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FOREST SERVICE HANDBOOKSOUTHWESTERN REGION (REGION 3)

ALBUQUERQUE, NEW MEXICO

FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOK

CHAPTER 2 – REFORESTATION

Supplement No.: R3 2409.17-2002-1

Effective Date: May 31, 2002

Duration: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.

Approved: JAMES T. GLADEN Acting Regional Forester

Date Approved: 05/23/2002

Posting Instructions: Supplements are numbered consecutively by Handbook number and calendar year. Post by document; remove entire document and replace it with this supplement. Retain this transmittal as the first page(s) of this document. The last supplement to this Handbook was 2409.17-2001-1 to 2409.17_8.5_Ex.01-02.

New Document(s): 2409.17_2.01_2.52409.17_2.6_2.9

97 Pages76 Pages

Superseded Document(s) byIssuance Number and Effective Date

None

Digest: .

2409.17 – Issues comprehensive new direction for reforestation programs in Regions 1, 2, 3, and 4. Obsolete direction on this subject was previously found in Forest Service Handbook 2409.26b, Forestation Handbook.

R3 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1EFFECTIVE DATE: 05/31/2002 DURATION: Effective until superseded or removed

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FSH 2409.17 – SILVICULTURAL PRACTICES HANDBOOKCHAPTER 2 - REFORESTATION

This chapter provides reforestation personnel with basic information for reforestation programs in Regions of 1, 2, 3, and 4.

2.01 - Authority

The National Forest Management Act of 1976 (P.L. 94-588; 90 Stat. 2949; 16 U.S.C. 1600) guides all management of National Forest System lands in conjunction with other laws.

1. Section 4 of the National Forest Management Act (NFMA) states that the policy of Congress is that all forested lands in the National Forest System should be maintained in appropriate forest cover. Appropriate forest cover is described as "species of trees, degree of stocking, rate of growth, and conditions of stands designed to receive maximum benefits of multiple use sustained yield management in accordance with land management plans."

2. Section 6 of NFMA states that lands will not be planned for timber harvests unless there is assurance that such lands can be adequately reforested within five years after final harvest. This has been interpreted to apply to final harvest of regeneration cuts.

2.03 - Policy

See FSM 2470 for silvicultural activities policy. Reforestation and nursery practices are covered in FSM 2472 and 2473, respectively.

Regions shall meet Congressional direction through the implementation of the Forest Plan and Silvicultural Prescription. Species composition and desired stocking needed to meet objectives are stated in general terms in Forest Plans. Treatments undertaken to meet these objectives are specified in the silvicultural prescription.

2.05 - Definitions

R-1 Certified Culturist. A certified culturist is a person with a high degree of technical knowledge in reforestation and timber stand improvement. This person meets requirements in section 2.11 and may prepare reforestation or TSI prescriptions for review by the certified silviculturist.

2.06 - References

1. The following are essential companion references to this Handbook:

a. FSH 2409.21e, Timber Management Control Handbook (Region 1).

b. FSH 2609.22, Animal Damage Control Handbook (Region 1).

c. FSH 2409.26f, Seed Handbook.


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d. Prevention and Control of Wildlife Damage, Timm, Robert M. Editor. 1983. (Region 3).

e. Rocky Mountain Resource Information System (RMRIS) User Guide, (Regions 2, 3, 4).

2. The following list contains important references and should form the basic library for reforestation programs. As new literature becomes available, libraries should be updated.

a. Primary References.

Burns, R. M. and B. H. Hinkle. 1990. Silvics of North America. Volume 1, Conifers. Agriculture Handbook 654. USDA Forest Service.

Cleary, B. D., R. D. Grieves, and R. K. Hermann. 1978. Regenerating Oregon's Forests. Oregon State University Extension Service, Corvallis, Oregon. 286 pp.

Hobbs, S. D., S. D. Tesch, P.W. Owston, R. E. Stewart, J. C. Tappeniner, G. E. Wells, eds. 1992. Reforestation practices in southwestern Oregon and northern California. Forestry Research Laboratory, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon. 465 pp.

