PROJECT REPORT

On

INVENTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION FACILITIES AND WATER SUPPLY IN THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

IN NGOMA SECTOR OF THE HUYE DISTRICT

ByTUYISENGE Fidèle

Reg No: UG10107323

Under the guidance of

Prof. James Grant Monney,

(Ph.D)

Submitted to the DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

in the FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

in partial fulfilment of requirement

for the award of degree of

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE

in Civil Engineering

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF RWANDA

FACULTY OF APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

September, 2011

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BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this Project Report titled “INVENTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION

FACILITIES AND WATER SUPPLY IN THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

IN NGOMA SECTOR OF THE HUYE DISTRICT” is the bonafide work of Mr TUYISENGE

Fidèle, who carried out the Research under my supervision. Certified further, that to the best of my

knowledge the work reported herein does not form part of any other project report or dissertation on

the basis of which a degree or award was conferred on an earlier occasion on this or any other

candidate.

Signature of the Supervisor Signature of the H.O.D

Name of the Supervisor Name of the H.O.D

Prof. James Grant Monney Ph.D.

Signature of Internal Guide/ Signature of External Guide/

Name: Name:

Submitted for University examination held in September, 2011 at National University of

Rwanda, University Avenue, Butare, Rwanda.

iii

DECLARATION

I declare that, the Project entitled, “INVENTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION

FACILITIES AND WATER SUPPLY IN THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY

SCHOOLS IN NGOMA SECTOR OF THE HUYE DISTRICT” is

original work and has never been submitted to any University or other Institutions of Higher

Learning. It is my own research whereby other scholar’s writings were cited and references

provided. I thus declare this work is mine and was completed successfully under the

supervision of Prof. James Grant Monney Ph.D.

Student signature

Name: TUYISENGE Fidèle

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DEDICATION

To the almighty God,

To my parents,

To my brothers and sisters,

To Urugwiro Family,

To my friends and colleagues,

To all who helped to complete this work.

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AKNOWLEDGEMENT

I have received tremendous assistance and encouragement from several people to perform

my academic duties along my studies. Firstly, I would like to express my gratitude to Prof.

James Grant Monney Ph.D who accepted the challenge of supervising me. Several

discussions I had with him and his comments on several drafts of this Research Project have

been very illuminating.

I am also grateful to the National University of Rwanda, especially, the Department of Civil

Engineering for the concern they have had over years of our stay at the University.

My Dad, Mum, brothers and sisters have been constantly caring for and inquiring about me

and my well-being. I am grateful to them.

My intellectual acknowledgement goes to My Classmates, Roommates, Urugwiro family,

Imararungu family, Fellow Students and Friends sharing Academic Life for of course, their

intellectual encouragement and support throughout my current life state.

May God bless you All.

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ACRONYMS

E.A.B : Ecole Autonome de Butare

E.S : École Secondaire

EAVK: École Agronomique et Vétérinaire de Kabutare

EDPRS: Economic Development & Poverty Reduction Strategy

ENDPK: École Notre Dame de la Providence Karubanda

F.T : Female Teacher

G.S : Groupe Scolaire

GSBC: Groupe Scolaire Butare Catholique

GSOB : Groupe Scolaire Officiel De Butare

IDWSSD: International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade

K.U: Kandagira Ukarabe

M.T: Male Teacher

MDGs: Millennium Development Goals

MININFRA: Ministry of Infrastructure

MOH: Ministry of Health

NUR : National University of Rwanda

PS : Petit Séminaire

PSVF : Petit Séminaire Virgo Fidelis

PVC: Polyvinyl Chloride

UN: United Nation

VIP: Ventilated Improved Pit

WBBAW: Washing Basins With Backet Accessed Water

WHO: World Health Organization

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE..............................................................................................ii

DECLALATION................................................................................................................iii

DEDICATION....................................................................................................................iv

AKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................................v

ACRONYMS......................................................................................................................vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS..................................................................................................vii

ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................................xi

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION.....................................................................1

1.1 BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................1

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT........................................................................................3

1.3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES.....................................................................................4

1. 3.1. GENERAL OBJECTIVE..................................................................................4

1.3.2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES..................................................................................4

1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY.........................................................................................4

1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY..........................................................................5

1.6. STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT............................................................................5

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................................6

2.1. WATER SUPPLY.....................................................................................................6

2.1.1. DEFINITION.....................................................................................................6

2.1.2. QUALITY OF WATER FOR CONSUMPTION..............................................6

2.1.3. QUALITY OF WATER FOR CONSUMPTION..............................................6

2.1.4. TREATMENT OF DRINKING-WATER.........................................................6

2.1.5. WATER QUANTITY........................................................................................7

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2.1.6. THE LINKS BETWEEN WATER SUPPLY, HYGIENE AND DISEASE.....7

2.1.6.1. Faecal – Oral Diseases:................................................................................9

2.1.6.2. Water – Washed Diseases:...........................................................................9

2.1.6.3. Water – Based Diseases:..............................................................................9

2.1.6.4. Water – Related Insect Vector Diseases:.....................................................9

2.2. WASTE DISPOSAL...............................................................................................10

2.2. 1. SOLID WASTE (REFUSE) MANAGEMENT..............................................10

2.2.1.1. Definition...................................................................................................10

2.2.1.2. Categories or Sources of Solid Waste:......................................................10

2.2.1.3. Types of Storage for Solid Wastes............................................................11

2.2.1.4. Sold Waste Disposal Method:...................................................................12

2.3. EXCRETA DISPOSAL..........................................................................................13

2.3.1. COMPONENTS OF A LATRINE...................................................................13

2.3.1.1. Superstructure:...........................................................................................13

2.3.1.2. Defaecation Unit........................................................................................13

2.3.1.3. Excreta Transfer System............................................................................14

2.3.1.4. Treatment System......................................................................................14

2.3.1.5. Disposal System.........................................................................................14

2.3.1.5.1. Description of Non-Water Dependent Systems:................................................14

2.3.1.5.2. Description of Water Dependent Systems:........................................................15

2.3.2. MINIMUM LATRINE ACCOMMODATION...............................................16

CHAPTER THREE: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA......................................17

3.1. LOCATION............................................................................................................17

3.2. THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HUYE DISTRICT...........................17

3.3. POPULATION........................................................................................................19

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3.4. WATER AND SANITATION................................................................................19

3.5. HUYE DISTRICT SCHOOL HEALTH.................................................................20

CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY............................................................................21

4.1. STUDY DESIGN....................................................................................................21

4.2. DATA COLLECTION METHOD.........................................................................21

4.3. SAMPLING METHOD..........................................................................................21

4.4. INSTRUMENTS.....................................................................................................22

4.5. DATA ANALYSIS.................................................................................................23

CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS...............................................................24

5.1. INVENTORY AND WATER SUPPLY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION

FACILITIES..................................................................................................................24

5.1.1. WATER SUPPLY INVENTORY....................................................................24

5.1.2. INVENTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION FACILITIES.........27

5.1.2.1. Inventory of School Latrines.....................................................................27

5.1.2.2. Inventory of School Urinals.......................................................................30

5.1.3. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL...........................................................................30

5.2. THE ADEQUACY FACILITIES PROVIDED......................................................31

5.2.1. TOILETS AND URINALS FACILITIES.......................................................31

5.2.2. WATER STORAGE RECEPTACLE TANK..................................................34

5.3. HEALTH HYGIENE PRACTICE IN SELECTED SCHOOLS............................37

5.3.1. SCHOOL AWARENESS TO THE HYGIENE PRACTICE..........................37

5.3.1.1. Sanitary Condition of the Facilities...........................................................37

5.3.1.2. Hand Washing Facilities............................................................................40

5.3.2. QUALITY OF WATER CONSUMEDN BY PUPILS....................................42

5.3.3. INADEQUATE WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE RELATED DISEAS.

....................................................................................................................................42

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CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS................................44

6.1. CONCLUSIONS.....................................................................................................44

6.2. RECOMMENDATION..........................................................................................46

REFERENCES..................................................................................................................49

APPENDICES...................................................................................................................51

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Table 5. 1: Water Source, Availability, Storage Capacity and Number of Years of Facility at School......................................................................................................................................................24Table5. 2: Water Source, Availability, Storage Capacity and Number of Years of Facility at School......................................................................................................................................................25Table5. 3: Type of Toilet, its Number and Users, Location, Possession of Infant and PDC Toilet, Separate for Boys and Girls..........................................................................................................27Table5. 4: Type of Toilet and its Number of Doors in all Primary and Secondary Schools..........29Table5. 5: Toilet and Urinals Available and Required for Pupils and Teachers............................31table5. 6: Minimum Latrine Accommodation...............................................................................33Table5. 7: Basic Quantities of Water Required:............................................................................35Table5. 8: Additional Quantities of Water Required.....................................................................35Table5. 9: Available and Required Water for Boarding and Day Pupils and Staff.......................36

Figure5. 1: Source of Water in Secondary Schools.......................................................................26Figure 5. 2: Source of Water in Primary Schools..........................................................................26Figure5. 3: Storage Capacity of the Receptacle or Water Tank in Primary and Secondary Schools.34Figure5. 4: Sanitary Condition of Toilets and Urinals Facilities...................................................40Figure5. 5: Hand Washing Facilities.............................................................................................40Figure5. 6: Hand Washing after going to the Toilet and Urinals..................................................42Figure5. 7: Inadequate Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Related Diseases in Primary and Secondary Schools of Ngoma Sector of Huye District...................................................................................43

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ABSTRACT

This study aims at taking inventory of environmental sanitation facilities and water supply

facilities of both the Primary and Secondary Schools in Ngoma sector of Huye District,

determining the adequacy or otherwise of these facilities provided, examining the extent to

which health hygiene is practised in selected Schools and making recommendations if

facilities provided are inadequate.

In order to achieve these goals, a combination of literature and relevant documents review,

interview administration for key informants in these schools and a survey was performed.

Most of information from those research instruments was analyzed in qualitative description

using Excel as software packages. These are the major findings:

In Secondary School, 64% use piped from municipal system and rain water, 18% schools

add to these sources bore hole with electrical pump and other 18% use only piped from

municipal system while in Primary Schools, 50% use both piped water from municipal

system plus rain water and other 50% schools use only piped water from municipal system

as their main source of water supply.

Pour Flush Toilet is the most used by pupils (78,3% of doors) while for Teachers, the most

used is Flush Toilet (83,4% of doors) and The majority of schools, in Primary Schools

Secondary Schools use Concrete gutter at floor level Urinals and two Primary Schools use

individual ceramic Urinals for pupils and in Secondary Schools, three Schools use

individual ceramic urinal for pupils and one school for Male Teachers.

The findings also show that there is a big number of worm (24%), 7% case of Diarrhoea, 5%

of Malaria, 2% of Skin Infections, and 1% of Eyes and the presence of these inadequate

water, sanitation and hygiene related diseases is an evidence of inadequate water supply,

poor sanitation and hygiene because the main objective of water supply and sanitation

programmes is to reduce the transmission of faecal-oral diseases and exposure to disease-

bearing vectors through the promotion of good hygiene practices, the provision of safe

drinking water and the reduction of environmental health risks and by establishing the

conditions that allow people to live with good health, dignity, comfort and security.

The term ‘sanitation’, throughout sphere, refers to excreta disposal, vector control, solid

waste disposal and drainage.

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CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Clean water is the key to life and every living thing depends on it, it is collected, purified,

distributed to guarantee a healthy environment. (JOHN PICKFORD ,1998)

Sanitation is vital for human health, Sanitation generates economic benefits ,Sanitation

contributes to dignity and social development ,Sanitation helps the environment ,and

improving sanitation is achievable! (United Nation, 2008)

According to World Health Organization WHO,( 1997,2004, 2007)  reports, 1.1 billion

people lack access to an improved drinking water supply, 88% of the 4 billion annual cases

of diarrheal disease are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate  sanitation and hygiene, and

1.8 million people die from diarrheal diseases each year. The WHO estimates that 94% of

these diarrheal cases are preventable through modifications to the environment, including

access to safe water.

In developing countries Each year, more than 2.2 million people die from preventable diseases

associated with lack of access to safe drinking water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene.

In Africa, more than 1 in 3 Africans residing in urban areas currently lack access to adequate

services and facilities. In the year 2000, coverage levels for water supply and sanitation were

62% and 60% respectively.

In Rwanda, more than one-third of Rwandans lack access to clean water and 90 percent lack

proper sanitation facilities. In addition, lack of clean water and sanitation puts Rwandans at

risk of contracting easily preventable illnesses such as malaria, dysentery, cholera, trachoma,

typhoid, diarrhea and Schistosomiasis.(World Bank, United Nations, 2009 )

It is in this case that at the UN general assembly in November 1980 the IDWSSD (1981-1990)

was launched with all countries adopting the declared target of achieving 100% coverage in

water supply and sanitation by 1990. Also the MDGs agreed at the UN in 2000 was to halve

by 2015 the proportion of population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and

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basic sanitation. During this summit every country set some goals to achieve regarding the

MDGs in different sectors including WES.

Rwanda situation, awareness (of) and measures to resolve the problem is well signified by

articles (goals) 3.40, 3.32, 4.43 and4.201 and Table 3.2 of EDPRS Which stipulate that,

although the numbers of people benefiting from access to safe water had increased, there had

been no change in the proportion of households having access to safe water between 2000 and

2005 (64%). During the EDPRS period, the sector aims at increasing the proportion of the

population accessing safe water from 64% to 86%, and the proportion with sanitation services

from 38% to 65%.

