Week 1. CHILDES, root Week 1. CHILDES, root infinitives, and null subjectsinfinitives, and null subjects

GRS LX 865GRS LX 865Topics in Topics in

LinguisticsLinguistics

SyntaxSyntax Recall the basic Recall the basic

structure of adult structure of adult sentences.sentences.

IP (a.k.a. TP, INFLP, …) IP (a.k.a. TP, INFLP, …) is the position of modals is the position of modals and auxiliaries, also and auxiliaries, also assumed to be home of assumed to be home of tense and agreement.tense and agreement.

CP is where wh-words CP is where wh-words move and where I moves move and where I moves in subject-aux-inversionin subject-aux-inversion

Splitting the INFLSplitting the INFL Syntax since 1986 Syntax since 1986

has been more or has been more or less driven by the less driven by the principle “every principle “every separable separable functional element functional element belongs in its own belongs in its own phrase.”phrase.” Various syntactic Various syntactic

tests support these tests support these moves as well (cf. moves as well (cf. CAS LX 523).CAS LX 523).

Splitting the INFLSplitting the INFL Distinct syntactic Distinct syntactic

functions assigned to functions assigned to distinct distinct functional functional headsheads.. T: tense/modalityT: tense/modality AgrO: object agreement, AgrO: object agreement,

accusative caseaccusative case AgrS: subject agreement, AgrS: subject agreement,

nominative casenominative case Neg: negationNeg: negation

Origins: Pollock (1989) Origins: Pollock (1989) (split INFL into Agr and (split INFL into Agr and T), Chomsky (1993) (split T), Chomsky (1993) (split INFL into AgrS, T, AgrO).INFL into AgrS, T, AgrO).

Functional headsFunctional heads

The DP, CP, and The DP, CP, and VP all suffered a VP all suffered a similar fate.similar fate.

DP was split into DP was split into DP and NumPDP and NumP

Origin: Ritter 1991 Origin: Ritter 1991 and related workand related work

Functional headsFunctional heads VP was split into two VP was split into two

parts, vP where agents parts, vP where agents start, and VP where start, and VP where the patient starts. V the patient starts. V and v combine by head and v combine by head movement.movement. Origins: Larson (1988) Origins: Larson (1988)

proposed a similar proposed a similar structure for double-structure for double-object verbs, Hale & object verbs, Hale & Keyser (1993) proposed Keyser (1993) proposed something like this something like this structure, which was structure, which was adopted by Chomsky adopted by Chomsky (1993).(1993).

Functional headsFunctional heads

CP was split into CP was split into several “discourse-several “discourse-related” functional related” functional heads as well heads as well (topic, focus, force, (topic, focus, force, and “finiteness”).and “finiteness”).

Origins: Rizzi Origins: Rizzi (1997)(1997)

Functional structureFunctional structure Often, the “fine Often, the “fine

structure” of the structure” of the functional heads does functional heads does not matter, so people not matter, so people will still refer to “IP” will still refer to “IP” (with the (with the understanding that understanding that under a microscope it under a microscope it is probably AgrSP, TP, is probably AgrSP, TP, AgrOP, or even more AgrOP, or even more complex), “CP”, “DP”, complex), “CP”, “DP”, etc.etc.

The heart of The heart of “syntax” is really in “syntax” is really in the functional the functional headsheads, on this view. , on this view. Verbs and nouns Verbs and nouns give us the give us the lexical lexical contentcontent, but , but functional heads functional heads (TP, AgrSP, etc.) (TP, AgrSP, etc.) give us the give us the syntactic syntactic structurestructure..

How do kids get there?How do kids get there? Given the Given the

structure of structure of adult sentences, adult sentences, the question the question we’re concerned we’re concerned about here will about here will be in large part: be in large part: how do kids how do kids (consistently) (consistently) arrive at this arrive at this structure (when structure (when they become they become adults)?adults)?

Kids learn itKids learn it (patterns of input). (patterns of input). Chickens and eggs, and creoles, Chickens and eggs, and creoles,

and so forth.and so forth.

Kids start out assuming the Kids start out assuming the entire adult structure, learning entire adult structure, learning just the detailsjust the details (Does the verb (Does the verb move? How is tense move? How is tense pronounced?)pronounced?)

Kids start out assuming some Kids start out assuming some subpart of the adult structuresubpart of the adult structure, , complexity increasing with complexity increasing with development.development.

Testing for functional Testing for functional structurestructure

Trying to answer Trying to answer this question this question involves trying to involves trying to determine what determine what evidence we have evidence we have for these for these functional functional structures in child structures in child syntax.syntax.

It’s not very easy. It’s not very easy. It’s hard to ask It’s hard to ask judgments of kids, judgments of kids, and they often do and they often do unhelpful things like unhelpful things like repeat (or garble) repeat (or garble) things they just things they just heard (probably heard (probably telling us nothing telling us nothing about what their about what their grammar actually is).grammar actually is).

