Exercise 4B: Disinfectant

Group 5: Quilang, Aleia Sharisse F. Quinto, Thea Marie Dolores N. Recio, Jose Angelo G. Refuerzo, Jirah Angelica M. Robles, AndreuVinzent F. Rodriguez, Joanne Claire E. Romero, Mavourneen Tracy Chanel V. Samonte, Muriel Fay D.

Introduction

Disinfectants are substances that are applied to non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects. A perfect disinfectant would also offer complete and full microbiological sterilization, without harming humans and useful forms of life, be inexpensive, and non-corrosive. However, most disinfectants are also, by nature, potentially harmful (even toxic) to humans or animals. Some disinfectants have a wide spectrum (kill many different types of microorganisms), while others kill a smaller range of disease-causing organisms but are preferred for other properties (they may be non-corrosive, non-toxic, or inexpensive). In this exercise, the group will test calamansi and softdrink.

Objectives To determine between calamansi pulp or softdrink is more effective for an unknown

bacteria. To differentiate disinfectants, sterilizers, antibiotics and atisepctics. To know the different types of disinfectants.

Results The experiment shows that calamansi pulp is more effective than softdrink in

disinfecting the unknown bacteria.

Calamansi Pulp

Pre

It is shown in the figure that on the pre side of the dish the bacteria grew and cultured. The shape of the colony is round.The edge or margin of the colony is undulate.The elevation of it is raised.

Post

It is shown in the figure that on the post side of the dish, the bacteria is reduced in size.The shape of the colony is irregular with a dotted alignment.The edge or margin is lobate.The elevation is raised.

Softdrink

Pre

It is shown in the figure that on the pre side of the dish the bacteria grew and cultured. The shape of the colony is round.The edge or margin of the colony is undulate.The elevation of it is raised.

Post

It is shown in the figure that on the post side of the dish, the bacteriaincreased its number.The shape of the colony is round.The edge or margin of the colony is undulate.The elevation of it is flat.

Discussion

Calamansi -  is a fruit tree in the family Rutaceae and a member of citrofortunella that was developed in and is very popular throughout Southeast Asia, especially the Philippines, where it is most commonly used for cooking. In the west it is variously known as acid orange, calamondin orange, or Panama orange. It is a shrub or small tree growing to 3-6 m, and bears small citrus fruit used to flavour foods and drinks. Although sometimes described as a native Philippines or other areas of Southeast Asia, the tree is in fact the result of a hybrid between species in the genera Citrofortunella and unknown in the wild. Hybrids between Citrus subspecies  have been cultivated for so long that the origins of most are obscure. It is generally held that most species in cultivation are ancient apomictic hybrids and selected cultivars of these hybrids, including crosses with other genera such as Fortunella and Poncirus. The kalamansî is usually described as a cross between Citrus reticulata (Tangerine or Mandarin orange) and Fortunellamargarita (Kumquat).

Uses of Calamansi1) Juice. Squeeze halved calamansi (4 to 5 pieces, but it depends on the user) to a cup. Strain it. Add honey or sugar. It's a good source of vitamin C.2) Zinger for ginger tea. Ginger tea + 1 tbsp calamansi juice + honey/sugar.3) Tequila shots. Others use lemon, but mostly we use calamansi here.4) Natural Air Freshener. Halved calamansi and put them in a bowl. Their peelings could do the trick, too.5) Deodorizer. Can be placed in the fridge to eliminate odor. Or say you’ve just finished cleaning some fish (or handling something unpleasant in smell), you may rub some to eliminate the icky odor.6) Skin whitening Agent. Definitely good for the dark knees and elbows and armpits.7) Dip. Basic Filipino Dip = soy sauce, calamansi (optional vinegar)8) Marinade. Soy sauce. Calamansi. Vinegar. Pepper. Garlic.9) Dandruff Treatment. Cover halved calamansi with a cloth (prevents the pulp from getting stuck in your hair). Rub gently to the scalp.10) Bleach. Its juice is proven to remove minor stains on clothes.12) Hair highlights. Comb calamansi juice through the hair or into some strands and leave it there. The sun will lighten the strands faster, giving the hair a sun-streaked look.

Soft drinks - The average pH of soft drinks, e.g. Coke, Pepsi is pH 3.4. This acidity is strong enough to dissolve teeth and bones! Our human body stops building bones at around the age of 30. After that it'll be dissolving about 8-18% of the bones each year through the urine depending on the acidity of the food intake (acidity does not depend on the taste of the food, but on the ratio of potassium / calcium / magnesium / etc. to phosphorus).

All the dissolved calcium compounds accumulate in the arteries, veins, skin tissue, organs. This affects the functioning of the kidney (kidney stones).

Soft drinks do not have any nutritional value (in terms of vitamins and minerals). They have higher sugar content, higher acidity, and more additives such as preservatives and colorings

Answer to Questions1. Tabulate the differences between disinfectants, sterilizers, antibiotics and

antiseptic.

2. List down and explain differences between the different types of disinfectants.

CLASSES AND TYPES OF DISINFECTANTS

FIRE AND FREEZING

Freezing temperatures will deactivate some infectious organisms, but many, including viruses will survive. The longer the freezing time, the lower the survival rate for most organisms, but it won't kill everything. 

Flame is an excellent cleaner. Gas torches will kill any known living organism; remember, the solution to cleaning up after epidemics has been to burn down anything that was contaminated! But flame is obviously limited in its uses--it's hard to disinfect wood nest boxes and plastic objects with flame, and it will often discolor metal surfaces. 