Lavender, et al. 1990. Regenerating British Columbia forests. University of British Columbia Press. Vancouver, British Columbia. 372 pp.

Lawrence, W. H., N. B. Kvorno, and H. D. Hartwell. 1961, reprinted 1987. Guide to wildlife feeding injuries on conifers in the Pacific Northwest. Western Forestry and Conservation Association, Portland, Oregon. 44 pp.

b. General References.

Hallman, R. 1993. Reforestation Equipment. USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Publication 2400-Reforestation. Montana Technology Development Center 9324-2837, Missoula, Montana.

Larson, J. E., D. L. Campbell, J. E. Evans, and G. D. Lindsey. 1979. Plastic tubes for protecting seedlings from browsing wildlife. USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology Development Center, Missoula, Montana.

McDonald, P. M. 1994. Seedling regeneration and seedling development in group selection openings. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California. Research Paper PSW-RP-220. 15 pp.

Sathers, R. J. 1989. Summer frost in young plantations. Forestry Canada Pacific Forestry Center, British Columbia, Canada. FRDA Report 155 N 0835-0752:073


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Schubert, G. H., L. J. Heidmann, and M. M. Larson. 1970. Artificial reforestation practices in the Southwest. USDA Forest Service. Handbook 370. 25 pp.

Turner, G. T., R. M. Hansen, V. H. Reid, H. P. Tietjen, and A. L. Ward. 1973. Pocket gophers and Colorado mountain rangeland. Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado. Bulletin 5545.

c. Reforestation Textbooks.

Daniel, T. W., J. A. Helms and F. S. Baker. 1979. Principles of silviculture, second ed., McGraw & Hill, New York, New York. 500 pp.

Daubenmire, R. F. 1974. Plants and the environment. John Wiley, New York, New York. 422 pp.

Geiger, R. 1966. The climate near the ground. Harvard Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 611 pp.

Kramer, P. J. and T. K. Kozlowski. 1960. Physiology of trees. McGraw-Hill, New York, New York. 642 pp.

Smith, D. M. 1997. Practice of silviculture-applied ecology. 9th edition. John Wiley & Sons, New York, New York.

Spurr, S. H. and B. V. Barnes. 1973. Forest ecology. Ronald Press, New York, New York. 571 pp.

d. Other General References.

Baumgartner, D. M. and R. J. Boyd. 1976. Tree planting in the Inland Northwest. Washington State University Coop. Ext., Pullman, Washington. 311 pp.

Cochran, P. M. 1979. Thermal properties and surface temperatures of seedbeds. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Experiment Station, Portland, Oregon. 19 pp.

Dahlgren, A. K., R. A. Ryker and Johnson, D. L. 1974. Snow cache seedling storage: successful systems. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden Utah. General Technical Report INT-17. 12 pp.

Daubenmire, R. and J. B. Daubenmire. 1968. Forest vegetation of Eastern Washington and Northern Idaho. Washington Agricultural Experimental Station. Washington State University, Pullman, Washington. Technical Bulletin 60. 104 pp.

Deyoe, D.R. 1986. Guidelines for handling seeds and seedlings to ensure vigorous stock. Oregon State University, Corvallis. Special Pub. 13.


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Rietveld, W. J. 1989. Transplanting stress in bareroot conifer seedlings: its development and progression to establishment. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry 6 (3).

Seidel, K. W. 1979. Regeneration in mixed conifer clearcuts in the Cascade Range and Blue Mountains of Eastern Oregon. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon. Research Paper PNW-248. 24 pp.

VanEerden, E. and J. M. Kinghorn. 1978. Root form of planted trees in Symposium Proceedings. British Columbia Ministry of Forests/Canadian Forestry Service, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada. Joint Report No. 8. 357 pp.

e. Habitat Type and Potential Vegetation. The following habitat type and potential vegetation references are specific to certain portions of the Rocky Mountain Regions.

(1) Montana and Northern Idaho (Region 1).

