Ahmed Moallim

What contributes toward radicalisation and Islamophobia in London and what can youth work practitioners do to address these issues among young people in practice?

May 2016

Content Page

Chapter One

Introduction, Background and RationalePage 3Aims and objectives of the studyPage 6Literature Strategy, Methodology and JustificationPage 6 Ethics and Anti-Oppressive practice considerations Page 7

Chapter Two

Islamophobia Page 9Exploring Attitudes toward Muslims Page 10Extremism Page 11Radicalisation and The Four Step Radicalisation Process Page 13What Is Jihad? Page 15Terrorism and Its Relationship with Radicalisation Page 16

Chapter Three

Application of Theory to Practice Page 18Oppression and Being Anti-Oppressive Page 19Recommendations Page 21Conclusions Page 22Reflections Page 23Bibliography Page 25

Chapter One

This chapter provides a comprehensive introduction to the study, explores background and rationale outlining the relevance of the study, highlights the clear aims of the study as well as identifies objectives the study will meet. The chapter will also include literature search strategy as well as anti-oppressive and ethical considerations.

Introduction

The past year has shown the tremendous levels of violence and fatalities cause by Islamic radicals associated with the terrorist organisation known as Islamic State (IS). Rooted from Islamic ideology known as Jihad, this form of terrorism expresses extreme fascism and hatred which has concluded in the death of hundreds of thousands of people worldwide following the attack on the twin towers in America on September 11th 2001 (9/11) (Kundnani, 2014).

This research based dissertation explores past and current issues concerning Islam related extremism, and uncovers the intricacies to this hot topic as recent events this year have caused chaotic misunderstandings and conflict among European Muslims. The dissertation will explore various factors which contribute toward Islamophobia, Radicalisation, Extremism, Terrorism and Jihad with an in-depth analysis based on up to date secondary sources. Oppression and discrimination will be key points in exploring what practitioners can do to challenge Islamophobia in educational institutes as well as promote the benefits of being anti-oppressive in society. This dissertation will often be referred to as the study.

Background and Rationale

Islam related extremism has widely been portrayed by mainstream media outlets with negative connotations, the impact this can have on young people is demonstrated following the tragic attacks on the French capital in November 2014 which killed 130 people. There has been an alarming increase of young people contacting support networks such as the NSPCC and Childline regarding anti-Islamic bullying young Muslims are facing in schools, figures in relation to this have substantially increased 69 percent from 2012 to 2013. The NSPCC have stated that recent figures regarding hate crimes against young Muslims should act as a wakeup call to stem the rise of Islamophobia (NSPCC, 2014). On the other hand, UK charity Childline has reported a soaring increase of phone calls made by young people communicating their fear of another terrorist attack (Childline, 2014). Another reason for the studies importance is regarding the lack of support networks available to those who are victims of Islamic related hate crimes.

The European Muslim Research Centre (EMRC) has identified gaps within governments to investigate these crimes and gain support. The EMRC thoroughly argued the main reason for this is due to failure of accepting that the Muslim population have become prime targets for bigotry and anti-Islamic motivated crimes (Githens-Mazer, et al 2014). Subsequently, this has led to an increase of Islamophobia in the UK.

London Metropolitan Police have identified a rise in Islamophobic hate crimes by 92 percent from August 2012 to August 2013 following the attack on British soldier Lee Rigby in Woolwich. This highlights the imperative to understand why anti-Muslim prejudice is on the rise at such a high level, as well as identifying what could be done to stem and prevent the escalation of hostility towards British Muslims. In order for this to be identified, there needs to be an understanding into what motivates and influences young people to join terrorist organisations.

(Coolsaet, 2015) explores the influences and motivations for young people to join terrorist organisations such as Islamic State (IS), He conducted a study which explores two concepts: The Pull Factor which gives an insight to why so many young people are captivated by IS and so desperately want to leave their homes and families. And The Push Factor which he describes to be a wide array of personal motives which may cause radicalised young people to commit acts of war and terror in their country of residence, i.e. home grown terrorism. Importantly the study will help understand radicalisation in the UK.

In 2007 the Prime Ministers Task Force on Tackling Extremism and Radicalisation produced plans to strategically challenge and eradicate radicalisation in the UK. The document includes a statement from Tony Blair arguing the government is not acting against Islam. He pointed out that the true believers of Islam condemn all terror attacks and that Muslims around the world share the struggle of extremism and terrorism, He also pointed that terrorism is wholly contrary to the true teachings of Islam (Tackling Extremism in the UK, 2013). It was thought that perhaps this document will help curb the rise of hatred towards Muslims.