STEAM

Pressurized steam directed into cracks and corners is an excellent sterilant. It is, however, quite disruptive to birds, especially during breeding, and it can be costly due to equipment rental/purchase charges. It is best to thoroughly wash all equipment prior to steaming it. 

Disinfectants Sterilizers Antibiotics AntisepticIt is a chemical germicide formulated for use solely oninanimate objects or surfaces such as medical instrumentsor environmental surfaces.Disinfectant usually comes in liquid form or in a spray

Are tools thatpenetrates intactskin and contacts the vascular (blood)system and can be achieved by applying heat, chemicals, orirradiation (used forpre-sterilized itemsyou may purchase. 

treat bacterialinfections, they kill bacteria or inhibit growth without causing damage tothe host. This selective toxicity is achieved byexploiting differences between structures andfunctions ofprocaryotic cells and correspondingfeatures ofeucaryotic cells. They have four major sites of action: cell membrane, cell wall, nucleic acids, and ribosomes.

It is formulated foruse solely on or inliving tissues.Antiseptic is usuallyin the form of an ointment

SOAPS/DETERGENTS

Soaps and detergents do not disinfect. But they help remove surface organic debris so it does not interfere with the function of disinfectants. Always rinse soap or detergent off completely before disinfecting, and never mix with disinfectant unless the disinfectant instruction specifically state that it is safe. Avoid oral ingestion of these products, as they can cause intestinal upset, and can irritate mucous membranes. 

ALCOHOLS

Alcohols are the base ingredient for many other disinfectants--for example, Lysol spray contains 79% ethyl alcohol and only 0.1% orthophenylphenol. When used as a surface spray or solution on inanimate objects, alcohol is an excellent pathogen destroyer. But it must be left in contact with the item to be disinfected for long periods to do its job--20 minutes contact time is considered proper for disinfection with ethyl alcohol. The higher the "proof" of an alcohol product, the better disinfectant it is, but the more volatile and evaporative it will be. Isopropyl alcohol is not considered to be a disinfectant--it's main use is as a skin wipe to remove loose organic debris from the site of a wound or injection.

ADVANTAGESLow cost; effective against many pathogens with correct contact time

DISADVANTAGESLong contact time required for disinfecting action; only certain types of alcohol contain true disinfectant properties; may dissolve synthetic surfaces; fumes may be irritating and contain a fire hazard risk; not effective against some viruses; evaporates quickly, so items being disinfected must be physically soaked in alcohol to obtain disinfection

CHLORHEXIDINE GLUCONATESBRAND NAMES: Nolvasan, Virosan, Hibitane, Hibistat

Chlorhexidine products are often used as disinfectants for inanimate objects or antiseptics for cleaning skin wounds. Some chlorhexidine compounds contain alcohol, and these have been found to have superior antimicrobial properties to those containing only chlorhexidine. Chlorhexidine is effective against many bacteria, and yeast (especially Candida). It is not effective against most viruses, mycobacteria spores and Pseudomonas. Hexachlorophene has been suggested to be a potent carcinogenic. Some aviculturists use chlorhexidine as a water additive for control of pathogens--this is not recommended by the manufacturers, as these products were never meant for ingestion, and long-term effects have not been studied. 

ADVANTAGESRecommended as a water pan additive in incubators and brooders for control of

aspergillus fungus; effective against Newcastle virus; not corrosive to equipment; readily available, medium cost

DISADVANTAGESPoor efficiency against most viruses and many gram-negative bacteria including Pseudomonas (Virosan is the exception--it is effective against Pseudomonas); must be discarded and re-mixed daily; not effective in the presence of organic debris; not effective against bacterial spores or mycobacterium

CHLORINE BRAND NAMES: Clorox, Purex

The best known member of this class is sodium hypochlorite (bleach). Bleaches are very harsh but effective. They attack pathogens, organic debris and living tissues equally well. Bleach can create toxic fumes which can lead to chemical pneumonia, skin and eye irritation or burns. It is recommended to wear protective clothing and eye gear when using bleach. 

ADVANTAGES: Bleach is inexpensive; easily available without a license; depending on the concentration at which it is mixed it can kill most bacteria, viruses, and mycoplasmas; it is a potent deodorizer, and works best in the presence of sunlight which releases more free radicals (which destroy cells, including pathogens). 

DISADVANTAGESIt is very caustic to tissues and equipment; very rapidly inactivated by organic debris (any dirt left on the object being disinfected will interfere with the action of the free radicals, up to the point where no chlorine is left to act on the actual pathogens); it loses its effectiveness quickly while still on the shelf in the bottle; not all brands of bleach, and not all production lots are the same concentration, so the standard dilution of 1/2 cup to a gallon of water (5:25% concentrate) may not always turn out to be the same strength; prolonged contact may be required for heavy sterilization, and the solution may require freshening every few hours. Bleach produces carcinogenic by-products, and must be used in a well-ventilated area; all objects treated with bleach must be well rinsed and allowed to dry before birds are allowed to contact them. 

STABILIZED CHLORINE DIOXIDEBRAND NAMES: Oxyfresh Dent-a-gene (full strength stabilized chlorine dioxide), Oxyfresh Cleansing Gele' (detergent with stabilized chlorine dioxide added)

Stabilized chlorine dioxide is a chlorine derivative which is a powerful oxidizing agent. It can destroy many pathogens, including bacteria, viruses, fungi and protozoa. Many studies have suggested that stabilized chlorine dioxide is a superior disinfecting agent to sodium hypochlorite (bleach). It is used in Europe to treat drinking water because it does not form carcinogenic by-products like sodium hypochlorite does. Stabilized chlorine dioxide has been shown by Dr. Branson Ritchie DVM, to inactivate

avian polyoma virus at a level of dilution of 1:200. A detergent product containing stabilized chlorine dioxide is a good washing/soaking product for syringes, dishes and other hard surfaces, and can also be safely used on the skin of avian caretakers. Chlorine dioxide is an excellent deodorizer; the oxidizing properties destroy odor-causing molecules.

