· Web viewWhen the ecological character of a Ramsar Site declines (or is likely to decline) due...

Second Order Draft for External Reviewers: Do not quote, cite or disseminate

CONVENTION ON WETLANDS21st Meeting of the Scientific and Technical Review PanelGland, Switzerland, 15 – 19 January 2018

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Global Wetland Outlook:

Responses

PAGE 48: Key points

“…it is essential that vital ecosystem functions and the ecosystem services they provide to people and nature are fully recognized, maintained, restored and wisely used.” Ramsar Strategic Plan

Ramsar encourages actions that:

recognize the value of wetlands by educating and informing stakeholders and decision-makers

maintain and wisely use our existing wetland base by reducing or eliminating the drivers of loss and degradation

restore wetland habitat where it has been degraded or destroyed.

This section explains how these can be achieved, starting with Ramsar mechanisms and the Convention’s three pillars, then looking at legal and policy approaches; economic and financial incentives; restoration; social, cultural and business approaches; and technical support tools.

Responses are most effective when several are implemented together, in a holistic manner. Many are mutually reinforcing and applicable to all sectors. Even actions targeted at a particular problem usually depend on broader responses to ensure long-term support and implementation.

[153 words]

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PAGE 49: Designation and management of Ramsar Sites

One significant conservation response is to designate important wetlands as Ramsar Sites, thus immediately putting an international obligation on the government to conserve. There are currently approximately 2300 Ramsar Sites, covering more than 225 million hectares or approximately 18% of global wetlands (Davidson et al. 2017; Milton & Finlayson 2017). The Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance is one of the world’s most extensive networks of protected areas (Pittock et al. 2014). Figure 1 illustrates a steady increase in Ramsar designations over time, although this slowed considerably in the 2010s. Figure 2 compares Ramsar Sites by region, showing that while Europe has the greatest number of Sites, Africa has designated the greatest area.

Figure 1. Global number and area of Ramsar Sites. Source: RSIS.

Figure 2. Number and area of Ramsar Sites disaggregated by Ramsar region. Source: RSIS.

Surveys in Africa (Gardner et al. 2009), Canada (Lynch-Stewart 2008), and the United States (Gardner & Connolly 2007) found designation providing multiple benefits. These include: raising awareness

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about the importance of the Site and of wetlands; increasing support for protection and management; influencing land-use decisions, land acquisition and environmental assessments; increasing funding opportunities; and fostering eco-tourism and research. The Ramsar Secretariat has compiled case studies from Latin America and the Caribbean and North America that discuss these benefits (Rivera & Gardner 2011; Figure 3).

Opportunities exist for many more Ramsar Sites to be designated. For example, only 24% of Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas that meet the criteria and thresholds for Ramsar qualification have been wholly or partially designated. The highest coverage was in Africa and Europe (at least 30% of IBAs) and lowest in Asia (12%).

Designation alone does not ensure good conservation. Management planning is strongly linked to effectiveness of protected areas (Leverington et al. 2010) and best practices call for the development of management plans (Casson et al. 2016). Ramsar Sites with management plans fare better than those without. In the Mediterranean Ramsar Sites with an effectively implemented management plan show a higher growth in wintering waterbird populations (Korichi & Treilhes 2013). However, only just over half of all Ramsar Sites have management plans that are being implemented.

PULLOUT TEXT: Ramsar designation contributes to Aichi Biodiversity Target 11 (see box on page 50) and Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.6 to “protect and restore water-related ecosystems, including mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers, aquifers and lakes”; and SDG 15.1 to “ensure the conservation…of terrestrial and inland freshwater ecosystems”.

[410 words]

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Figure 3.


PAGE 50: Responding to change in Ramsar Sites

When the ecological character of a Ramsar Site declines (or is likely to decline) due to human actions, the Convention encourages a range of responses, including notifications, Ramsar Advisory Missions (RAMs) and listing on the Montreux Record, which identifies threatened Ramsar Sites. Article 3.2 requires Contracting Parties to notify the Secretariat of problems “without delay.” By 2015 [to be updated], Administrative Authorities had made or confirmed notifications for 144 Ramsar Sites; third parties had notified another 64 Sites without Administrative Authority confirmation (Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2015). However, such notifications are comparatively rare Pritchard (2014). Similarly, the Montreux Record has seen little recent use. Only one of the 47 Ramsar Sites listed has been added since 2008; Iraq listed the Hawizeh Marsh in 2010. In contrast, RAMs remain an active response, with at least one taking place each year since 2008.

Figure 5. Relationship of responses to change in ecological character of Ramsar Sites. Source: Pritchard (2014).