Testing for functional Testing for functional structurestructure

We do know We do know what various what various functional functional projections are projections are supposedsupposed to be to be responsible for, responsible for, and so we can and so we can look for look for evidence of evidence of their effects in their effects in child language.child language.

This isn’t foolproof. If a This isn’t foolproof. If a child fails to pronouns the child fails to pronouns the past tense suffix on a verb past tense suffix on a verb that was clearly intended that was clearly intended to be in the past, does this to be in the past, does this mean there’s no TP? Does mean there’s no TP? Does it mean they simply made it mean they simply made a speech error (as adults a speech error (as adults sometimes do)? Does it sometimes do)? Does it mean they haven’t figured mean they haven’t figured out how to pronounce the out how to pronounce the past tense affix yet?past tense affix yet?

Helpful clues kids give Helpful clues kids give usus

Null subjectsNull subjects Kids seem to drop Kids seem to drop

the subject off of the subject off of their sentences a their sentences a lot. More than lot. More than adults would. adults would. There’s a certain There’s a certain crosslinguistic crosslinguistic systematicity to it systematicity to it as well, from which as well, from which we might take hints we might take hints about kids’ about kids’ functional structure.functional structure.

Root infinitivesRoot infinitives Kids seem to use Kids seem to use

nonfinite forms of nonfinite forms of main (root) clause main (root) clause verbs where adults verbs where adults wouldn’t. Again, wouldn’t. Again, there’s a certain there’s a certain crosslinguistic crosslinguistic systematicity to it systematicity to it that can provide that can provide clues as to what’s clues as to what’s going on.going on.

Null subjectsNull subjects Lots of languages Lots of languages allowallow

you to drop the subject.you to drop the subject. ItalianItalian, , SpanishSpanish: the verb : the verb

generally carries enough generally carries enough inflection to identify the inflection to identify the person, number of the person, number of the subject.subject.

ChineseChinese: where the : where the subject is obvious from subject is obvious from context it can be left out.context it can be left out.

Not in English thoughNot in English though: : Let’s talk about Bill. Let’s talk about Bill. *Left. *Bought groceries. *Left. *Bought groceries. *Dropped eggs.*Dropped eggs.

On the view that kids On the view that kids know language, but are know language, but are just trying to figure out just trying to figure out the specific details the specific details ((principles and principles and parametersparameters), one ), one possibility is that they possibility is that they always start out always start out speaking speaking ItalianItalian (or (or ChineseChinese) until they get ) until they get evidence to the evidence to the contrary.contrary. (Hyams 1986 made a (Hyams 1986 made a

very influential proposal very influential proposal to this effect)to this effect)

Null subjectsNull subjects Kids do tend to speak Kids do tend to speak

in short sentences. in short sentences. There seem to in fact There seem to in fact be identifiable stages be identifiable stages in terms of the length in terms of the length of the kids’ sentences of the kids’ sentences ((one-word stageone-word stage, , two-two-word stageword stage, , multi-word multi-word stagestage…), often …), often measured in terms of measured in terms of MLUMLU (mean length of (mean length of utterance) which utterance) which roughly corresponds to roughly corresponds to linguistic development.linguistic development.

Perhaps the kid’s Perhaps the kid’s just trying to say a just trying to say a three-word sentence three-word sentence in a two-word in a two-word window, so window, so something has to go.something has to go.

That is, some kind of That is, some kind of processing processing limitationlimitation..

Subject vs. object dropSubject vs. object drop

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Adam Eve Sarah

Percentage of missing subjects and objects from obligatory

contexts

Subjects

Objects

AA EE SS

SubjecSubjectt

5757 6161 4343

ObjectObject 88 77 1515

Null subjectsNull subjects Subjects (in a non-null Subjects (in a non-null

subject language like subject language like English) are English) are wayway more more likely to be dropped likely to be dropped than objects. There’s than objects. There’s something special something special about subjects.about subjects.

Makes a processing Makes a processing account more difficult account more difficult to justify.to justify.

Bloom (1990) made Bloom (1990) made some well-known some well-known proposals about how proposals about how the null subject the null subject phenomenon could be phenomenon could be seen as a processing seen as a processing issue, and tried to issue, and tried to explain why subjects explain why subjects are the most are the most susceptible to being susceptible to being dropped. See also dropped. See also Hyams & Wexler Hyams & Wexler (1993) for a reply.(1993) for a reply.

Null subjects vs. timeNull subjects vs. time

Null subjects seem to Null subjects seem to be pretty robustly be pretty robustly confined to a certain confined to a certain portion of linguistic portion of linguistic development. There’s a development. There’s a pretty sharp dropoff at pretty sharp dropoff at around 2.5 or 3.around 2.5 or 3.

Hamann’s Danish kids Hamann’s Danish kids illustrate this well.illustrate this well.

Why can’t English kids Why can’t English kids really be speaking really be speaking

Italian?Italian? In Italian, subjects can In Italian, subjects can be dropped (but be dropped (but need need notnot be), in English, they be), in English, they can’t be dropped at all.can’t be dropped at all.

