15 Mark Questions (Examples)

1. Outline Reasons for the development of ‘youth culture’ (15) Post War affluence and jobs - Argued that youth had spare income to pursue interests

however Marxists argue some youth still deprived e.g Skinheads Globalisation – styles and music – Influence of international trade and development of

‘supermarket of style’ Polemus, however Marxists may argue youth are exploited by corporations for their money. Strong influence from USA

Media targets youth for large companies to gain profit from them also music and fashion is marketed towards youth. Feminism Currie finds increased emphasis on beautification in girls magazines.

Elongated Youth means youngsters want to follow interests and find identity (Functionalism, Eisenstadt)

2. Outline reasons why young people join youth ‘subcultures’ (15) Parsons Functionalism – Functional Rite of Passage to adulthood Einstadt – Functionalist - Crisis of identity to help integrate youth Marxists - CCCS – Resistance against capitalism Cohen and Clark/Brake/ Music and style – Hodgkinson and Goths Post Modernist - Bennet and Neo-tribes – sub-cultures are not relevant anymore

3. Outline reasons why youth cultures are often seen as masculine Feminists argue (Heidensohn) Sociology is malestream Male sociologists have no access to female sub-cultures e.g Bedroom culture –

McRobbie and Garber – new bedroom culture with internet !! Masculine because often deviant and males associated with deviance e.g Skinheads and

masculinity Cohen and Clarke- girls were involved too just invisible Deviant sub-cultures e.g drugs – moral panic Mods and Rockers mostly male -Stan

Cohen Labelling of deviant groups seen as masculine – chavs, gangs – people can reject labelsHowever females are involved e.g blackman New Wave girls, Asian gang girls – girls are not so deviant 87% crimes are committed by males

4. Outline Characteristics of spectacular sub-cultures Shocking styles to oppose mainstream e.g skinheads/hippies dress, music, drugs, slang

words, transport – most youth are ordinary Functionalists argue sub-cultures are not important , it is the sense of belonging- Crisis

of identity Eisenstadt therefore one characteristic is loyalty Marxists argue destinct styles are important as they are signs of resistance and

allegiance therefore they are designed to shock Hebdige and Punk style conveys imagination of youth and resistance However many

youth styles have been encorporated into mainstream which takes away meaning ( all about bourgeoisie and profit)

Deviance – most spectacular groups are deviant vs moral panic and labelling Bennett argues political allegiances are dead and now it all about consumerism and

leisure – Neotribes.

5. Outline the characteristics of Neo Tribes Neotribes (Bennett) are different to old youth cultures who had a more fixed identity e.g

skinhead was loyal to style and politics of the group. A neotribe is a loose gathering of people arranged along lines of consumerism and leisure e.g when people go clubbing they share clubbing knowledge (tribal knowledge) but are no loyal to one particular group or style they are fluid.

Consumerism is key part of post modern youth – (Polemus) supermarket of style – However Marxists would argue they are still based around class and ability to purchase – chavs

Neotribes are not based around traditional identities e.g class no longer matters (Maffesoli) identities are fragmented and diverseAnother characteristic is that youth are culturally involved in media/social media etc but not politically aware and do not organise resistance in the same way as say Hippies in the 60s – Polemus referred to today’s youth as style over substance!

6. Outline reasons why young people are seen as deviant Because of shocking styles, music oppose mainstream culture However most are

ordinary Spectacular sub-cultures are deviant drugs/violence – labelling/moral panic Youth are vehicles of social change e.g Hippies so older people don’t like Moral Panics caused by media construct as deviant. Labelling of young people in the media – Becker causes self-fulfilling prophecy. Could be resistance to capitalism skinheads/teddy boys – Bourgoiesie will protect

themselves hence media creates moral panic. Youth sub-cultures have been seen as masculine and masculine is more deviant

7. Reasons why young people form anti-school sub-cultures. Marxist would argue that Social class differences in school cause sub-cultures – middle

class students are rewarded with good jobs etc however working class do not gain from obedience in school so may form sub-cultures e.g Paul Willis laddish culture and learning to labour.

However Functionalists argue education is meritocratic and sub-cultures form due to deviant working class values (Status Frustration – Albert Cohen)

Ladettes forming sub-cultures of working class girls who are now failing Jackson 2006, however males are also underachieving.

