- Language can be defined as a unified system of signs and the grammatical rules

that permit sharing a meaning.

- We construct messages using linguistic signs or words using the rules of the

language that we speak.

- English, isiZulu, French and so on are classified as language systems.

- Words are signs that stand for something. There are natural and arbitrary

(symbolic) signs.

- Natural signs refer to a natural connection such as a sneeze which refers to

hayfever.

- Arbitrary signs are those signs that people created and are common. a tree can

represent vegetation because people have chosen to associate it with

vegetation.

• Language as a social phenomenon o Verbal language is used when people interact (communicate) with

one another and to build relationships between people. Verbal

communication is conveyed either orally or in printed form and can

be found in different settings, such as face-to-face communication,

mass media or when using the Internet.

o Before people can effectively communicate with one another by

means of a language, they need to acquire an understanding of

what words actually mean and a mutual understanding of

connotations attached to words.

Intrapersonal Communication

• As humans we are constantly involved in

planning, dreaming, thinking and worrying

about what is going on around us – i.e

communication within the self to the self.

• The Self

- The self is used to describe who and what we

think we are (personal identity).

- It is made up of 2 dimensions : internal (private

self) and social (public self).

- We in fact have many features to ourselves

including the physical, emotional, intellectual,

and moral selves.

• Self concept

- Refers to everything that we think and feel about ourselves.

- It is the mental image that we communicate with to other through the

way we behave in a particular situation.

• Development of self concept

- Self concept is shaped by our relationships with others.

- The way we perceive ourselves depends largely on how we believe

other see us.

- If you are positive about yourself, you will develop a positive self

concept. If you feel negative about yourself and the impression others

have of you, the more negative your self concept will be.

• Intrapersonal variables

- We all have intrapersonal variables. Whether or not we realise it.

Intrapersonal variables are our attitudes, values, beliefs, opinion and

prejudices. And of course, the people with whom we interact also have

attitudes, values, beliefs, opinions and prejudices which do not always

coincide with ours.

o Values are the moral and ethical judgements we make about things that are

important to us.

o Attitudes are the learned reaction to a person or situation.it implies a

negative or positive evaluation of someone or something.

o A Belief is anything that is accepted as true without judgement, an opinion is

your personal viewpoint and prejudices are usually stereotypes which are

accompanied by strong emotions.

• Perception of others

- We often judge others by their appearance. We use

the way someone dresses, walks, speaks and even the

car they drive to label him or her. It is only after closer

investigation that we realise that the older man who

drives a battered car is in fact a professor, or that the

blonde woman who always wears daring mini-dresses is

in fact a computer whizz. However as you know by now,

we cannot always rely on the evidence of our senses.

• Improving the accuracy of your perceptions

- Recognise your own strengths and weaknesses

which will allow you to get to know yourself.

- Develop a positive but accurate self image of

yourself.

- Your perceptions of others are not always

correct so allow yourself to revise them.

• Interpersonal communication

- This unit is mainly concerned with one-to –

one, face- to – face relationships- in other

words, relationships between two people, who

are in each other’s physical presence, who can

watch each other during the communication

process, and who can give each other

immediate feedback.

• Buber’s theory of interpersonal relationships- Buber suggested that the basis of human

existence is that people are communicating beings.

- He identified two types of interpersonal relationships.

I – you relationships I – it relationships

• The difference lies in the nature of the communication

that takes place between them. The concepts dialogue

and monologue makes it easier to understand the

difference.

• Dialogue : is a conversation in which both participants

can equally express and interpret each others messages.

• Monologue : is a conversation where the communicator

is seen as the only participant, as he does not take into

account the other persons view or allow them to respond

meaningfully.

• I – you relationships

- Partners approach each other with mutual respect,

sincerity, honesty with the intention of participating in a

reciprocal relationship.

- A space opens up between people which Buber calls an

interhuman domain - the dialogue unfolds and “you” and

“I” become “we”.

- The relationship is based on intersubjectivity

(acknowledge and understand their differences) and

individuality.