So since So since having having subjects is consistent subjects is consistent with Italianwith Italian, what’s , what’s going to signal to the going to signal to the kid that they’ve got the kid that they’ve got the wrong kind of wrong kind of language?language?

A “subset” problem.A “subset” problem. Possible solution? Possible solution?

Expletive Expletive itit and and therethere..

In ItalianIn Italian, null subjects , null subjects are allowed wherever a are allowed wherever a subject pronoun would subject pronoun would be, including embedded be, including embedded finite clauses finite clauses (“I know (“I know that [he] has left”)that [he] has left”) and and finite root questions finite root questions (“What has [he] (“What has [he] bought?”)bought?”)..

In Kid EnglishIn Kid English, null , null subjects never show up subjects never show up in these environments. in these environments. It doesn’t seem so much It doesn’t seem so much like Italian.like Italian.

Optional/root infinitivesOptional/root infinitives Kids around the age Kids around the age

of 2 also of 2 also sometimes sometimes use infinitivesuse infinitives instead instead of finite verbs in their of finite verbs in their main clauses.main clauses.

It’s “It’s “optionaloptional” in that ” in that sometimes they get it sometimes they get it right (finite) and right (finite) and sometimes they get it sometimes they get it wrong (nonfinite), at wrong (nonfinite), at the same the same developmental stage.developmental stage.

French:French: Pas manger la poupéePas manger la poupée

not eat[inf] the dollnot eat[inf] the doll Michel dormirMichel dormir

Michel sleep[inf]Michel sleep[inf] German:German:

Zahne putzenZahne putzenteeth brush[inf]teeth brush[inf]

Thorstn das habenThorstn das habenThorsten that Thorsten that have[inf].have[inf].

Dutch:Dutch: Ik ook lezenIk ook lezen

I also read[inf.]I also read[inf.]

Root infinitivesRoot infinitives

English kids do this too, it turns out, English kids do this too, it turns out, but this wasn’t noticed for a long time.but this wasn’t noticed for a long time. It only write on the pad It only write on the pad (Eve 2;0)(Eve 2;0) He bite me He bite me (Sarah 2;9)(Sarah 2;9) Horse go Horse go (Adam 2;3)(Adam 2;3)

It It lookslooks like what’s happening is kids like what’s happening is kids are leaving off the are leaving off the -s-s..

Taking the crosslinguistic facts into Taking the crosslinguistic facts into account, we now think those are account, we now think those are nonfinite forms (i.e. nonfinite forms (i.e. to writeto write, , to biteto bite, , to to gogo).).

Root infinitives seem Root infinitives seem nonfinitenonfinite

Poeppel & Wexler (1993) looked at V2 in Poeppel & Wexler (1993) looked at V2 in German (where finite verbs should be in second German (where finite verbs should be in second position, nonfinite verbs should be at the end)position, nonfinite verbs should be at the end)

They concludedThey concluded: : the finiteness distinction is the finiteness distinction is made correctly at the earliest observable stage.made correctly at the earliest observable stage.

+finite -finite

V2, not final 197 6

V final, not V2 11 37

CHILDESCHILDES

Child Language Data Exchange SystemChild Language Data Exchange Systemhttp://childes.psy.cmu/eduhttp://childes.psy.cmu/edu Founded in 1984, Concord, MA.Founded in 1984, Concord, MA.

Director Brian MacWhinney Director Brian MacWhinney macw@mac.com.macw@mac.com.

A source of, among other things, A source of, among other things, computerized—computerized—searchablesearchable——transcripts of child speech.transcripts of child speech. Note: When using data from CHILDES, you Note: When using data from CHILDES, you

must always cite the original source of the must always cite the original source of the data. See the CHILDES database manual data. See the CHILDES database manual for details on what to cite for each corpus.for details on what to cite for each corpus.

ComponentsComponents

CHAT:CHAT: Chat is a transcription protocol Chat is a transcription protocol common to most transcripts in the CHILDES common to most transcripts in the CHILDES database.database.

CLAN:CLAN: CLAN is a program (actually a CLAN is a program (actually a collection of programs) used to transcribe collection of programs) used to transcribe data and analyze transcripts.data and analyze transcripts.

CHILDES:CHILDES: The database itself consists of the The database itself consists of the transcripts (or other data, e.g., video, audio).transcripts (or other data, e.g., video, audio).

CHATCHAT

The CHAT format The CHAT format guidelines for coding guidelines for coding your own transcripts your own transcripts are quite involvedare quite involved see the 130-page see the 130-page

manual for details.manual for details. headersheaders

@Participants@Participants speaker “tiers”speaker “tiers”

*CHI:, *PAT:*CHI:, *PAT: unintelligible speechunintelligible speech

““xxx”, ignored.xxx”, ignored. ““xx”, a word.xx”, a word.