Crisis of masculinity - gender element – lads mostly failing due to laddishness – however girls changing forming groups that resist patricarchy e.g Blackman New Wave girls and Sk8er girlsEthnicity – Sewell and black boys – education failed to provide for needs – hip hop culture encouraged anti-school attitudes and failure. Shain 2006 Asian Gang girls anti-school – pro education

35 Mark Questions (examples)

1. Youth cultures as being deviant/criminal AO1/2 Define youth culture and deviance, young people may be seen as deviant because they differ from mainstream culture e.g HippiesAO3 However Ordinary youth are conformist and non-deviantAO1/2 Sub-cultures may be deviant e.g dress, attitudes, drugs – give examples skinheads (Clarke and Cohen), punks (hebdige) etc – However Marxists would argue that they are deviant due to inequality and capitalism.AO3 However deviance could be due to labelling and moral panics, give examples (hoodies)and research (Stan Cohen – Mods and Rockers). Most of essay AO1/2 Explain difference in gender,ethnicity and class in youth offending e.g male offending and crisis of masculinity, Gilroy -ethnicity and treatment by police, class and status frustration (Albert Cohen)AO3 However Po-Mo excitement Katz, pick and Mix, Neo-tribes –not fixed identities. They may leave behind when they grow up!AO1/2 Furthermore middle class youth sub-cultures i.e. hippies of 1960s could be seen as vehicles of social change e.g civil rights, environment and anti-war campaigns.AO3 Therefore youth cannot be seen as uniform group worthy of deviant label and it must be considered how the media may exaggerate their deviance.

2. Discuss the view that youth sub-cultures are mostly masculine (35) Example answerSociological research into the development and nature of youth cultures has largely been focussed on male involvement in youth cultures. For example work on the skinheads focussed on aspects of working class masculinity. However, Feminists such as Heidensohn (1985) have argued that Sociology has until recently has been ‘Malestream’, and therefore females have been ignored. This suggests that females have been involved in youth cultures in many ways but that very little research has been done about them.Structural perspectives like Functionalism and Marxism (particularly CCCS) have been criticised for being gender blind and for ignoring female involvement in youth cultures. For example they often portray sub-cultures such as Hippies, Mods and Rockers as being a male phenomena with girls tagging along but not responsible for the iconic images of the era. However a more detailed look shows that there were clearly female hippies and rockers and even skinheads. This implies that, because researchers were mainly male they focussed on other males and were perhaps unable to gain access to study female youth cultures.Since the second wave of feminism in the 1960’s more women were being employed in universities and hence more female sociologists were emerging who were able to conduct research on female youth culture. For example McRobbie and Garber identified the ‘teeny bopper’ female culture which centred around romance, fashion and ‘bedroom’ activities carried out by girls. This was nicknamed ‘bedroom culture’ and was

perhaps previously invisible to male sociologists who were unable to gain access to the very private context of a teenage girl’s bedroom. The work of Carol Smart (1976) can explain this culture through the extra parental control which is exercised over girls due to gender stereotypes. This suggests that girls’ involvement in youth cultures has perhaps been invisible to researchers but the involvement has nevertheless existed.More recent research has also identified the emergence of visible female sub-cultures. For example Blackman (1995) studied what he called the New Wave girls who resisted male control and parental control and were non-conformist at school. Other all-female sub-cultures have also been identified in the last decade in the USA such as riot Grls and Sk8er girls linked with Avril Lavigne. These female sub-cultures may reflect changing gender roles across this era. However critiques of the feminist view also point out that most youth, males and females are ordinary and are not member of youth cultures. Furthermore this analysis ignores other dimensions such as ethnicity and class which may be more important in the development of sub-cultures.Finally in looking at youth sub-cultures which have emerged since the 1980’s, many have been more gender neutral movements. For example Goths, Emos and house and rave. The rave culture of the 1990’s was largely connected to dance music and clubbing and was seen to cut across boundaries of gender, ethnicity and class. In the Emo culture girls and boys are equally involved and practice ‘sexual blurring’ breaking down the traditional stereotypes. The Sisters of Mercy are a famous female Goth band of the 1980’s and clearly shows that women were involved in this sub-culture. However their neutral nature may suggest that gender is not the most important aspect of these cultures.To conclude, it appears that research into youth sub-cultures up to the 1980s largely focussed on male involvement. This essay has shown that women may have been involved in those early youth cultures but were largely ignored by Sociologists. More recent research has found that girls are involved in sub-cultures of their own which were previously invisible, e.g bedroom culture and that more female only sub-cultures are emerging. Therefore females are just as likely to be involved in youth sub-cultures as males.

3. Discuss how consumerism has impacted on youth culture (35) AO1/2 Define consumerism and youth culturePost War increased affluence/spending power/products aimed at youthGlobalisation led to increased choice (supermarket of style) Polemus – blending of ethnic styles due to globalisation and consumerism. AO3 Therefore consumerism may be the reason why youth culture exists although Marxists argue many youth still poor and working-class/cannot afford styles

AO1/2 Increased affluence and middle class attitudes leads to development of Hippies and Skinheads. This was the result of increasing consumerism . AO3 However it can be argued that sub-cultures emerge for other reasons such as a crisis of masculinity due to feminism or because of a sense of belonging.AO1 More recent theories suggest that youth culture is entirely based around consumerism and leisure and no longer related to political views or loyalty to class, gender or race (Bennett – neotribes). Polemus – supermarket of style – diversity.AO3 Some would argue mass consumerism has led to less choice (Mcdonaldisation) and pressure to conform to youth ideals i.e. eating disorders caused by media. However Some sub-cultures are still class/gender/ethnicity basedAO1/2 Sewell argues that black caribbean culture is very materialist (bling) and has influenced white youths in the uk (possible cause of London Riots) AO3 However these styles may be due to resistance to white oppression rather than just consumerism.