ADVANTAGESSafe for use around birds and humans at recommended working dilutions; deactivates avian polyoma virus in 1 minute contact time; diluted solution creates no harmful fumes and is safe to use on skin or other surfaces; diluted solution at 1:200 is good for 7 days once mixed if kept sealed and out of direct sunlight; when first mixing up solution, the fumes created may be used to fumigate brooders. Medium cost--1 pint makes up to 16 gallons of diluted solution. 

DISADVANTAGESIn undiluted form, fumes of stabilized chlorine dioxide may be toxic to living tissue; rapidly deactivated by organic debris and exposure to sunlight. 

GLUTARALDEHYDESBRAND NAMES: Wavecide, Cidex, Sporcide, Banacide, Sterol

This is a relatively new class of disinfectants which has come out within the past 25 years. The chemical action is to deactivate DNA and RNA proteins. They will deactivate most bacteria (including mycobacteria), viruses, and chlamydia. They are very stable and most work well even in the presence of organic debris. When mixed up in solution, they last a long time, making the cost per use fairly low. But they are very expensive to purchase initially compared to other disinfectants, and have many possible side effects, including tissue toxicity, irritation to the eyes, mucous membranes, respiratory tract and skin. Some glutaraldehyde formulas are corrosive to metals, others are not; read the label of a particular product to find the corrosive properties of that product. Never, ever mix glutaraldehydes with any other cleaning or disinfectant product. 

ADVANTAGESEqually effective in water of any temperature or hardness; effective against essentially any pathogen, even in presence of organic debris; solutions are good for longer periods than any other disinfectant available which lowers cost per use; speed of killing pathogens is very fast compared to many other disinfectants; available in many forms, including sprays, concentrates and bulk volumes.

DISADVANTAGESMay require a medical license to purchase from some suppliers; EPA testing did not include all animal and bird pathogens--assumptions were made regarding those, based on results of human pathogen testing; may irritate respiratory system if not used in extremely well-ventilated areas; may cause eye, skin or mucous membrane irritation or damage with some brands; must be well-rinsed before allowing birds contact with cleaned surfaces; may cause skin irritation, yellowing or peeling; concentrated forms not available in all states; some forms/brands of product may be

corrosive/caustic than others--it is necessary to read all labels carefully before using these products. 

IODINESBRAND NAMES: Vanodine, Betadyne, Povidone, Scrubodyne

Iodine solutions are frequently used as antiseptics for cleaning wounds and skin. Most iodine-containing disinfectants also contain a detergent, and are called "iodophors". Medium cost. 

ADVANTAGESLimited vapor production; not usually affected by hard water; long shelf life; works well in hot or cold water; are effective against many bacteria, some fungi and viruses. 

DISADVANTAGESMost require full-strength use which increases cost per use; may stain surfaces and tissues brown; toxic if ingested (may cause iodine overdose); may dry and crack skin; corrosive to metal surfaces with prolonged exposure; easily deactivated by contact with organic debris; is NOT effective against hydrophylic viruses such as polyoma and PFBD (Psittacine Beak and Feather Disease); not effective against allstrains of Pseudomonas bacteria. 

PHENOLSBRAND NAMES: Lysol, One Stroke Environ, O-Syl

Phenols are produced by coal distillation. Sodium orthophenol is the active ingredient in most phenol disinfectants. Phenols are effective against many bacteria, including Pseudomonas and mycobacteria, fungi and some viruses. They may not work well in the presence of organic material. Some phenols are inexpensive, and are easily available at the grocery store. 

ADVANTAGESKills many pathogens, including bacteria such as Salmonella and Pseudomonas, mycobacteria, fungi and lipophilic viruses; effective even in hard water; doesn't stain surfaces or leave residual odors, low cost; easy to rinse off objects.

DISADVANTAGESToxic to many tissues including skin, eyes, and respiratory tract; VERY toxic to cats and reptiles; may not work well if organic debris is present; not effective against bacterial spores or hydrophilic viruses; must be used with adequate ventilation; must be rinsed off cleaned surfaces before allowing birds contact with them

QUATERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS

BRAND NAMES: Roccal-D, Quintacide, Parvosol, Hitor, Omega, Barquat, Merquat, Cetylcide

"Quats" are a large class of disinfectants which add organic compounds to ammonia. Many quats also function as a detergent, and help remove organic debris from objects. The presence of organic debris, however, may deactivate the disinfectant in the quat compound. They are not recommended for use on objects that will be in direct contact with birds because they are very difficult to rinse off completely, and residue can cause respiratory paralysis and death! May be diluted for lower cost per use, but initial purchase cost may be expensive. Quats are effective against many types of bacteria, some viruses, and chlamydia; they are not effective against spores, mycobacteria or fungi, Pseudomonas, and hydrophylic viruses such as Polyoma or PFBD. 

ADVANTAGESMay be used at very dilute solutions, allowing for lower cost per use; contains detergent for action against organic debris; pleasant scent in most forms; good disinfectant against many bacteria, a few viruses, and Chlamydia

DISADVANTAGESNot effective against bacterial spores, Pseudomonas, fungi or mycobacteria, hydrophylic viruses; high levels of organic debris may inactivate the product; hard water may inactivate the quat product; may leave slimy residue on objects which won't rinse off; ingestion and inhalation of products or residue may cause respiratory paralysis and even death.