@UTF8@UTF8

@Begin@Begin

@Languages:@Languages: enen

@Participants:@Participants: CHI Peter Target_Child, MOT Mother, LOI Lois Investigator,CHI Peter Target_Child, MOT Mother, LOI Lois Investigator,

PAT Patsy Investigator, LYN Lynn Investigator, JEN JenniferPAT Patsy Investigator, LYN Lynn Investigator, JEN Jennifer

ChildChild

@ID:@ID: en|bloom70|CHI|2;1.|male|normal||Target_Child||en|bloom70|CHI|2;1.|male|normal||Target_Child||

@ID:@ID: en|bloom70|MOT|||||Mother||en|bloom70|MOT|||||Mother||

@ID:@ID: en|bloom70|LOI|||||Investigator||en|bloom70|LOI|||||Investigator||

@ID:@ID: en|bloom70|PAT|||||Investigator||en|bloom70|PAT|||||Investigator||

@ID:@ID: en|bloom70|LYN|||||Investigator||en|bloom70|LYN|||||Investigator||

@ID:@ID: en|bloom70|JEN|||||Child||en|bloom70|JEN|||||Child||

@Tape Location:@Tape Location: Tape 16, side 1Tape 16, side 1

@Comment:@Comment: MLU 2.39MLU 2.39

@Time Start:@Time Start: 15:0015:00

@Situation:@Situation: Peter is just waking up from nap when Lois and Patsy arrive,Peter is just waking up from nap when Lois and Patsy arrive,

adults talk about Jennifer who is now five and a half monthsadults talk about Jennifer who is now five and a half months

oldold

*PAT:*PAT: hey Pete # that's a nice new telephone # looks like it must dohey Pete # that's a nice new telephone # looks like it must do

everything # it must ring and talk and .everything # it must ring and talk and .

%mor:%mor: co|hey n:prop|Pete pro:dem|that~v|be&3S det|a adj|nice adj|new n|telephone co|hey n:prop|Pete pro:dem|that~v|be&3S det|a adj|nice adj|new n|telephone

n|look-PL v|like pro|it v:aux|must v|do pro:indef|everything pro|it v:aux|must n|look-PL v|like pro|it v:aux|must v|do pro:indef|everything pro|it v:aux|must

v|ring conj:coo|and n|talk conj:coo|and . v|ring conj:coo|and n|talk conj:coo|and .

%exp:%exp: Peter has a new toy telephone on table next to himPeter has a new toy telephone on table next to him

%com:%com: <bef> untranscribed adult conversation<bef> untranscribed adult conversation

*CHI:*CHI: xxx telephone go right there .xxx telephone go right there .

%mor:%mor: unk|xxx n|telephone v|go adv|right adv:loc|there . unk|xxx n|telephone v|go adv|right adv:loc|there .

%act:%act: <bef> reaches out to lift phone receiver, pointing to place where<bef> reaches out to lift phone receiver, pointing to place where

wire should connect receiver and telephonewire should connect receiver and telephone

*MOT:*MOT: the wire .the wire .

%mor:%mor: det|the n|wire . det|the n|wire .

CLANCLAN Analysis programs and Analysis programs and

transcript/text editor.transcript/text editor. Directories:Directories:

workingworking: where it looks : where it looks for transcript files to for transcript files to analyzeanalyze

outputoutput: where it will put : where it will put output files, default is output files, default is working directoryworking directory

liblib and and mor libmor lib: where it : where it looks for its own files, looks for its own files, should be leave-able-as-should be leave-able-as-is. If in doubt, set to lib is. If in doubt, set to lib in the same folder as the in the same folder as the program file.program file.

CLANCLAN CLAN buttonCLAN button: pops up : pops up

command list.command list. FILE INFILE IN: choose file(s) : choose file(s)

to analyze.to analyze. RecallRecall: get back : get back

previous command.previous command. Command windowCommand window: :

where the real action where the real action is. We don’t need no is. We don’t need no stinkin’ buttons.stinkin’ buttons.

RunRun: perform the : perform the action you asked for in action you asked for in the Command window.the Command window.

CLANCLAN Useful commandsUseful commands::

freqfreq: calculate : calculate frequency of words frequency of words in transcript(s)in transcript(s)(page 71).(page 71).

combocombo: search for : search for things in the things in the transcriptstranscripts(page 56).(page 56).

mlumlu: calculate : calculate mmean ean llength of ength of uutterance in the tterance in the transcriptstranscripts(page 94).(page 94).

mlumlu

The The mlumlu command command computes the mean length computes the mean length of utterance in morphemes. of utterance in morphemes. Used as a rough measure of Used as a rough measure of the child’s linguistic the child’s linguistic development.development. Requires that CLAN can tell Requires that CLAN can tell

what the morphemes are.what the morphemes are. Many transcripts are Many transcripts are

tagged with tagged with %mor%mor tiers for tiers for this purpose. Morphemes this purpose. Morphemes are delimited by, e.g,. are delimited by, e.g,. --, , &&, , and and ~~ (see CHAT manual)(see CHAT manual) what’re…what’re…

pro:whpro:wh||whatwhat~~vv||bebe&&PRES …PRES … ……brought…brought…

…v…v||bringbring&&PAST…PAST…

*LOI:*LOI: why don't you bring your telephone down here # Peter ?why don't you bring your telephone down here # Peter ?

