Week 9 – Linking clauses; Expressing purpose and effect Practical course – Vocabulary and Grammar

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LINKING CLAUSES

I. Time and reason

1. Time clauses – can use linking words or phrases in time clauses to be more precise about:

when things started since, ever since

things happening at the same time as, while, whilst, when

one thing following another after, before, as soon as, when, once etc.

one thing following another very quickly no sooner … than, the moment / the minute …, etc.

every time when, whenever, every time

when things finish until, by the time …, etc.

-ing clause can be used after (ever) since, after, before, while, when, whenever After waiting for ages for a table, we decided to try another restaurant.

2. Reason clauses

because much more common than others, especially to answer Why …?

since, as often introduce reasons that the listener or reader already knows

(just) in case used to talk about things that may possibly happen

seeing that meaning ‘since’

in that, insofar as, inasmuch as used in fairly formal English to justify what we have just said, often by indicating why the statement is true

for used in very formal or literary contexts only

-ing clause used to express reason relationships Having past my driving test, I thought I could hire a car.

II. Result and purpose

1. Result clauses

so … (that) so comes at the beginning of the result clause

also before adjectives and adverbs so fed up (that)

such … (that) such before a noun or an adjective + noun, followed by a that-clause (we can omit that) such a great time (that)

in such a way that, in such a way as meaning ‘with the result that’

therefore, consequently, as a result adverbials that help to express result

otherwise, or else to express the consequences of not doing something

2. Purpose clauses

to- infinitive the most common way to express purpose, especially to express one particular purpose

in order to, so as to to emphasise intentions and requirements

to express a negative motive or purpose

to avoid confusion with other uses of to-infinitive

in order that, so that used when the second subject begins with a noun or pronoun

for in front of nouns to express purpose

for + -ing with a similar meaning to a to-infinitive

for fear of / that to introduce possible consequences that we are trying to avoid

III. Concession clauses give information that contrasts with or oppose the facts in the main clause in an unexpected way

1. Position of linking words and phrases as the first or second part of a sentence

Week 9 – Linking clauses; Expressing purpose and effect Practical course – Vocabulary and Grammar

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often express contrast or opposition by starting a second sentence with an adverbial The weather was terrible. Nevertheless, we decided…

some adverbials and phrases can come at the end of the second sentence I saw my ex-fiancé last night. We didn’t speak, though.

2. Introducing background information conjunctions although, though, even though followed by a verb phrase

while, whilst (formal) can replace although

use of the pattern adjective/adverb + as or though + subject + verb in emphatic sentences

much as (= ‘although’) + verbs such as like, hate etc. to talk about strong feelings

the prepositions in spite of and despite can be followed by an NP or –ing form

use of a family of words ending in –ever (however, whatever, whoever, etc.) to express the idea ‘no matter how, what, who, etc.’

3. Introducing the unexpected contrast but the most frequent word to introduce contrast in everyday English

often we use but + still/even so etc. to strengthen the contrast

VOCABULARY

Expressing purpose and effect

1. Purpose and intention verbs mean, plan, intend, aim, hope

nouns goal, dream, (short-term) plan, (sincere) hope, (ultimate) aim, (stated) intention, (overriding) ambition

adjectives eager, keen, determined, resolved, tempted

NPs, VPs have high hopes of, have no intention of, no thoughts of, have half a mind to, toy with the idea of, make one’s mind to, set one’s heart on, harbour a dream

2. Result, cause and effect verb and noun structures, as well as adverbial phrases

affect (V) have an effect on (N); influence (V) have an influence on (N); shape/determine/mould/dictate (V) have an influence on (N); entail/involve/necessitate (V)

a need for, as a result/in consequence, long-term repercussions/far-reaching implications (N); stem from (V) have its roots in (N)

Agreeing or not

1. Not giving in standing firm; not taking no for an answer; holding out for all you can get; remaining adamant; rejecting compromise; staying put unwillingness to make

concessions

2. Weighing things up sit on the fence; weigh things up/weigh up the arguments/see both sides of the issue/get an overview; must bear in mind; take into account/consideration; make

allowances for; not rule out; to compromise; considering; (balance) the pros and cons; sleep on it/ponder a while; arrive at a mutually satisfactory solution show we are undecided

and are considering issues

3. Giving in allow somebody something (I’ll allow you that); make an exception; be treated as a special case; have it your way; give in; admit defeat; throw in the towel; write

someone a blank cheque