The interesting aspect to note is that regardless of a political leader speaking against extremism as well as encouraging the social inclusion of Muslims, Islamophobia has been on the rise at a speedy rate since 2007 despite the increased Muslim population in the UK.

The population of Muslims in England and Wales has increased considerably since 2001. The 2011 census reports 2.71 million Muslims live in the UK, averaging to 4.5 percent of the entire population, in addition, half of those Muslims were born in the UK thus can contribute significantly to British society.

Another important note is the age profile of Muslims which highlights an increased number of citizens to be young people; this is an economical asset for the country at a time where the general proportions of senior citizens are increasing (Muslim Council of Britain, 2014).

Statistical evidence detailing the climax of hate crimes in the UK by the Home Office indicates the substantial increase of hate crimes in England and Wales, to have risen by over 10,000 police reports from 2012 to 2015, furthermore Islam related hate crimes has tripled in-between that time (Corcoran, 2015).

Understanding the extent of which race and religious motivated hate crimes have escalated really emphasises the need for research within the study. The evidential figures concerning hate crimes in the UK indicate that interventions to tackle such issues may not be working. Further supporting the necessity of this study to tackle oppression, not only among those who are perpetrators or victims relating with Islamophobia but tackle prejudice, stereotyping and hate crimes of all nature. The study will explore ways in which practitioners can challenge Islamophobia however the techniques and models can be applied to any form of discrimination.

Aim of the Study

The research aims to explore the paramount links between extremism in the name of Islam and Islamophobia in the UK, more specifically in London, as well as explore the contributing factors to radicalisation of young people and explore interventions practitioners can make to reduce Islamophobia.

Objectives of the study

To explore attitudes toward Muslims and the impact extremism and Islamophobia have on society.

To analyse the factors which contribute to young people becoming radicalised.

To understand oppression and explore ways practitioners can effectively use anti oppressive practice to enhance the social development of young people.

To evaluate youth work practice and explore what youth work practitioners can do to not only identify Islamophobia but also tackle it within informal educational institutions.

Literature Search Strategy, Methodology and Justification.

The study which will be entirely based on secondary research and will use a combination of existing organisations which are but not limited to: runnymedetrust.org, islamophobia.org, tellmamauk.org and counterextremism.org.

The study will use a range of search engines and professional academic databases to gather appropriate and applicable data, these include but are not limited to: Google scholar, infed.org, londonmet.worldcat.org and Cochrane Library.

The study will also use a selection of peer reviewed reports, books and journals.

Key words which will be used to assist and conduct the literature search are but not limited to: "XENOPHOBIA", "DISCRIMINATION", ISLAM, "OPPRESSION", ISLAMIC STATE, HATE CRIME, IN, LONDON "GENERALISATION", "MEDIA", "MISREPRESENTATION", "JIHAD", TERRORISM, RADICALISATION, YOUNG PEOPLE, STATISTICS, ISLAMOPHOBIA AND PREVENTION.

As pointed out the research will mainly focus on secondary research which is beneficial since an increasing amount of primary research has already been conducted on the chosen topic in the past decade. However secondary research may have barriers which affect the study; the information may be biased toward representing the views of researchers or may push ideologies of funders to meet their agendas (Moore, 2013). Finally some research may be outdated which is why the study will exclude such material. The data and research findings have provided an extensive amount of literature to explore and analyse.

Ethics and Anti-oppressive Practice Considerations

Youth work practitioners should maintain respect for young peoples autonomy when addressing radicalisation as the National Youth Agencies Statement of Principles for Ethical Conduct in Youth Work highlights that practitioners must:

Contribute towards the promotion of social justice for young people and in society

Promoting just and fair behaviour, challenging discriminatory actions and attitudes on the part of young people, colleagues and others;

Encouraging young people and others to work together collectively on issues of common concern.

Youth work practitioners can engage young people through discussions while maintaining young peoples autonomy by providing a platform for them to explore their ideas and thoughts without judgement or consequences for young people involved. This can open an authentic dialogue between practitioners and young people where real issues can be explored in a safe and educational way (Pandya-Wood et al, 2014). This should be done while adhering to the Youth Work National Occupational Standard, (NOS) (2012) to ensure ethical morality in practice.