As regard to water and sanitation, the water and sanitation sector aims to ensure sustainable

and integrated water resources management and development for multipurpose use including

increased access for all to safe water and sanitation services.

As regards sanitation, the sector plans that the proportion of schools with latrines complying

with health norms will rise from 10% to 80%.

It is planned to improve access to sanitation services that meet hygienic standards. The

collection and processing of solid waste will be extended to more households and institutions.

Finally, the institutional framework for policy-making, planning and implementation in this

sector will be enhanced by the development of a National Water and Sanitation Master Plan

and by putting in place a results-based monitoring and evaluation system.

Concerning Huye District, the principal sources of water used most in the District are free

public fountains used by about 53,7% of the population. A high percentage of the population

7% use poor quality water and only 19,3% have access to clean drinking water. The town

does not have a collective system of disposing waste water.

There are private services which collect domestic rubbish at a fee but do not collect public

waste. (HUYE DISTRICT DEVELOPMENT PLAN, 2007, P34)

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1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

According to the World Bank, UNICEF (2005), Worldwide, more children are going to

school than ever before in history. Although unsafe sanitation and drinking water, as well as

hygiene, account for nearly 20 per cent of all child deaths in the world and at least 7 % of the

total global disease burden.

According to Sano,( 2007 ), lack of sanitation facilities and poor hygiene cause water-borne

diseases, such as Diarrhoea, Cholera, Typhoid and several parasitic infections. Moreover, the

incidence of these diseases and others linked to poor is highest among the poor, especially,

school-aged children.

In 2010, almost one fifth of the world’s population still defecate in the open and 2.6 billion

people do not have access to even a basic toilet. Every twenty seconds a child dies as result of

poor sanitation. That is 1.5 million preventable deaths each year, and in developing countries

Each year, more than 2.2 million people die from preventable diseases associated with lack of

access to safe drinking water, inadequate sanitation and poor hygiene.

More than 1 in 3 Africans lack access to adequate services and facilities, and in Rwanda, more

than one-third of Rwandans lack access to clean water while 90 percent lack proper sanitation

facilities and from EDPRS article 2.42, over 80% of diseases that afflict Rwandans are

waterborne, so access to safe water is a precondition for improving environmental and

personal health.

According to the Ministry of Health (2008) report on the school savey done in 2008 on the

nutritional situation and parasitic infection of primary school children shows that, parasitic

infestation, mainly represented by the hookworm, remains a public health problem in few

provinces in the country and the national parasitic prevalence is estimated at 25% and

hookworm specifically was estimated at 20% at national level. In Huye District, the

prevalence rates of hookworm was 30.1%. Again in Huye district a high percentage of the

population 7% used poor quality water and only 19,3% have access to clean drinking water

and the town does not have a collective system of disposing waste water. There are private

services which collect domestic rubbish at a fee but do not collect public waste. (HUYE

DISTRICT DEVELOPMENT PLAN, 2007, P34).

In order to reach the first, second, third, forth, sixth and seventh goals of MDGs and the

related national goals of increasing access for all to safe water and sanitation services and to

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reach to the proportion of schools with latrines complying with health norms to rise from 10%

to 80%, and to increase girls academic performance which is poor, a constant assessment of

what has to be done is necessary. That is why the Research is about “Inventory of

Environmental Sanitation Facilities and Water Supply in the Primary and Secondary Schools

in Ngoma Sector of the Huye District” and this Research seeks to arouse awareness of School

Managers to take the issue of environmental sanitation facilities and water supply in the

Primary and Secondary schools seriously.

1.3. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES

The objectives of Research are divided into general and specific objectives.

1. 3.1. GENERAL OBJECTIVETo assess the extent of provision of environmental sanitation facilities and water supply in the

Primary and Secondary Schools in Ngoma sector of Huye District.

1.3.2. SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES1. To take inventory of environmental sanitation facilities and water supply facilities

of both the Primary and Secondary Schools in Ngoma Sector of Huye District.

2. To determine the adequacy or otherwise of these facilities provided.

3. To examine the extent to which health hygiene is practiced in selected Schools.

4. To make recommendations if facilities provided are inadequate.

1.4. SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The Huye District is a very huge District, it has 581,5 km2 of total area and 14 Sectors, the

number of Primary Schools is 87and for Secondary Schools is 27. Because of his huge area

(region) and an enormous number of Primary and Secondary Schools, the present Research

Project will be only focussed and limited to the personal hygiene, school sanitation and solid

waste management of the Primary and Secondary Schools of Huye District in Ngoma Sector.

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1.5. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

Environmental sanitation is an essential factor contributing to the health, productivity and

welfare of people. Improved sanitation aims to break the cycle of disease transmission from

faeces to the environment in the first round. Water and hygiene interventions aim to break

second round transmission routes. (Hugh et al., 2009)

This will be valuable for several people and Government including:

To the Researcher, this study will add to existing knowledge in this subject matter and

other related Research may be carried out stemming from this particular study.

This Research will provide the better understanding and use of environmental

sanitation facilities, personal hygiene practices and solid waste management to the Primary

and Secondary Schools of Ngoama Sector of Huye District and others.

Policy maker in framing a sound and flexible system of regulation and supervision of

school hygiene and sanitation.

1.6. STRUCTURE OF THE REPORT

This Report comprises six Chapters. Chapter One is an Introduction of the study and it is

composed of background, problem statement, research objectives, scope of the study, and

significance of the study and structure of report. Chapter Two presents an overview of the

literature on the role of water and environment in diseases spreading and the different methods

of preventing and controlling diseases which may be induced through water and environment.

Chapter Three is the description of the studied area. Chapter Four describes the methodology

used in the Research. The Fifth Chapter deal with the Results and Discussion of the data and

Chapter Six presents Conclusions and Recommendations.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

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2.1. WATER SUPPLY.

2.1.1. DEFINITIONAccording to ROTTIER et al. (2003) Water supply is the means by which people are provided

with potable water for domestic and other uses. This is water used for drinking, cooking.

Washing and other domestic activities like watering gardens or water or domestic animals

2.1.2. QUALITY OF WATER FOR CONSUMPTION

According to Guy Howard et al.,2003), the quality of water that is consumed is well-

recognized as an important transmission route for infectious diarrheal and other diseases. The

importance of water quality continues to be emphasized by its role in epidemics and

contribution to endemic disease from pathogens.

2.1.3. QUALITY OF WATER FOR CONSUMPTION

According to Guy Howard et al.,2003), the quality of water that is consumed is well-

recognized as an important transmission route for infectious diarrheal and other diseases. The

importance of water quality continues to be emphasized by its role in epidemics and

contribution to endemic disease from pathogens.

Disease may also result from consumption of water containing toxic levels of chemicals.

Water provided for direct consumption and ingestion via food should be of a quality that does

not represent a significant risk to human health. A 'zero-risk' scenario for public supplies is

not achievable and evidence points to the need to define tolerable risks, commonly based on

estimates of numbers of excess cases per defined population size. This approach underpins

much risk assessment thinking within the water sector for both microbial and chemical

contaminants

2.1.4. TREATMENT OF DRINKING-WATER

According to John Adams et al.,( 2009) Disinfection with chlorine is the most appropriate

way of ensuring microbiological safety in most low-cost settings. Bleaching powder, liquid

bleach, chlorine tablets and other sources of chlorine may be used, depending on local

availability. At least 30 minutes’ contact time should be allowed after the chlorine is added to

the water before the water is drunk, to ensure adequate disinfection.

7

2.1.5. WATER QUANTITYAccording to According to John Adams et al.,( 2009) the following is the Basic quantities of

water required.

Table2. 1: Basic Quantities of Water Required.

Day Schools 5 litres per person per day for all school

children and Staff

Boarding Schools 20 litres per person per day for all residential

school children and Staff

Non Residential school children and

Staff

5 litres per person per day

Additional quantities of water required.

The following should be added to the basic quantities as necessary. Figures given are for day

schools. They should be doubled for boarding schools.

Table2. 2: Additional Quantities of Water Required.

Flushing Toilets 10–20 litres per person per day for conventional flushing toilets

Pour-Flush Toilets 1.5–3.0 litres per person per day

Anal cleansing 1–2 litres per person per day

2.1.6. THE LINKS BETWEEN WATER SUPPLY, HYGIENE AND DISEASE

According to WHO,(1992) human faeces, urine and sludge contain pathogen summarized in

the table below:

Table2. 3 Occurrence of some Pathogens in Urine, Faeces and Sludge

8

Pathogen Common Name of Infection caused

Present in:

Urine Faeces Sludge

Bacteria:

Escherichia Coli Diarrhoea * * *

Leptospira Interrogans Leptospirosis *

Salmonella Typhi Typhoid * * *

Shigella spp Shigellosis *

Vibrio Cholera Cholera *

Viruses:

Poliovirus Poliomyelitis * *

Rotaviruses Enteritis *

Protozoa - Amoeba or Cysts:

Entamoeba Histolytica Amoebiasis * *

Giardia Intestinalis Giardiasis * *

Helminths - Parasite Eggs:

Ascaris Lumbricoides Roundworm * *

Fasciola Hepatica Liver Fluke *

Ancylostoma Duodenale Hookworm * *

Necator americanus Hookworm * *

Schistosoma spp Schistosomiasis * * *

Taenia spp Tapeworm * *

Trichuris Trichiura Whipworm * *

Source: WHO, A Guide to the Development of on-Site Sanitation, 1992: 12 .

Classifying diseases by causative agent such as microbe type for infectious disease has a value

in terms of understanding aetiology of infection. However, a more effective way to inform

9

decision-making is to categorize pathogens /diseases in relation to the broad mode of

transmission.

According to MONNEY G. Lecture Notes. (2008) there are four principal categories that

relate to water and which are not mutually exclusive:

2.1.6.1. Faecal – Oral Diseases:Infections are transferred only through faecal – oral route. A person gets the disease by

ingesting small or tiny amounts of other people’s faeces i.e. consuming food or water which

has been inoculated by other people’s faeces i.e. Cholera, Typhoid, Diarrhoea, Dysentery,

Infectious Hepatitis (Jaundice).

Water – Borne disease is the disease contacted when pathogen in water is drank i.e. the

transmission of such a disease is related to the quality of the water e.g. Diarrhoea.

2.1.6.2. Water – Washed Diseases: Transmission occurs when the pathogen is passed from (man/person) to another (man/person)

by a route which reflects poor personal or domestic hygiene and, therefore, which might be

controlled by the use of more water as an aid to hygiene. It is not affected by the quality but

the amount of water one uses. It depends on the quantity and availability of water for personal

hygiene e.g. skin diseases ( yaws, scabies).

2.1.6.3. Water – Based Diseases:The disease vectors have aquatic intermediate hosts (i.e. intermediate host which lives in

water) and one becomes infected with them when one drinks an infected water or when one

comes into physical contact with them e.g. Guinea Worm (caused by Cyclopes) and Bilharzias

(Schistosomiasis). The pathogen spends a part of its life - cycle in a water snail or other

aquatic animal. All these diseases are due to infection by parasitic worms (helminthes) which

depend on aquatic intermediate hosts to complete their life - cycle.

2.1.6.4. Water – Related Insect Vector Diseases:These are diseases spread by insects that breed in or near water .e.g.

1. Malaria caused by the Anopheles mosquito.

2. River Blindness (Onchocerciasis) caused by the Black fly (Similum Damnosum).

3. Filariasis (Elephantiasis) caused by Culex mosquito (Culex Pipiens Fatigan).

4. Yellow Fever caused by Aedis Egypti.

10

Other workers have suggested a change in this classification system to replace the faecal-oral

waterborne category with waterborne (to reflect multiple routes of transmission) and to

restrict the water-washed diseases to only as those skin and eye infections that solely relate to

the quantity of water used for hygiene (Cairncross and Feachem, 1993). The occurrence of

particular diseases in more than one group is a legitimate outcome where distinct interventions

may contribute to control. Thus guinea worm for example is classified as both a water-based

disease and water-borne disease.

2.2. WASTE DISPOSAL

2.2. 1. SOLID WASTE (REFUSE) MANAGEMENT

2.2.1.1. DefinitionWaste: A material which is thrown away as worthless.

Garbage: Organic material discarded or remaining as a result of the storage, preparation and

consumption of food.

Rubbish: Is all other material including paper, wood, glass, metal, leaves, junks, debris from

cleansing of demolishing structures.

Urban Solid Waste or Municipal Refuse: According to the World Bank, it is the material

for which the primary generator or User abandoning the material within the urban area

requires no compensation upon abandonment.

2.2.1.2. Categories or Sources of Solid Waste:1. Household or Domestic or Residential. This is mainly garbage and rubbish e.g. wastes

generated as a consequence of household activities e.g. food preparation, sweeping, cleaning,

firewood burning, gardening. They also include old clothing, old furnishings, disused

appliances, packaging etc.

2. Commercial e.g. wastes from stores, offices, restaurants, hotels and warehouses.

3. Institutional e.g. wastes from schools, hospitals, police and army barracks etc.

4. Street Sweepings. These are mainly dirt and litter, animal droppings, leaves etc.

11

5. Construction and Demolition Debris.

6. Industrial.

2.2.1.3. Types of Storage for Solid WastesTypes of storage for solid wastes available can be divided into two categories: (1). Separate

Unit (household) storage and (2) Communal Storage (Transfer Station).

Separate Unit Storage: May be either standardized or non standardized containers ranging

from temporary containers e.g. cardboard cartons, plastic bags, wooden crates to permanent

containers e.g. plastic or metal bins. Preferably, they must be water-tight, rust resistant with

tight fitting covers. Containers for ashes must be fire resistant.