• I – it relationship

- The attitudes and intentions of the I is that his partner

is not an equal subject but an object to be manipulated

for personal gain.

- The intention of the I is to persuade the views and

needs by conducting a monologue.

- This relationship is characterised by self centeredness,

pretence, manipulation and exploitation.

- It does not include the option of agreement to differ.

• Interpersonal communication and needs

- Theories have been developed about interpersonal

needs and allow us to understand why we and

others behave the way we do in our relationships.

- Schutz developed an interpersonal theory that

people need people. He suggests that we need to

satisfy three basic human needs to develop

interpersonal relationships with others.

• Schutz’s interpersonal needs theory.

- Need for inclusion : a desire for social contact, be

in the company of others and maintain a feeling of

mutual interest with them.

Oversocial people : continually seek the companionship

of others.

Undersocial people : prefer being left alone.

Adaptable – social people : balance their need for

inclusion and privacy.

- Need for affection : we all need opportunities to show

and receive affection from others. To form emotionally

close relationships and express the affection verbally

and nonverbally.

Overpersonal people : have a high need of relationships with

others, confide in others and express feelings freely.

Underpersonal people : avoid close ties, value privacy and

have little need for affection.

Personal people : express and receive affection when

desirable but can maintain a distance when necessary.

- Need for control : the desire both to successfully

manage and influence events and people around you

and allow other to establish control.

Autocrats : dominate others, must be in charge and become

anxious if they are not in charge.

Abdicrats : people with a strong need to be controlled,

prefer not to make decisions or accept responsibility,

submissive and abdicates all power to their partners.

Democrats : know when it is appropriate to control but is

also comfortable submitting to others when necessary.

• Homan’s social exchange theory

- This theory suggests that, when we enter into

communication, we look at what we get from the encounter.

The exchange is two-way: each partner has something the

other desires or values, so , for Homan’s, communication is

similar to a commercial exchange between a buyer and a seller.

In the same way that we do not go into business with the

expectation of losing money, we do not put time or effort into

a relationship we feel we are getting nothing or little out of it.

-Homan’s theory uses economic terms such as “profit" and

“loss” to describe an interpersonal outcome or

“exchange”. If, for example, an interaction between two

people, is positive, the outcome of the relationship is

regarded as a profit. If the interaction is negative, the

outcome of the relationship is regarded as a loss. A profit

or reward means that you gain something for yourself; it

does not have to be money. Cost , on the other hand, has a

negative meaning, and can be regarded as a kind of

punishment.

• Interpersonal communication and self-disclosure

- self-disclosure means to reveal personal information

such as inner experiences and private thoughts. We

usually hide this type of information from others.

- Please note that while self-disclosure is essential to

the growth of meaningful interpersonal

relationships, it is in intrapersonal communication

that we decide how much information about our

private self we are willing to reveal to other people.

A model of self-disclosure (The Johari window)

- The window represents yourself. The self includes

everything about you, including things you do not even know

about. Do you agree that, as a relationship becomes closer,

the open pane grows larger? And that the hidden quadrant in

the window is usually fairly large at the beginning of a

relationship, but becomes smaller as the open pane grows

larger? As you learn and disclose more about yourself to

others, the unknown quadrant becomes smaller and smaller.

• Because we can never know ourselves completely, the unknown

pane will always exist. But, as people get to know us better, they

may tell us thinks about ourselves that we did not know about-

in other words, information that comes from the unknown

pane. As this happens, the blind pane- that is, the pane that

contains information about ourselves that we do not know – will

become smaller. This is how our close relationships help us to

gain self-knowledge. Too see how the size of the panes changes

as we self-disclose, look at the two Johari windows drawn

below. Start your analysis by looking at the biggest pane.

Open pane Blind pane

Hidden pane

Unknown pane

Open pane Blind pane

Unknown pane

Hidden pane

Window A Window B

The four quadrants are interdependent, thus a

change one quadrant will affect the others.