In youth work it is important to know what impact oppression has on a young persons life and what it could do to lower self-esteem and personal image. (Freire, 2000) argues that oppression is a form of dehumanization; the result of an unjust order that engenders violence from the oppressors, which in turn dehumanizes the oppressed.

This emphasises the significance in effectively delivering anti-oppressive practice. If Islamophobia isnt tackled head on and nipped in the bud it may promote more violence from the oppressor further dehumanizing the oppressed.

Anti-oppressive Practice (AOP) aims to provide more appropriate and sensitive services by responding to peoples (self-defined) needs. AOP embodies an egalitarian value system concerned with reducing the deleterious effects of structural inequalities upon peoples lives; a methodology that focuses on both process and outcome; and a way of structuring relationships between individuals that aims to empower (young) people by reducing the negative effects of hierarchy in the immediate interaction and the work they do together (Dominelli, 2002). This will be explored in more detail in chapter three.

Chapter Two Literature Review

The literature review of the study has been split into four main headings; Islamophobia, extremism, radicalisation and terrorism. Each of those topics will then be broken down for the in-depth exploration and analysis of the research. The headings will also provide a brief background to the topic as well as summarise each section.

Islamophobia

The presence of Islamophobia has been dated back to the early 1960s, in Western Europe as the increase of roughly fifteen million Muslims populated the region. The cause of Islamophobia then was fairly different to modern day, for example the stem of Islamophobia was around the economic leverage of countries with Muslim heritage and traditions being oil rich, furthermore a third of these countries abused humans rights by repressive regimes that claimed to be motivated and justified by Muslim beliefs; this led to political movements motivated by Islam and regimes used terror as methods to achieve their aims.

This comes from a report composed of eighteen members with a multi-ethnic and multi-religious committee who were commissioned by the Runnymede Trust to explore Islamophobia directed at Muslims in Britain at the present time. The report highlights the manifestation of anti-Muslim hostility in Britain and other European countries.

This hostility has been reported to include;

Verbal and physical attacks on Muslims in public places as well as vandalism of Mosques and cemeteries. The report explores insight that the victims of these attacks were those who clearly appeared to be Muslim, women wearing head scarves for example. It can be stated that this may have been influenced by negative representations of Muslims in the media.

Routine negative stereotypes in the media people talk and write about Muslims in ways that would be not be acceptable if the reference were to be of Jewish or black people for example. This includes negative stereotypes and remarks by political leaders implying that Muslims in Britain are less committed than others to democracy and claim that Muslims are forced to choose between the British way or the terrorist way (Muir, 2004, p.7).

The report also identified Discrimination in recruitment and employment practices;

Bureaucratic delay in responding to Muslim requests for cultural sensitivity in education, healthcare and in planning applications for mosques. Furthermore, there is evidence that abnormalities in public order legislation such that Muslims are less protected against incitement to hatred than members of certain other religions.

An unfair lack of attention that Muslims in Britain are disproportionately affected by poverty and social exclusion.

(A Report by the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia, 2004).

Summarising the literature evidently brings to light the complexities of being a Muslim in Britain. Abuse from the public and discrimination from the system, is it then such a surprise now that many young Muslims have been recruited to join terrorist groups and oppose Britain?

Exploring Attitudes toward Muslims

Examples of violent language and hostility toward British Muslims were first seen after 9/11 where emails were sent to the MCB. This is a clear indicator of how social exclusion caused by attitudes can contribute to young people becoming radicalised.

You dont belong here and never will, go back to fornicating with your camels in the desert

It sickens me to know what vile and evil race you load of Muslims are

The rest of the world will now join to smash the filthy disease infested Islam you must be removed from Britain in body bags (Muir, 2014, p.10)

This is a small selection of messages posted on the website of The MCB. A very similar public reaction had taken place after the attack on Paris in Nov 2015 and after the attack on Brussels in March 2016; the general public took to social media and radio platforms to relay their hatred and anger towards Muslims; the interesting effect this time was still the high increase of people asking Muslims to explain themselves after these attacks had taken place.

It is important to evaluate this as a British newspaper article headlined can we no longer even argue with a Muslim (Hitchens, 2002) Following 9/11 in 2002 after a man was charged with religiously aggravated behaviour during a quarrel with his neighbour (Richardson, 2004).