WOOD TAR DISTILLATESBRAND NAMES: Pine-Sol, Hexol

Wood tar distillates are a by-product of the lumber industry. They include such products as creosotes, turpentine and pine oils. Pine oils are the only member of this group with any disinfectant applications, and only when mixed with soap. They are very safe, but have very low levels of effectiveness against any pathogens. Very inexpensive, and available at many department, hardware and grocery stores. 

ADVANTAGESEasily available; low cost; pleasant fragrance; low toxicity; detergent ingredients make them good cleaning products for removing organic debris.

DISADVANTAGESVery poor effectiveness against any pathogens; hard to rinse off surfaces, may leave floors slick.

3. Based on the result, what are thea.) most effective disinfectant, explain

Based on the experiment, Calamansi pulp is more effective disinfectant because it reduced the numbers of the unknown bacteria. Maybe it is because calamansi’s acidity is enough to kill or to minimize the growth of the bacteria.

b.) least effective disinfectant, explain.Based on the experiment, softdrink is the least effective disinfectant because instead

of reducing the bacteria, it nourishes the bacteria to grow more. Maybe the chemical that makes a softdrink sweet is what bacteria likes.

ConclusionUpon answering the questions and performed the exercise, the group concluded that:

a. Calamansi is more effective disinfectant than softdrink.b. Disinfectant has some differences to sterilizer, antibiotics and antiseptic in terms of its

uses and some physical characteristics.c. Disinfectant has different types and people should know what type of disinfectant they

should use.

Referenceshttp://www.ultronicsusa.com/BlogPost/2013/09/26/the-differences-between-cleaning-disinfection-and-sterilization/59http://www.livestrong.com/article/291472-antiseptic-vs-disinfectant/http://www.reference.com/motif/science/differences-between-antiseptics-and-disinfectantshttp://books.google.com.ph/books?id=HdA4dl8m_T4C&pg=PA615&lpg=PA615&dq=differences+between+disinfectant,+sterilizers,+antibiotics+and+antiseptic&source=bl&ots=5_AXLcfm7D&sig=yEXzlO_XaHgKj6HLVbnvZaHm8Tg&hl=en&sa=X&ei=iUxcU7eKNMvj8AXWvIHoBw&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=differences%20between%20disinfectant%2C%20sterilizers%2C%20antibiotics%20and%20antiseptic&f=falsehttp://carl1223.blogspot.com/http://urbanlegends.about.com/library/bl_coca_cola.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinfectant

Exercise 4C: Mouthwash

Group 5: Quilang, Aleia Sharisse F. Quinto, Thea Marie Dolores N. Recio, Jose Angelo G. Refuerzo, Jirah Angelica M. Robles, AndreuVinzent F. Rodriguez, Joanne Claire E. Romero, Mavourneen Tracy Chanel V. Samonte, Muriel Fay D.

IntroductionMouthwash, mouth rinse, oral rinse or mouth bath, is a liquid which is held in the

mouth passively or swilled around the mouth by contraction of the perioral muscles and/or movement of the head, and may be gargled, where the head is tilted back and the liquid bubbled at the back of the mouth.

In this exercise, the members are group into four. One group will try distilled water and the other will try tea as their mouthwash.

Objectives To know which among distilled water and teas is more effective as mouthwash. To know if mouth washing is important for oral hygiene. To define what is oil pulling To identify some herbal plants that is effective as alternative for mouth wash To identify the active ingredients of mouthwash and their corresponding function or

mechanism of action.Results

TEA

WATER

TEA WATER

PREWhite ppt. at the bottomwhich imply theoccurrence of the bacteria

White ppt. at the bottomwhich imply theoccurrence of the bacteria

POST

The growth of thebacteria is lessen compare on the pre test

The growth of thebacteria is lessen compare on the pre test but it hasmore number than theresult on tea

Water Measurement for microbialTest tube PRE POST 1 0.765 0.765 2 1.558 1.479 3 1.486 1.537 4 1.553 1.353 5 1.800 1.255

Tea Measurement for microbialTest tube PRE POST 1 0.765 0.765 2 1.558 1.519 3 1.486 1.583 4 1.553 1.705 5 1.800 2.000

Discussion

Usually mouthwashes are an antiseptic solution intended to reduce the microbial load in the oral cavity, although other mouthwashes might be given for other reasons such as for their analgesic, anti-inflammatory or anti-fungal action.

The most common use of mouthwash is commercial antiseptics which are used at home as part of an oral hygiene routine. Some manufacturers of mouthwash claim that antiseptic and anti-plaque mouth rinse kill the bacterial plaque which causes cavities, gingivitis, and bad breath. Anti-cavity mouth rinse uses fluoride to protect against tooth decay. It is, however, generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both brushing and flossing. The American Dental Association asserts that regular brushing and proper flossing are enough in most cases, although they approve many mouthwashes that do not contain alcohol (in addition to regular dental check-ups). Another common use of mouthwash is prior to and after oral surgery procedures such as tooth extraction.

Answer to Questions1. Do you think that mouthwash is essential for proper oral hygiene? Or is

brushing and flossing enough?

For me, if anyone would want a complete oral hygiene, mouthwash is important. It removes microorganisms that brushes or flosses can’t remove. Moreover, mouthwash can also control the production of bacteria and minimize its growth.