[Start Box on Aichi Biodiversity Targets:]

Ramsar Sites: contribution to the 2020 Aichi Biodiversity Targets

Amongst the 2020 “Aichi Biodiversity Targets”, adopted in the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 by the Convention on Biological Diversity’ (CBD) in 2010, Ramsar Site designation makes a direct contribution towards achieving Target 11: “By 2020, at least 17 per cent of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 per cent of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem services, are conserved through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systems of protected areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes.”

Ramsar Sites are undoubtedly making a major contribution towards achieving Aichi 11 although precise figures are not known. There are currently 2,261 Ramsar Sites covering over 2.15 million km2, including 1.99 million km2 of inland wetlands The Ramsar Site network therefore covers 18% of the most recent total area estimate for inland wetlands (Davidson et al. in press), although some Ramsar

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Sites include substantial non-wetland areas (e.g. in catchments), so this percentage is likely an overestimate.

Ramsar Sites contribute less to the marine component of Aichi 11. If Target 11 covers all nearshore marine and deep ocean areas, the Ramsar Site network currently covers only 0.2% of the global ocean area of 362 million km2.

[End Box]

[415 words]

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PAGE 51: Supporting wise use

The concept of wise use is central to the Ramsar Convention’s philosophy and practice. Support is encouraged through “Communication, Capacity Building, Education, Participation and Awareness” (CEPA). To ensure sound decision-making, stakeholders and beneficiaries must understand wetland ecosystem services, and how these are affected by onsite and offsite activities. The Convention offers several mechanisms that support CEPA.

World Wetlands Day on February 2 each year, which commemorates the Ramsar Convention’s adoption, is the highest profile, global public awareness event related to wetlands. The Convention’s CEPA Programme distributes outreach material, which is adapted for local audiences. In 2015, 89% of Contracting Parties branded World Wetland Day activities and 884 activities were reported. Activities had increased to 1,605 by 2017.

The Convention’s CEPA Programme encourages the establishment of wetland education centres, noting their value in promoting Ramsar principles. These can range from simple to highly technical, and are an effective tool in raising awareness about wetland values. The CEPA Programme has recognized Wetland Link International, which has over 300 members, as a useful network to link these centres, to share experiences and ideas.

Four Ramsar Regional Centres also promote training and capacity building: Ramsar Regional Centre for Training and Research in the Western Hemisphere; Ramsar Centre for Eastern Africa; Ramsar Regional Centre – Central and West Asia; and Ramsar Regional Centre – East Asia. For example, the RRC-EA sponsored national experts to attend a training workshop on Ramsar implementation issues, including designation and management challenges (Figure x).

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Figure x. Workshop on Scientific and Technical Support for the Implementation of the Convention hosted by RRC-EA

Cultural practices and traditions can significantly influence wetland management. The Ramsar Culture Network consists of over 120 individuals and organizations and collaborates with the UNESCO World Heritage Centre to promote the integration of cultural values and practices within wetland management (Pritchard 2016).

Box: Sacred waters

Many wetlands (lakes, rivers, springs etc) have sacred values for both major and minor faiths around the world; sacredness often confers a duty of care that can ensure their conservation and good management. A 2017 court ruling that recognises the Ganges River has the rights of a living entity (Kothari & Bajpai, 2017) is one of a series of policy initiatives based on sacred values.

PULLOUT TEXT: Ramsar’s wise use approach links to Sustainable Development Goal 6.5, to “implement integrated water resource management at all levels including through transboundary cooperation as appropriate”. Aichi Biodiversity Target 1 requests that “people are aware of the values of biodiversity and the steps they can take to conserve and use it sustainably”.

[411 words]

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PAGE 52: International cooperation

The 15 Ramsar regional networks offer governments, international organizations, technical experts, communities and the private sector opportunities to collaborate on conservation and wise use of wetlands. [Insert image of logos of all networks

Cooperation includes managing wetlands across national borders. Some 234 Ramsar Sites contain transnational wetlands, although in most cases only one country had designated its portion (Griffin & Ali 2014). Where the entire area has been designated by both (or all) Contracting Parties, authorities may formalize collaboration by designating the area a “transboundary Ramsar Site.” There are 20 transboundary Ramsar Sites, two are in Africa with the rest in Europe. [Insert photo of students participating in “Ramsartage” at Oberrhein/Rhin Supérieur]

Funding assistance programmes are another aspect of cooperation. The Secretariat helps administer three programmes: the Swiss Grant for Africa (established in 1989); the United States Wetlands for the Future Fund (1996), supporting Latin American, Caribbean and Mexican projects; and the Japanese Nagao Wetland Fund (2016), in the Asia and Oceania regions.