This is evidence that The Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) charges and convicts people for aggravated hostility toward Muslims and expectedly upholds human rights. The literature indirectly points out that there hasnt been a change since 9/11 as members of the general public still demand answers from Muslims to explain the actions of barbaric terrorist every time there is an unfortunate Islam related terrorist attack.

In that case, would asking Muslims to explain or take responsibility for the actions of a minority group causing terror be considered as Islamophobic? The answer to this rhetorical question may lie within another rhetorical question; is it okay for the public to demand white people to explain or take responsibility for the Klu Klux Klan (KKK)? The point being Muslims already carry the burden of being affected by terrorism like everyone else as well as made to feel responsible for crimes committed by others.

This wave of public demand may further push those at risk to being radicalised as the research strongly emphasises social exclusion and alienation to be key factors pushing young people to side with radicals (Klein, 2008).

Extremism

Since (9/11) the world has seen a variety of fascist movements with intentions to deter Muslims from society; in the UK the English Defence League (EDL) who oppose all religions, races and ethnic groups that are not English nor Christian have specifically organised protests, as well as activities opposing Islam and all Muslim people living in Britain. Would the EDL in this case be considered as an extremist group?

The EDL; a group of individuals who present far-right wing opinions with beliefs, feelings, and actions far removed from the ordinary, furthermore these ideologies and principles manifests resulting to austere conflict engagement (Lambert, 2013).

Findings from a Report by Leeds Plan C (2013) bring this austere conflict engagement to light during the Anti-EDL Demonstration in Tower Hamlets in 2013. The EDL declared they would march through tower hamlets because they claimed it to be the heart of Sharia UK. 300 demonstrators were arrested as police officers stood in-between crowds of British Muslims and the EDL. Therefore concluding the EDL have played a huge role in fostering a climate promoting anti-Muslim bigotry, and violent hostility toward Muslims as a well-established feature in British life since 9/11 (Lambert, 2013, p.32).

Evidence that an intervention is necessary was demonstrated again on a different occasion, specifically when the EDL profoundly announced they would hold a demonstration outside East London Mosque (one of the biggest Mosques in the UK). This provoked fear and anger among the community which resulted in a gathering conducted through social media of two hundred young British Muslims within quarter of an hour to confront the EDL (Lambert, 2013).

The number of young people willing to abandon their daily schedules to instantly attend a confrontation with the EDL identifies a huge problem which cannot be ignored.

The purpose of this gathering could be interpreted in a number of ways however looking at research exploring events where the EDL have clashed with British Muslims almost always leads to conflict engagement. Things get out of hand and those who remain effected are the provoked young Muslims involved.

In summary extremism is demonstrated by a number of organisations not just IS however the use of the word 'extremist' is mostly mentioned in connection with Islam and Muslims. This further escalates the patterns of abuse and discrimination that British Muslims face, contributing to social exclusion and alienation as the next section of the study will explore.

Radicalisation

(Burdett, 2014) highlights the root cause of radicalisation to be isolation and alienation which renders vulnerability to a notion or belief away from the norm and towards individuals or groups with similar feelings; the individual is then indoctrinated by the common teachings and belief systems of that group holistically providing a sense of belonging. This sense of belonging and new found identity is driven by psychological, political and socio-economic factors, for example individuals moved by inequality or lack of justice in society may come together to oppose a cause.

This provides a brief yet detailed introduction to radicalisation which is parallel in other literature sources. It is further explained in a review of research and evidence exploring radicalisation by the Youth justice board (2012)

Extensive research on the literature explores a variety of concepts and models used to explain how a person may become radicalised. The study has formed a Four Step Radicalisation Process (TRP) combined from the Association of Chief Police Officers who created the Prevent Pyramid Intervention Model, The New York Police Departments Radicalisation Method and Taarnbys Eight-stage Recruitment Process.

The Four Step Radicalisation Process

Step one; pre-radicalisation - describes a persons life prior to exposure and adoption of jihadi ideology. This exposure being sense of moral outrage such as killings of Muslims in the 2003 war on Iraq, this acts as a catalyst for the initial indoctrination of young people to sympathise with terrorists, furthermore a moral crisis like the death of loved one may accelerate this process of radicalisation. This applies to the at risk individuals within a community.