2. What is oil pulling? Do you think this is effective?

Oil pulling or oil swishing, is a traditional Indian folk remedy that involves swishing oil in the mouth for claimed oral and systemic health benefits. The practitioner rinses their mouth with approximately one tablespoon of oil (sesame, sunflower and coconut oils are the most recommended) for 15–20 minutes on an empty stomach, for example first thing in the morning, before eating/drinking, then spits the oil out. Saline or salt water gargling is also an age old proven and effective mouthwash, which is still widely used by almost all people.

3. Give ten herbal plants that can be potentially used as mouthwash.

Use of guava (Psidium guajava) as a mouthwash In southern Nigeria the twigs are used as chew sticks and the presence of

bioactive compounds comprised of saponins, tannins, flavonoids, alkaloids is responsible for their effectiveness. Chewing sticks when used without toothpaste are very efficient, effective, and reliable for cleaning teeth. The teeth of chewing sticks users are usually strong, clean, fresh, and devoid of dental plaques and caries.

In Brazil guava is considered an astringent and diuretic and is used for the same conditions as in Peru. Decoction is also recommended as a gargle for sore throats, laryngitis and swelling of the mouth. Chewing sticks when used without toothpaste are

very efficient, effective, and reliable in cleaning the teeth of many people in Southern Nigeria. The teeth of the users of chewing sticks are usually strong, clean, fresh, and devoid of dental plaques and caries. These results indicate the basis for the preventive and protection of the tea against caries and plaques by the samples used. In Ghana and in Nigeria the leaves are chewed to relieve toothache. A decoction of the root-bark is recommended as a mouthwash for swollen gums and decoction of the leaves makes an efficacious gargle for swollen gum and ulceration of the mouth and also for bleeding gums.

Use of pomegranate (Punica granatum) as mouthwash: Pomegranate is currently finding important applications in the field of dental

health. Clinical studies have shown that this popular antioxidant superstar attacks the causes of tooth decay at the biochemical level, with remarkable vigour (5,6,7,8,9). When used regularly in combination with toothpaste that has been reinforced with bioactive botanical extracts, pomegranate containing mouthwash may fight dental plaque and tartar formation by inhibiting the activities of the microorganisms that cause plaque. Additionally, pomegranate compounds posses anti-inflammatory properties that may help soothe irritated tissues. Fascinating research shows that pomegranate extract suppresses the ability of these microorganisms to adhere to the surface of the tooth. The trick is to inhibit a common species of Streptococcus, preventing it from producing chemicals that create favorable conditions for fungi and other microorganisms to thrive. Plaque may involve four or more different microorganisms combining forces to colonize the surface of the teeth. Remarkably, nature’s own pomegranate fights the organisms’ ability to adhere by interfering with production of the very chemicals the bacteria use as “glue”.

Use of neem (Azadirachta indica, A.indica) as a mouthwash The first known use of neem by the Harrappa culture in ancient India dates back

4500 years. The history of the Neem tree is inextricably linked to the history of the Indian way of life. Today, neem extracts are used to treat various skin diseases, as an antiseptic substance, against endo and ectoparasites or simply as a herbal mouthwash. Neem extract has also an excellent effect as a non-toxic repellent, insecticide and pesticide. Almost every study of neem notes its antibacterial properties, but the more recent studies typically mention it in passing and emphasize newer discoveries or focus on a more specific use. Most of this work has been done in laboratories because treating bacteria (unlike viruses or cancer) is relatively straight-forward. In test tubes, neem has been shown to have significant effects on both gram-positive and gram-negative organisms and other bacteria that cause a wide array of human and animal diseases including E. coli, streptococcus and salmonella. Some of the more recent work has focused on oral care, a critical issue in both developing countries where professional dental care is limited and in developed nations where populations are aging. Extracts from neem sticks or bark have been shown to inhibit the growth of streptococcus mutans.

Wolinsky et al have examined the inhibitory effects of aqueous extracts of neem, derived from the bark-containing sticks (Neem stick) of A. indica upon bacterial aggregation, growth, adhesion to hydroxyapatite, and production of insoluble glucan, which may affect in vitro plaque formation. The Neem stick extract and the gallotannin-enriched extract from Melaphis chinensis inhibited insoluble glucan. Incubation of oral streptococci with the Neem stick extract resulted in a microscopically observable bacteria aggregation. These data suggest that Neem stick extract can reduce the ability of some streptococci to colonize tooth surfaces.

In dentistry, A indica provide abbreviation has also demonstrated a good efficacy in the treatment of periodontal disorders. In a small trial from India, it was suggested that a dental gel containing A. indica extract has significantly reduced plaque index and bacterial count as compared to positive controls (chlorhexidine 0.2%). Streptococcus mutans (S. mutans) provide abbreviation in the saliva was found to be reduced significantly. The positive effect on dental health has been reported in epidemiological studies such efficacy of the herbal mouthrinses extract and the low dental caries among other natural bioactive products users.

Use of Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) as a mouthwashTulsi is a small plant, sub-shrub which has multiple uses. Ayurveda mentions the importance of medicinal uses of it. The leaves are quite effective for the ulcer and infections in the mouth. A few leaves chewed will cure these conditions. The herb is useful in teeth disorders. Its leaves, dried in the sun and powdered, can be used for brushing teeth. It can also be mixed with mustered oil to make a paste and used as toothpaste. This is very good for maintaining dental health counteracting bad breath and for massaging the gums. It is also useful in pyorrhea and other gum disorders. The anti-inflammatory and anti-infectious properties of tulsi make it a powerful treatment for gum disease.