Other forms of support exist. The Japanese International Cooperation Agency has a Memorandum of Cooperation with the Secretariat and conducts training, such as a 2016 course in the Anzali Wetland Complex in Iran. Similarly, Norway’s Environment Agency funds training and capacity building in Myanmar. The Global Environment Facility, through its International Waters focal area, assists countries in jointly managing transboundary aquatic resources, providing US$1.6 billion of GEF funds for over 270 projects since 1995 (Global Environment Facility Secretariat 2015). One Ramsar-related project involved the protection and wise use of the Dinaric karst poljes and its transboundary aquifer system (GEF 2015).

New funding opportunities are emerging for climate change mitigation and adaptation, such as the Green Climate Fund established under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. In December 2016, for example, the Fund approved a US$24.1 million grant for wetland restoration in Uganda (Green Climate Fund 2016).

Case Study. AEWA conservation status assessment: Monitoring and conservation action on the ground can lead to improved waterbird status

Throughout the African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement region the conservation status of many of the 555 waterbird biogeographic populations continues to deteriorate, sometimes rapidly. Declines are higher in areas with fewer Contracting Parties and where knowledge of waterbird status remains poor. Conversely, waterbird status is improving where conservation measures are taken, key sites protected and exploitation well managed. Better monitoring has led to the designation of more protected areas and thus better conservation of waterbirds. Source. AEWA. 2015.

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PULLOUT TEXT: Sustainable Development Goal 6.a requests governments to: “expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water and sanitation-related activities and programmes…”

[410 words]

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PAGE 53: Legal and Regulatory approaches

While very few comprehensive national wetland-specific laws and policies are in place, wetlands may be protected by broader environmental laws and policies. To be effective, such laws should apply cross-sectorally. Regional, catchment and local wetland-related laws and policies also contribute to wise use and conservation. Ultimately, good governance underpins successful implementation of all legal and regulatory options (Millennium Assessment 2005).

Box: Status of national wetland inventories

A national wetland inventory supports Ramsar aims by identifying areas particularly in need of conservation or wise use. It also establishes a baseline to assess the effectiveness of any legal, regulatory or other mechanisms.

Since 2002, there has been a steady increase in the numbers of countries undertaking a comprehensive national wetland inventory, with 47% of Parties reporting in 2015 that they have an inventory. However, over half the Parties still do not have this key information, essential for underpinning national implementation of the Convention.

Status of national wetland-specific laws and policiesThere has been an encouraging and progressive increase in the percentage of countries establishing a National Wetland Policy or equivalent, since 1990 when no Parties reported such instruments to [80] Parties (55%) reporting such a Policy by 2015 (see Figure ##).

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To be effective, a wetland policy must be applied across sectors. Accordingly, one indicator in the Ramsar Strategic Plan for 2016-2024 is the percentage of Contracting Parties that have included wetland issues within national policies or measures on agriculture. Approximately half of the Contracting Parties providing a 2015 National Report indicated that they have done so. [check data]

The Mediterranean Wetlands Observatory conducted a more refined regional examination of the relationship between national wetland policies and cross-sectoral instruments, to identify the degree of policy implementation and cross-sectoral influence. The study considered the status of national wetland policies and the existence of a National Ramsar Committee (or its equivalent) and is illustrated on the map.

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PULLOUT TEXT: Aichi Biodiversity Target 19 states that “knowledge, the science base and technologies relating to biodiversity, its values, functioning, status and trends, and the consequences of its loss, are improved, widely shared and transferred, and applied”.

[342 words – note that there is also considerable text associated with the MedWEt map and there will not be space to use all the suggested diagrams]

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PAGE 54: Protected areas other than Ramsar Sites

Wetlands may be part of a legally protected area that is not necessarily designated as a Ramsar Site. Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) frequently include areas defined as wetlands under the Ramsar Convention, including coral reefs and seagrasses. An MPA’s conservation benefits are increased by several key features: a “no-take” rule that is strictly enforced; its size (larger is better); and its isolation (Edgar et al. 2014).

A wide range of other models are also applied. The Philippines, for example, uses a Community-Based Forest Management scheme that seeks to promote sustainable or wise use by providing tenure rights of mangroves to local communities. The local communities agree to implement a Protected Area Management Plan and, in return, may have exclusive access to fishery resources (Carandang 2012).

Similarly, Australia has established indigenous protected areas (IPAs), where indigenous groups voluntarily agree to manage their estates, which may include wetlands, for biodiversity and cultural conservation purposes. The development and adoption of a management plan is a key aspect of the approval process (Davies et al. 2013). Further examples can be found in Africa, as demonstrated by Indigenous and Community Conserved Areas (ICCAs) in Senegal and elsewhere (Cormier-Salem 2014).