Step two; Identification - this stage explores the gradual gravitation away from a young persons old identity as they begin association with likeminded individuals accepting the radical ideology as their own. This acts as what is described as a cognitive opening or crisis which leads to individuals holding their previously held beliefs in a negative light, thus leaving them open to new views and beliefs. The literature points to a wide range of triggers which may accelerate this process which include; economic, social, personal and political triggers. This stage is where a targeted approach is needed to address and tackle the radicalisation process of individuals at risk.

Step three; Indoctrination - this stage highlights that young people in the process of becoming radicals move toward extremism while intensifying their current beliefs and holistically accepting the Jihadi ideology as key feature in their identity. The re-occurring aspect in the literature is themed to highlight that this stage emphasises the deepen indoctrination from associating with likeminded people, and the development of closer relationship with a spiritual/religious leader. This leads to the overall conviction that the circumstances and worldly state of affairs requires the individual to take action and further support the cause of militant jihad, concluding that individuals re-enforce, increase and encourage tough extremist views. This stage requires a targeted interventionist approach to prevent individuals providing tactical support to those actively involved in terrorism as well as prevent inspiring or recruiting those who are identified as at risk in steps one and two.

Step four; Jihadisation - The final phase in the radicalisation process where individuals take on a specific role or duty to participate in terrorism in addition to identifying themselves as holy warriors also known as mujahidin this ultimately concludes in an individual planning and carrying out terrorist attacks. These individuals who remain relatively few in numbers actively breaking the law are then sentenced and charged as a crime has been committed.

(Youth justice board, 2012)

(Coolsaets, 2015) Push and Pull factors to why young people may join terrorist organisations at home or abroad was briefly mentioned in chapter one and falls into play at this part of the study. The Pull Factor has comparative links in steps one and two while the Push Factor neatly fits in steps three and four of TRP.

At this stage the step to tackling radicalisation at the personal level would be to explore Jihad; this suspicious notion that Islam requires its followers to cause violence however the study has identified significant gaps in peer reviewed literature on the topic detailing the in-depth exploration of Jihad.

What is Jihad?

Characteristics which constitute toward the term describe inhospitable attitudes toward democracy which in turn nurtures environments favourable to parochialism, anti-modernism, exclusiveness and hostility towards any opposition (Barber, 2003). This much sounds like a description of IS however the research indicates a wide exploration of the term Jihad from an Islamic point of view is rarely considered.

Can radicalisation effectively be challenged if the term Jihad isnt explored and understood from the perspective of mainstream Islam as opposed to defining it from the perspective of an extremist? This may help combat radicalisation by challenging those at risk in steps one and two of TRP by saying look, there is another way, in addition to providing evidence that Jihad is not what they have been indoctrinated to believe.

(Muhammad, 2010) argues jihad to be one of the most manipulated concepts in society, a Quranic concept with a false and twisted version used by terrorists to dignify acts of unjust and indiscriminate violence against innocent people. He further argues the definition of Jihad should be sourced from the scripture as opposed to the interpretation by people. The literal meaning of the word Jihad in Arabic is; striving to achieve a goal, the Quranic definition of the word is; striving with ones self and ones money in the cause of God.

Here is where the debate in interpretation of the definition comes to light, terrorists or religious leaders identified in step four of TRP may manipulate those already at risk and interpret this definition to mean; strive ones self and finances in the cause of God no matter what it takes even through dictatorship and violence. This promotes the intentions and ideologies of terrorists or religious leaders while at the same time takes advantage of a person at risks desire to become more religious. On the other hand the Quranic definition of the term could be interpreted to mean; strive for ones self and finances in the cause of God through dialogue, democracy and kindness (like Jehovahs witnesses in the Christian religion for example).

The point here is that tackling radicalisation among young people at risk should include the in-depth exploration of Jihad before they reach step three of TRP and are indoctrinated to follow the negative interpretations of the concept.

This sense of fundamentalist opposition to modernity (Jihad) can be found in most world religions; Protestantism and Catholicism in a variety of European and American forms, Hinduism to Sikhs, to Theravada Buddhism and Zionism. The complication that is Jihad is not then just a feature in Islam but characteristics with in all religions (Barber, 2004).