%mor:%mor: adv:wh|why v:aux|do~neg|not pro|you v|bring pro:poss:det|your n|telephone adv:wh|why v:aux|do~neg|not pro|you v|bring pro:poss:det|your n|telephone

adv|down adv:loc|here n:prop|Peter ? adv|down adv:loc|here n:prop|Peter ?

*LOI:*LOI: why don't you put it on the floor ?why don't you put it on the floor ?

%mor:%mor: adv:wh|why v:aux|do~neg|not pro|you v|put&ZERO pro|it prep|on det|the n|floor adv:wh|why v:aux|do~neg|not pro|you v|put&ZERO pro|it prep|on det|the n|floor

? ?

%act:%act: <aft> Peter puts it on floor <aft> Peter is trying to attack "wire"<aft> Peter puts it on floor <aft> Peter is trying to attack "wire"

to phone and receiverto phone and receiver

%com:%com: <aft> untranscribed adult conversation<aft> untranscribed adult conversation

*LOI:*LOI: what're you doing ?what're you doing ?

%mor:%mor: pro:wh|what~v|be&PRES pro|you part|do-PROG ? pro:wh|what~v|be&PRES pro|you part|do-PROG ?

*CHI:*CHI: 0 .0 .

%act:%act: <aft> Peter goes to hall closet, tries to open it<aft> Peter goes to hall closet, tries to open it

*MOT:*MOT: what do you need ?what do you need ?

%mor:%mor: pro:wh|what v|do pro|you v|need ? pro:wh|what v|do pro|you v|need ?

*CHI:*CHI: xxx .xxx .

%mor:%mor: unk|xxx . unk|xxx .

*MOT:*MOT: no # don't # see ?no # don't # see ?

%mor:%mor: co|no v:aux|do~neg|not v|see ? co|no v:aux|do~neg|not v|see ?

%gpx:%gpx: pointing to hook which locks closet door out of Peter's reachpointing to hook which locks closet door out of Peter's reach

%com:%com: <aft> untranscribed adult conversation<aft> untranscribed adult conversation

*CHI:*CHI: xxx .xxx .

%mor:%mor: unk|xxx . unk|xxx .

%act:%act: <bef> goes to his room looking for toys<bef> goes to his room looking for toys

*MOT:*MOT: well # they brought something too .well # they brought something too .

%mor:%mor: co|well pro|they v|bring&PAST pro:indef|something adv|too . co|well pro|they v|bring&PAST pro:indef|something adv|too .

%act:%act: <bef> sends him back<bef> sends him back

*PAT:*PAT: shall we take the ark ?shall we take the ark ?

%mor:%mor: v:aux|shall pro|we v|take det|the n|ark ? v:aux|shall pro|we v|take det|the n|ark ?

%act:%act: <aft> goes to Peter's room, suggests they bring some of Peter's toys<aft> goes to Peter's room, suggests they bring some of Peter's toys

to living roomto living room

freqfreq

The The freqfreq command command tallies up the number tallies up the number of times each word of times each word appears in the appears in the transcript.transcript. Useful to figure out Useful to figure out

which words are most which words are most common (or which common (or which words are used at all) in words are used at all) in a child’s transcript.a child’s transcript.

> freq sample.cha> freq sample.cha

freq sample.chafreq sample.cha

Sun Sep 12 19:48:56 2004Sun Sep 12 19:48:56 2004

freq (10-Sep-2004) is conducting analyses on:freq (10-Sep-2004) is conducting analyses on:

ALL speaker tiersALL speaker tiers

********************************************************************************

From file <sample.cha>From file <sample.cha>

1 a1 a

1 any1 any

1 are1 are

3 chalk3 chalk

1 chalk+chalk1 chalk+chalk

1 delicious1 delicious

1 don't1 don't

1 eat1 eat

[ . . . ][ . . . ]

1 toy+s1 toy+s

2 toys2 toys

3 want3 want

1 what1 what

2 what's2 what's

1 wonderful1 wonderful

2 yeah2 yeah

2 you2 you

------------------------------------------------------------

34 Total number of different word types used34 Total number of different word types used

50 Total number of words (tokens)50 Total number of words (tokens)

0.680 Type/Token ratio0.680 Type/Token ratio

combocombo The The combocombo command is used to search for command is used to search for

patterns in the transcripts.patterns in the transcripts.