The size of the container depends on the weight and density of wastes being disposed off and

the length of storage with respect to the frequency of collection. In any case, the size of the

container must be kept within the limits that can be easily and conveniently handled by the

collection crew. Weight should not be greater than 32kg.

For restaurants, hotels and other places, Storage Room must be provided with ample

ventilation. Odour nuisance will be controlled if the temperature of the Storage Room is kept

below 10 degrees Centigrade. Garbage stand should be screened and kept away from children,

dogs and cats. Built-in garbage or thrash boxes, bins etc are not recommended because the

storage structure becomes soiled and difficult to clean

Communal Storage Units (Transfer Stations): May be either stationary or portable.

Stationary Units include enclosures such as four-sided masonry units with a door opening

and no roof.

Portable Units include large steel drums, liftable metal containers (for use with trucks rigged

with hydraulic lifts), wood or metal trailers (for use with Tractors) or roll-on metal containers

(for use with Trailer Truck bodies).

Generally speaking, none of the stationary units is recommended because wastes are typically

strewn about the site by scavenging activities of various animals and people.

12

2.2.1.4. Sold Waste Disposal Method: There are numerous alternatives for the handling and disposal of solid wastes. Consideration

must first be given to the protection of the health of the community and the prevention of

public nuisances.

According to MONNEY G. Lecture Notes (2008), The Disposal Methods are, Open

Dumping, Sanitary Land Filling, Reduction and Fermentation or Biological Digestion

(Composting), Incineration, Dumping at Sea and, Grinding and Discharge into Sewer (for

garbage only).

Open Dumping (also referred to as Controlled Tipping): It is never satisfactory. Refuse is

generally spread over a large area, providing a source of food and habitat for rats, flies and

other vermin. It is unsightly, an odour and smoke nuisance and can be a fire hazard. It can be a

source of surface water and groundwater pollution. Its use should be discouraged.

Sanitary Land Filling: In this practice, refuse is completely buried. Three processes are

involved: dumping, covering and compaction. This is to be adopted when plenty of land is

available without the danger of groundwater pollution.

Composting: Compost is defined as aerobic thermophilic (55 degrees centigrade) degradation

of biodegradable material in refuse by microorganisms. It takes about five weeks for the

process to go into completion.

Incineration: This is applicable to refuse with low moisture content and high combustible

fraction. If properly controlled, it is satisfactory for burning combustible refuse. A

temperature of, at least, 260 degrees Centigrade is essential for efficiency and odour control.

Operation must be continuous. Extra fuel has to be used when the moisture content is greater

than 50% or when the combustible material is less. Good supervision is necessary. The

approach reduces refuse volume rather than total destruction. It requires Sanitary Land fill in

addition. It is also used for handling hazardous wastes.

(1) Incineration releases corrosive material contained in fuel e.g. Chlorine in PVC.

Dumping at Sea: this is done using garbage barges towed by Tugs. This practice is now

prohibited by the United Nations Environmental Programme.

13

Grinding and Discharge into Sewer: This is usually applicable to garbage and it is

becoming a common method in U.S.A. Disposal of other refuse must be handled another way.

Types in use: 1. Home grinder connected to the kitchen sink.

2. Centrally located. Discharge is made into municipal sewer.

Water is added in both cases and even at the Sewage Treatment Plant. The strength of sewage

increases as a result and additional sludge digestion and drying facilities will be needed.

2.3. EXCRETA DISPOSAL

The facility for handling excreta is known as a Latrine or Toilet. It is given several indirect

names to conceal its real meaning. Its broad classification is as follows:

1. Non-Water Dependent (Non - Water Borne) System comprising On-Site e.g. Pit

latrine, VIP latrine and Off-Site e.g. Bucket latrine.

2. Water Dependent (Water - Borne) System comprising On-Site e.g. Septic Tank

System, Aqua Privy, Pour Flush and Off-Site e.g. Sewerage.

2.3.1. COMPONENTS OF A LATRINE

2.3.1.1. Superstructure: i. To protect the User and the latrine from the elements of the weather.

ii. To provide privacy to the User. Type is not necessary peculiar to the type of latrine. It is

chosen from the stand point of available resources and technology as well as economic and

aesthetic consideration.

2.3.1.2. Defaecation Unit.There are two parts, namely:-

i. Device on which the User sits or squats for defaecation and

ii. Receptacle into which excreta initially drop.

Although there may be similarities in the seats or squatting slabs, wide differences occur in

the design of the receptacle.

14

2.3.1.3. Excreta Transfer System.Transfer takes place from the receptacle to the point of treatment and/or disposal.It is a

necessary part of Off-Site disposal systems but it occurs in some On-Site disposal systems. It

may consist of a carriage medium e.g. water, pipe, vehicle or man (Scavenger).

2.3.1.4. Treatment System.This is a means the excreta, together with its carrier media, are prepared for disposal to ensure

that waste load is within the assimilative capacity of the disposal medium having regard to

ecological consideration and beneficial uses of the medium. Physical, biological and chemical

processes are involved.

2.3.1.5. Disposal System.The treated excreta are disposed off in such a manner that the receiving medium is not

polluted.

a. Description of Non-Water Dependent Systems:

The Pit Latrine:

This consists of a slab over a pit which may be 2 m or more in depth. The slab should be

firmly supported on all sides and raised above the surrounding ground so that surface water

cannot enter the pit. If the sides of the pit are liable to collapse they should be lined. A squat

hole in the slab or a seat is provided so that the excrete fall directly into the pit

Its disadvantage is that Considerable fly nuisance (and mosquito nuisance if the pit is wet)

unless there is a tight-fitting cover over the squat hole when the latrine is not in use and it

smells

The Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrine

Fly and odour nuisance may be substantially reduced if the pit is ventilated by a pipe

extending above the latrine roof, with fly-proof netting across the top. The inside of the

superstructure is kept dark. Such latrines are known as ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines.

This latrine does not control mosquitoes

The Chemical Toilet:

15

This uses a solution of caustic soda. The tank, which is made from a special steel alloy

capable of withstanding corrosion, is ventilated to the roof level.

Excreta deposited are liquefied and sterilized by the chemical which also destroys all

pathogens and worms’ eggs. An agitator is provided to facilitate the action by breaking the

solids and speeding their disintegration by the chemical. After some time, the content of the

tank is drained or removed and deposited in soak-away pit.

This toilet is not odourous and it is suitable for use inside dwellings. It is used on Boats,

Aircrafts, Motor Caravans, other vehicles and Trailer Houses. It is expensive in initial cost

and operation.

b. Description of Water Dependent Systems:

Aqua Privy:

An aqua-privy has a watertight tank immediately under the latrine floor. Excreta drop directly

into the tank through a pipe. The bottom of the pipe is submerged in the liquid in the tank,

forming a water seal to prevent escape of flies, mosquitos and smell. The tank functions like a

septic tank. Effluent usually infiltrates into the ground through a soakpit. Accumulated solids

(sludge) must be removed regularly. Enough water must be added to compensate for

evaporation and leakage lossesAqua-privy.

Its disadvantage is the fly mosquito and smell nuisance if seal is lost because insufficient

water is added

The Water-Seal Latrine: (Pour Flush Unit)

A latrine may be fitted with a trap providing a water seal, which is cleared of faeces by

pouring in sufficient quantities of water to wash the solids into the pit and replenish the water

seal. A water seal prevents flies, mosquitos and odours reaching the latrine from the pit. The

pit may be offset from the latrine by providing a short length of pipe or covered channel from

the pan to the pit. The pan of an offset pour flush latrine is supported by the ground and the

latrine may be within or attached to a house

16

2.3.2. MINIMUM LATRINE ACCOMMODATION.

The number of toilets and urinals required for each school depends on the numbers of children

and staff, but also on when the schoolchildren and staff have access to the toilets. If access is

restricted to break times, then peak demand could be high, particularly if all the classes have

breaks at the same time (John Adams et al,. 2009 : 22)

In addition to the required a suitable toilet facilities, shall be purpose-designed and

constructed for persons with disabilities, shall be provided in the building and shall be

accessible to disabled persons without requiring assistance (MININFRA, 2009 :3.25).

17

CHAPTER THREE: DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1. LOCATION

The case study was Ngoma Sector. It is one of fourteen Sectors of Huye District which is

located in South-West of the District. It has respectively Mbazi Sector to the North, Huye and

Gishanvu Sectors to the West, Tumba Sector to the South. The Huye District which contain

this Sector is also one of thirty Districts of Rwanda which is located in Southern Province.

3.2. THE GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF HUYE DISTRICT Huye District is one of the eight Districts comprising the Southern Province. It is composed of

14 Sectors namely: Mbazi, Kinazi, Simbi, Maraba, Rwaniro, Rusatira, Huye, Gishamvu,

Mukura, Ruhashya, Tumba, Kigoma, Ngoma and Karama. The District’s general

characteristics can be grouped as shown in the Table 6 below.

Table3. 1: Huye District General Characteristics

Boundaries North NYANZA DistrictEast GISAGARA DistrictSouth NYARUGURU

DistrictWest NYAMAGABE

DistrictSurface Area 581,5 Km2

Number of Sectors 14Number of Cells 77Number of Villages 509Total Population 290 677 InhabitantsPopulation Density 500 Inhabitants/Km2

Source: Huye District Development Plan 2010

It has respectively Nyanza District to the North, Nyamagabe District to the West, Nyaruguru District to the South and Gisagara District to the East. Figure3. 1st. It has an area of 581,5 Km2.

The Huye District is constituted by 14 Sectors which are: Ngoma, Huye, Tumba, Mukura,

Mbazi, Rwaniro, Simbi, Rusatira, Kigoma, Gishamvu, Kinazi, Ruhashya, Maraba and

Karama. Five of them are administratively urbanized: Ngoma, Huye, Tumba, Mukura, Mbazi;

and are making up what is known as Huye (Butare) town. The following Map presents the

location of the Study Area.

18

Figure3. 2:Ngoma Sector Location

Source: arc GIS 9/ arc MAP9.3

19

3.3. POPULATION

Ngoma Sector has a population counted, in 2007,to 13 465 with 5 558 of Males and 7 907 of

Females.

Among them, there was respectively 988 orphans, 517 of widows, 492 of physically

handicapped, 76 of old people and 235 of destitutes.

According to Emmanuel UWAYEZU (2009), the more than 60% of the population is habiting

the country sectors .Huye population growth can be visualized in this three years statistics

Table3. 2: Huye Population Growth

Year Number

2007 250452

2008 273509

2009 278383

2010 314,022

3.4. WATER AND SANITATION

According to HUYE DISTRICT DEVELOPMENT PLAN,(2007) Clean drinking water

enormously contributes to good health of homes and according to studies carried out, Huye

District population generally cover a long distance to access drinking water. This distance

ranges from 645 m and is well below the national average of 703 m. The principal sources of

water used most in the District are free public fountains used by about 53,7% of the

population. A high percentage of the population 7% use poor quality water and only 19,3%

have access to clean drinking water.

Water supply to Butare Town originates from two stations one at Ngoma and the other in

Kadahokwa valley. The AEP network is 84.250 ml long (Town). The population is supplied

by 2.450 individual connections and 230 fountain taps.

The town does not have a collective system of disposing waste water.

There are private services which collect domestic rubbish at a fee but do not collect public

waste.

20

In Huye District latrines are commonly used for disposal human excreta in households or

public

3.5. HUYE DISTRICT SCHOOL HEALTH

According to Rwanda ministry of health report in 2008, The parasitic infestation, mainly

represented by the hookworm was 36.9% of Huye Primary School students while Malaria

infections. The Figure below shows the distribution of the children by Province and by

District according to the global parasitic infestation (Ascarises, Schistosomiases, Taenia,

Trichocéphales and other verses)

Figure3. 3: Proportion of the Intestinal Parasitosis

Source: REPUBLIC OF RWANDA. 2009. La situation nutritionnelle et infections parasitaires

chez les enfants de l’ecole primaire au Rwanda. Kigali: M.O.H. P 32

21

CHAPTER FOUR: METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study is to assess the extent of provision of environmental sanitation

facilities and water supply in the Primary and Secondary Schools in Ngoma Sector of the

Huye District.

The methodology followed used both qualitative and quantitative research methods.

4.1. STUDY DESIGN

From literature, knowledge was picked up when planning the Research: numerical context, the

formal and informal rules by which the area of study operates.

Finally, the Library provided sampling frames and checks on validity and enabled us to build

an element of replication into the design.

The case study design was found to be suitable for the investigation in line with Huye District,

particularly, in Ngoma Sector.

4.2. DATA COLLECTION METHOD

The data used in this work has been gathered from the ministry of health, different units in

District, and from Primary and Secondary Schools of Ngoma Sector of Huye District.

The study is mainly descriptive on the characteristics of existing school sanitation system,

their physical infrastructure, and management practices. The work goes further with the use of

a survey and interview to search for primary data on accessibility to safe water, personal

hygiene practices, sanitation practices and solid waste management.

In this study a combination of secondary data sources and primary data sources methods was

used to complement one another.

4.3. SAMPLING METHOD

All Primary and Secondary Schools of Ngoma Sector of the Huye District were taken to be

studied. During the data collection, stratified random sampling method was used. The

stratified sampling is a method of sampling that involves the division of population into

smaller group known as strata.

22

In stratified random sampling, the strata are formed based on members’ shared attributes or

characteristics. A random sample from each stratum is taken in a number proportional to the

size of stratum when compared to the population.

For the survey interview, the researcher used the following equation for sampling:

n=N

1+N (e)2

Where n is the sample size, N is the population size and e is the level of precision.

For Ngoma primary and secondary schools, the total population is 9672 pupils.

This gives us a required sample size of 114 persons with an accuracy of 10% and a confidence

level of 95%.