4. Discuss the ways that ethnicity has influenced youth sub-culturesAO1/2 Ethnicity is related to culture, descent and a shared sense of identity (Modood 2005) AO3 Therefore ethnicity is related to race, as well as nationality as well as religion. Factors which have influenced people’s ethnic identities are immigration, globalisation and hybridity. Ethnocentrism and racism key to understanding nature of different ethnic groupsAO1/2 Hall (1996) New ethnicities. Stuart Hall recognises how ethnic groups have influenced one another due to migration and globalisation producing hybrid identities. Modood et al (1997) most second generation immigrants (Caribbean and South Asian) saw themselves as both British and Black/Asian AO3 However do white british see them this way?AO1/2 Rastafarians – Jamaica, Bob Marley, religion, any capitalism resistance, Gilroy - resistance to white oppression. Sub-culture formed due to racism in society. AO3 However could be due to liking the style/sense of belonging (Eisenstadt) However Gilroy believed police to target black youths and were institutionally racist – e.g Stephen lawrence case.AO1/2 Tony Sewell (1997) found Black youths developed anti-school and resistant sub-cultures based on rastafarian or gansta/hip-hop culture – macho, materialist – gave them status they could not get from white society. White youths are adopting too therefore this ethnic identity has significantly influence youth cultures in UKAO3 However could be due to crisis of masculinityAO1/2 Hybridity has occurred -Bhangra – folk music from Punjab has been incorporated into contemporary music styles – Brittany Spears -Shown in Brasian (New Hybrid identity British Asian). Hip-Hop Gansta Rap – born in the Bronx in 1970s – Rap music, dance, graffiti, female exploitation - Hybridity is strong e.g Eminem

AO3 However many youths are still constrained by ethnic identity – ethnocentrism in schools means some groups underachieve in education, Muslim youth often must conform to family expectations e.g burka Furthermore Hiphop masculine culture could be due to crisis of masculinity AO1/2 Les Back (1996) found white youths adopting black caribbean culture on London council estates. – could be as seen as masculine and ‘cool’ AO3 However could be due to media influence which is controlled by Bourgeoisie – commercialisation of black street style benefits rich and helps to divide young people.

5. Discuss the view that youth cultures are social class basedAO1/2 Class has been seen as important part of understanding why sub-cultures have emerged. Functionalists argue that class is not important and sub-cultures are not important AO3 However marxists argue this is the main reason – Skinheads (Clarke and Cohen) Teddy Boys were working class (Jefferson and Hall)AO1/2 Skinheads were opposed to consumerism and middle class affluence suggests class struggle was the basis. (Clarke and Cohen for the CCCS)AO3 However – did they really feel this way? Did they just like the style or was it due to gender issues like crisis of masculinityAO1/2 Hippies were opposed to mainstream culture e.g war and consumerism and although no really class based most were middle class. (Brake) AO3 You could argue were not that far away from mainstream really as used music, clothes etc produced by large companies, opposed to impure foods etc but used recreational drugsAO1/2 Chavs are working class youths seen as deviant and welfare dependent – suggests class differences in youth – compared to middle class e.g private educated privileged whose culture is different e.g In USA Jocks are all powerful and affluent groups are separated by class (Colombine massacre based around class sub-cultures)AO3 However Bennett and Neo-tribes argues class is no longer important – Thornton Club culture – old identities are not important anymore

6. Discuss the challenges faced by youth in Post Modern society (35)

AO1/2 Youth is based on consumerism and ability to buy (Polemus) – AO3 Not all can buy leads to status frustration – deviance – chavs riots etc MarxismAO1/2 Media has profound effect on youth culture – pressure to conform – eating disorders – body image – affects gender roles – exploitation of women – Currie and rise of beautification in magazines – sexualisation of young girls. Led to risky sexual behaviour and rise of STDs/teenage pregnancy –

AO3 The pressure to conform benefits the rich corporations as youth try to buy latest products. However the media can also benefit youth and social media means they can now form ideas independently from media. AO1/2 Risk Society – Cieslik suggests young people have to make correct choices and are increasingly labelled as deviant. Alcohol, drugs, anti-social behaviour – gangsAO3 However 56% of crimes are committed by under 21s although this is minority of youth still. AO1/2 Increased dependence caused by economic factors – unemployment – 1 million unemployed split between those with qualifications and those without. Leading to deviant – status frustration and labelling. AO3 However there are increasing apprentiship opportunities and number fo NEETs in reducing due to compulsory school age changes.AO1/2 Many youth may lack a sense of belonging due to death of spectacular sub-cultures such as skinheads or Mods due to rise of Neo-Tribes – AO3 This means youth lack any involvement in political issues and old identities based on class or ethnicity have broken down. sexual blurring, ethnic hybridity. However many are still ordinary and constrained by their identities especially class.