OrganizationsOrganizations Whether it’s a company, a non-profit, or non-Whether it’s a company, a non-profit, or non-

governmental organization (NGO), an governmental organization (NGO), an organization is a organization is a systemsystem

Just like your body is a system with complex Just like your body is a system with complex sub-systems with specific functions and sub-systems with specific functions and feedback mechanisms that all have to work feedback mechanisms that all have to work together to keep your body functioning, an together to keep your body functioning, an organization is a system tooorganization is a system too

An organization is a set of interconnected An organization is a set of interconnected people with specific tasks who have to work people with specific tasks who have to work together to accomplish goals; just like in your together to accomplish goals; just like in your body, if one part of this system breaks down, it body, if one part of this system breaks down, it can have wide-reaching effects (and then can have wide-reaching effects (and then you’re in bed with the flu!)you’re in bed with the flu!)

Organizations (cont.)Organizations (cont.) An organization also reaches a state of An organization also reaches a state of

equilibrium/homeostasis (balance); a disruption in the equilibrium/homeostasis (balance); a disruption in the system (i.e., someone quits) throws off this balance, and system (i.e., someone quits) throws off this balance, and the system has to readjust (just like your body’s task of the system has to readjust (just like your body’s task of trying to keep your blood sugar level)trying to keep your blood sugar level)

Change in an organization is often necessary but difficult Change in an organization is often necessary but difficult because it’s easier and less threatening to keep because it’s easier and less threatening to keep everything predictable; but, internal and external forces everything predictable; but, internal and external forces often require change and adaptationoften require change and adaptation

Whenever possible, employees should have a say in the Whenever possible, employees should have a say in the changes that take place and they should have an changes that take place and they should have an opportunity to brainstorm solutions to problemsopportunity to brainstorm solutions to problems

Employee empowerment leads to greater efficiency and Employee empowerment leads to greater efficiency and satisfactionsatisfaction

Organizational Behavior and Community Organizational Behavior and Community PsychologyPsychology Organizational behavior is a field of study that is similar to Organizational behavior is a field of study that is similar to

community psychology because they are both interested in community psychology because they are both interested in organizations as systems, where the whole is greater than organizations as systems, where the whole is greater than the sum of its partsthe sum of its parts

Organizational behavior is different from community Organizational behavior is different from community psychology, however, because organizational behavior is psychology, however, because organizational behavior is more interested in the financial success of the organization, more interested in the financial success of the organization, while community psychology is interested in the well-being while community psychology is interested in the well-being and sense of community among the employeesand sense of community among the employees

The two issues (profits and employee satisfaction) are The two issues (profits and employee satisfaction) are certainly not mutually exclusive, though; long-term company certainly not mutually exclusive, though; long-term company growth and profitability is commensurate with low turnover growth and profitability is commensurate with low turnover and more satisfied, committed employees, who work harder and more satisfied, committed employees, who work harder and have positive interactions with customers, who, in turn, and have positive interactions with customers, who, in turn, become loyal customers because the company is reliable and become loyal customers because the company is reliable and generates a positive experience for themgenerates a positive experience for them

Work-Related IssuesWork-Related Issues Work at any job or organization can be stressful for a Work at any job or organization can be stressful for a

variety of reasons:variety of reasons: Conflict or difficulty with one’s boss or coworkersConflict or difficulty with one’s boss or coworkers Too much or too little work to do; bored vs. overworkedToo much or too little work to do; bored vs. overworked The task difficulty either exceeds one’s level of The task difficulty either exceeds one’s level of

ability/training or the task difficulty level is too easy for ability/training or the task difficulty level is too easy for one’s ability/trainingone’s ability/training