More details are given in the table below:

Table4. 1: Sample Size

School’s Name Population Sample Size

School’s Name Population Sample Size

PRIMARY SCHOOL SECONDARY SCHOOLE.I.P 83 2 GSOB 1161 13

Runga 714 8 ENDPK 5031 6Matyazo 608 7 EAVK 879 10GSBC 591 7 E.S Butare 351 4

Ngoma Adv 614 7 GSBC 341 4Ngoma 553 6 G.S Gatagara 661 8

le pigeonier 200 3 E.A.B 126 2E.A.B 196 3 GS des Parents 724 8

Elena Guerra 224 3 Elena Guerra 168 2CJSM 156 2 PS Baptiste 382 5

PSVF Karubanda 303 4

Source: Primary Data

4.4. INSTRUMENTS

Surveys in the form of administration of questionnaires, interviews and observation were

used for the study. Combinations of close ended and open questionnaires were used. The

interview survey questionnaires were translated into Kinyarwanda before passing it to pupils

for better understanding. The purpose of the questionnaire for the Head teachers of schools

was to do the inventory of Water Supply and Environmental Sanitation Facilities and that for

23

the pupils was to examine the extent to which health hygiene is practiced in selected Schools

and observation was to assess the adequacy or otherwise of the facilities provided.

In order to verify the appropriateness of the questionnaire, the questionnaire for the pupils was

pre-tested before administrating. The administrating of the questionnaire was done by the

Author of the Research. Hence, there was no need for special training of the interviewer.

During the administrating all pupils of Secondary Schools were allowed to fill the

questionnaire themselves after a brief explanation of the purpose of the study and what is

required from them. But, all pupils of Primary Schools were asked questions and the answers

were written for them by the interviewer.

The summary of the survey data is presented in the Chapter 5 and in the Appendix.

4.5. DATA ANALYSIS

Data collected were arranged for easy analysis. The responses were counted and recorded as

frequency. Only eight among the asked questions were considered necessary for analysis.

The obtained were analyzed using excel as statistical software package.

Qualitative approach was used to analyze the qualitative data.

The results of the analysis were presented in form of Tables.

24

CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This Chapter presents the results of the Research. Results are presented in a statistical way,

using frequencies, percentages and Tabular forms.

5.1. INVENTORY AND WATER SUPPLY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION FACILITIES

Access to safe water supply and sanitation is a basic human need.

5.1.1. WATER SUPPLY INVENTORY Water is life in general and potable water in particular is essential for life, health and human

dignity, so access to safe water is considered as a basic human need and basic human right to

all people.

A table below shows a source of water for each school of the studied area, the storage capacity

of the receptacle or water tank, its availability during the school year and the number of years

since the water facilities was constructed, acquired or connected.

Table 5. 1: Water Source, Availability, Storage Capacity and Number of Years of Facility at School

School’s Name Water Source

Availabilityof Water

Storage Capacity of the Receptacle Tank in Litre

Number of Years of the Facility at School

Primary SchoolE.I.P PWFMS WSRC 0 Over 20 YearsRunga PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L [0 -5]

rain waterMatyazo PWFMS WSRC Under 1000 L [0 -5]GSBC PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L [0 -5]

Rain waterngoma adv PWFMS WSRC 0 [11-15]Ngoma PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L Over 20 years

Rain waterle pigeonier PWFMS WSRC Under 1000 L [16-20]E.A.B PWFMS WSRC 0 Over 20 yearsElena Guerra PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L [6-10]

Rain waterCJSM PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L Over 20 years

Rain Water

25

Table 5. 2: Water Source, Availability, Storage Capacity and Number of Years of Facility at School

School’s Name Water Source Availabilityof Water

Storage Capacity of the Receptacle Tank in Litre

Number of Years of the Facility at School

Secondary SchoolGSOB PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L Over 20 Years

Rain water Bore hole with electrical pump

ENDPK PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L [6-10]Rain water Bore hole with electrical pump

EAVK PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L Over 20 yearsRain water

E.S Butare PWFMS WSRC Under 1000 L [0-5]G.S Gatagara PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L [6-10]

Rain waterE.A.B PWFMS WSRC 0 Over 20 yearsGS des Parents PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L [11-15]

Rain waterElena Guerra PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L [6-10]

Rain waterPS Baptiste PWFMS WSRC [2001-3000] [11-15]

Rain waterPSVF Karubanda

PWFMS WSRC Over 4000 L [0-5]Rain water

Source: Primary Data

LEGEND:

PWFMS: Piped Water From Municipal System

WSRC: Water Service Remains Constant through the year

26

only piped from minic-ipal system

18%

piped from minicipal system +rain water

64%

piped from minicipal system +rain

water+bore hole with electrical pump

18%only piped from minicipal sys-tem

piped from minicipal system +rain water

piped from minicipal system +rain water+bore hole with electrical pump

Figure 5. 1: Source of Water in Secondary Schools.

Source: Primary Data.

Only piped from minic-ipal system

50%

piped from minicipal sys-

tem +rain water50%

Only piped from minicipal sys-tem piped from minicipal system +rain water

Figure 5. 2: Source of Water in Primary Schools.

Source: Primary Data.

In Secondary School, 64% Schools use piped from minicipal system and rain water, 18%

schools use piped from minicipal system, plus rain water and bore hole with electrical pump

and other 18% use only piped from minicipal system while in primary schools, 50% schools

use both piped water from minicipal system plus rain water and other 50% schools use only

piped water from minicipal system.

27

5.1.2. INVENTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION FACILITIES

5.1.2.1. Inventory of School Latrines.

This Section presents a list of school latrines types and numbers, their location. In some

schools latrines are located within the main school building (WMSB) and others are separated

from school building (SFSB). It also shows if the school has the toilet facility constructed to

accommodate children with physical disabilities and in primary schools if there is Separate

toilet for infant.

Table 5. 3: Type of Toilet, its Number and Users, Location, possession of infant and PDC Toilet, Separate for Boys and Girls.

School’s Name Type of Toilet Number of Toilet

Loca

tion

Sepa

rate

toile

t for

in

fant

Poss

essi

on

of

PDC

toile

t

Sepa

rate

for

boys

an

d gi

rls

Boys Girls M.T F.T

PRIMARY SCHOOL E.I.P Flush Toilet 2 2 - 1* WMSB No No Yes

RUNGA VIP Latrine 4 4 1 1 WMSB No No YesCompost 4 4 - _ WMSB

Matyazo Pit Latrine 6 6 - 1* WMSB No No No GSBC Pour Flush 4 8 - - WMSB Yes No Yes

Flush - - - 1* WMSBNgoma adv Pit Latrine 4 4 0 0 WMSB No No No Ngoma Pour Flush 4 8 1 0 WMSB Yes No Yes

Pit Latrine 6 8 0 2 WMSBle pigeonier Pour Flush 3 4 0 1* WMSB No No YesE.A.B Pour Flush 3 3 0 1* WMSB No No YesElena Guerra Flush 4 4 0 1* WMSB No Yes YesCJSM Pour Flush 4 6 - - WMSB No No No

Flush - - 2 2 WMSB

Source: Primary Data.

28

School’s Name Type of Toilet Number of Toilets Location

Poss

essi

on

of

PDC

toile

t

Sepa

rate

for

boys

an

d gi

rls

Boys Girls M.T FT

SECONDARY SCHOOL

GSOB Pour Flush 41 56 _ _ WMSB No YesFlush - - 2 2 WMSB

ENDPK Pour Flush - 68 - - WMSB No Yes Flush - - 1 1 WMSBPit Latrine 1 - - - WMSB

EAVK VIP latrine 14 - - - WMSB No YesPour Flush - 8 - - WMSBFlush - - 1 1 WMSBCompost - 6 - - WMSB

E.S Butare VIP Latrine 6 6 - - WMSB No No Flush Toilet - - 1 1 WMSB

GSBC Pour Flush 4 8 - - WMSB No YesFlush _ - - 1* WMSB

G.S Gatagara Pour Flush 26 19 - - WMSB and SFSB

Yes Yes

Flush 6 5 1 1 WMSBE.A.B Flush 2 2 - 1* WMSB No YesGS des Parents Pour Flush 14 12 - - WMSB No Yes

Flush - - _ 1* WMSBElena Guerra Pour Flush 3 9 - - WMSB Yes Yes

Flush - - - 1* WMSBPS Baptiste Pour Flush 12 12 - - WMSB No Yes

VIP Latrine 7 7 - WMSBFlush _ - - 1* WMSB

PSVF Karubanda Pour Flush 40 - - - WMSB Yes YesFlush - - - 6* WMSB

(*) School with no separate facility for male and female teacher.

Source: Primary Data.

According to John Adams et al.,(2009) Toilets must be Sufficient, available, easily accessible

to all, including staff and children with disabilities no more than 30 m from all users. Male

and Female Toilets are completely separated.

29

All Primary and Secondary schools have toilet facilities for pupils; but three schools in ten

Primary Schools have no separate toilet facilities for boys and girls and only one school

possesses a toilet for Physical Disability Children while only two schools has separate toilet

facilities for infants, and in secondary schools one school in eleven has also no separate toilet

facility for boys and girls and only three schools Possess a toilet for Physical Disability

Children. Except one primary school without a toilet facility for teachers others have got them

and while three schools in ten primary schools have separate toilet facilities for male and

female teachers, in secondary schools in eleven schools only five have separate toilet facilities

for male and female teachers.

The following Table shows the toilet types used in Primary and Secondary Schools and its

number of doors and the percentage of each type.

Table 5. 4: Type of Toilet and its Number of Doors in all Primary and Secondary Schools

Flush Toilet

Pour Flush Toilet

Pit Latrine

VIP Latrine

Compost Latrine

Total

PrimaryPupils 12 47 16 8 8 91

Teachers 8 2 2 2 0 14

SecondaryPupils 15 332 1 40 6 394

Teachers 23 0 0 0 0 23Tot 58 381 19 50 14 522% For both 11 73 3,7 9,6 2,7 100% Teachers 6 0,4 0,4 0,4 0 7,2% Pupils 5 72,6 3,3 9,2 2,7 92,8

Source: Primary Data.

From the above Table it can be seen that Pour Flush Toilet is the mostly used by pupils

(72,6*100/92,8=78,3% of doors) while for Teachers they mostly use is Flush Toilet

(6*100/7,2=83,4% of doors). Compared to the all doors of Toilet, Flush Toilet represent 11%, Pour

Flush Toilet 73%, Pit Latrine 3.7%, VIP Latrine 9.6% and Compost Latrine is 2,7%.

The design of the Toilet should include measures to minimize odors and control fly and mosquito

breeding (John Adams et al.,2009) so they must be an effort to minimize pit and compositing

latrines for the matter of odors and control fly and mosquito breeding and also good maintenance of

VIP and Flush Latrines.

30

5.1.2.2. Inventory of School Urinals.In the Primary Schools, two Schools have no Urinal for pupils and none of them has a Urinal

for Male Teachers while in Secondary Schools two Schools have no Urinal for pupils and

only three Schools have Urinals for Male Teacher.

The majority of Schools, 66.7% of Primary Schools and 72.72% of Secondary Schools use

Concrete gutter at floor level urinals and two Primary Schools (20%) use individual ceramic

Urinals for pupils and in Secondary Schools, three Schools (27.3%) use individual ceramic

Urinal for pupils and one School (9%) for Male Teachers.

5.1.3. SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL

Adequate provision of water supply, sanitation, hygiene and waste management in Schools

has a number of positive effects and contribute to a reduced burden of disease among children,

staff and their families.

From the Table 1 in the Appendices, in Primary Schools, 20% Schools has no Garbage

receptacle neither in the Classrooms nor in the School compound; 80% Schools use Garbage

receptacle in Classrooms and 70% Schools use both Garbage receptacle in Classrooms and in

the School compound.

In Secondary Schools, all schools have garbage receptacle in Classrooms but only 45.5% use

both Garbage receptacles in Classrooms and in the School compound.

In the study area, all Schools use Garbage receptacle of 20 liters in Classrooms and in the

School compound except one Secondary School which uses Garbage receptacle of 200 in the

School compound.

The frequency of collection of garbage in the Class rooms is daily and are Burned on, or

buried next to School compound. The organic refuse which cannot be burned are collected

and put in the Garbage dump sit on, or next to, School compound in all Secondary Schools

except in E.S Butare which has no Garbage dump and four Primary Schools, one with

boarding pupils and three others which have only both Primary and Secondary day pupils

have also Garbage dump sit on or next to School compound.

In all Schools with Garbage dump, the Frequency of collection is undefined long time and

there is no water source near the waste disposal system.

31

According to John Adams et al.,( 2009), The Indicators for School environment to be kept

clean and safe are the following:

1. Classrooms and other teaching areas are regularly cleaned, to minimize dust and moulds.

2. Outside and inside areas are maintained free of sharp objects and other physical hazards.

3. Solid waste is collected from Classrooms and offices daily and is disposed of safely.

The above indicators have been achieved by all Primary and Secondary Schools except two

Primary Schools (Runga and Ngoma adv) which have no garbage receptacle neither in the

Classroom nor in the School compound.