Cooper, S. F. K.E. Neiman, D.W. Roberts. 1991. Forest habitat types in Northern Idaho: a second approximation. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station,Ogden Utah. General Technical Report INT-236. 143 pp.

Pfister, R. D., B. L. Kovalchik, S. F. Arno and R. C. Presby. 1977. Forest habitat hypes of Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-34. 174 pp.

Schmidt, W. C., R. C. Shearer, and A. L. Roe. 1976. Ecology and silviculture of western larch forests. United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Technical Bulletin 1520. 96 pp.

(2) Central and Southern Rocky Mountains (Regions 2-4).

Auk, R. L., and J. A. Henderson. 1984. Coniferous habitat types of northern Utah. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden Utah. General Technical Report INT-170. 143 pp.

Cooper, S. V. 1975. Forest habitat types of northwestern Wyoming and contiguous portions of Montana and Idaho. Ph. D. Dissertation. Washington State University. Pullman. 190 pp.

DeVelice, R. L., J. A. Ludwig, W. H. Moir and F. Ronco. 1986. A classification of forest habitat types of northern New Mexico and southern Colorado. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. General Technical Report RM-131. 59 pp.


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Girad, M. M., H. Goetz and Bjugstad, A. J. 1989. Native woodland habitat types of southwestern North Dakota. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-281. 36 pp.

Hess, K., and R. R. Alexander. 1986. Forest vegetation of the Arapaho and Roosevelt National Forests in central Colorado: a habitat classification. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-266. 48 pp.

Hoffman, G. R., R. R. Alexander. 1976. Forest vegetation of the Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming, a habitat classification. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-170. 38 pp.

Hoffman, G. R., R. R. Alexander. 1980. Forest vegetation of the Routt National Forest in northwestern Colorado: a habitat classification. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-221. 41 pp.

Hoffman, G. R. and R. R. Alexander. 1983. Forest vegetation of the White River National Forest in western Colorado: a habitat classification. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-249. 36 pp.

Hoffman, G. R., R. R. Alexander. 1987. Forest vegetation of the Black Hills National Forest of South Dakota and Wyoming: a habitat classification. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-276. 48 pp.

Moir, W. H. and J. A. Ludwig. 1979. A classification of spruce-fir and mixed conifer habitat types of Arizona and New Mexico. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper, RM-207. 47 pp.

Steele, R., S. V. Cooper, D. M. Ondov, and R. D. Pfister. 1983. Forest habitat types of eastern Idaho, western Wyoming. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-144. 122 pp.

Steele, R., R. D. Pfister, R. A. Ryker, and J. A. Kittams. 1982. Forest habitat types of central Idaho. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-114. 138 pp.

USDA Forest Service. 1997. Plant associations of Arizona and New Mexico. Volumes 1 and 2.

Wirsing, J. M. and R. R. Alexander. 1975. Forest habitat types on the Medicine Bow National Forest, southeastern Wyoming, preliminary report. USDA Forest Service,


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Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. General Technical Report, RM-12. 11 pp.

Youngblood, A. P. and R. L. Mauk. 1985. Coniferous forest habitat types of central and southern Idaho. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-187. 89 pp.

f. Tree Species.

(1) Aspen.

Adams, R. D. 1989. Aspen symposium proceedings. USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, Minnesota. General Technical Report NC-140.

DeByle, N. V. and R. P. Winokur. 1985. Aspen: ecology and management in the western United States. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. General Technical Report RM-119. 283 pp.

(2) Douglas fir.

Hatch, C. R. and J. E. Lotan. 1969. Natural regeneration of Douglas fir in central Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. Resource Note INT-85. 4 pp.

Jones, John R. 1974. Silviculture of southwestern mixed conifer and aspen: the status of our knowledge. USDA Forest Service. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Ft. Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-122.

Lindquist, J. L. 1977. Plant moisture stress patterns in planted Douglas fir: a preliminary study of the effects of crown and aspect. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Berkeley, California. Research Note PSW-325. 5 pp.

Owens, J. N. 1973. Reproduction cycle of Douglas fir. Pacific Forest Resource Center, Victoria, British Columbia. 23 pp.