The hours are too longThe hours are too long The work is too repetitiveThe work is too repetitive The job is physically demandingThe job is physically demanding The job is emotionally demanding (e.g., a therapist or a The job is emotionally demanding (e.g., a therapist or a

call-center employee who manages angry customers)call-center employee who manages angry customers) There’s a poor fit between the employee’s There’s a poor fit between the employee’s

abilities/strengths and the job demandsabilities/strengths and the job demands

Reasons for stress at work (cont.)Reasons for stress at work (cont.) There is too little positive reinforcement and/or too much There is too little positive reinforcement and/or too much

punishment or attention to rules, mistakes, or failurespunishment or attention to rules, mistakes, or failures There are mixed messages or conflicting goals (e.g., one There are mixed messages or conflicting goals (e.g., one

manager tells you to focus on completing X, while another manager tells you to focus on completing X, while another

manager tells you to focus on completing Y)manager tells you to focus on completing Y) The goals of the company or tasks conflict with personal The goals of the company or tasks conflict with personal

values (e.g., a lawyer who has to defend a tobacco values (e.g., a lawyer who has to defend a tobacco

company and her mother died from lung cancer)company and her mother died from lung cancer) The employee doesn’t feel valued or respected at the The employee doesn’t feel valued or respected at the

organizationorganization

Have you had any of these experiences?Have you had any of these experiences?

BurnoutBurnout

Burnout: sense of disconnection, dissatisfaction, Burnout: sense of disconnection, dissatisfaction, and pessimism regarding work-related others and pessimism regarding work-related others (coworkers and customers), fatigue/exhaustion, (coworkers and customers), fatigue/exhaustion, and hopelessness about one’s efforts and and hopelessness about one’s efforts and accomplishments at workaccomplishments at work

Causes of burnout may include: excessive Causes of burnout may include: excessive workload, lack of control (e.g., no say in decision workload, lack of control (e.g., no say in decision making), lack of reward or recognition, lack of making), lack of reward or recognition, lack of sense of community or support, lack of fairness or sense of community or support, lack of fairness or reciprocity, and disconnect between personal reciprocity, and disconnect between personal values and the values or goals of the organization values and the values or goals of the organization or environmentor environment

Ameliorating burnout and Ameliorating burnout and work-related stress:work-related stress:

Social support from coworkersSocial support from coworkers Consideration from the employer about what is making Consideration from the employer about what is making

the employee unhappy and what might be changed about the employee unhappy and what might be changed about the employee’s position or how the employee might get the employee’s position or how the employee might get more positive reinforcementmore positive reinforcement

Opportunity for advancement (e.g., company offers to Opportunity for advancement (e.g., company offers to assist employee in pursuing a Master’s degree, which assist employee in pursuing a Master’s degree, which would allow for promotion to a new position)would allow for promotion to a new position)

Built-in stress reduction at the job site, e.g., yoga classes Built-in stress reduction at the job site, e.g., yoga classes at work, encouragement of meditation, support groups, at work, encouragement of meditation, support groups, opportunities for workers to voice their opinions (esp. opportunities for workers to voice their opinions (esp. during times of change), use of professional massage during times of change), use of professional massage therapists, use of outdoor green spaces, etc. therapists, use of outdoor green spaces, etc.

Career SatisfactionCareer Satisfaction Individuals tend to be satisfied at a job or organization when it is Individuals tend to be satisfied at a job or organization when it is

commensurate with three areas: Abilities, Values, and Interestscommensurate with three areas: Abilities, Values, and Interests

Is the job something you’re good at (abilities), something that Is the job something you’re good at (abilities), something that genuinely interests you, and something that rewards you in a genuinely interests you, and something that rewards you in a way that is consistent with your values (e.g., if you value money, way that is consistent with your values (e.g., if you value money, does it pay well? If you value helping others, or being creative does it pay well? If you value helping others, or being creative does it fulfill this need?)does it fulfill this need?)

Team-Building / Team DevelopmentTeam-Building / Team Development

Many organizations use teams that work together to Many organizations use teams that work together to implement various components of multi-layered tasks and implement various components of multi-layered tasks and to draw on individual employee’s strengthsto draw on individual employee’s strengths

Team building involves having the group tackle a Team building involves having the group tackle a problem/task together, make decisions, and collaborate problem/task together, make decisions, and collaborate toward a goaltoward a goal

In the case of a large organization, perhaps the employees In the case of a large organization, perhaps the employees don’t feel a sense of connection with the overall company, don’t feel a sense of connection with the overall company, but they do feel a sense of connection with their teambut they do feel a sense of connection with their team

Sometimes organizations will have team-building retreats to Sometimes organizations will have team-building retreats to promote trust and cohesiveness; it’s ironic to me that they promote trust and cohesiveness; it’s ironic to me that they sometimes choose activities like Paintball, which is more in sometimes choose activities like Paintball, which is more in line with aggression, competition and individualism than line with aggression, competition and individualism than team-buildingteam-building