5.2. THE ADEQUACY FACILITIES PROVIDED.

5.2.1. TOILETS AND URINALS FACILITIESTable 5. 5: Toilet and Urinals Available and Required for Pupils and Teachers.

 

E.I.P

Run

ga

Mat

yazo

GSB

C

ngom

a ad

v

Ngo

ma

le p

igeo

nier

E.A

.B

Elen

a G

uerr

a

CJS

M

Boys’ Toilets Available 2 8 6 4 4 10 3 3 4 4Boys’ Toilets Required 2 12 10 10 11 10 4 5 5 8Boys’ Urinals Available 3 4 0 2 0 4 0 4 3 0Boys’ Urinals Required 2 8 6 6 7 6 3 4 4 6Girls’ Toilets Available 2 8 6 8 4 16 4 3 4 6Girls’ Toilet Required 2 12 11 11 11 10 5 6 6 8Male Teachers Available Toilets 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1Male Teachers Required Toilets 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1Male Teachers Available Urinals 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0Male Teachers Required Urinals 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1Female Teachers Available Toilets

1 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 1 2

Female Teachers Required Toilets

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2

The red color is used where the required number is higher than the number of

available facility.

32

GSO

B

END

PK

EAV

K

E.S

But

are

GSB

C

G.S

Gat

agar

a

E.A

.BG

S de

s Pa

rent

sEl

ena

Gue

rra

PS B

aptis

te

PSV

F K

arub

anda

Boys’ Toilets Available 41 1 14 6 4 32 2 14 3 19 40Boys’ Toilets Required 44 1 37 11 6 22 2 24 2 14 21Boys’ Urinals Available 54 0 16 4 4 16 4 5 3 0 12Boys’ Urinals Required 40 0 33 10 4 19 2 22 1 13 19Girls’ Toilets Available 56 68 14 6 8 24 2 12 9 19 0Girls’ Toilets Required 27 28 19 11 10 19 4 20 8 10 0Male Teachers Available Toilets

2 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Male Teachers Required Toilets

1 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 2 2

Male Teachers Available Urinals

0 2 0 0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0

Male Teachers Required Urinals

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1

Female Teachers Available Toilets

2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Female Teachers Required Toilets

2 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

Source : Primary Data.

The red color is used where the required number is higher than the number of available

facility.

From the Tables above only one School (ENDPK) has a required number of Toilets and

Urinals for pupils and Teachers and no Primary Schools provide Urinals for their Male

Teachers and most Primary Schools (70%) has no separate facilities for Male and Female

Teachers and according to John Adams et al., ( 2009), girls and boys are likely to be affected

in different ways by inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene conditions in Schools, and this

may contribute to unequal learning opportunities. For example, lack of adequate, separate and

secure toilets and washing facilities may discourage parents from sending girls to school, and

lack of adequate facilities for menstrual hygiene can contribute to girls missing days at school

or dropping out altogether at puberty and this can happen to the above schools with no

required facilities.

The required number of toilets and urinals was obtained using the following Table:

33

Table 5. 6: Minimum Latrine Accommodation

FUNCTION USERS POPULATIONPROVISION OF LATRINES/WCsMale

FemaleWithout Urinal

With Urinal

AdditionalUrinals

SCHOOL OR COLLEGE

Staff1 – 15 - 1 - 116 – 35 - 2 1 236 – 60 - 3 2 4

Boarding Students

1 – 15 - 1 - 116 – 30 - 2 1 231 – 75 - 3 2 476 – 100 - 6 4 8101 – 150 - 8 4 10Over 150 - 1 per 30 1 per 25

ELEMENTARYSCHOOL

Boys

1 – 25 2 2 1 -26 -50 3 2 2 -51 – 75 4 3 2 -76 – 100 5 4 3 -101 – 125 6 5 4 -126 – 150 8 6 4 -151 – 175 9 7 5 -176 – 200 10 8 5 -Over 200 1 per 30 1 per 30 1 per 50 -

Girls

11 – 20 - - - 221 – 40 - - - 241 – 60 - - - 361 – 80 - - - 481 – 100 - - - 5101 – 120 - - - 6121 – 140 - - - 7141 – 160 - - - 8161 – 180 - - - 9181 – 200 - - - 10Over 20 - - - 1 per30

Source: REPUBLIC OF RWANDA. 2009. Rwanda Building Control Regulations. Kigali:

MININFRA. P 87

In addition to the required a suitable toilet facilities, shall be purpose-designed and

constructed for persons with disabilities, shall be provided in the building and shall be

34

accessible to disabled persons without requiring assistance (MININFRA, 2009 :3.25).The

number of toilets and urinals required for each school depends on the numbers of children and

staff, but also on when the school children and staff have access to the toilets. If access is

restricted to break times, then peak demand could be high, particularly if all the classes have

breaks at the same time (John Adams et al,. 2009 : 22)

We notice that the Toilets and Urinals facilities provided in both Primary and Secondary for

both pupils and Teachers are insufficient, except in one school (ENDPK).

5.2.2. WATER STORAGE RECEPTACLE TANK

ZERO under 1000L

1001-2000L

2001-3000

3001-4000L

over 4000L

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

3

2

5

1

0

1

0

9

PRIMARY SCHOOLSECONDARY SCHOOL

Figure 5. 3: Storage Capacity of the Receptacle or Water Tank in Primary and Secondary Schools.

Source: Primary Data.

In Secondary Schools, nine Schools have over 4000 liters of receptacle or water tank, one

school has receptacle or water tank comprise between 2001 and 3000 liters and one with

receptacle or water tank less than 1000 liters while in Primary Schools, three Schools have no

receptacle or water tank, two schools with less than 1000 liters of receptacle or water tank and

five schools with tank of over 4000 liters.

From Table 5.1 and 5.2, it is noticed that three Primary Schools (Ngoma adv, EAB, EIP) have

no receptacle or water tank and among them one has a Secondary School (EAB). According

to John Adams et al.,(2009) there is a quantity of water required by both pupils and Staff and

35

this water is used in day life, so once there is a water breakdown (accident) these schools will

have a serious problem of water.

Table 5. 7: Basic Quantities of Water Required.

Day Schools 5 litres per person per day for all school children and Staff

Boarding Schools 20 litres per person per day for all residential school children and Staff

Non Residential School children and Staff 5 litres per person per day

Additional quantities of water required, the following should be added to the basic quantities

as necessary. Figures given are for day schools. They should be doubled for boarding schools

Table 5. 8: Additional Quantities of Water Required

Flushing Toilets 10–20 litres per person per day for conventional Flushing Toilets Pour-Flush Toilets 1.5–3.0 litres per person per day Anal Cleansing 1–2 litres per person per day

For Day Schools and non residential school children and Staff the required water is taken as

5L+15L=20L where Flush Toilet is used per person per day for all school children and Staff

and 5L+1.5L=6.5 where other types of toilet is used per person per day for all school children

and staff and for Boarding Schools the required water is taken as 20L+15L=35L where Flush

Toilet is used per person per day for all school children and Staff and 20L+1.5L=21.5 where

other types of toilet are used per person per day for all school children and Staff.

The Table below gives the results on the required water per day per person and it shows that

in Primary Schools there are three schools (EIP, Ngoma Adv and EAB) without water

receptacle tank and two other Primary Schools (Matyazo and le pigeonier) with inadequate

water receptacle tank compared to their number of pupils and Staff.

Also in Secondary Schools, one School (EAB) with all pupils are day has no water receptacle

tank and also two schools (E.S.Butare and P.S.Baptiste) have inadequate water receptacle tank

compared to their number of pupils and Staff.

Table 5. 9: Available and Required Water for Boarding and Day Pupils and Staff

36

PRIM

AR

YSC

HO

OLS

Boa

rdin

g

Day

teac

hers

Wat

er re

cept

acle

ta

nk a

vaila

ble

(L

)re

quire

d w

ater

(L)

SEC

ON

DA

RY

SC

HO

OLS

Boa

rdin

g

Day

Teac

hers

Wat

er re

cept

acle

ta

nk a

vaila

ble

(L

)

requ

ired

wat

er

(L)

E.I.P 0 71 12 0 1660 GSOB 1155 6 43 Over 4000 25732

RUNGA 0 714 13 Over 4000

4726 ENDPK 505 26 21 Over 4000 11447

Matyazo 0 608 10 Under 1000

4017 EAVK 890 7 39 Over 4000 19961

GSBC 0 591 11 Over 4000

4062 E.S Butare 0 351 16 Under 1000

2602

Ngoma adv

0 614 10 0 4056 GSBC 0 341 15 Over 4000 2517

Ngoma 0 553 12 Over 4000

3673 G.S Gatagara 600 61 26 Over 4000 13817

le pigeonier

0 200 6 Under 1000

1339 E.A.B 0 126 8 0 2680

E.A.B 0 196 7 0 1320 GS des Parents

578 146 23 Over 4000 13836

Elena Guerra

0 224 8 Over 4000

1508 Elena Guerra 142 26 8 Over 4000 3382

CJSM 156 0 24 Over 4000

1494 PS Baptiste 337 45 22 2001-3000

7978

PSVF Karubanda

303 0 36 Over 4000 7235

Source: Primary Data.

Red colour indicates where the provided Water receptacle tank is less than 4000L and less

than the daily required water (inadequate Water receptacle tank)

37

5.3. HEALTH HYGIENE PRACTICE IN SELECTED SCHOOLS

5.3.1. SCHOOL AWARENESS TO THE HYGIENE PRACTICE

5.3.1.1. Sanitary Condition of the Facilities1. Based on the inspection of the toilet facilities, and using the criteria given in Appendix

II, Question 22: Sanitary Conditions of Toilet Facilities), the following results have been

obtained:

The Table 2 in the Appendices shows that:

For the cleanliness of toilet seat, 100% schools had the toilet seat for Teachers which

demonstrated a proper use, 80% schools had pupils’ toilet seat which also demonstrated a

proper use while the remaining 20% schools (G.S.Gatagara) had toilets seat which required

an urgent intervention because of major presence of dirt, urine or fecal matter.

For the coverage of toilet hole, in the Primary Schools, 10% schools had the toilets which

demonstrated proper use, 10% improper use and 80% required an urgent intervention for

both boys and girls while for the toilet of their teachers, 22% demonstrated proper use, 33%

improper use and 45% required an urgent intervention and we notice that one primary

school has no toilet facility for teachers ; but in secondary schools, 9% of boys toilet and

10% of girls demonstrated proper use, 9% of boys demonstrated improper use and 82% of

boys and 90% of girls required an urgent intervention while for the toilet of their teachers,

63% demonstrated proper use, 9% improper use and 28% required an urgent intervention

and we notice also that one secondary School host only boys.

The above information shows that coverage of toilet hole in both Primary and Secondary

Schools has been forgotten (between 80% and 90% of toilet of pupils and 45% and 28% of

their Teachers lack hole covering) and the types of toilet used more (Pit Latrine, Compost

Toilet, V.I.P Latrine, Pour Flush and Flush Latrines; where is considerable fly nuisance (and

mosquito nuisance if the pit is wet unless there is a tight-fitting cover over the squat hole

when the latrine is not in use) and smell, and can cause serious problems like diseases

transmitted by insects (WHO,1992:24).

38

For the cleanliness of floor, for the Primary Schools, 40% schools, for the toilets of both

boys and girls,56% schools, for the toilets of teachers, demonstrated proper use, 40%

schools, for the toilets of both boys and girls,44% schools, for the toilets of teachers,

demonstrated improper use, and 20% schools, for the toilets of both boys and girls, required

urgent intervention, while in Secondary Schools, 36%,40% and 100% schools for

respectively boys, girls and Teachers’ toilets demonstrated proper use,45%, 50% schools for

respectively boys’ and girls’ toilets demonstrated improper use and 19% schools for boys’

toilets and 10% schools of girls’ toilet required urgent intervention.

For the cleanliness of wall, for the Primary Schools, 60% schools for both boys and girls

toilets, and 89% schools for teachers’ toilets demonstrated proper use, 30%schools for both

boys and girls toilets,11% schools for Teachers’ toilets demonstrated improper use, and

10% schools for both boys’ and girls’ toilets required urgent intervention, while in

Secondary Schools, 46%, 50% and 100% schools for respectively boys’, girls’ and

Teachers’ toilets demonstrated proper use, and 54%,50% schools for respectively boys’,

girls’ toilets demonstrated improper.

For the smell of the facility, for the Primary Schools, 30% of both boys and girls,45% of

Teachers’ toilets demonstrated proper use, 60% of both boys and girls, 55% of Teachers’

toilets demonstrated improper use, and 10% of both boys and girls requires urgent

intervention, while in Secondary Schools, 27%, 30% and 82% respectively for boys, girls

and Teachers’ toilets demonstrated proper use 54%, 50% and 12% of respectively boys,

girls and teachers’ toilets demonstrated improper and 19%, 20% of respectively boys, girls’

requires urgent intervention.

For the cleanliness of Urinals, for the Primary Schools which have Urinals, 33%

demonstrated proper use and 77% demonstrated improper use while in Secondary Schools

22% demonstrated proper use and 88 demonstrated improper use and only one Secondary

School has urinal for Male Teachers and it demonstrate a proper use.

For the cleansing material in the toilets at the time of inspection, in Primary Schools 40%

use appropriate cleansing materials and 60% schools has no cleansing materials for both

pupils and Teachers and Secondary Schools 36% schools use appropriate cleansing

materials and 64% schools has no cleansing materials for pupils and for teachers,64%

schools use appropriate cleansing materials and 36% schools has no cleansing materials and

39

in all schools, Primary and Secondary schools, cleansing materials are deposed inside the

toilet receptacle.

Table 3 in the Appendices, shows that 50% of schools, clean only once or twice a day both

toilets of boys and girls in Primary Schools and 20% of schools clean them three or more

and 30% clean them every other day while in Secondary Schools, 72% of schools clean only

once or twice a day both toilets of boys and girls and the remaining 28% clean them every

other day. This activity of cleaning is done by only pupils in Secondary Schools for their

own toilets and in Primary Schools only 20% of schools use hired cleaner for pupils’ toilets

and the remaining 80% schools use pupils to clean also their own toilets. The toilets of

Teachers are cleaned by the hired cleaners in both Primary and Secondary Schools.