Ryker, R. A. 1975. A survey of factors affecting regeneration of Rocky Mountain. Douglas Fir. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper INT-174.

Strothem, R. O. 1972. Douglas fir in northern California: effects of shade on germination, survival and growth. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station Research, Berkeley, California. Research Paper PSW-84. 10 pp.


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(3) Engelmann Spruce.

Alexander, Robert, R. 1984. Natural regeneration of Engelmann spruce after clearcutting in the central Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ft. Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-254.

Alexander, Robert R. 1987. Ecology, silviculture and management of Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir type in the central and southern Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Ft. Collins, Colorado. General Technology Report, RM-115. 29 pp.

Day, R. J. 1963. Spruce seedling mortality caused by adverse summer microclimate in the Rocky Mountains. Canada Department of Forest Research Branch, Ottawa.. Report 1037. 35 pp.

Fiedler, C. E., W. W. McCaughey and W. C. Schmidt. 1985. Natural regeneration in Intermountain spruce forests: a gradual process. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. Resource Paper INT-343.12 pp.

Noble, D. L. 1973. Age of Engelmann spruce seedlings affects ability to withstand fire temperature. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Note RM-232.

Noble, D. L. and R. R. Alexander. 1977. Environmental factors affecting natural regeneration of Engelmann spruce in the central Rocky Mountains. Forest Science. 23:420-429.

Roe, A. L., R. Alexander, and M. Andres. 1970. Engelmann spruce regeneration Practices in the Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper INT-174. 18 pp.

Ronco, Frank. 1972. Planting Engelmann spruce. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-89. 24 pp.

(4) Lodgepole Pine.

Baumgartner, D. M. et al. 1985. Management of lodgepole pine ecosystem, in Lodgepole pine, the Species and its Management, Symposium Proceedings. Washington State University Extension, Pullman. 381 pp.

Cochran, P. H. 1973. Natural regeneration of lodgepole pine in south central Oregon. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experimental Station, Portland, Oregon. Research Paper PNW-204. 18 pp.


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Lotan, J. E. and D. A. Perry. 1983. Ecology and regeneration of lodgepole pine. USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Agriculture Handbook 606. 51 pp.

Lyon, L. J. 1976. Vegetal development on the Sleeping Child Burn in western Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden Utah. Research Paper INT-184. 24 pp.

Murry, M. 1983. Lodgepole pine: regeneration and management. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station, Portland, Oregon. General Technical Report PNW-157. 52 pp.

Nairn, L. D. and K. Froning. 1977. Grasshopper damage to pine container seedlings in southeastern Manitoba. Northern Forest Research Center, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. Information Report, NOR-X-191. 12 pp.

Owens, J. N. and M. Molder. 1984. Reproductive cycle of lodgepole pine. British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Victoria, British Columbia. Information Brochure. 29 pp.

Tackle, D. T. 1961. Ten year results of spot seeding and planting lodgepole pine. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Ranger Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Note INT-83. 6 pp.

Tackle, D. T. 1964. Regenerating lodgepole pine in central Montana following clear cutting. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Note INT-17. 7 pp.

(5) Ponderosa Pine.

Baumgarther, D. M. 1988. Ponderosa pine: the species and its management. Washington State University Extension, Pullman. 281 pp.

Foiles, M. W. 1973. Regeneration of ponderosa pine in the northern Rocky Mountain - Intermountain Region. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper INT-145. 44 pp.

Harrington, M. G., R. G. Kelsoy. 1979. Influence of some environmental factors on initial establishment and growth of ponderosa pine seedlings. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest Range Experimental Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper 230. 26 pp.

Heidmann, L. J., T. N. Johnson Jr., O. W. Cole, and G. Cullum. 1982. Establishing natural regeneration of ponderosa pine in central Arizona. Journal of Forestry 80 (2) 77-79.


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Larson, M. M. and G. H. Schubert. 1969. Root competition between ponderosa pine seedlings and grass. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experimental Station Research Paper, Fort Collins, Colorado. RM-54. 12 pp.