The interesting aspect to investigate here is why people following the fundamentalist interpretations of other religions are not reported to be causing terror on a scale that Islamic fundamentalism is; mass killings of citizens in Burma or Palestine for example. There are combinations of explanations as to why Islamic fundamentalism is popularly brought to the forefront of mainstream media however exploring these issues are not within the remit of the study. The study however questions if this could be an unexplored contribution to radicalisation. The lack of fair coverage by the media on Muslim related atrocities, furthermore whenever acts of terror are committed by those who are not Muslim they are not reported in headlines to be terrorists. School shootings in America for example, those perpetrators are rarely described as terrorist when the definition of terrorism is comparable to their motives.

Terrorism and its Relationship with Radicalisation

Sources of literature defining and exploring terrorism is increasingly abundant however most of these definitions are fairly similar; the systematic use of murder, injury and destruction as a means of political achievements; furthermore there are complexities in defining terrorism as it has also been used to explain freedom fighters as one mans terrorist is anothers freedom fighter (Schmid, 2008).

Terrorism throughout the world has been a deadly and political source of conflict for generations. In the 1970s the Irish Republican Army (IRA) used heavy levels of violence to render British rule in Ireland. In the modern day; IS are the group constructed of individuals with deep hatred for the western world. IS having planned and executed attacks on innocent people demonstrates their similarities with the IRA.

The focus here is identifying the link between terrorism and radicalisation; In January 1972 The British Army shot dead thirteen republican demonstrators on a day often referred to as bloody Sunday. From that point onwards an increasing number of observers witnessing or hearing about the event felt the pull from empathy and anger toward the push that they must do something by joining the IRA (Clutterbuck, 2009).

This is a relevant comparison to steps one and two of TRP therefore concluding that terror inflicted on people can result in a violent and extreme backlash from any opposition. The results of bloody Sunday showed that anarchy increased among some Irish people which pulled them from being traumatised by the state of affairs and later pushed them toward becoming radicals.

To summarise this chapter and TRP identifies the contributing factors which radicalise young people as well as explores in-depth analysis of Islamophobia, its causes and effects on society. Finally TRP can be applied to any group; IS, the IRA and even young people in gangs.

Chapter ThreeApplication of Theory to Practice

This chapter will explore oppression in relation to challenging it on a social, cultural and institutional level as well as evaluate youth work policies in practice which support anti-oppressive practice (AOP) and anti-discriminatory practice (ADP). Finally this chapter will look at the pyramid of hate in relation to Islamophobia.

Challenging oppression in relation to key issues requires a holistic approach to social change that tackles oppression at the personal, social and cultural levels (Thompson, 2011). It involves practitioners locating themselves in relations aimed at countering oppression, since a person can be oppressing as well as oppressed. AOP which is allowed to flower in the work that is done with individuals or groups is well placed to promote egalitarian relations in and through youth work, and realise the potential to contribute to the liberation of peoples (Tomlison, & Trew, 2001).

Effectively using AOP to combat the oppression of young Muslims is intriguing; firstly a practitioner must identify what form of oppression or discrimination is occurring, in this case lets look at the increased number of calls and reports to Childline and the NSPCC identified in the rationale of the study.

Young Muslims reported the abuse they face from other young people because of their religious identity. If this had taken place in an informal education setting, (youth centre) it would be imperative for the youth worker to intervene as soon as it is spotted by questioning and opening up conversations about what has been said, and why it is considered wrong. The practitioner can further support the learning and development of young people by promoting awareness & understanding of Islam and deter young people from having negative beliefs about Muslims. This is a crucial process for youth work practitioners as it supports youth work values to facilitate the personal, social and educational development of young people (NOS, 2012).

During this intervention, youth work practitioners must bear in mind the tone and body language used especially because personal history, identities, skills, knowledge and values can shape perspective and reactions to young people (Sapin, 2013, p.67).It might be useful to include the young Muslim through the intervention to hear their thoughts and feelings even though it may be challenging for them; this could support a practitioner to deliver AOP by demonstrating that they havent chosen sides, by listening to both parties and being aware of ones own oppression(s), (being white and middle class for example) to avoid reacting to young people in an oppressive manner. As a youth work practitioner this is informally educating young people around issues raised which is a great example of upholding NOS for Youth Work practice.

This level of intervention by practitioners could be applied to all kinds of oppression and stereotypes young people face; racism and homophobia for example.Having said this, the model of tackling oppression could also be applied to all educational intuitions such as schools and pupil referral units, as The Stephan Lawrence inquiry Report recommended that education curriculum for schools in the UK should be amended to adhere and educate young people to value cultural diversity and prevent racism (Richardson, 2004). Therefore schools in the UK are obliged to have an explicit policy on race and equality. It is of equal importance is to deliver AOP in all educational institutions.