True team-building activities involve working together to True team-building activities involve working together to create something or solve a problem together; volunteering create something or solve a problem together; volunteering for Habitat for Humanity would be a great example of a for Habitat for Humanity would be a great example of a team-building retreat activity for a department or teamteam-building retreat activity for a department or team

LeadershipLeadership Various researchers have categorized different Various researchers have categorized different

leadership styles:leadership styles: Task-focused vs. interpersonally focusedTask-focused vs. interpersonally focused Democratic/participatory vs. autocratic/directiveDemocratic/participatory vs. autocratic/directive Transactional, transformational, vs. laissez-faireTransactional, transformational, vs. laissez-faire

Leadership is also an ever-evolving process that is Leadership is also an ever-evolving process that is highly dependent on the type of organization and highly dependent on the type of organization and its goals, as well as the employeesits goals, as well as the employees e.g., some employees need more structure and e.g., some employees need more structure and

feedback, while others need more freedom and feedback, while others need more freedom and inspirationinspiration

Good leaders listen to their employees, inspire Good leaders listen to their employees, inspire loyalty, have a vision for the future, can delegate, loyalty, have a vision for the future, can delegate, and can be flexible when change is needed; they and can be flexible when change is needed; they also mentor others so that the next generation also mentor others so that the next generation can lead one daycan lead one day

Organizational CultureOrganizational Culture Community Psychologists’ recommendations for Community Psychologists’ recommendations for

organizations are often contrary to corporate organizations are often contrary to corporate America, which emphasizes competition and America, which emphasizes competition and individualismindividualism

Organizations that have an open culture with more Organizations that have an open culture with more psychological sense of community and more psychological sense of community and more respect for diversity tend to also be smaller respect for diversity tend to also be smaller organizations with social norms of working as a organizations with social norms of working as a team, providing social support to one another, and team, providing social support to one another, and attention to and encouragement of employees’ attention to and encouragement of employees’ strengths and professional growthstrengths and professional growth

Similar to the research on self-fulfilling prophecy Similar to the research on self-fulfilling prophecy among school children, when employers promote among school children, when employers promote positive expectations for their employees, the positive expectations for their employees, the employees tend to live up to these positive employees tend to live up to these positive expectationsexpectations

Organizational Culture Positive Case Organizational Culture Positive Case Example: ZapposExample: Zappos

This company has actively created a unique, fun work This company has actively created a unique, fun work culture, with a strong sense of community and a culture, with a strong sense of community and a “graduation” when employees complete the training “graduation” when employees complete the training programprogram

The physical office atmosphere is fun, and there is free The physical office atmosphere is fun, and there is free food and areas for employees to take naps and play food and areas for employees to take naps and play gamesgames

The CEO sits at a cubicle, just like everyone elseThe CEO sits at a cubicle, just like everyone else

Group activities outside of work (e.g., bowling with co-Group activities outside of work (e.g., bowling with co-workers) are encouragedworkers) are encouraged

Watch this interesting news clip on Zappos:Watch this interesting news clip on Zappos:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFyW5s_7ZWc&feature=related

Networking & Consultation Networking & Consultation (revisit Chapter 5)(revisit Chapter 5)

Networks: Social connections or alliances Networks: Social connections or alliances between communities and the individuals between communities and the individuals within communities for the purpose of within communities for the purpose of sharing ideas and resources for common sharing ideas and resources for common goalsgoals

Umbrella Organizations (i.e., the United Umbrella Organizations (i.e., the United Way): large-scale organizations that provide Way): large-scale organizations that provide resources and connections with smaller resources and connections with smaller organizations to minimize redundancy and organizations to minimize redundancy and maximize outreachmaximize outreach

Networking & Consultation (cont.)Networking & Consultation (cont.) Consultation: Involves an experienced professional Consultation: Involves an experienced professional

(consultant) who can perform tasks such as a needs (consultant) who can perform tasks such as a needs assessment, creating a plan of action, bringing together assessment, creating a plan of action, bringing together stakeholders and members of the community, and stakeholders and members of the community, and performing an outcomes assessmentperforming an outcomes assessment Usually hired by the consultee (e.g., head of an Usually hired by the consultee (e.g., head of an

organization) to bring about positive changes for the organization) to bring about positive changes for the clients (e.g., the population in need)clients (e.g., the population in need)