Megahan, W. F. and R. Steele. 1988. A field guide for predicting snow damage to ponderosa pine plantations. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Note INT-385

Shearer, R. C. and W. C. Schmidt. 1970. Natural regeneration in ponderosa pine forests of western Montana. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Research Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper Int-86. 19 pp.

Rietveld, W. J. 1975. Phytotoxic grass residues reduce germination and initial root growth of ponderosa pine. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Paper RM-153. 15 pp.

Vogl, J. V. and C. Ryder. 1969. Effects of slash burning on conifer reproduction in Montana's Mission Range. Northwest Science Vol. 43:135-147.

(6) Western Larch.

Schmidt, W. C. 1969. Seedbed treatments influence seedling development in western larch forests. USDA Forest Service Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Note INT-93. 7 pp.

Schmidt, W. C. 1995. Ecology and management of Larix forests: A look ahead. proceedings of an international symposium. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. GTR-INT-310. 521 pp.

Schmidt, W. C., R. C. Shearer and A. L. Roe. 1976. Ecology and silviculture of western larch Forests 1976. USDA Forest Service, Washington, DC. Technical Bulletin-1520. 96 pp.

Schmidt, W. C. and J. A. Schmidt. 1979. Recovery of snow-bent young western larch. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-54. 13 pp.

Shearer, R. C. 1967. Insolation limits initial establishment of western larch seedlings. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Note INT-64. 7 pp.

(7) Western White Pine.

Haig, I. T. , K. P. Davis and R. H. Weidman. 1941. Natural regeneration in the white pine type. USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Technical Bulletin 767. 99 pp.


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Hoff, R.J., J.I. Qualls, D.O. Coffen. 1987. Western white pine: an annotated bibliography. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report-232. 137 pp.

(8) Whitebark Pine.

Schmidt, W. C. 1989. White bark pine ecosystems: ecology and management of a high-mountain resource, symposium proceedings. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report INT-270. 366 pp.

g. Specific Practices.

(1) Animal Damage.

Barnes, V.G. 1973. Pocket gophers and reforestation in Pacific Northwest. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Special Science Report, Wildlife No. 55. 18 pp.

Baumgartner, D. M. and J. Caslick. 1987. Animal damage management of the Pacific Northwest forests. Washington State University Coop Ext., Pullman, Washington. 163 pp.

Black, H. C. ed. 1992. Silvicultural approaches to animal damage management in the Pacific Northwest Forests. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon. General Technical Report PNW-287. 422 pp.

Campbell, D. L. and J. Evans. 1975. Vexar seedling protectors to reduce wildlife damage to Douglas fir. USDI Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Leaflet 508. 11 pp.

Heidman, L. J. 1972. An initial assessment of mammal damage in forests of the Southwest. USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Research Note RM-219. 7 pp.

Karsky, Richard. 1999. Fences. USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Missoula Montana. 210 pp.

Larson, J. E. et al. 1979. Plastic tubes for protecting seedlings from browsing wildlife. USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology Development Center, Missoula, Montana. 19 pp.

Lawrence, W. H., N. B. Kucrno, and H. D. Hartwell. 1987. Guide to wildlife feeding injuries on conifers in the Pacific Northwest. Western Forestry and Conservation Association, Portland, Oregon. 7 pp.


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Loucks, D. M., H. C. Black, M. Roush, and S. Radosevich. 1990. Assessment and management of animal damage in Pacific Northwest Forest: an annotated bibliography. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon. General Technical Report PNW-262.

Teipner, C. L. et al. 1983. Pocket gophers in forest ecosystems. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. General Technical Report INT-154.

Timm, Robert M. 1983. Prevention and control of wildlife damage. Nebraska Cooperative Extension Service, University of Nebraska-Lincoln.

Turner, G. T. et al. 1973. Pocket gophers and Colorado mountain rangeland. Colorado State University Experimental Station, Fort Collins, Colorado. Bulletin 55YS. 90 pp.