Effectively using AOP and Intervening at the earliest opportunity to challenge Islamophobia supports young people to identify others regardless of their religion as equals and prevent oppression, unfortunately this isnt the magic solution to tackling Islamophobia overnight, especially for a teacher who may have to manage a class of up to thirty students further underpinning the importance for youth work practitioners to adopt AOP and further enhance the social and emotional development of young people.

Oppression and Being Anti-oppressive

First lets take a closer look at what oppression is and think about ways to actively be anti-oppressive. oppression occurs when individuals are systematically subjected to political, economic, cultural, or social degradation because they belong to a social group which results in structures of domination, subordination and, corresponding, ideologies of superiority and inferiority (Charlton, 2000, p.8-9). From this an understanding is formed that oppression is discrimination toward individuals who are being degraded for being Muslim.

Focusing on the quotes sent to the MCB a clear example of socialised oppression is presented within UK society, this oppressive behaviour and language is rooted from a lack of acknowledgement in perceived dissimilarities. The dangers of this oppression is further explained using the pyramid of hate.

The pyramid of hate highlights how low level oppression can escalate to genocide; at the bottom of the pyramid stereotypes, non-inclusive language and insensitive remarks are the foundation which leads to individual acts of prejudice which then leads up to discrimination in all forms, the next step up on the pyramid are bias motivated violence like threats, vandalism, and assault which brings us to the top of the pyramid, genocide.The pyramid of hate explains the hatred and racism Jewish communities faced before world war two and how stereotyping at the bottom of the pyramid escalated to genocide at the very top. (Anti-Defamation League, 2014).

Opportunity to capitalise on a valuable lesson from history presents itself in the study; to acknowledge the oppression Muslims face in the UK and challenge them before they escalates to further violence. One step toward this would be the inclusive education of people around oppression and being anti-oppressive.

Being anti-oppressive would be ensuring that both victims of oppression and the oppressor understand although they are different, one isnt above the other, all differences aside, everyone is equal as British values point out (Promoting fundamental British values in schools, 2014).

What about Muslims who are also from other minority groups? Being black and Muslim or disabled and Muslim for example. This sense of double oppression can further dehumanise individuals heavily suggesting the imperative in tackling all discrimination and oppression in society.

Recommendations

The challenges posing Islamophobia are huge especially from a youth work perspective; work must be undertaken both with Young Muslims and non-Muslims. Practitioners should develop a greater understanding of Islam as a stepping stone to challenge Islamophobia as well as understand the intricacies of Islamophobia to be a type of oppression, without tackling Islamophobia practitioners are indirectly condoning the oppression of young Muslims (Soni, 2011).

It is imperative that youth workers adhere and apply the NOS for youth work in practice and reflect on the importance of being anti-oppressive and effectively delivering anti discriminatory practice to further stem the rise of hate crimes.

Educational institutions should provide spaces where young people can explore their thoughts and feelings in a safe and non-judgemental structure to promote ethical and efficient practice conducted with young people. This includes not punishing a young person or making them feel guilty when undergoing interventions addressing any issues while adhering to safe guarding and child protection policies.

Another recommendation the research points to is that zero tolerance when dealing with Islamophobia doesnt work. The governments Prevent Strategy by the Home Office (2011) has been scrapped for this reason therefore highlighting the importance that young people who may find themselves in steps one or two of TRP shouldnt automatically be addressed or persecuted like criminals, as the research clarifies this to further promote their patterns of negative thoughts and feelings toward British values.

Finally, raising awareness in regards to Islamophobia through the increase of funding for practitioners to challenge these issues at ground level. Youth work institutions have already suffered alarming cuts to services which could explain why hate crimes have risen drastically since 2012. Concluding the increased importance that funding for youth work practice should be valued as the neglect of young people may result in not only hate crimes rising even further but also the decrease of socially active, resilient and diverse young people. Youth work should be a vital part of young peoples transition to adulthood headed toward a socially included, diverse and harmonious Britain.