• Window A has a large hidden pane and a small

open pane. Window A represents someone who is

not prepared to share his or her self with others. It

is usually very difficult for this sort of person to

form close relationships.

• Window B has an extremely large open pane and a

very small hidden pane. Window B is regarded as

being the ideal window for an intimate

relationship.

• Interpersonal communication and assertiveness

- Assertiveness training has become common practice, more

recently, assertive behaviour as a communication skill has begun

to be valued in South Africa. Everyone needs to learn

assertiveness as a communication skill.

- What exactly is assertiveness? The first point to remember is that

being assertive is not the same as being aggressive. Being

assertive enables you to express yourself clearly and confidently

without putting down yourself and without putting other people

down.

• Assertive styles

- Three communication styles of coping with situations.

- passive style : suppressing feelings to avoid conflict and

rejection.

- aggressive style : lashing out at the source of discomfort with

little concern for the situation or feelings of others.

- assertive style : neither avoid conflict nor dominate a

relationship but communicate feelings and opinions honestly

and clearly without hurting others.

• Small Group Communication

- All of us spend time in groups.

- Some groups are formal and others informal.

- Socially oriented(human need for social

contact) and task oriented (problem solving/

achieving specific outcomes).

Defining a group

a group is a collection of individuals who see

themselves belonging, interacting, occupying

certain roles to achieve a certain goal.

A small group is composed of twelve or fifteen

people interacting face-to-face influencing

others and being influenced by others.

Advantages of small groups

Pooling of resources and information to achieve goals

and reach decisions.

increase in individual motivation and commitment to

the tasks.

Superior decisions and solutions are often reached

because groups are better equipped than individuals.

Having one’s ideas confirmed by others provides a

feeling of personal satisfaction.

Disadvantages of small groups

- the temptation to allow others to do all the work.

- The temptation for forceful people to take over

and dominate the group.

- Personal goals of the group members sometimes

conflict with group goals to the extent that they

interfere with group objectives.

Group characteristics

- optimum number of members : small group

consists of three to twelve or fifteen people. Five

to seven people in a group is the most productive

size as it is large enough to share information and

workload it also allows each member maximum

participation. An odd number makes it easy to

vote and will prevent tie votes.

- Good working environment : promotes interaction among

its members. Seating that is too formal or too informal

inhibits free discussion. The ideal arrangement of tables

allows everyone to see each other and everyone has a

equal status, establishing a climate of equal opportunity for

all. The climate concerns the atmosphere in the group and I

dependent on the communication styles of the members.

Group climate affects the cohesiveness and commitment of

the members to the task in hand and to group norms.

- Cohesiveness and commitment to the task :

groups that succeed in achieving their goals are

committed and strive to meet the group's

goals. Effective groups are usually cohesive in

that every member actively work together as a

group and help one another as group

members.

- Group norms : norms are the rules of

behaviour expected for a group to operate

effectively and to develop cohesiveness.

- Group interaction and group procedure are

two important areas of norm development.

- Filling role requirements : members of the

group play or fulfill certain prescribed roles.

In effective groups, members understand and

fill various roles such as task and

maintenance roles that enable the group to

function. Problems arise when members

deliberately play self-centered roles and

dominate the discussion.

Communication networks in small groups

- The structure of the group plays a major role

in the effectiveness of communication in the

group. Communication networks provide a way

of looking at a group structure. Communication

networks are recurring patterns of interaction

(who talks to whom in a group). Draw diagram

from textbook

• The wheel, chain and Y are centralised

networks. In centralised networks the person

with the most channels of communication

tends to become the group leader.

• The circle and all-channel patterns are

decentralised and sometimes leaderless.

Leadership in groups

- Leadership is defined as any behaviour that

facilitates group task accomplishment. Effective

leaders are able to help a group attain both

task and maintenance functions. Many theories

have been developed about leadership.

Leadership traits and leadership styles will be

discussed.

- Leadership traits : effective leaders display

consistent traits which relate to ability, sociability,

motivation and communication skills.