For example, the ASPCA might hire a consultant to help For example, the ASPCA might hire a consultant to help them better run and publicize their organization them better run and publicize their organization (consultee), which helps animals and pet adopters (consultee), which helps animals and pet adopters (clients)(clients)

Making changes to any system creates stress; the most Making changes to any system creates stress; the most important skill a consultant can have, esp. early on, is to be important skill a consultant can have, esp. early on, is to be a good listener! Make sure you hear everyone’s concerns, a good listener! Make sure you hear everyone’s concerns, you get all sides of the issue, and you reflect what you’ve you get all sides of the issue, and you reflect what you’ve heard to show you understand and empathize.heard to show you understand and empathize.

Program ImplementationProgram Implementation

Carrying out a program includes assessingCarrying out a program includes assessing:: 1. Fidelity: to what extent the implementation 1. Fidelity: to what extent the implementation

matches the original design of the programmatches the original design of the program 2. Dosage/intensity: how often the program is 2. Dosage/intensity: how often the program is

presented and how much is presentedpresented and how much is presented 3. Quality: how well the components of the 3. Quality: how well the components of the

program are presented/implementedprogram are presented/implemented 4. Participant responsiveness: how much 4. Participant responsiveness: how much

participants are engaged in the programparticipants are engaged in the program

5. 5. Program differentiation: how much the Program differentiation: how much the program differs from existing programsprogram differs from existing programs

Program Implementation (cont.)Program Implementation (cont.) 6. Monitoring of control/comparison conditions: if 6. Monitoring of control/comparison conditions: if

the program is measuring outcomes in a control the program is measuring outcomes in a control group for research purposes, is this a true control group for research purposes, is this a true control group, or have they been exposed to any group, or have they been exposed to any interventions?interventions?

7. Program reach: did the program enroll most or 7. Program reach: did the program enroll most or all of its target population? Do people in the all of its target population? Do people in the community know about the program?community know about the program?

8. Adaptation: to what extent the program is 8. Adaptation: to what extent the program is modified to fit a specific setting (just as there is modified to fit a specific setting (just as there is person-environment fit, there must be program-person-environment fit, there must be program-environment fit; also, the longer a program environment fit; also, the longer a program exists, the more the setting will adapt to the exists, the more the setting will adapt to the program; it’s reciprocal)program; it’s reciprocal)

Aside from implementation, programs need to be Aside from implementation, programs need to be sustainablesustainable: permanent fixtures in the community : permanent fixtures in the community with ongoing fundingwith ongoing funding

Review of Program Assessment & Review of Program Assessment & Outcome EvaluationOutcome Evaluation Program assessment should be ongoing and built into the Program assessment should be ongoing and built into the

programprogram Step 1: Identify goals and desired outcomes (keep goals Step 1: Identify goals and desired outcomes (keep goals

as concrete and measurable as possible); identify target as concrete and measurable as possible); identify target group/populationgroup/population

Step 2: Process evaluation: monitor ongoing progress, Step 2: Process evaluation: monitor ongoing progress, assess budgeting, meet with stakeholders, and decide assess budgeting, meet with stakeholders, and decide whether your path requires course-correctionswhether your path requires course-corrections Ask who, what, and when questions, i.e., “Who was Ask who, what, and when questions, i.e., “Who was

supposed to do what with whom and when was it supposed to do what with whom and when was it supposed to be done?”supposed to be done?”

Do we have enough staff and are they trained well?Do we have enough staff and are they trained well? Are they implementing the program adequately?Are they implementing the program adequately? Are they reaching the target group/population?Are they reaching the target group/population? Are we meeting our benchmarks/deadlines?Are we meeting our benchmarks/deadlines?

Program Assessment & Outcome Program Assessment & Outcome Evaluation (cont.)Evaluation (cont.)