Use of green tea (Camellia sinensis) as a mouthwash It can be used as a gargle or mouthwash to treat dental decay, halitosis, laryngitis, mouth sores, plaque formation, sore throat, thrush, and tonsillitis. As a compress thyme treats bronchitis, bruises, colds, congestion (in the lungs), flu, insect bites, and wounds. It can be prepared as a soak to treat fungal infections such as athlete's foot, ringworm, and parasites such as crabs, lice, and scabies or as a douche to deter Candida. `aIn a study, the formulation and evaluation of green tea mouthwash as a new, safe and nontoxic product for children and pregnant women was evaluated. Green tea mouthwash has been shown to effectively reduce plaque accumulation, and is free from side effects as of chemical mouthwashes.

Ringworm Bush or Akapulko (Cassia alata) as a mouthwashA shrub known to be a diuretic, sudorific and purgative. The medicinal uses of

akapulko are to treat scabies, fungal infection of the skin and for the treatment of ringworms in ruminants and swine.

The seeds used for intestinal parasitism. Tincture from leaves reported to be purgative. Decoction of leaves and flowers for cough. Crushed leaves and juice extract used for ringworm, scabies, eczema, tinea infections, insect bites, herpes. Decoction of leaves and flowers used as mouthwash in stomatitis.

Wild Tea or Tsaang Gubat (Ehretia microphylla Lam.) as mouthwashThis medicinal herb is effective in treating diarrhea, dysentery, gastroenteritis and

other stomach ailments Leaf decoction or infusion for abdominal colic, cough, diarrhea and dysentery. Root decoction used as an antidote for vegetable poisoning. For diarrhea: Boil 8 tbsp of chopped leaves in 2 glasses of water for 15 minutes; strain and cool. Use 1/4 of the decoction every 2 or 3 hours. Decoction has also been used as a dental mouthwash. Decoction of leaves used as disinfectant wash.

Mastic(Pistacia lentiscus) as mouthwashIt is a dioecious evergreen shrub or small tree of thepistacio genus growing up to

4 m (13 ft) tall which is cultivated for its aromatic resin, mainly on the Greek island of Chios.

People in the Mediterranean region have used mastic as a medicine for gastrointestinal ailments for several thousand years. The first-century Greek physician and botanist, Dioscorides, wrote about the medicinal properties of mastic in his classic treatise De Materia Medica ("About Medical Substances"). Some centuries later, Markellos Empeirikos and Pavlos Eginitis also noticed the effect of mastic on the digestive system.

Regular consumption of mastic has been proven to absorb cholesterol, thus easing high blood pressure and reducing the risk of heart attacks. Mastic oil also has antibacterial and antifungal properties, and as such is widely used in the preparation of ointments for skin disorders and afflictions. It is also used in the manufacture of plasters.

In recent years, university researchers have provided the scientific evidence for the medicinal properties of mastic. A 1985 study by the University of Thessaloniki and by the Meikai University discovered that mastic can reduce bacterial plaque in the mouth by 41.5%. A 1998 study by the University of Athensfound that mastic oil has antibacterial and antifungal properties. Another 1998 University of Nottingham study, claims that mastic can heal peptic ulcers by killing Helicobacter pylori, which causes peptic ulcers, gastritis, and duodenitis. Some in vivo studies have shown that mastic gum has no effect on H. pyloriwhen taken for short periods of time. However, a recent and more extensive study showed that mastic gum reduced H. pylori populations after an insoluble and sticky polymer (poly-β-myrcene) constituent of

mastic gum was removed and taken for a longer period of time. Further analysis showed the acid fraction was the most active antibacterial extract, and the most active pure compound was isomasticadienolic acid.[11]

A balm was created from the mastic tree resin for use by physicians in Biblical times. American slaves took the reference in Jeremiah 8:22 to the balm of Gilead to refer to Jesus Christ in the spiritual hymn, There is a Balm in Gilead.

Garlic (Allium sativum) as mouthwash

Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chive, and rakkyo. With a history of human use of over 7,000 years, garlic is native to central Asia, and has long been a staple in the Mediterranean region, as well as a frequent seasoning in Asia, Africa, and Europe. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has been used for both culinary and medicinal purposes.

Garlic was used as an antiseptic to prevent gangrene during World War I and World War II. More recently, it has been found from a clinical trial that a mouthwash containing 2.5% fresh garlic shows good antimicrobial activity, although the majority of the participants reported an unpleasant taste and halitosis.

Narrow-leaved Paperbark (Melaleuca alternifolia ) as mouthwashIt is a species of tree or tall shrub in the plant genus Melaleuca. Native to

Australia, it occurs in Southeast Queensland and the north coast and adjacent ranges of New South Wales. It grows along streams and on swampy flats, and is often the dominant species where it occurs.

The indigenous Bundjalung people of eastern Australia use "tea trees" as a traditional medicine by inhaling the oils from the crushed leaves to treat coughs and colds. They also sprinkle leaves on wounds, after which a poultice is applied. In addition, tea tree leaves are soaked to make an infusion to treat sore throats or skin ailments.

Characteristic of the myrtle family Myrtaceae, it is used to distill essential oil. It is the primary species for commercial production of tea tree oil (melaleuca oil), a topical antibacterial.

Tea tree oil is toxic if ingested in large amounts and may cause skin irritation if used topically in high concentrations. No deaths have been reported.

4. List some common active ingredients of mouthwash and their corresponding functions or mechanism of action.

AlcoholSometimes a significant amount of alcohol (up to 27% vol) is added, as a carrier for the flavor, to provide "bite".Because of the alcohol content, it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes . In addition, alcohol is a drying agent, which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth, releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds. Therefore, alcohol-containing mouthwash may temporarily worsen halitosis in those who already have it, or indeed be the sole cause of halitosis in other individuals.