The consequence of the above results is shown also in Table 3 in the Appendices where only

60% shows Good maintenance and 40% poor maintenance in Primary Schools and 27%

Secondary Schools shows poor maintenance while 73% schools shows Good maintenance

and those Teachers of good quality (Flush Toilets are most used) and cleaned by the hired

Cleaners show Good maintenance for their facilities.

This shows that small children, especially, those of Primary Schools are not good at cleaning

their facilities, they need someone to help them, and according to John Adams et al.,2009:26)

School children are heavily influenced by the example set by school Staff, their Teachers in

particular, who should provide positive role models by consistently demonstrating appropriate

hygiene behaviors.

By taking a sample of points for analysis (Cleanliness of toilet seat, covering of toilet hole,

cleanliness of floor, cleanliness of wall, smell of the facility, and cleanliness of Urinals) it was

found out that for pupils facilities 35% demonstrate proper use, 38% improper use and 27%

required an urgent intervention while for Teachers 72% shows proper use,17.7% improper

use, and 7.3% required an urgent intervention.

The above results are against the ‘wash Standards in Schools’ in article 5.7 which says that

“toilets should be cleaned whenever they are dirty” (John Adams et al.,2009:29).

40

IMPROPER

USE

URGENT IN

TERVANTIO

N0

20

40

60

80

35 3827

72

17.77.3

PUPILSTEACHER

Figure 5. 4: Sanitary Condition of Toilets and Urinals Facilities

Source: Primary Data.

5.3.1.2. Hand Washing Facilities.To the questions” What facilities does the school provide for washing hands?”

pupils primary

pupils secondary

teachers secondary

teachers primary

0123456789

4

9

1 1

4

21

4

10

9

4

10 0

1

tapK.UW.B.B.A.WNone

Figure5. 5: Hand Washing Facilities

Source: Primary Data.

The Figure above shows that tap water is used by four Primary Schools, nine Secondary

Schools for pupils and one Secondary and Primary School for Teachers, K.U is used by four

Primary Schools, two Secondary Schools for pupils and one Secondary and four Primary

Schools for Teachers, while one Primary School uses W.B.B.A.W for pupils and four schools

for Teachers, it is used nine Secondary Schools for Teachers and no Secondary School uses

W.B.B.A.W for their pupils as hand washing facility.

We noted that from the above Figure one Primary School do not provide anything to both

their pupils and Teachers as hand washing facility.

41

From the Table 4 in the Appendices six Primary Schools located hand washing facility for

pupils outside Classroom and four of them do this for Teachers while no Secondary School

which do the same for both Teachers and pupils. Two Primary Schools provide a hand

washing facility immediately outside toilet unit for pupils and one of them provide do the

same for Teachers while ten Secondary Schools do the same for their pupils none of these

school provide a hand washing facility immediately outside toilet unit. The schools with hand

washing facility located inside the toilet unit are one for Primary and Secondary school pupils

and four and eleven schools respectively Primary and Secondary for Teachers.

We note that also the same schools which do not provide anything to both their pupils and

teachers as hand washing facility has no place for hand washing .

For the evidence of effective hand washing practice, as defined in appendix II, in question 26

and their results as they are presented in the Table 4 of Appendices, one Primary School

(10%) is good, seven (70%) are poor and two (20%) are very poor while in secondary school

none is either good or very poor, all of them (100%) are poor. Even if all schools, Primary and

Secondary are thought a good way of hand washing, none of them provides posters, stickers

or other signs in the toilets that encourage good hygiene practices and there is no designated

time period allotted for students to wash their hands before and after eating and also there is

no monitoring procedure in place to ensure that students in the school feeding program all

wash hands before and after eating.

From the Figure below and Table 5 in the Appendices the majority of pupils do not always

wash their hand after urinating (91%) and four (4%) do not also wash their hand even after

defecation , in ten times pupils came to the toilet , 49% wash their less than four times, 26% is

between 4 and 7 times, 8% is greater than 7 but less than 10 times and only 13% wash always

their hand after defaecation while after urination only 8% of pupils are sometimes and 1% is

always.

42

4%

49%26%

8%13%

zero times

Less than 4 times

Between 4 and 7 times

Greater than 7 but less than 10 times

always

1%8%

91% AlwaysSometimesZero times

Figure 5. 6: Hand washing after going to the Toilet and Urinals.

Source: Primary Data.

5.3.2. QUALITY OF WATER CONSUMEDN BY PUPILS.

According to Guy Howard et al.,2003), the quality of water that is consumed is well-

recognized as an important transmission route for infectious Diarrhoeal and other diseases.

To the question” When you are at school, the water that you drink is:” 42% responded that they

drink only purified water 44% drink both purified and tap water,9% drink always tap water

while 5% do not drink water when they are at schools.

To the question” Where do you find drinking water, when you are at school?” 42% find drinking

water In container provided by school, 39% on tap and in the container provided by school,

9% on tap 4% My own and on tap, while 5% do not found drinking water when they are at school.

5.3.3. INADEQUATE WATER, SANITATION AND HYGIENE RELATED DISEAS.Diseases related to inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene are a huge burden in developing

countries. It is estimated that 88% of Diarrhoeal disease is caused by unsafe water supply, and

inadequate sanitation and hygiene. Many schools serve communities that have a high

prevalence of diseases related to inadequate water supply, sanitation and hygiene particularly

lack of hand washing .Schools with poor water, sanitation and hygiene conditions, and intense

levels of person-to-person contact are high-risk environments for children and staff, and

exacerbate children’s particular susceptibility to environmental health hazards. (John Adams

et al,. 2009 : 5)

43

The Chart below shows the situation of Ngoma Sector Primary and Secondary Schools

towards the diseases related to inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene practice.

The Chart shows that there is a big number of worm cases (15%+3%+5%+1%=24%), 2%+5%

which gives 7% case of Diarrhoea, 3%+2% which gives 5% of Malaria, 2% of Skin

Infections, and 1% of Eyes. The above result can be justified by insufficiency of toilets and

urinals facilities provided by schools as it is seen in Section 5.2.1, and in addition to this, there

is a big number of schools with improper use some components of facilities provided and for

some schools an urgent intervention is required in order to save lives of people living there as

it is seen in the section of sanitary condition of the facilities. While Staff toilets and

schoolchildren’s toilets should be located next to hand washing points that have water and

soap because a toilet is not complete without a hand washing point with soap, water and

adequate drainage, in the schools of Ngoma Sector of Huye District as it is seen in the

paragraph 5.3.1.2., the placement of hand washing points is poor and the evidence of

effective hand washing is poor in all Secondary Schools (100% of schools) and in 70% of

primary schools where 20% schools has also a very poor note. For pupils hand washing

practice, only 13% wash their hand always after defecation and 4 % do not wash they hand

even once, and after urination 91% do not wash their hand even once while even urine,

usually considered sterile, can contain disease germs(WHO, 1992: 12 and weblife.org)

2% 3% 1%

15%

3%

5%

1%

1%70%

diarrhea

malaria

eyes

worms

Worms, Malaria

Worms, Diarrhea

Skin Infection, Worms

Skin Infection

none

Figure 5. 7: Inadequate Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Related Diseases in Primary and Secondary Schools of Ngoma Sector of Huye District.

Source: Primary Data.

44

CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1. CONCLUSIONS

The following major findings derived from the results of the Study:

In Secondary School, 64% use piped from municipal system and rain water, 18%

schools use piped from municipal system, plus rain water and bore hole with electrical

pump and other 18% use only piped from municipal system while in Primary

Schools, 50% use both piped water from municipal system plus rain water and other

50% schools use only piped water from municipal system as their main source of

water supply.

Pour Flush Toilet is the most used by pupils (72,6*100/92,8=78,3% of doors) while

for Teachers, the most used is Flush Toilet (6*100/7,2=83,4% of doors).

The majority of schools, 66.7% of Primary Schools and 72.72% of Secondary Schools

use Concrete gutter at floor level Urinals and two Primary Schools (20%) use

individual ceramic Urinals for pupils and in Secondary Schools, three Schools (27.3%)

use individual ceramic urinal for pupils and one school (9%) for Male Teachers.

The indicators for school environment to be kept clean and safe as they have been

defined by John Adams et al.,( 2009), have been achieved by all secondary schools

and 80% of Primary Schools and 20% remaining Primary Schools do not fulfill the

requirements because they have no garbage receptacle neither in the Classrooms nor in

the school compound at the day of inspection.

Only one school (ENDPK) has a required number of toilets and Urinals for pupils and

Teachers and no Primary Schools provide Urinals for their Male Teachers and most

Primary Schools (70%) has no separate facilities for Male and Female Teachers.

In Primary Schools there are three schools (EIP, Ngoma Adv and EAB) without water

receptacle tank and two other Primary Schools (Matyazo and le pigeonier) with

inadequate water receptacle tank compared to their number of pupils and staff.

45

Also in Secondary Schools, one school (EAB) with all pupils are day has no water

receptacle tank and two schools(E.S.Butare and P.S.Baptiste) have inadequate water

receptacle tank compared to their number of pupils and staff.

The findings show that health hygiene is poor and this is due to the following points:

Sanitary condition of the facilities provided is dominated by improper use (38%)

for pupils and 17.7% for Teachers, urgent intervantion is 27% of pupils’ facilities

and 7.3% of Teachers facilities, but for Teachers the proper use dominate with

72% while for pupils is 35%.

The condition of immediate area around the building and entrance to Toilet shows

an average of 66.5% of good maintenance and 33.5% of poor maintenance.

One Primary School do not provide anything to both their pupils and Teachers as

hand washing facility

For the evidence of effective hand washing practice, seven (70%) Primary Schools

are poor and two (20%) are very poor while in Secondary School none is either

good or very poor, but all of them (100%) are poor.

the majority of pupils do not always wash their hand after urinating (91%) and four

(4%) do not also wash their hand even after defaecation, in ten times pupils came

to the Toilet, 49% wash their less than four times, 26% is between 4 and 7 times,

8% is greater than 7 but less than 10 times and only 13% wash always their hand

after defaecation while after urination only 8% of pupils are sometimes and 1% is

always.

Concerning the quality of water drunk by pupils, 42% drink only purified water,

44% drink both purified and tap water, 9% drink always tap water while 5% do not

drink water when they are at schools.

For inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene related diseases findings shows that

there is a big number of worm (24%), 7% case of Diarrhoea, 5% of Malaria, 2% of

Skin Infections, and 1% of Eyes.

In general the presence of the above diseases is an evidence of inadequate water supply,

poor sanitation and hygiene because the main objective of water supply and sanitation

programmes is to reduce the transmission of faecal-oral diseases and exposure to disease-

bearing vectors through the promotion of good hygiene practices, the provision of safe

46

drinking water and the reduction of environmental health risks and by establishing the

conditions that allow people to live with good health, dignity, comfort and security. The

term ‘sanitation’, throughout sphere, refers to excreta disposal, vector control, solid waste

disposal and drainage.

6.2. RECOMMENDATIONBased on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are put forward:

School Children:

It is recommended that school children should:

Comply with procedures for the use and care of water, sanitation and hygiene enabling

facilities.

Play an active role in the cleaning and maintenance of facilities (e.g. through school health

clubs)

School Children’s Families:

Encourage their children to comply with procedures for use and care of water, sanitation

and hygiene-enabling facilities at school, and develop positive hygiene behaviors.

Teachers:

Monitor the state and use of school water, sanitation and hygiene-enabling facilities.

Organize the care and maintenance of facilities.

Encourage school children to adopt appropriate behaviors at school and at home through

hygiene education.

It is also highly recommended that Teachers must encourage pupils to wash hands after

going to urinate because Urine can contain disease germs.

School Directors or Head Teachers:

It is recommended School Directors or Head Teachers must:

Provide appropriate water receptacle storage so that sufficient water is available at all

times for drinking, personal hygiene, food preparation, cleaning and laundry.

47

Provide basic sanitation facilities that enable school children and Staff to go to the Toilet

without contaminating the school grounds or resources such as water supplies.

Provide adequate toilets and urinals facilities in accordance with the requirements of

“RWANDA BUILDING CONTROL REGULATION” and “Water, Sanitation and

Hygiene Standards for Schools in Low-Cost Settings”

Article 3.3.2.12: “Where Female and Male persons are both employed,.….., there

shall be provided separate latrine facilities, the entrances to which shall be

effectively screened off and marked with "Women Only" or "Men Only" signs, as

the case may be, with internationally recognized symbols, or both. For pupils,

separate toilet blocks, or toilet areas separated by solid walls and with separate

entrances, should be provided, rather than separating boys‘and girls‘facilities by

lightweight partitions. Doors should reach down to floor level.

3.3.15.1and 3.3.15.4: Facilities(Suitable toilet facilities and others) for persons

with disabilities shall be included in the design and construction of any public

building, hotel, dormitory or any other building where a group of persons are

accommodated and shall be accessible to disabled persons without requiring

assistance

The minimum latrine accommodation is given in sub-article 5.2.1.2 & 5.2.2.10 and

the concern of each school is given in Table 5.4.

Provide water and soap for hand washing after going to the toilet and before handling

food. This may be done using simple and economical equipment, such as a pitcher of

water and a basin. Water points should be sufficiently close to users to encourage them to

use water as often as required. Staff toilets and school children‘s toilets should have hand

washing points, with adequate drainage, next to them. Children should also be encouraged

to wash their faces to prevent eye diseases. A water point close to the Classrooms may be

useful for this. It is also recommended on this point to make posters, stickers or other

signs in the toilets that encourage good hygiene practices.