Step 3: Outcome Evaluation: assessment of the Step 3: Outcome Evaluation: assessment of the immediate or short-term effects of a program; compare immediate or short-term effects of a program; compare results to goals in Step 1results to goals in Step 1 i.e., pretest scores compared to posttest scores, or i.e., pretest scores compared to posttest scores, or

assessment of actual behaviors or outcomes whenever assessment of actual behaviors or outcomes whenever possible (self-reported condom use; self-reported possible (self-reported condom use; self-reported smoking behavior; number of fights in school)smoking behavior; number of fights in school)

Interviews and questionnaires are also often usedInterviews and questionnaires are also often used Step 4: Impact Evaluation: assessment of long-term Step 4: Impact Evaluation: assessment of long-term

effects of a programeffects of a program i.e., actual pregnancy rates, number of underage i.e., actual pregnancy rates, number of underage

drinking arrests, or new rates of HIV infection over 1-5 drinking arrests, or new rates of HIV infection over 1-5 yrsyrs

Archival data may be used for impact evaluation, such Archival data may be used for impact evaluation, such as public data on school dropout rates, drunk driving as public data on school dropout rates, drunk driving accidents, etc.accidents, etc.

Program Assessment & Outcome Program Assessment & Outcome Evaluation (cont.)Evaluation (cont.)

EfficacyEfficacy refers to how well the program works refers to how well the program works under optimal conditions (e.g., carefully controlled under optimal conditions (e.g., carefully controlled setting), while setting), while effectivenesseffectiveness is how well the is how well the program works in the “real world”program works in the “real world”

What about when programs fail?What about when programs fail? Two major reasons for program failure are:Two major reasons for program failure are: 1) 1) Theory failureTheory failure: the premise behind the program is : the premise behind the program is

flawedflawed 2) 2) Implementation failureImplementation failure: the program was not : the program was not

executed according to planexecuted according to plan For example, DARE programs are based on the premise For example, DARE programs are based on the premise

that education about the harmful effects of drug use and that education about the harmful effects of drug use and teaching them to combat peer pressure to use drugs teaching them to combat peer pressure to use drugs would result in decreased drug use, but the program would result in decreased drug use, but the program doesn’t workdoesn’t work

Does this surprise you?Does this surprise you?

Eyes on the HorizonEyes on the HorizonFuture Directions in Community Psychology: Getting Future Directions in Community Psychology: Getting away from the trees and back to the forestaway from the trees and back to the forest

Going global: Much of the latest research in Going global: Much of the latest research in Community Psychology is from countries other Community Psychology is from countries other than the U.S.than the U.S.

Keeping up with demographic and Keeping up with demographic and technological trends: Community Psychologists technological trends: Community Psychologists must have a finger on the pulse of changes in must have a finger on the pulse of changes in world (such as an increasing elderly world (such as an increasing elderly population, worldwide) and must consider how population, worldwide) and must consider how the world is getting smaller through the use of the world is getting smaller through the use of technologytechnology

Continued emphasis on empirically-based Continued emphasis on empirically-based solutions and programs, and not reinventing solutions and programs, and not reinventing the wheel (e.g., thorough research on what the wheel (e.g., thorough research on what has already been done, what has worked, and has already been done, what has worked, and what has failed)what has failed)

Future Directions (cont.)Future Directions (cont.) Continued emphasis on active participation and Continued emphasis on active participation and

empowerment; e.g., helping neighborhoods and empowerment; e.g., helping neighborhoods and communities to be actively involved in programs; this communities to be actively involved in programs; this strategy has spread to other fields, such as public strategy has spread to other fields, such as public health and social workhealth and social work

Power, corruption, and greed can foster policies and Power, corruption, and greed can foster policies and practices that keep individuals poor, undereducated, practices that keep individuals poor, undereducated, and feeling hopeless; Community Psychologists have to and feeling hopeless; Community Psychologists have to show them that there is power in numbers, every show them that there is power in numbers, every person is valuable, and every person can make a person is valuable, and every person can make a differencedifference

Think about the communities to which you belong and Think about the communities to which you belong and the ones to which you’d like to belong; how can you the ones to which you’d like to belong; how can you make a difference in these communities?make a difference in these communities?

How can you apply what you’ve learned in this class How can you apply what you’ve learned in this class toward making the world a healthier, safer, more toward making the world a healthier, safer, more prosperous place?prosperous place?

Good Luck on Your Presentations!Good Luck on Your Presentations!