Some Contracting Parties also encourage the development of privately protected areas or private nature reserves, which can encompass wetlands (Stolton et al. 2014). For example, in Colombia, more than 385 families are participating in private nature reserves (called Nature Reserves of Civil Society) that have been used to enhance the buffer areas around La Cocha Lagoon, a Ramsar Site (Bonells 2012).

PULLOUT TEXT: in addition to terrestrial and inland wetland targets, Sustainable Development Goal 14.5 asks governments to “conserve at least 10% of coastal and marine areas, consistent with national and international law and based on the best available scientific information” by 2020, a conscious repetition of the marine component of Aichi Biodiversity Target 11.

[311 words]

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PAGE 55: Management in the broader landscape, permits and offsets

Permit programmes: Avoid-Mitigate-CompensateAt a broader landscape scale, sustainable management requires a combination of approaches. An avoid-mitigate-compensate sequence is an important tool for the conservation and wise use of wetlands. National laws frequently rely on this approach, sometimes in wetland-specific and biodiversity-related laws and sometimes in laws related to environmental impact assessments (Gardner et al. 2012). Often, the avoid-mitigate-compensate sequence is part of a permit process for a development activity. Typically, the need to avoid wetland losses is identified as an imperative. Unavoidable losses should then be mitigated and offset by, for example, restoration projects.

Some countries rely on wetland banking (or wetland mitigation banking) as a mechanism to offset wetland impacts (Hough & Robertson 2009). In its simplest form, compensation credits are generated when an entity restores, enhances, creates and/or preserves wetlands. The amount of credit depends on the ecological improvements at the site. These credits are sold to developers to offset adverse wetland impacts to the same type of habitat elsewhere.

Biodiversity offset programmes are conceptually similar, but have a broader focus than wetland habitat or wetland-dependent species (OECD 2016). The Annex to Ramsar Resolution XI.9 notes that “as with any form of compensation, these approaches should not be used in such a manner as to circumvent the avoidance of impacts to wetlands, and the preference to compensate for wetland loss [is] with wetlands of a similar type and in the same local water catchment, addressing both the areal extent and functional performance.”

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Box: “No net loss”

“No net loss” is a government policy or strategy to achieve no net loss of wetland area and/or ecological character overall at a given geographical scale (often national). Wetland impacts may be permitted, but compensation (through restoration or creation) is needed to counterbalance these, not necessarily site-by-site but for the total wetland resource. A no net loss policy may be limited to a particular programme, subset of wetlands or jurisdiction.

It is important to note that the Ramsar Convention encourages a stronger “no loss” approach. A “no net loss” policy may be one way of implementing wise use. However, as yet there are no studies on whether Contracting Parties with such policies have achieved this with respect to wetland functions rather than simply wetland area. Further monitoring of effectiveness is required. A “no net loss” policy should not be implemented in a manner that undermines the primary imperative to avoid impacts to natural wetlands. [Source: Res XI.9]

PULLOUT TEXT: No net loss addresses Aichi Biodiversity Target 5 “rate of loss of all natural habitats…is at least halved and where feasible brought close to zero”.

[417 words]

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PAGE 56: Control of pollution and invasive species

National responses also need to prevent unsustainable levels of pollution. Many countries have laws, such as the Water Framework Directive in the European Union or the Clean Water Act in the United States, that prohibit the discharge of chemical pollutants into a wetland without a permit. The laws may impose effluent limitations based on available technology, water quality, or both.

In some cases, pollutants—such as wastewater or nutrients from farms—are discharged into a wetland because of its filtering function and some wetlands are constructed for this function (Zhang et al. 2014). However, the limits of a wetland’s capacity to assimilate pollutants should be taken into account in these cases (UNEP 2014).

Box: Reducing Nutrient Pollution to Restore Seagrass

The Tampa Bay Estuary Program (TBEP), established by federal law in Florida, USA, has successfully restored seagrass beds to their 1950s extent. The TBEP’s approach recognises that healthy seagrass populations are found in open waters with the lowest levels of nutrient pollution, which is a function of upstream land uses. Nitrogen loads are the most damaging nutrient entering the estuary.

After the federal government approved limits on nitrogen for Tampa Bay, the TBEP facilitated fair and equitable nitrogen load allocations through the Tampa Bay Nitrogen Management Consortium (NMC), a voluntary, ad-hoc public-private partnership. This has reduced both point and non-point sources of nitrogen. Members include the primary point source dischargers: public wastewater treatment facilities, an electric power plant, a port and phosphate facilities. The NMC includes local governments, which regulate land use activities responsible for non-point source nutrient pollution. They have prohibited the sale and use of fertilizer during the rainy season and regulated coastal zone development. By 2015, 16,306 ha of seagrass occurred in Tampa Bay, exceeding the restoration goal of 15,400 ha set in 1995.