For all of the commands (including freq and For all of the commands (including freq and mlu), there are certain options you should mlu), there are certain options you should specify:specify: TierTier +t*CHI+t*CHI Input file(s)Input file(s)nina*nina* Output fileOutput file > outfile.txt> outfile.txt

For example:For example: freq +t*CHI nina10.cha > freq-nina10.txtfreq +t*CHI nina10.cha > freq-nina10.txt mlu +t*CHI nina* > mlu-nina.txtmlu +t*CHI nina* > mlu-nina.txt

combo optionscombo options

In addition to those, combo has a couple of In addition to those, combo has a couple of other options we care about:other options we care about:

+s"eat*"+s"eat*" search for…pattern in "…"search for…pattern in "…" +s@+s@fnamefname search for…patterns in search for…patterns in fnamefname +w2+w2 show 2 lines after a found resultshow 2 lines after a found result -w2-w2 show 2 lines before a found resultshow 2 lines before a found result

For example:For example: combo +w2 -w2 +s"eat*" nina10.cha > eatn10.txtcombo +w2 -w2 +s"eat*" nina10.cha > eatn10.txt

Searches with comboSearches with combo x^yx^y

findsfinds x x immediately immediately followed by followed by yy (full words) (full words)

**finds anythingfinds anything

x+yx+yfinds finds xx or or yy

!x!xfinds anything but finds anything but xx

__finds any one characterfinds any one character

x^*^yx^*^yfinds finds xx eventually followed eventually followed by by yy

*ing*ingfinds anything ending in finds anything ending in inging

the^*^!grey^*^(dog+cat)the^*^!grey^*^(dog+cat)finds finds the the followed followed eventually by something eventually by something other than other than greygrey, followed , followed eventually by either eventually by either dog dog or or catcat. Finds . Finds the black catthe black cat, , the the big red dogbig red dog, but not , but not the the grey cat grey cat (though: why?)(though: why?)

Fabulous… now what does Fabulous… now what does this have to do with root this have to do with root

infinitives?infinitives? Harkening back, we talked about a couple of Harkening back, we talked about a couple of

ideas about what’s wrong with kids’ trees.ideas about what’s wrong with kids’ trees.

Each idea makes Each idea makes predictionspredictions about what about what kids will and won’t say—and CHILDES can kids will and won’t say—and CHILDES can be used to see to what extent these be used to see to what extent these predictions are met.predictions are met. RelativelyRelatively painless computerized searching painless computerized searching

relative to pen and paper, at leastrelative to pen and paper, at least A lot of data available, a lot of kids availableA lot of data available, a lot of kids available

Harris & Wexler (1996)Harris & Wexler (1996) Child English bare stems as “OIs”?Child English bare stems as “OIs”?

In the present, only morphology is 3sg -In the present, only morphology is 3sg -ss.. Bare stem isn’t unambiguously an infinitive form.Bare stem isn’t unambiguously an infinitive form. No word order correlate to finiteness.No word order correlate to finiteness.

OIs are clearer in better inflected OIs are clearer in better inflected languages. Does English do this too? Or is it languages. Does English do this too? Or is it different?different?

Hypotheses:Hypotheses: Kids don’t “get” inflection yet; Kids don’t “get” inflection yet; gogo and and goesgoes are are

basically homonyms.basically homonyms. These are OIs, the -These are OIs, the -ss is correlated with is correlated with

something systematic about the child syntax something systematic about the child syntax (e.g., a structure missing T).(e.g., a structure missing T).

Harris & Wexler (1996)Harris & Wexler (1996)

Exploring a consequence of having T Exploring a consequence of having T in the structure: in the structure: dodo support. support.

Rationale:Rationale: Main verbs do not move in English.Main verbs do not move in English. Without a modal or auxiliary, T is Without a modal or auxiliary, T is

stranded: stranded: The verb -ed not move.The verb -ed not move. DoDo is inserted to save T. is inserted to save T. Predicts: No T, no Predicts: No T, no dodo insertion. insertion.

Harris & Wexler (1996)Harris & Wexler (1996) Empirically, we expect:Empirically, we expect:

She goShe go She goesShe goes She not goShe not go (no T no (no T no dodo)) She doesn’t goShe doesn’t go (adult, T and (adult, T and dodo))

but neverbut never She not goesShe not goes (evidence of T, yet no (evidence of T, yet no dodo).).

On the other hand: All should be valid On the other hand: All should be valid options if kids just don’t “get” inflection.options if kids just don’t “get” inflection.

Harris & Wexler (1996)Harris & Wexler (1996)

Looked at 10 kids from 1;6 to 4;1Looked at 10 kids from 1;6 to 4;1 Adam, Eve, Sara (Brown), Nina Adam, Eve, Sara (Brown), Nina

(Suppes), Abe (Kuczaj), Naomi (Sachs), (Suppes), Abe (Kuczaj), Naomi (Sachs), Shem (Clark), April (Higginson), Shem (Clark), April (Higginson), Nathaniel (Snow).Nathaniel (Snow).

Counted sentences…Counted sentences… with with nono or or notnot before the verb before the verb without a modal/auxiliarywithout a modal/auxiliary with unambiguous 3sg subjectswith unambiguous 3sg subjects with either with either -s-s or or -ed-ed as inflected. as inflected.