Provide safe drinking water from a protected groundwater source (spring, well or

borehole), or from a treated supply, and keep it safe until it is drunk. Untreated water from

unprotected sources can be made safer by simple means such as boiling or filtering it.

Provide garbage receptacles both in Classrooms and in the school compound.

48

Solid waste is collected from Classrooms, Kitchens and Offices daily and is disposed of

safely.

Education Sector:

Provided Hygiene Education for school children as part of the school curriculum.

The Health Sector:

Provide guidance on the environmental health aspects of school design, construction and

maintenance.

Monitor environmental health and child health conditions.

Provide training and advice for Teachers, school children and parents on water, sanitation

and hygiene.

49

REFERENCES

1. DUSHIMIMANA Abel, CONDO Jeanine and MUNYANSHONGORE Cyprien

(2008), La Situation Nutritionnelle Et Infections Parasitaires Chez Les Enfants De

L’ecole Primaire Au Rwanda, MINISANTE, Kigali-Rwanda.

2. Guy Howard and Jamie Bartram, (2003) Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and

Health, WHO/SDE/WSH/03.02.

3. ISRAEL, GLENN D. (2009) Determining sample size. Florida Cooperative Extension

Service, IFAS, University of Florida, USA. PEOD-6.

1. James Cleophace Sano,2007 ,URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN

KIGALI CITY RWANDA (Challenges and Opportunities for Modernised

Decentralised Sanitation Systems in Poor Neighbourhoods)

4. John Adams, Jamie Bartram, Yves Chartier and Jackie Sims (2009), Water, Sanitation

and Hygiene Standards for Schools in Low-cost Settings, WHO.

5. John Adams, Jamie Bartram, Yves Chartier, Jackie Sims (2009), WASH Standards in

Schools in Low-cost Settings, WHO.

6. JOHN PICKFORD, developing world water, Grosvenor press international, 1998.

7. MINECOFIN (2007) EDPRS. Kigali, Rwanda.

8. MINISTRY OF INFRASTRUCTURE(MININFRA), (2009), (Rwanda Building

Control Regulations, Edition 1,Kigali-Rwanda.

9. MONNEY G. (2009) Sanitary Engineering Course Notes by Prof. Monney Grant.

NUR, Rwanda.

10. Prof. Chittaranjan Ray and Prof. Ravi Jain, (2011), Drinking Water Treatment,

Strategies for Sustainability, USA.

11. ROTTIER, E.; INCE, M.E. (2003) Controlling and Preventing Disease-The role of

Water and Environmental sanitation interventions. WEDC, Loughborough, UK

supports water, sanitation and hygiene.UNICEF, New York (USA).World Bank,

unicef (2005), Toolkit on HYGIENE, SANITATION & WATER in schools

12. UN-DESA (2007) Millennium Development Goals Report. New York, USA.

13. UNICEF (2006) Progress for children-A report card on water and sanitation, Number

5. UNICEF, New York (USA).

50

14. UNICEF (2009) Soap, Toilets and taps-A foundation for Healthy children-How

UNICEF

15. United Nation, (2008) international year of sanitation;

http://esa.un.org/iys/docs/WHO_CB_eng.pdf

16. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), (2009),

Meeting basic needs. World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP).

17. WELL (1998) DFID Guidance manual on water supply and sanitation programmes.

WELL, WEDC, Loughborough University, UK.

18. World Bank, United Nations (2009), Rwanda Clean Water and Sanitation Fund,

Geneva Global.

19. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO), (1992), A Guide to the Development

of on-site Sanitation, Macmillan/Clays, WHO.

20. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO), 1997. Strengthening interventions to

reduce helminth infections: an entry point for the development of health-promoting

schools. Geneva, WHO.

21. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO),(2004)Global Water Supply and

Sanitation Assessment Report, Geneva.

22. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO),(2007), combating waterborne diseases

at the household level, geneva.

23. WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION (WHO),(2008) Guidelines for Drinking-water

Quality, third edition, geneva.

24. http://www.huye.gov.rw/

25. http://www.developmentgoals.org/

26. http://www.unicef.org/wash/

51

APPENDICES

52

APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ASSESMENT OF THE USE OF WATER AND HAND WASHING PRACTICE IN THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

I. IdentificationDate: Respondent: - Sex: Type of School A PRIMARY B SECONDARY

DRINKING WATER

1. At your school, is water available for use by pupils and teachers?

A Yes B No2. If water is available, how is it used?

A Drinking onlyB Washing onlyC Both drinking and washing

3. How is the drinking water provided by the school?

A purified by sur’eau (Chlorinated water)B Boiled waterC Filtered water (Filtered by filter)D Tap water E Other ( specify)4. When you are at school, the water that you drink is:

A only purified waterB Both purified and tap water C Purified, tap water and rain waterD Always tap waterE Other ( specify)

5. Where do you find drinking water, when you are at school?

53

7. Does your school encourage student to drink potable water?

A Yes B No

II. HAND WASHING PRACTICE

8. Does your school provide a facility for hand washing?

A Yes B No 9. When you are at school, how many times do you wash your hand after defecating?

A Always B Sometimes C No (zero time)

10. If it is sometimes, in 10 times that you come to toilet for defecation, the time you wash your hand is:

A Less than 4 timesB Between 4 and 7 timesC Greater than 7 but less than 10 times

11. When you are at school, how many times do you wash your hand after urinating?

A Always B Sometimes C No (zero time)

12. If it is sometimes, in 10 times that you come to urinate, the time you wash your hand is:

A Less than 4 timesB Between 4 and 7 timesC Greater than 7 but less than 10 times

13. Availability of soap at hand washing facility is:

A In the container provided by school B On tap and In the container provided by schoolC On tap D Rain water tankE Other ( specify)

54

A Always AvailableB Sometimes AvailableC Not (zero time) Available

14. Does your school teach a good way of hand washing?

A Yes B No

15. What sanitation related disease have you experienced within the past two school years?A Worms E MalariaB Diarrhea F DysenteryC Parasitosis G Eyes D Skin infection H Other (specify)

55

APPENDIX II: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR ASSESMENT OF THE INVENTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL SANITATION FACILITIES AND WATER SUPPLY IN THE PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS.

I. IdentificationDate: Respondent: - Sex: Type of School A PRIMARY B SECONDARY Population at the School

Boys Girls Female Teacher Male Teacher

Name of School: Boarding :an arrangement where students sleep and eat meals at their school during the school termIf Secondary, is it Boarding, Day or Mixed? Boarding……..Day………Mixed……..

If mixed, how many are Day students?...........................................................................

SECTION I: WATER SOURCE

Is water available for use by Pupils and Teachers? Yes……………..No…………..

If yes,

2. What is the main source of water supply for the school? (Check letter of response)

A Piped water to school premises from municipal systemB Tube well/bore hole with electrical pumpC Tube well/bore hole with hand pumpD Tube well/bore hole with hand pumpE Rainwater collection Storage capacity in liter (write number):F Commercial purified water

56

G Unprotected dug well or springH Unprotected dug well or springI Tanker truckJ The school has no water supply

3. Number of years since the water facilities were constructed, acquired or connected:

A 0-5 yearsB 6-10 yearsC 11-15 yearsD 16-20 yearsE over 20 years

4. Does the water service remain constant during the school year?

A Water service remains constant throughout the yearB Water service is not constant during some months of the yearC Water service is not constant during all months of the year

If no, is there the need for water? Yes……………………..No………………………….5. If water is available, has storage been provided? Yes……………No…………….. 6. What is the storage capacity of the receptacle or water tank?

A Under 1000 Liter B 1000-2000 LiterC 2001-3000 LiterD 3001-4000 LiterE over 4000 Liter

7. How often is this water storage receptacle (water tank) filled?

A Constantly during the day D Once a weekB Once a day E Less than once a week (specify)C More than once a week (specify) F Don’t know

8. What are the conditions of the water storage receptacle (water tank)?

A AcceptableClean. No dirt or mud or particles. No leaks. Properly covered.B Dirty and unacceptableDirty. Presence of mud, dirt or particles. Leaking. Uncovered.

9. How is the water used?

A Drinking only

57

B Washing onlyC Both drinking and washing

10. Quality of water from main source:

A Treated B Untreated

11. If the quality of water from the source is untreated, is it treated for drinking?

A Yes B No

12. If yes, how is the water treated?

A Chlorinating (sur’eau) D FilteringB Boiling E Other (specify)C Distilling

13. From where do the children mainly access water for drinking?

A Water coolers inside the classroom B Water buckets inside the classroom C Water fountains / pipes in school compound D Directly from hand pumps in school compound E Directly from water vats in school compound F Bring their own water from home or outside source G Other (specify)

14. Are drinking water containers properly covered?

A YES B NO

15. Does your school have a maintenance plan for its water facilities?

A YES B NO

SECTION II: SANITATION

16. Type of toilet facilities at the School.

Boys Girls MaleTeachers

FemaleTeachers

A. Flush toiletsB. Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) latrine

58

C. Composting toiletD. Pit latrines with slabE. Pit latrine without slabF. BucketG. No facilities / Use bush or fieldH. Pour-flush toilets

17. Are there separate facilities for boys and girls?

A YES B NO

18. Are there separate toilet facilities for infants? (ONLY FOR PRIMARY SCHOOL)

A YES B NO

19. Is the toilet facility constructed to accommodate children with physical disabilities?

A YES B NO

20. Number of toilets available (write number):

Boys Girls Male Teacher Female Teacher

Number of urinals available (write number)

Boys Girls Male Teacher Female Teacher

21. Location of Toilet FacilitiesBoys Girls Male

TeacherFemale Teacher

A Within the main school buildingB Separate from school building22. Type of urinals available:

Boys Male TeachersA. Concrete gutter at floor level B. Raised concrete gutter C. Individual ceramic urinals

23. Sanitary Conditions of Toilet Facilities.Based on the inspection of the toilet facilities, and using the indicated criteria, check the most adequate option for each of the items listed below. The values must also be written under each category (Boys, Girls, Teachers.)

59

Boys Girls TeachersCleanliness of toilet seatA Demonstrates Proper Use (Clean: absence of dirt, urine

or fecal matter)B Demonstrates Improper Use (Dirty: Some presence of

dirt, urine or fecal matter)C Requires Urgent Intervention (Major presence of dirt,

urine or fecal matter)Coverage of toilet holeA Demonstrates Proper Use (Fully Covered )B Demonstrates Improper Use (Presence of cover material,

but uncovered)C Requires Urgent Intervention (No hole covering available)Cleanliness of floor.A Demonstrates Proper Use (Clean: absence of thrash, urine

or fecal matter)B Demonstrates Improper Use (Dirty: some presence of

thrash, urine, fecal matter)C Requires Urgent Intervention (Major presence of thrash,

urine and fecal matter)Cleanliness of wall.A Demonstrates Proper Use (Clean: absence of graffiti, urine

or fecal matter)B Demonstrates Improper Use (Dirty: some presence of

graffiti, urine, fecal matter)C Requires Urgent Intervention (Major presence of dirt, urine or fecal

matter)Smell of the facility.A Demonstrates Proper Use (Clean smell: No foul odor)B Demonstrates Improper Use (Slightly intolerable odor)C Requires Urgent Intervention (Highly intolerable odor)Cleanliness of urinals.A Demonstrates Proper Use (Clean: No urine on floor or

beyond receptacle)B Demonstrates Improper Use (Dirty: small presence of urine

on floor or wall)C Requires Urgent Intervention (Major amount & smell of

urine on floor or wall)Type of cleansing material in the toilets at the time of inspection.A Appropriate cleansing materials (sanitary tissues, toilet

paper)B Inappropriate cleansing materials (leaves, newspapers,

corncobs, etc)C No Cleansing material presentWhere is personal cleansing material disposed of after use?

60

A Inside the toilet receptacleB Separate container (e.g. waste disposal bucket)C Other (specify)If personal cleansing material is disposed in a separate container, who empties the container?A Students onlyB Teachers onlyC Hired cleanersD Other (specify)

24. Maintenance of toilet facilities Based on the inspection of the toilet facilities, and using the indicated criteria, check the most adequateoption for each of the items listed below.

Boys Girls TeacherHow often are the toilets cleaned?A Cleaned three times or more each day.B Cleaned only once or twice a day.C Cleaned every other dayD Cleaned once a weekE Cleaned less than once a week.By whom are the toilet facilities cleaned?A Students onlyB Teachers onlyC Hired cleanersD Other (specify)Condition of immediate area around the toilet building and entrance to toiletA Good maintenance (Clean, free of thrash, dirt, waste water,

tall grass etc.)B Poor maintenance (Dirty, presence of thrash, mud, waste

water, tall grass etc.)C Requires Urgent Intervention (Extra dirty, unsightly litter,

waste water, bushy)SECTION III: HYGIENE

24. What facilities do the school provide for washing handsStudents Teacher

A.

Wash basins with running water

B Wash basins with bucket accessed waterC Other (specify)D None

25. Where is the hand washing facility located?Students Teacher

A Inside the toilet unitB Immediately outside the toilet unit

61

C Inside the classroomD Other (specify)

26. Evidence of effective hand washing practice.Good.Soap is available, water is available and students are reminded regularly to wash hands.

0

Poor.Water is available but no soap. No evidence of students reminded to regularly wash hands.

1

Very poor.No water or soap for washing and no reminders for children to wash hands. Urgent intervention needed.

2

27. Are there posters, stickers or other signs in the toilets that encourage good hygiene practices?

A Yes B No

28. Does the school teach students the proper way to wash hands?A Yes B No

29. Does the school have written policies that address safe food environment for processing handling, consumption and storage of food?