Conclusions

Young Muslims living in London have increased over the past decade while data evidently proves the rise of Islamophobia at the same time. The complexities of being young, British and Muslim are evident from chapter two, despite some people arguing that British values and Islamic values dont match, Britain still holds a strong and committed Muslim population. Much has changed since 9/11, the world has been in a constant struggle between the fight against extremism and the acceptance of Muslims. It is essential for people to understand that not all Muslims are extremists and that not all extremists are terrorists.

All things considered the decision to join and continue involvement with terrorist organisations or Jihad is increasingly complex; each and every individual has a different story therefore highlighting the complexities of entirely understanding how young people are radicalised to join the fight toward Jihad (Coolsaet, 2011).

The study evidently suggests that these issues remain in a vicious cycle; terrorism has led to the radicalisation of people(s), which has resulted in extreme fascism against Islam therefore further radicalising people(s); those people then go on to inflict more terror and this has been the continuum of the war against terrorism since 9/11.

The study has identified a form of tackling Islamic extremism and terrorism which initiates with understanding mainstream Islam. Through the correct interpretations of ancient scripture radicalisation can be addressed without penalising or resulting to war/violence. However this should be done under extreme causation by creating partnerships with leading Islamic scholars in the UK as there is huge danger that western governments may end up telling Muslims what the correct interpretations of Islam are (Kundnani, 2014). Therefore stressing the importance that tackling Islamic extremism and radicalisation requires a bottom up approach in order to refrain from people further feeling dehumanised by the system and joining The Radicalisation Process.

Reflections

This part of the study will use Johns (1995) reflective tool to analyse to overall experience of conducting research and writing this dissertation. I have chosen Johns model of reflection specifically because it include the use of ethical considerations as well as the other elements which reflection involves (Sapin, 2012).

Experience

What was I trying to achieve?I suppose my personal objective was to gain an in-depth understanding of Islamophobia myself as a young British Muslim, after the Paris attacks I sensed a huge change around my social environment, people seemed very cautious of me when I was wearing my thobe (Islamic clothing) and sensed that people generally did not want to be near me. I also heard about a shocking amount of people being attacked in public for the same reason which increased my fears of being in public on Fridays when I go for prayer at the mosque. I found myself in a position where I didnt want to wear my thobe for safety reasons as well as having a constant fear for my female family members being attacked as they mostly wear headscarves in public.

Analysis

Why did I respond as I did?As mentioned, mainly for safety reason but also because I was frustrated. Frustrated my religion was and still is being talked about in extremely abusing and oppressive ways. I felt burdened with responsibility that I should do something; I noticed that tackling Islamophobia would require me to undertake extensive research on the topic at political, social and educational levels. This led me to making the decision to take on the challenge and use my opportunity within my final year at university to raise and tackle these ongoing issues. One of the internal factors which influenced this decision were initiated by my role as a youth worker, as a young person approached me one day at work showing me a CNN news report which headlined not all Muslims are terrorists but all terrorists are Muslims. I addressed the young person and explored the matter as per usual however I was left feeling incredibly provoked, disrespected and targeted by the media.

Ethical reflections

How did my actions match with my morals and believes?I knew this would be a difficult piece of work, during my research it occurred that it was much more difficult than I thought; Firstly reading across some of the views and thoughts some of the general public have on Muslims was really hard to bare. I used this to motivate my ambition to achieve social awareness and change. Secondly, I hate terrorist with such a passion as they pollute the fundamental pillars of which Islam stands on. This was demonstrated in page 7 where I described terrorists as barbaric: although the research hadnt claimed it to be barbaric I felt the need to make that emphasis.

Evaluations

What could I have done differently?I could have narrowed down my research criteria and sources as I found myself spending excessive hours researching as so much primary and secondary research has been done on the chosen topic since 9/11, furthermore since the Paris attacks even more literature has been published and a lot of that work had no real relevance to actually tackling the issue as opposed to simply talking about it.

Conclusion

What did I learn from the experience?As a first time researcher I learned about the importance of research in youth work, the world is constantly changing and evolving therefore I should be up to date with what is happening and what I can do to address past, current and future affairs. It also occurred to me that youth workers are in a prime position to undertake action research as we have direct and informal contact with young people. Action research carried out in the course of an activity with young people can provide authentic and personal opinions from young people. It may have been beneficial to carry out some primary research as youth work practitioners are often required to highlight what has been observed, explore how effective the practitioner and institutions are as well as exhibit how they can overall contribute to the field of youth work practice.

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