Source: Sherwood (2016).

Invasive species policies and guidelines

Ramsar urges countries to identify, prevent, eradicate and control invasive alien wetland species. Of particular note, the European Union has adopted comprehensive legislation, which includes the development of a list of Invasive Alien Species of Union Concern through risk assessments (Genovesi et al. 2014). More than 75% of these species are wetland related. However, in 2015 only 42% of Parties reported that they have a comprehensive national inventory of

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Convert bar diagram from acres to hectares


invasive alien species impacting the ecological character of wetlands. Even fewer (35%) have established national policies or guidelines on invasive species control and management for wetlands.

PULLOUT TEXT: Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 6.3 includes a demand to: “improve water quality by reducing pollution” and SDG 15.8 calls on countries to “introduce measures to prevent the introduction and significantly reduce the impact of invasive alien species on land and water ecosystems…”

[443 words]

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PAGE 57: Planning tools and concepts for wetlands

An environmental impact assessment can help to ensure that the full range of wetland benefits is taken into account during planning. More broadly, strategic environmental assessments can strengthen policies, programmes and plans that may impact wetlands at a landscape scale.

Land-use planning can include river basin and integrated coastal zone management. Green infrastructure (GI) is increasingly recognized as an important element in addressing wetland planning. GI refers here to natural or semi-natural wetlands that provide ecosystem services with equivalent or similar benefits to built “grey” infrastructure. Spatial planners, engineers and decision-makers are increasingly placing greater emphasis on understanding how GI approaches can be used within water management, sometimes through integration with grey water infrastructure (UNEP 2014).

Environmental flow regimes are another means by which wetlands, particularly rivers, may be maintained and restored (Yang et al. 2016). The concept of environmental flows refers to the quantity, quality and timing of the water flows needed to sustain aquatic ecosystems and their ecosystem services. Successful implementation involves consideration of political, economic, social and cultural factors. Legislation, stakeholder engagement and collaboration, technical understanding, monitoring and adaptive management contribute to successful environmental flow regimes. Large-scale attempts include the Murray-Darling Basin in Australia and the Poonch River in Pakistan (Hardwood et al. 2017).

Box: Avoiding damage from renewable energy policies and targets

To reduce greenhouse gas emissions, many countries have adopted laws, policies and targets that encourage the use of renewable energy, including biofuels and hydro-electric power. Ramsar Resolutions XI.10 and X.25 express concern that wetlands may be converted for energy production at the expense of other ecosystem services. Some countries require the use of sustainability criteria to ensure that biodiversity is protected. For example, the European Union has set a target that by 2020 10% of each Member State’s transport fuel will be derived from renewable sources, such as biofuels. It requires however, that “[b]iofuels cannot be grown in areas converted from land with previously high carbon stock such as wetlands or forests” (European Commission 2017). Large-scale use of hydropower also impacts on flow regimes in many of the world’s rivers, and multi-national institutions such as the Mekong River Commission exist in part of negotiate international agreements on such use. Ramsar Resolution X.19 calls for countries to take into account, through the “Critical Path” approach, the protection and management of wetlands in the operation of dams.

PULLOUT TEXT: Aichi Biodiversity Target includes “By 2020 all fish and invertebrate stocks and aquatic plants are managed and harvested sustainably, legally and applying ecosystem based approaches”.

[418 words]

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PAGE 58: Economic incentives, economic and non-economic valuation

Economic and financial incentives: non-regulatory approaches

In addition to regulatory approaches, many Contracting Parties also rely on economic and financial incentives to encourage wetland conservation and wise use (Gardner 2003). These non-regulatory incentives sometimes involve direct payments to landowners, such as payments for ecosystem services. Occasionally, they are negative incentives; a landowner will avoid a penalty, such as the cessation of government subsidies, by avoiding wetland impacts. Some governments use tax to offer incentives, authorizing tax deductions or credits for restoration work. Eco-labelling and certification programmes also can play a role in wetland conservation and wise use.

Economic and non-economic valuation

Stakeholders and decision-makers ascribe values to wetlands and their benefits in diverse ways. Recognising and considering the interdependency of multiple wetland values in policy and decision making within and across all sectors is crucial for achieving conservation and wise use. When one sector makes decisions based only on their interests, benefits to other sectors may be undermined or lost, perpetuating wetland degradation and limiting options for wise use (Kumar et al. 2017).

Multiple values of wetlands and their contribution to people can be assessed in a six step sequential chain, illustrated in Fig x.