Harris & Wexler (1996)Harris & Wexler (1996) Affirmative:Affirmative:

43% inflected43% inflected Negative:Negative:

< 10% inflected< 10% inflected

It not works MomIt not works Mom no N. has a microphoneno N. has a microphone no goes in thereno goes in there but the horse not stand upsbut the horse not stand ups no goes here!no goes here!

affaff negneg

-inflec-inflec 782782 4747

+infle+inflecc

594594 55

Harris & Wexler (1996)Harris & Wexler (1996) Small numbers, but in the right direction.Small numbers, but in the right direction. Generalization:Generalization: Considering cases with no Considering cases with no

auxiliary, kids inflect about half the time auxiliary, kids inflect about half the time normally, but almost never (up to normally, but almost never (up to performance errors) inflect in the negative.performance errors) inflect in the negative.

If If dodo is an indicator of T in the negative, we is an indicator of T in the negative, we might expect to see that might expect to see that dodo appears in appears in negatives about as often as inflection negatives about as often as inflection appears in affirmatives.appears in affirmatives.

Also, basically true: 37% vs. 34% in the pre-Also, basically true: 37% vs. 34% in the pre-2;6 group, 73% vs. 61% in the post-2;6 2;6 group, 73% vs. 61% in the post-2;6 group.group.

Harris & Wexler (1996)Harris & Wexler (1996) Also, made an attempt to ascertain how the form Also, made an attempt to ascertain how the form

correlated with the intended meaning in terms of correlated with the intended meaning in terms of tense. (Note: a nontrivial margin of error…)tense. (Note: a nontrivial margin of error…)

Inflected verbs are overwhelmingly in the right Inflected verbs are overwhelmingly in the right context.context.

presentpresent pastpast futurefuture

bare bare stemstem

771771 128128 3939

-s-s 418418 1414 55

-ed-ed 1010 168168 00

NS/OINS/OI Some languages appear not to undergo the Some languages appear not to undergo the

“optional infinitive” stage“optional infinitive” stage. Seems to . Seems to correlate (nearly? perfectly?) with the correlate (nearly? perfectly?) with the target language’s allowance of null subjects. target language’s allowance of null subjects. In principle, it would be nice to get this too, In principle, it would be nice to get this too, if it’s true. See, e.g., Wexler (1998).if it’s true. See, e.g., Wexler (1998). OI languages:OI languages: Germanic languages studied to Germanic languages studied to

date (Danish, Dutch, English, Faroese, Icelandic, date (Danish, Dutch, English, Faroese, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish), Irish, Russian, Brazilian Norwegian, Swedish), Irish, Russian, Brazilian Portuguese, CzechPortuguese, Czech

Non-OI languages:Non-OI languages: Italian, Spanish, Catalan, Italian, Spanish, Catalan, Tamil, PolishTamil, Polish

Root infinitives vs. timeRoot infinitives vs. time

The timing on root The timing on root infinitives is infinitives is likewise pretty likewise pretty robust, quitting robust, quitting around 3 years old. around 3 years old. Cf. null subjects.Cf. null subjects.

So what allows null So what allows null subjects?subjects?

Subjects of infinitives can be null.Subjects of infinitives can be null. I want to win the lottery.I want to win the lottery.

Kids at the age where subjects are often Kids at the age where subjects are often missing often use infinitive verb forms.missing often use infinitive verb forms.

Perhaps that’s the key: Perhaps that’s the key: Since kids can Since kids can use infinitives where adults can’t (main use infinitives where adults can’t (main clause main verb), this allows them to clause main verb), this allows them to use null subjects in those sentences as use null subjects in those sentences as a side effect.a side effect.

Proportion of null Proportion of null subjects in finite and subjects in finite and

non-finite clausesnon-finite clauses

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

100

Flem GermS GermA FrP FrN DutchH EngA

null finitenull nonfinite

Null subjects and Null subjects and infinitivesinfinitives

Perhaps we’re on to something here.Perhaps we’re on to something here. So null subjects are (for the most part—not So null subjects are (for the most part—not

completelycompletely) allowed by virtue of having ) allowed by virtue of having infinitives.infinitives.

What allows the infinitives in child What allows the infinitives in child language?language?

Generally taken as some kind of Generally taken as some kind of “disturbance of IP” (e.g., TP is missing), “disturbance of IP” (e.g., TP is missing), home of both tense and the EPP.home of both tense and the EPP.

Null subjects…Null subjects… Null subject parameter(s) is/are Null subject parameter(s) is/are notnot

initially mis-setinitially mis-set (kids don’t all start off (kids don’t all start off speaking Italian or Chinese—contra Hyams speaking Italian or Chinese—contra Hyams 1986, 1992); rather, child null subjects are 1986, 1992); rather, child null subjects are (at least in part) due to the availability of (at least in part) due to the availability of non-finite verbs (the OI stage).non-finite verbs (the OI stage).

Most null subjects are licensed by being Most null subjects are licensed by being the subject of a nonfinite verbthe subject of a nonfinite verb (i.e. PRO) (i.e. PRO)

But there are still But there are still somesome null subjects with null subjects with finite verbs… finite verbs… More on this in a moment.More on this in a moment.