It is theorized that alcohol mouthwashes acts as a carcinogen (cancer-inducing). Generally, there is no scientific consensus about this. One review stated:

There is now sufficient evidence to accept the proposition that developing oral cancer is increased or contributed to by the use of alcohol-containing mouthwashes. Whilst many of these products may have been shown to be effective in penetrating oral microbial biofilms in vitro and reducing oral bacterial load, it would be wise to restrict their use to short-term therapeutic situations if needed. Perhaps the use of mouthwashes that do not contain alcohol may be equally effective. Further, mouthrinses should be prescribed by dentists, like any other medication. There may well be a reason for the use of alcohol-containing mouthrinses, but only for a particular situation and for a limited and controlled period of time. As such, patients should be provided with written instructions for mouthwash use, and mouthwash use should be restricted to adults for short durations and specific, clearly defined reasons. It is the opinion of the authors that, in light of the evidence currently available of the association of alcohol-containing mouthwashes with the development of oral cancer, it would be inadvisable for oral healthcare professionals to recommend the long-term use of alcohol-containing mouthwashes.

The same researchers also state that the risk of acquiring oral cancer rises almost five times for users of alcohol-containing mouthwash who neither smoke nor drink (with a higher rate of increase for those who do).  In addition, the authors highlight side effects from several mainstream mouthwashes that included dental erosion and accidental poisoning of children. The review garnered media attention and conflicting opinions from other researchers. Yinka Ebo of Cancer Research UK disputed the findings, concluding that "there is still not enough evidence to suggest that using mouthwash that contains alcohol will increase the risk of mouth cancer". Studies conducted in 1985, 1995, 2003, and 2012 did not support an association between alcohol-containing mouth rinses and oral cancer. Andrew Penman, chief executive of The Cancer Council New South Wales, called for further research on the matter. In a March 2009 brief, the American Dental Association said "the available evidence does not support a connection between oral cancer and alcohol-containing mouthrinse". Many newer brands of mouthwash are

alcohol free, not just in response to consumer concerns about oral cancer, but also to cater for religious groups who abstain from alcohol consumption.

Benzydamine (Difflam)

In painful oral conditions such as aphthous stomatitis, analgesic mouthrinses (e.g. benzydamine mouthwash, or "Difflam") are sometimes used to ease pain, commonly used before meals to reduce discomfort while eating.

Betamethasone

Betamethasone is sometimes used as an anti-inflammatory, corticosteroid mouthwash. It may be used for severe inflammatory conditions of the oral mucosa such as the severe forms of aphthous stomatitis.

Chlorhexidine digluconate

Chlorhexidine digluconate is a chemical antispetic and is used in a 0.12-0.2% solution as a mouthwash. It has significant anti-plaque action, but also some anti-fungal action. It is especially effective against Gram-negative rods. It is sometimes used as an adjunct to prevent dental caries and to treat periodontal disease, although it does not penetrate into periodontal pockets well. Chlorhexidine mouthwash alone is unable to prevent plaque, so it is not a substitute for regular toothbrushing and flossing. In the short term, if toothbrushing is impossible due to pain, as may occur in primary herpetic gingivostomatitis, chlorhexidine is used as temporary substitute for other oral hygiene measures.[37] It is not suited for use in acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis however.[37] Rinsing with chlorhexidine mouthwash before a tooth extraction reduces the risk of dry socket, a painful condition where the blood clot is lost from an extraction socket and bone is exposed to the oral cavity. Other uses of chlorhexidine mouthwash include prevention of oral candidiasis inimmunocompromised persons, treatment of denture-related stomatitis, and many other uses.

Chlorhexidine has good substantivity (the ability of a mouthwash to bind to hard and soft tissues in the mouth). However, chlorhexidine binds to tannins, meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee, tea or red wine is associated with extrinsic staining (i.e. removable staining) of teeth. Chlorhexidine is rarely associated with other issues like overgrowth of enterobacteria in persons with leukemia, desquamation and irritation of oral mucosa, salivary gland pain and swelling, and hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis.

Essential oils

Essential oils are oils which have been extracted from plants. They are used in some specialized mouthwashes for halitosis, e.g. cetylpyridinium chloride. Mouthwashes based on essential oils could be more effective than traditional

mouthwashes. Cetylpyridinium chloride mouthwash (e.g. 0.05%) has less anti-plaque effect than chlorhexidine and may cause staining of teeth, or sometimes an oral burning sensation or ulceration.

In traditional Ayurvedic medicine, the use of oil mouthwashes is called "oil pulling", "oil swishing", "Kavala" or "Gandusha", and this practice has more recently been re-marketed by the complimentary and alternative medicine industry. Its promoters claim it works by "pulling out" "toxins", which are known as ama in Ayurvedic medicine, and thereby reducing inflammation. Ayurvedic literature suggests oil pulling is capable of improving oral and systemic health, including a benefit in conditions such as headaches, migraines, diabetes mellitus, asthma, and acne, as well as whitening teeth.

Oil pulling has received little study and there is little evidence to support claims made by the technique's advocates. When compared with chlorhexidine in one small study, it was found to be less effective at reducing oral bacterial load, otherwise the health claims of oil pulling have failed scientific verification or have not been investigated. There is a report of lipid pneumonia caused by accidental inhalation of the oil during oil pulling.

The mouth is rinsed with approximately one tablespoon of oil for 10–20 minutes then spat out. Sesame oil, coconut oil and ghee are traditionally used, but newer oils such as sunflower oil are also used.