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PES/Subsidies for restoration

To supplement regulatory controls, some Contracting Parties use payments for ecosystem services (PES) to encourage wetland conservation and wise use (Ingram et al. 2014). Landowners or managers are compensated for undertaking environmentally beneficial actions that they are not otherwise required to do. One of the more established PES systems is the Wetlands Reserve Program (now part of the broader Agricultural Conservation Easement Program) in the United States. Started as a pilot program in 1992, the U.S. Department of Agriculture paid farmers to restore and conserve wetlands. The level of payment depends on the duration of the commitment. From 1992-2013, approximately 1.1 million hectares were enrolled in the programme, at an investment of US$4.5 billion. One study found that the estimated value of the ecosystem services surpassed the government’s payments for restoration of forested wetlands in the Mississippi Alluvial Valley within one year (Jenkins et al. 2010).

PULLOUT TEXT: Sustainable Development Goal 6.b recommends that countries “support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and sanitation management”.

[370 words]

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PAGE 59: Government sponsored restoration

Government-funded restoration or creation projects

Ambitious wetland restoration and creation projects are moving forward in all Ramsar regions. Examples include: South Africa’s Working for Water programme (Box #); China’s creation of wetland parks (Wang et al. 2012); rehabilitation of peatlands in Belarus (GEF 2016); Dominican Republic’s National Restoration Programme for Degraded Ecosystems (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales 2017); New Zealand’s Arawai Kākāriki wetland restoration programme (Macdonald & Robertson 2017); and Everglades restoration efforts in the United States (National Academies of Science 2016).

photos from - https://undp-biodiversity.exposure.co/precious-peatlands

Box #: The South African Working for Water programme

The Working for Water programme (WfW), arguably South Africa’s largest conservation project, is a government initiative started in 1995 with the primary aim of clearing invasive alien plant (IAP) species to increase water supply, while providing employment to marginalized sectors of South African society (Ntshotsho et al., 2015). Government funding has increased from an initial annual budget of R25 million (approx. US$1.7 million) in 1995, to R1.28 billion (approx. US$88 million) in the 2013/14 financial year (WfW historical expenditure, http://sites.google.com/site/wfwplanning).

WfW adopts an integrated approach to IAP clearing, combining manual and chemical methods with biocontrols. Labour-intensive methods have been favoured because the programme is largely financed through poverty relief funds. Since its inception, the programme has maintained close links with the research community and has thus been influenced by scientific advances (Ntshotsho et al., 2015); likely contributing to its success (Ntshotsho et al. 2016). More than a million hectares have been cleared since the programme began, and employment opportunities are provided for approximately 20,000 people a year. Because of its positive societal and environmental impacts, WfW has grown and diversified into other programmes, and together they now all fall under the Natural Resources Management (NRM) umbrella programme.

Adapted from IPBES LDR chapter 6

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http://sites.google.com/site/wfwplanning

https://undp-biodiversity.exposure.co/precious-peatlands


PULLOUT TEXT: Aichi BiodiversityTarget 14 states that “ecosystems that provide essential services, including services related to water, and contribute to health, livelihoods and well-being, are restored and safeguarded” and the Sustainable Development Goals contain numerous references to restoration.

[324 words]

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PAGE 60: Tax incentives and eco-labelling

Tax incentivesWhile taxes are a source of revenue for governments, a tax code can also influence behaviour. There are several examples of Contracting Parties using tax provisions to encourage the conservation and wise use of wetlands. For example, in Australia landowners can receive favourable tax concessions when they enter into a conservation covenant where they commit to protect and enhance an area’s natural values (Australian Government, Department of Environment and Energy). South Africa recently adopted similar legislation (Box #). In the United States landowners can receive favourable tax treatment when they donate a conservation easement (essentially a promise to allow the land to remain in its natural state) to a land trust or other non-profit organization.

Box #: Biodiversity tax incentives in South Africa

The Fiscal Benefits project was launched in 2015 by BirdLife South Africa, to test biodiversity tax incentives as a benefit for landowners who declare protected areas on their land. The project influenced the introduction of a new tax incentive into national legislation, leading to the inclusion of section 37D in the South African Income Tax Act. The incentive allows landowners to claim a reduced tax based on the value of the area of their land formally protected as a Nature Reserve or National Park. The first biodiversity tax incentive for protected areas in an annual tax return was given at the end of 2016, on behalf of a landowner in an Important Bird and Biodiversity Area.

Source: BirdLife International Africa (2017).