Whence the infinitives?Whence the infinitives? Two major types of syntactic proposals:Two major types of syntactic proposals: TruncationTruncation

What the kids do not know is that trees go all What the kids do not know is that trees go all the way to CP, so they sometimes stop early, the way to CP, so they sometimes stop early, sometimes short of TP (e.g., Rizzi). Or they sometimes short of TP (e.g., Rizzi). Or they don’t know about higher functional structure don’t know about higher functional structure at all (e.g., Radford).at all (e.g., Radford).

Optional tenseOptional tense Kids will sometimes leave out a projection in Kids will sometimes leave out a projection in

their tree (e.g, TP and/or AgrP), but the rest of their tree (e.g, TP and/or AgrP), but the rest of it is still there (e.g., Wexler).it is still there (e.g., Wexler).

What do these predict?What do these predict?

Back to null subjects vs. Back to null subjects vs. ±Fin±Fin

Bromberg & Wexler (1995) promote the idea that Bromberg & Wexler (1995) promote the idea that null subjects with finite verbs arise from a kind null subjects with finite verbs arise from a kind of “topic drop” (available to adults in special of “topic drop” (available to adults in special contexts).contexts).

ProposalProposal (Bromberg & Wexler) (Bromberg & Wexler)Topic-drop applies to Very Strong TopicsTopic-drop applies to Very Strong Topics

Kids sometimes take (in reality) non-VS topics to Kids sometimes take (in reality) non-VS topics to bebe VS topics VS topics ((a a pragmatic pragmatic error)error)

Prediction about NSPrediction about NS RI’s have RI’s have twotwo ways of licensing NSs: ways of licensing NSs:

PRO (regular licensing of null subject)PRO (regular licensing of null subject) Topic dropTopic drop

Finite verbs have Finite verbs have oneone way to license a way to license a NS:NS: Topic dropTopic drop

So:So: We expect more null subjects with We expect more null subjects with root infinitives (which we in fact see).root infinitives (which we in fact see). Cf. Rizzi: Subject in highest specifier can Cf. Rizzi: Subject in highest specifier can

always be dropped, and RI’s also allow always be dropped, and RI’s also allow PRO. Same story, basically.PRO. Same story, basically.

Bromberg, Wexler, Bromberg, Wexler, whwh--questions, and null questions, and null

subjectssubjects If If topic droptopic drop is something which drops a is something which drops a topic in SpecCP…topic in SpecCP…

……and if and if whwh-words -words alsoalso move to SpecCP… move to SpecCP… ……we would not expect null subjects with we would not expect null subjects with

non-subject (e.g., non-subject (e.g., wherewhere) ) whwh-questions -questions where the verb is where the verb is finitefinite (so PRO is not (so PRO is not licensed).licensed). Cf. Rizzi: Same prediction; if you have a CP, Cf. Rizzi: Same prediction; if you have a CP,

a subject in SpecTP won’t be in the highest a subject in SpecTP won’t be in the highest specifier, so it can’t be dropped. One specifier, so it can’t be dropped. One difference: Rizzi predicts no nonfinite difference: Rizzi predicts no nonfinite whwh--questions at all, hence no null subjects at all.questions at all, hence no null subjects at all.

Bromberg, Wexler, Bromberg, Wexler, whwh--questions, and null questions, and null

subjectssubjects

Finiteness of null/pronominal subjects, Adam’s Finiteness of null/pronominal subjects, Adam’s whwh-questions-questions (Bromberg & Wexler 1995) (Bromberg & Wexler 1995)

Finite Nonfinite

Null 2 118

Pronoun 117 131

*Truncation*Truncation

Rizzi’s “truncation” theory predicts:Rizzi’s “truncation” theory predicts: No No whwh-questions with root infinitives-questions with root infinitives

whwh-question -question CP, but CP, but CP CP IP, and IP, and IP IP finite verb finite verb

And of course we wouldn’t expect null And of course we wouldn’t expect null subjects in subjects in whwh-questions if null -questions if null subjects are allowed (only) in the subjects are allowed (only) in the specifier of the root.specifier of the root.

Adult null subjectsAdult null subjects(“diary drop”)(“diary drop”)

Both Rizzi and Bromberg & Wexler appeal Both Rizzi and Bromberg & Wexler appeal to properties of adult language to justify to properties of adult language to justify the child null subjects.the child null subjects. B&WB&W suggest that topic drop is available in suggest that topic drop is available in

English, but only for Very Strong topics, and English, but only for Very Strong topics, and what kids are doing wrong is identifying far too what kids are doing wrong is identifying far too many things as VS topics.many things as VS topics.

RizziRizzi suggests that the ability to drop a subject suggests that the ability to drop a subject in the highest specifier is available in certain in the highest specifier is available in certain registers (“diary drop”) (where presumably registers (“diary drop”) (where presumably Root=CP is disregarded, or at least relaxed to Root=CP is disregarded, or at least relaxed to allow Root=IP).allow Root=IP).

Saw John today. Looked tired.Saw John today. Looked tired.