Willard, E. D. Bedunah, and W. Hann. 1983. Forage and livestock in western Montana in Management of Second-Growth Forests: the State of Knowledge and Research Needs. School of Forestry, University of Montana, Missoula.

(2) Insect and Disease.

Beatty, Jerome S. 1986. Forest insect and disease field guide. USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region, Albuquerque, New Mexico. R3-TP-1.

(3) Site Preparation.

Buckman, R. E. 1974. Environmental effects of forest residues management in the Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station, Portland, Oregon. Technical Report PNW-24.

Geier-Hayes, Kathleen; Hayes, Mark A.; Basford, Douglas D. 1995. Determining individual tree shade length: a guide for silviculturists. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. General Technical Report. INT- 324. 59 pp.

Graham, R. T. 1994. Managing course woody debris in the forests of the Rocky Mountains. USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Ogden, Utah. Research Paper INT-RP-477.

Heavilin, D. 1977. Conifer regeneration on burned and unburned clearcuts on granitic soils of the Klamath National Forest. USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experimental Station Research, Berkeley, California. Note PSW-321. 8 pp.


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Leaf, A. 1979. Impact of intensive harvesting in forest nutrient cycling systems symposium. State University of New York, School of Forestry, Syracruse. 421 pp.

2.1 - General Reforestation Organizational Structure

The organizational structure of the Region, Forest and District determines where the reforestation program functions. It varies widely at each level and each Region. Typically, it is part of the Vegetation Management Program and coordinated closely with the Silviculture Program. It is one of the necessary programs for implementing a wide array of forest objectives regardless of the organizational structure.

Implement reforestation practices according to silviculture prescriptions that are written to meet objectives in Forest plans. All treatments require prescriptions that have been written or reviewed and signed by a certified silviculturist. All Rocky Mountain Regions have Silviculturist certification programs and have trained reforestation personnel. All reforestation personnel shall maintain current training. A list of suggested courses useful when developing an individual’s training plan are listed in section 2.12, exhibit 01. These courses are required for R-1 culturists.

Each Region should maintain a Skills List of individuals with specific skills in reforestation and timber stand improvement activities. Units needing assistance with a specific skill may refer to these lists to determine where assistance may be obtained. Maintained the list and make it available from the Regional silviculturist/reforestation specialist or on an accessible web site.

2.11 - Region 1 Culturist Certification Program

This program is unique to Region 1. Culturists are certified by the Regional Forester based on the requirements listed below along with the recommendation of the District Ranger and the Forest silviculturist.

1. Certification. Foresters or technicians can be recommended by their District Ranger and Forest silviculturist if they have met the minimum training and general work experience qualifications listed in this section.

Certificates are issued by the Regional Office, and a list of certified culturist is issued each year. Forests must submit their candidates for certification or recertification prior to December 31 each year. A letter from the Forest Supervisor is required, stating that the candidate has met or maintained the general requirements and has been recommended for certification or recertification by the District Ranger and Forest silviculturist. Direct to the letter to the Director of Forest and Rangeland Management.

a. Required Training. The minimum training requirements are listed in exhibit 01. Candidates may submit substitutions for required training. For example, a formal course in insect and disease identification at a university or vocational school may


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substitute for the 2-day session offered by the Forest Service. Contact the Regional Reforestation Specialist for questions about the availability of courses.

b. General Work Qualifications. Prior to recommending an individual for certification, the Ranger and Forest Silviculturist should ensure that the candidate has the following experience:

(1) Has responsibility for independently organizing and implementing reforestation and thinning programs. This includes all phases of seed collection, site preparation, contract or force account planting, contract or force account thinning, reforestation surveys, animal damage identification, and protection. As a culturist, the incumbent is expected to be able to train and supervise subordinate technicians and seasonal employees in these phases of work.

(2) Is familiar with the logistics of the databases including Timber Stand Management Record System (TSMRS), FSVeg and others that pertain to reforestation/Timber Stand Improvement programs.

(3) Is capable of writing basic reforestation/TSI prescriptions under the direction and review of certified silviculturists.