A Yes B No 30. Is a designated time period allotted for students to wash their hands before and after eating?

A Yes B No 31. Is there a monitoring procedure in place to ensure that students in the school feeding program all wash hands before and after eating?

A Yes B No

SECTION IV: Waste Disposal32. Where does the school dispose of its rubbish or trash?

A Burned on, or next to, school compoundB Buried on, or next to, school compoundC Garbage dump sit on, or next to, school compoundD Transported off school site by municipal waste disposal systemE Other (specify)

33. What is the distance from the solid waste disposal area to the school’s non-piped water source?

A Immediately next to water sourceB Within 100 meter of the water source

62

C More than 100 meter of water sourceD No water source near the waste disposal system

34. What type of solid waste disposal containers does the school provide for children to dispose of their trash?

A Garbage receptacle in classrooms onlyC Garbage receptacles both in classrooms and at school compoundD No garbage receptacles provided

What is the storage capacity of the Receptacle?

What is the frequency of collection? Daily……Once weekly…….Twice weekly…..Thrice weekly………APPENDIX III: SOLID WASTE

Table1: a list of school solid waste disposal types, capacities, frequency of collection and their

Place of disposing of of location.)

School name Type of solid disposal container

CapacityIn litter

Place of disposing

of Rubbish or trash

Location to non piped water

source

FrequencyOf collection

Primary schools

E.I.P GRCO 10 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

Runga - - BNSC Within 100 m Daily

Matyazo GRCO 10 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GSBC GRCSC 20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timengoma adv - - BNSC Within 100 m Daily

Ngoma GRCSC 20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

le pigeonier GRCO 20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

E.A.BGRCO

20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timeElena Guerra GRCSC 20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

63

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timeCJSM GRCO 15 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

SECONDARY SCHOOLGSOB GRCO 20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timeENDPK GRCSC 15 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timeEAVK GRCSC 15 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timeE.S Butare GRCO 20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timeGSBC GRCO 20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timeG.S Gatagara GRCO 20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timeE.A.B

GRCO20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timeGS des Parents GRCO

20 BNSC Within 100 m DailyGDSNSC Within 100 m Long time

Elena Guerra GRCSC 20 BNSC Within 100 m DailyGDSNSC Within 100 m Long time

PS Baptiste GRCSC 20 BNSC Within 100 m DailyPSVF

KarubandaGRCSC 20 BNSC Within 100 m Daily

GDSNSC Within 100 m Long timeSource: primary data

LEGEN D

GRCO: Garbage receptacle in classrooms onlyGRCSC: Garbage receptacles both in classrooms and at school compoundBNSC: Burned on, or next to school compoundGDSNSC: Garbage dump sit on, or next to, school compound

64

65

Table2 : Cleanliness of toilet seat, of floor, of wall and of urinals, Coverage of toilet hole, Type of cleansing material and where it is deposed of after use and who empties the container of cleansing material.

Cleanliness of toilet seat

Coverage of toilet

hole

Cleanliness of floor.

Cleanliness of wall.

Smell of the facility.

Cleanliness of urinals.

Type of cleansing

material in the toilets at the time

of inspection.

Where is personal cleansing material disposed of after

use?

Who empties the container?

B G T B G T B G T B G T B G T B G T B G T B G T B G TPRIMARY SCHOOL

E.I.P - - A C C B A A A A A A A A A A - - A A A A A A - - -Runga - - - C C C B B B B B A B B B B - - C C C A A A - - -

Matyazo - - - C C C C C C C C C C C C - - - C C C A A A - - -GSBC - - A C C C B B B A A A B B B B - - C C C A A A - - -

ngoma adv - - - C C - C C - B B - B B - - - - C C C A A - - - -Ngoma - - - C C B B B B A A A B B B B - - C C C A A A - - -

le pigeonier - - - B B B A A A A A A A A A - - - C C C A A A - - -E.A.B A A A C C C A A A B B A B B B B - - A A A A A A - - -

Elena Guerra A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A - - A A A A A A - - -CJSM - - A C C A B B A A A A B B A - - - A A A A A A - - -

SECONDARY SCHOOLGSOB A - - C C C B B A B B A C C A B - - C C A A A A - - -

ENDPK A - - C C A A A A A A A A A A - - - A A A A A A - - -EAVK C C A C C A B B A B B A C C A B - - C C C A A A - - -

E.S Butare - - A C C C A A A A A A A A A A - - C C A A A A - - -GSBC - - A C C A B B B A A A B B B B - - C C C A A A - - -

G.S Gatagara - - A B C A B C A B B A B B A B A C C A A A A - - -

66

Cleanliness of toilet seat

Coverage of toilet

hole

Cleanliness of floor.

Cleanliness of wall.

Smell of the facility.

Cleanliness of urinals.

Type of cleansing material

in the toilets at the time

of inspection

.

Where is personal cleansing material disposed of after

use?

Who empties the container?

B G T B G T B G T B G T B G T B G T B G T B G T B G TSECONDARY SCHOOL

E.A.B A A A C C C A A A B B A B B B B - - A A A A A A - - -GS des Parents - - A C C B B B A B B A B B A B - - C C C A A A - - -Elena Guerra A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A - - A A A A A A - - -PS Baptiste - - A C C A B B A A A A B B A - - - C C C A A A - - -

PSVF Karubanda

- - A C - A C - A B - A B - A B - - A A A A A A - - -

67

How often are the toilets cleaned?

By whom are the toilet facilities cleaned?

Condition of immediate area around the toilet building and entrance to toilet

Boys Girls Teachers Boys Girls Teachers Boys Girls Teachers

PRIMARY SCHOOLSE.I.P CTOMD CTOMD CEOD HC HC HC GM GMRunga COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC GM GM GMMatyazo CEOD CEOD CEOD SO SO HC PM PM GMGSBC CEOD CEOD CEOD SO SO HC PM PM GMngoma adv CEOD CEOD _ SO SO _ PM PM _Ngoma COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC GM GM GMle pigeonier COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC GM GM GME.A.B CTMED CTMED CEOD SO SO HC GM GM GMElena Guerra COTD COTD CEOD HC HC HC GM GM GMCJSM COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC PM PM GM

Table 3. Maintenance of toilet facilities

How often are the toilets cleaned?

By whom are the toilet facilities cleaned?

Condition of immediate area around the toilet building and entrance to toilet

Boys Girls Teachers Boys Girls Teachers Boys Girls TeachersSECONDARY SCHOOLSGSOB COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC GM GM GMENDPK COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC GM GM GMEAVK COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC GM PM GME.S Butare COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC GM GM GMGSBC CEOD CEOD CEOD SO SO HC PM PM GMG.S Gatagara CEOD CEOD CEOD SO SO HC PM PM GME.A.B COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC GM GM GMGS des Parents COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC GM GM GMElena Guerra COTD COTD CEOD SO SO HC GM GM GMPS Baptiste CEOD CEOD CEOD SO SO HC PM PM GMPSVF Karubanda

COTD - CEOD SO SO HC GM - GM

CEOD: Cleaned every other day HC: Hired cleaners

COTD: Cleaned only once or twice a day SO: Students only

GM: Good maintenance PM: Poor

maintenance

CTOMD: Cleaned three times or more each day.

68

Table 4: hand washing facility provided for teachers and pupils, Evidence of effective hand washing practice, follow up made by school in hand washing practice

Wha

t fac

ilitie

s do

the

scho

ol p

rovi

de fo

r was

hing

ha

nds

Whe

re is

the

hand

was

hing

faci

lity

loca

ted?

Evid

ence

of e

ffec

tive

hand

was

hing

pra

ctic

e.

Are

ther

e po

ster

s, st

icke

rs o

r oth

er si

gns i

n th

e to

ilets

th

at e

ncou

rage

goo

d hy

gien

e pr

actic

es?

Doe

s the

scho

ol te

ach

stud

ents

the

prop

er w

ay to

was

h ha

nds?

Is a

des

igna

ted

time

perio

d al

lotte

d fo

r stu

dent

s to

was

h th

eir h

ands

bef

ore

and

afte

r eat

ing?

Is th

ere

a m

onito

ring

proc

edur

e in

pla

ce to

ens

ure

that

st

uden

ts in

the

scho

ol fe

edin

g pr

ogra

m a

ll w

ash

hand

s be

fore

and

afte

r eat

ing?

Pupils teacher pupils teacher

Primary schoolE.I.P Tap W.B.B

A.WOutside classroom

Inside the toilet unit

0 No Yes - -

Runga K .U K.U Outside classroom

Outside classroom

1 No Yes - -

Matyazo K .U K.U Outside classroom

Outside classroom

1 No Yes - -

GSBC K .U K.U Immediately outside toilet unit

Immediately outside toilet unit

1 No Yes - -

Ngoma Adv None No ne No No 2 No Yes - -Ngoma K .U K.U Outside

classroomOutside classroom

1 No Yes - -

le pigeonier W.B.BA.W

W.B.BA.W

Outside classroom

Outside classroom

1 No Yes - -

E.A.B Tap W.B.BA.W

Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

2 No Yes - -

Elena Guerra

Tap Tap Inside the toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes - -

CJSM Tap W.B.BA.W

Outside classroom

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes No No

69

SECONDARY SCHOOL

GSOB Tap W.B.BA.W

Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes No No

ENDPK Tap W.B.BA.W

Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes No No

EAVK Tap W.B.BA.W

Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes No No

E.S Butare Tap W.B.BA.W

Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes - -

GSBC K.U K.U Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes - -

G.S Gatagara

Tap W.B.BA.W

Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes No No

E.A.B Tap W.B.BA.W

Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes - -

GS des Parents

Tap W.B.BA.W

Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes No No

Elena Guerra

Tap Tap Inside the toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes No No

PS Baptiste K.U W.B.BA.W

Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes No No

PSVF Karubanda

Tap W.B.BA.W

Immediately outside toilet unit

Inside the toilet unit

1 No Yes No No

70

Table5. pupils’ questionnaire

NO When you are at

school, the water that you drink

is:

Where do you find drinking water, when you are at school?

Does your school encourage student to drink potable water?

Does your school provide a facility for hand washing?

When you are at school, how many times do you wash your hand after defecating?

If it is sometimes, in 10 times that you come to toilet for defecation, the time you wash your hand is:

When you are at school, how many times do you wash your hand after urinating?

What sanitation related disease have you experienced within the past two school years?

1 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms, Malaria2 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None 3 No No Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms4 BPTW OTCPS Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Malaria5 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times Diarrhea6 BPTW My own and

on tap Yes Yes Always Ten times Always None

7 BPTW My own and on tap

Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None

8 BPTW My own and on tap

Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None

9 ATW On tap Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms10 ATW On tap Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms11 ATW On tap Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None 12 No No Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None 13 No No Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None 14 ATW On tap Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms15 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None16 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Sometimes None 17 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times Worms, Malaria18 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times Worms, Diarrhea19 BPTW OTCPS Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Sometimes None20 BPTW OTCPS Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None21 BPTW OTCPS Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Sometimes None22 BPTW OTCPS Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms, Diarrhea23 BPTW OTCPS Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms24 BPTW OTCPS Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms, Diarrhea25 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None26 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times Diarrhea27 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None28 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None29 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None30 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Sometimes None31 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None

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32 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Zero times Worms 33 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None34 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Sometimes None35 BPTW OTCPS Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None 36 BPTW OTCPS Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None 37 BPTW OTCPS Yes yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None 38 No No Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None 39 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None40 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms,Diarrhea41 ATW On tap Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms42 OPW CPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Sometimes None43 OPW CPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Zero times None44 OPW CPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Zero times None45 OPW CPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Sometimes None46 ATW On tap Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms47 OPW CPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Zero times None48 ATW On tap Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms49 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Always Worms50 No No Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None 51 OPW CPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Sometimes None52 OPW CPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Zero times None53 OPW CPS Yes Yes Zero times Zero times Zero times Worms54 ATW On tap Yes Yes sometimes <4 times Zero times None 55

ATW On tap Yes Yes Sometimes<4 times Zero times Skin Infection,

Worms 56 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None 57 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times Eyes 58 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None 59 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Zero times Worms60 OPW CPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Sometimes None61 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes >7&<10 Zero times None62 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes >7&<10 Zero times None63 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes >7&<10 Zero times None64 No No Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None 65 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes >7&<10 Zero times None66 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes >7&<10 Zero times None67 OPW CPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Zero times None68 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes >7&<10 Zero times None69 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes >7&<10 Zero times Malaria70 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None 71 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes >7&<10 Zero times None72 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None 73 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Zero times Zero times Zero times None74 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Always Ten times Zero times None75 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Zero times Zero times Zero times None76 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None77 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None78 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None79 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Zero times Zero times Zero times None

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80 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Sometimes Worms 81 ATW On tap Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms82 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None83 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None84 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times Worms, Malaria85 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times Worms, 86 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None 87 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None 88 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Zero times Zero times Zero times None89 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None90 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None91 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None92 BPTW My own and

on tap Yes Yes Always Ten times Zero times None

93 BPTW My own and on tap

Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms

94 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None95 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None96 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None97 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None98 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None99 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes >7&<10 Zero times None100 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes 4 To 7 Zero times None101 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None102 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None103 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None104 OPW CPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None105 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None106 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms, Diarrhea107 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None108 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Malaria109 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms110 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Worms, Diarrhea111 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None112 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times Skin infection 113 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None 114 BPTW OTCPS Yes Yes Sometimes <4 times Zero times None

LEGEND

BPTW: Both purified and tap water OTCPS: On tap and In the container provided by school

CPS: In container provided by school OPW: only purified water OTW: always tap water.

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