Eco-labelling, certificationsAnother non-regulatory mechanism that can encourage wetland conservation and wise use is eco-labelling or certification. Consumers that choose to purchase goods with eco-labels or certifications that they have been produced in a sustainable manner create a market incentive for sustainable businesses. In the wetland context, the certification programme for Responsibly Produced Peat, established with financial support of the Dutch government, is based on the principles and criteria of the International Peatland Society’s Strategy for Responsible Peatland Management [ref]. Certified companies commit to maximizing peat production for the professional horticulture and the hobby gardening market from degraded areas, thereby avoiding natural, high-quality peatlands [ref]. Other certification schemes, such as the Roundtable on Responsible Palm Oil, Forest Stewardship Council and others covering beef, soy etc have standards avoiding damage to high conservation value areas, including wetlands (Abell et al. 2015)

PULLOUT TEXT: Aichi Biodiversity Target 20 refers specifically to: “the mobilisation of financial resources for effectively implementing the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 from all sources…” (Our emphasis)

[381 words]

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PAGE 61: Removal of perverse incentives

Removal of perverse incentives

Countries often support agricultural activities through mechanisms such as subsidies and price support. Sometimes these create perverse incentives to convert wetlands for agriculture, or increase wetland degradation through pollution. The Food Security Act of 1985 in the United States illustrates how removing perverse incentives, along with positive incentives from PES, can reduce the rate of wetland loss. Under this law, farmers draining or altering a wetland for agricultural production may be ineligible to receive government benefits such as loans, subsidized insurance, and price and income support. Table # quantifies the positive impact of these policies.

Years Average wetland loss or gain

1950s-1970s 161,251.2 ha/year lost

Mid-1970s to mid-1980s 63,373.8 ha/year lost

1986-1997 6,155.3 ha/year lost

1998-2004 4,773.3 ha/year gained

2004-2009 8,994.8 ha/year gained

Table x. Wetland losses and gains in the U.S. agricultural sector. Adapted from data in: Frayer et al. 1983, Dahl & Johnson 1991, Dahl 2000, Dahl 2006, Dahl 2011.

Case Study. Wild Bird Index for North American wetland species

Headline: "North America wetland-dependent species have increased by over 30% since 1968 – largely a consequence of major conservation actions”

The Wild Bird Index for North American wetland species shows trends in the mean abundance of 87 bird species that depend on wetlands. The indicator assumes that the health of these populations reflects overall wetland health. The data are derived since 1968 from several continental-scale monitoring programmes; an index of abundance is calculated for each species, and the overall index is calculated as the mean of these indices (North American Bird Conservation Initiative, 2014).

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The Wild Bird Index has increased by over 30% since 1968. For example, mallard populations are 42% above their long-term population average. These increases result from dedicated conservation efforts and funding. Over 40 million ha of wetland habitat are conserved through US federal protected areas, state and local wildlife management areas and Wetland Reserve Program projects on private land. The North American Wetlands Conservation Act has enabled public–private projects to protect or restore wetlands covering an area larger than Tennessee. The increases in the Index also reflect legislation such as the Clean Water Act and the Farm Bill’s conservation provisions. Despite this, nearly 7 million ha of wetlands have been lost in North America since the 1950s. In regions where significant loss continues, wetland bird populations are in long-term decline. Examples include south-eastern marsh species such as mottled duck and king rail, and ephemeral prairie wetland species such as black tern and northern pintail.

Sources. BirdLife International (2015); North American Bird Conservation Initiative (2014).

[424 words]

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PAGE 62: Social, cultural and business practices

Public participation in wetland management and decision-making is a key element in success. Seventy-three per cent of Parties claim to promote stakeholder participation in wetland decision-making, although fewer (54%) involve local stakeholders in Ramsar Site designation and management.

Members of the public can bring judicial actions to ensure that governments comply with wetland-related duties. In 2017, in response to a public interest lawsuit, the Supreme Court of India ordered a national inventory of more than 2,000,000 wetlands (Balakrishnan v. Union of India, 2017). Some countries rely on community-based management models. In 2012, Cambodia transferred fishing rights and regulation to participatory community fisheries, consisting of local people living in or near the area (Kim et al. 2013), to reduce poverty and improve wetland management. Volunteer groups also support wetland management and restoration. In 2015, 800,000 volunteers collected over 18 million pounds [convert to metric] of rubbish from coastal areas around the world (Ocean Conservancy 2016).

Box: Reducing disaster risks and increasing resilience of coastal communities in Indonesia

After Tsunami Flores, North Nusa Tenggara in 1992, the coastlines of several villages were eroded up to 100 metres inland, putting thousands of coastal dwellers at risk from storm surges, tsunamis, typhoons and salt water intrusion. Economic development was also threatened as infrastructure and agricultural areas were exposed to the sea.