- Leadership styles : quality of work produced by

groups depends on the style of leadership of the

group leader. There are three different leadership

styles, namely authoritarian, democratic and

laissez-faire styles.

Authoritarian leaders are strongly task oriented and

have opinions on how to achieve the groups goals.

They exercise direct control, make decisions without

consulting the group which causes conflict and group

satisfaction is low.

Democratic leaders are people oriented. They guide

rather than direct by involving all members. Produces

high quality results, opportunities, motivation and

desire to communicate.

laissez-faire leadership usually does not

direct the group at all. They supply

information but do not actively participate in

group decisions. The group has the final say.

The group can suffer from loss of direction

and the quality of work they produce suffers.

Public speaking

- How would you react if someone asked you to give a speech at

some occasion?

- “Sure, any time!” or “Me, give a speech? Forget it!”

- Public speaking is seen as a context of communication science-

something that takes place in the public domain. It can also be

seen as a skill that a person acquires and practises.. there are

people who have a natural talent for giving speeches, but with a

few basic principles under the belt, anyone can give a speech.

• Determining the purpose of your talk / speech

- The topic might be selected by the person or

organisation that has invited you or you may be

free to select the topic yourself.

- The first step should be to decide the purpose of

your talk.

- Most oral presentations have four purposes: to

inform, to instruct, to persuade or to entertain.

• Analysing the audience

- Asses the nature, needs and interests of the people who will

be listening to you.

- Gather information about the audience which can help you

decide on a topic that will capture their interest and attention

and guide you in organising and presenting the talk.

- Three factors to consider: characteristics of group,

psychological makeup of listeners and the place in which you

will be talking.

• Selecting a topic

- The subject area of the talk

- Specific topic within the subject area

- Purpose of the talk

- Topic statement

• Researching the topic

- Information you provide must be correct and soundly

based.

- Two sorts of material: information for the content of

your talk and illustrations, statistics, expert opinions

and quotations.

- Research can be done using materials at libraries or on

the internet, conducting interviews and drawing on

personal experiences and observations.

• Writing the talk

- The written preparation determines the

quality of the end result. Organise in a logical

order, making it easier for the audience to

understand.

- Three main parts : introduction, body,

conclusion.

- Introduction: states the purpose of your talk,

gain audiences attention and establishes rapport.

- Body: elaborates on the ideas of the introduction

using a logical pattern.

- Conclusion: reinforces the central idea, sum up

and tie up main points together, remind and

motivate audience to think or act on ideas

presented.

• Organisational techniques for specific purposes

- Informative talks : increases the audiences

knowledge and understanding of topic. If the

main idea is abstract you need to support it

with concrete evidence.

- Use statistics, specific examples and quotations

to achieve this.

- Instructive talks : you usually want the

audience to be able to do something.

- Using information and putting it into practice

by using a variety of props or aids to

demonstrate what you are describing.

- Persuasive talks : the goal is usually to

establish a need and show how it can be met

or describe a problem and provide solution.

• Preparing the delivery

- Using notes : serves as reminders, small cards

with the main ideas in point form.

- Language of oral message : must be personal

and direct and give the listener instant

comprehension of meaning. Use your active

voice and use vocabulary they will understand

or explain any technical terms used.

- Using your voice : you must be clear and the

enunciation correct and distinct.

- Body movement : nonverbal messages increases

your chances of success. You appear relaxed and

natural and it helps measure the audiences

reactions. The way you dress is also a nonverbal

message. Clothing and personal appearance

influences the audiences initial impression.

- Dealing with questions : decide in advance

when the audience can pose their questions.

This allows the speaker to clarify points

raised in the talk. Remain courteous and

avoid sarcasm.

• Visuals : using visuals or graphics increases the

effectiveness of your presentation. They help

to attract and hold the audiences attention.

• Evaluating speeches : One of the best ways of

sharpening your public speaking skills is to

evaluate your own and other speaker’s

speeches.