Fluoride

Fluoride mouthwashes are sometimes used in individuals who are at high risk of dental decay. They usually contain about 1450 parts per million fluoride. The fluoride strengthens teeth against decay.

Hydrogen peroxide

Hydrogen peroxide can be used as an oxidizing mouthwash (e.g. Peroxyl, 1.5%).It kills anearobic bacteria, and also has a mechanical cleansing action when it froths as it comes into contact with debris in mouth. It is often used in the short term to treat acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis. Side effects with prolonged use might occur, including hypertrophy lingual papillae.

Phenol

Phenolic mouthwashes (e.g. Listerine) have some anti-plaque action but less substantivity than chlorhexidine. They do not stain teeth.

Providone/iodine

A 2005 study found that gargling three times a day with simple water or with a providone/iodine solution (although with less effectiveness) was effective in

preventing upper respiratory infection and decreasing the severity of symptoms if contracted. A later study found that the same procedure did not prevent influenza-like illnesses. Other sources attribute the benefit to a simple placebo effect.

Sanguinarine

Sanguinarine-containing mouthwashes are marketed as anti-plaque and anti-malodor.[36] It is a toxic alkaloid herbal extract, obtained from plants such asSanguinaria canadensis (Bloodroot), Argemone mexicana (Mexican Prickly Poppy) and others. However, its use is strongly associated with development of leukoplakia (a white patch in the mouth), usually in the buccal sulcus. This type of leukoplakia has been termed "sanguinaria-associated keratosis" and more than 80% of people with leukoplakia in the vestibule of the mouth have used this substance. Upon stopping contact with the causative substance, the lesions may persist for years. Although this type of leukoplakia may show dysplasia, the potential for malignant transformation is unknown. Ironically, elements within the complimentary and alternative medicine industry promote the use of sanguinaria as a therapy for cancer.

Sodium bicarbonate (Baking soda)

Sodium bicarbonate is sometimes combined with salt to make a simple homemade mouthwash, indicated for any of the reasons that a salt water mouthwash might be used. Pre-mixed mouthwashes of 1% sodium bicarbonate and 1.5% sodium chloride in aqueous solution are marketed, although pharmacists will easily be able to produce such a formulation from the base ingredients when required. Sodium bicarbonate mouthwash is sometimes used to remove viscous saliva and to aid visualization of the oral tissues during examination of the mouth.

Sodium chloride (Salt)

Hot salt water mouth baths (or hot salt water mouth washes, sometimes abbreviated to "HSWMW") are also routinely used after oral surgery, to keep food debris out of healing wounds and to prevent infection. Some oral surgeons consider salt water mouthwashes the mainstay of wound cleanliness after surgery. In dental extractions, hot salt water mouthbaths should start about 24 hours after a dental extraction. The term mouth bath implies that the liquid is passively held in the mouth rather than vigorously swilled around, which could dislodge a blood clot. Once the blood clot has stabilized, the mouth wash can be used more vigorously. These mouthwashes tend to be advised about 6 times per day, especially after meals to remove food from the socket.

Salt water mouth wash is made by dissolving 0.5-1 teaspoon of table salt into a cup of water, which is as hot as possible without causing discomfort in the mouth. Saline has a mechanical cleansing action and an antiseptic action as it is a hypertonic solution in relation to bacteria, which undergo lysis. The heat of the solution produces a therapeutic

increase in blood flow (hyperemia) to the surgical site, promoting healing. Hot salt water mouthwashes also encourage the draining of pus from dental abscesses. Conversely, if heat is applied on the side of the face (e.g. hot water bottle) rather than inside the mouth, it may cause a dental abscess to drain extra-orally, which is later associated with an area of fibrosis on the face. Gargling with salt water is said to reduce the symptoms of a sore throat.

Sodium lauryl sulfate[edit]

Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) is notorious for causing aphthous stomatitis (mouth ulcers) in susceptible individuals. It is present in a great many oral hygiene products including many mouthwashes. Some may suggest that it is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains SLS , since the anionic compounds in the SLS toothpaste can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouthrinse. However, many of the popular mouthwashes also contain sodium lauryl sulfate as an ingredient (e.g., Listerine Total Care).

Tetracycline

Tetracycline is an antibiotic which may sometimes be used as a mouthwash in adults (it causes red staining of teeth in children). It is sometimes use for herpetiforme ulceration (an uncommon type of aphthous stomatitis), but prolonged use may lead to oral candidiasis as the fungal population of the mouth overgrows in the absence of enough competing bacteria.

Tranexamic acid

4.8% tranexamic acid solution is sometimes used as an antifibrinolytic mouthwash to prevent bleeding during and after oral surgery in persons withcoagulopathies (clotting disorders) or who are taking anticoagulants (blood thinners such as warfarin).

Triclosan

Triclosan is a non-ionic chlorinate bisphenol antiseptic. When used in mouthwash (e.g. 0.03%), there is moderate substantivity, broad spectrum anti-bacterial action, some anti-fungal action and significant anti-plaque effect, especially when combined with copolymer or zinc citrate. Triclosan does not cause staining of the teeth. The safety of tricolsan has been questioned.

Conclusion

It can be concluded that tea is more effective as a mouthwash than distilled water. Based on the quantitative tests, tea reduced or inhibit the growth of bacteria more than distilled water.

The exercise also define what is oil pulling and its affectivity.

Mouth wash is really important for oral hygiene and in this report, people see what are the ingredients of a mouthwash and its function. Moreover, there are herbal plant that can also use as an alternative for mouthwash.

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