Wetlands International Indonesia worked with local communities, government, NGOs and academics to reduce risk and increase community resilience through ecosystem restoration. In Talibura village the community built a 180 metre semi-permeable dam from natural and locally-based materials such as bamboo, timber, palm fibres, sand bags and coconut leaves. The community learnt from the experience and continues to revise its approach. The dam was affordable, effective in reducing erosion and trapped sediment at a rate of 4.5-6.5 cm a year. After eight months, mangroves started to re-grow and people noted an increase in fish, shrimp and water birds. The community also re-planted 6,000 mangroves in 2013, providing coastal defences and a source of livelihoods.

Source: Ramsar Convention Secretariat. https://tinyurl.com/jcu3r4g

Corporate Social Responsibility

Business entities may also support wetlands. For example, the Livelihoods Carbon Investment Fund, set up in 2011 by DANONE, supported the world’s largest mangrove restoration project in the Casamance and Sine Saloum regions of Senegal, where 10,000 hectares have been replanted with 79 million mangrove trees. The project offers private carbon credits to investors, to offset their emissions (Livelihoods Funds; Giraud & Hemerick 2013).

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Box: Corporate water stewardship

Corporate engagement does not just mean developing a portfolio of corporate social responsibility projects but includes questions about whether and how much water should be extracted and by whom. ‘Water stewardship’ is defined as ‘The use of water that is socially equitable, environmentally sustainable and economically beneficial, achieved through a stakeholder-inclusive process that involves site and catchment-based actions’ by the Alliance for Water Stewardship. The Alliance sets voluntary standards for private companies, public agencies and other actors, addressing water stewardship at both “site” (e.g. the plant/premises) and “catchment”.

Source: Newborne & Dalton (2016).

PULLOUT TEXT: Sustainable Development Goal 8.4 addresses corporate social responsibility: “Improve progressively, through 2030, global resource efficiency in consumption and production and endeavour to decouple economic growth from environmental degradation…”

[528 words – will need to be reduced]

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PAGE 63: Science, citizen science and traditional management

Solutions to the challenges to wetland conservation and wise use draw on a range of expertise, ranging from hard science to traditional knowledge.

Remote sensing for monitoringSatellite-based remote sensing (known as Earth Observation) is revolutionising wetland inventorying, assessments and monitoring. The recent advances in satellite observation capacity, particularly the global availability of systematic and frequent satellite observations at high spatial resolution, better capture seasonally and intermittently flooded areas and their changes, which are essential to assess the health of wetlands ecosystems.

For example, Global Mangrove Watch (GMW) had by late 2017 mapped global mangrove extent (Figure 4a.1) for 1996, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2015 and 2016, with corresponding change maps (Figure 4a.2). From 2018, maps are foreseen on an annual basis. These datasets describe wetland extent and area; the presence and dominance of mangroves; and general ecological features (zonation, seasonal variations, and long-term changes).

Figure 4a.1. Mangrove extent 2010 (Kakadu National Park, Australia) Figure 4a.2. Mangrove change 1996–2010 (Guayaquil, Ecuador). Courtesy of Global Mangrove Watch (place holder figure). Magenta: losses; Blue: gains (Green+Blue: Extent 2010) Courtesy of Global Mangrove Watch (place holder figure)

Citizen scienceCitizen science (data collected by volunteers) has long contributed to informing management and policy. Much of what we know about the status and trends of waterbirds comes from 70 years of volunteer monitoring via the International Waterbird Census. With advances in technology, cost-effective collection of data by volunteers has become more feasible (Tulloch et al. 2013). Reliance on citizen science is however not always appropriate. Some analyses require specialized knowledge. Frequent sampling may diminish the volunteer base, while very infrequent sampling may mean volunteers having to relearn protocols. Nonetheless, citizen science offers an expanding option for tackling information gaps (McKinley et al., 2017). Examples include crowd-sourcing hydrological monitoring for rivers in Tanzania (Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation 2017); identifying the drivers of eutrophication in the Huangpu River system in China (Zhang et al. 2017); and mapping and assessing vernal pools in the northeastern United States (McGreavy et al. 2016).

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Revitalizing traditional management practicesThe importance of incorporating indigenous and local knowledge in wetland management has been recognized in the Ramsar context and beyond (Ramsar Convention Secretariat 2010; Thaman et al. 2013). Some countries have formal processes and partnerships to ensure that knowledge from Indigenous Peoples and local communities is considered in management. In Australia, Aboriginal communities measure wetland health and cultural significance through waterways assessments. State water agencies are expected to use this information in environmental water management (Murray-Darling Basin Authority).

Traditional practices and beliefs can also be given legal effect, as New Zealand demonstrated with its recognition of the Whanganui River in 2017, when parliament granted legal personhood to the river, which the Maori Iwi people consider sacred. The Maori community and the government will each appoint a member to represent the river’s interests (ABC 2017).

[471 words]

Source: McKinley et al. (2017).

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