(4) Has maintained successful ratings in his/her performance appraisal items relating to reforestation, TSI and Tree Improvement (TI) work.

2. Recertification. Recertification is required every 4 years. The Regional Office sends out reminders for those needing recertification annually.

3. Certified Culturist List. Certified culturists in Region 1 are listed in Exhibit 02. These individuals have been recognized by their Forest as meeting the training and general qualification requirements for certification as described above. These people are considered capable of writing prescriptions for reforestation and TSI projects for review by certified silviculturists.


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2.11 - Exhibit 01REQUIRED TRAINING COURSES

Course Given by Length Required Frequency

Planting Contract Administration SO or RO 2 days Once every 3 years

TSI Contract Administration SO or RO 1 day Once every 5 years

Tree Planting Workshop SO or RO 2 days Once every 3 years

Reforestation - TSI Workshops

RO - Forest & Range 3-5 days As they occur

Forest Insect and Disease Detection

RO - Forest Health Protection

2 days Once every 6 years

Skills for Tree Improvement Workers

RO - Forest & Range Variable Once every 2-4 years

Pesticide Training 1/ WSU, OSU, States Variable Once every 3 years

Seed Collection Training Nursery or tree improvement

2 days Seed crop years

Timber Stand Management Record System 3/

RO - SO 2 days As needed

Habitat Type Identification Training

University of Montana 1-2 days As needed

Animal Damage Identification USDA, APHIS (Animal Plant Health Inspection Service), RO

1-2 days As needed

Animal Damage Management USDA, APHIS 1-3 days As offered

Genetics Training 2/ Genetics Education for Northwestern Ecosystems (G.E.N.E)

Variable Once

1/ Pesticide training may be waived if the Forest silviculturist and District Ranger agree that the culturist has no responsibilities in this area.

2/ Required every 2 years for culturist responsible for maintaining intensive tree improvement programs, every 4 years for other culturists.

3/ Formal Timber Stand Management Record System training may be waived if the culturist has a working knowledge of the system and others have responsibilities for maintenance of the system.


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2.11 - Exhibit 02

2.11 - EXHIBIT 02 IS A SEPARATE DOCUMENT

2.2 - Reforestation Practices

Document all reforestation practices in a silvicultural prescription. The prescription must address desired species, stocking levels, time frames, and other technical aspects. Also address feasibility and cost efficiency of the reforestation treatment. Prescriptions are generally stand specific, but may also be written for large landscape treatments. Section 2.3 describes prescription requirements in detail.

1. Reforestation Time Frames.

a. Reforestation Needs Resulting From Timber Harvest. Timber suitability of particular lands is identified in the Forest Plan.

(1) Lands Suitable for Timber Production: In accordance with FSM 2470.3, design regeneration harvests and reforestation practices to assure that lands are satisfactorily restocked within 5 years of final harvest. Final harvest means 5 years after clear-cut, final overstory removal in shelterwood cutting, seed tree removal cut in seed tree cutting, or selection cutting. When all seed or shelter trees will be retained through the rotation, the seed tree seed cut with reserves harvest is also considered the final harvest. When final removal is not planned, time frames shall be stated in the silvicultural prescription and shall be consistent with land management objectives.

(2) Lands Unsuitable for Timber Production. Regenerate in a manner consistent with land management objectives and the NEPA decision; document time frames as well as species in the silvicultural prescription. When regeneration is required, regenerate promptly to avoid further site preparation costs and regeneration delays.

b. Reforestation Needs Resulting From Fire and Other Natural Causes. Conduct an analysis after fire or other disturbances to determine long-term objectives of the land based on the forest plan. Developing site-specific reforestation requirements is part of the analysis. The silvicultural prescription shall explicitly state time frames. Where reforestation is required, design treatments to achieve satisfactory stocking promptly. Delays in treatment may result in long regeneration time frames or excessive costs.

2. Species and Stocking. Document species and desired stocking levels in the silvicultural prescription. Species and stocking guides are generally provided in forest plans or regional guides. Chapter 9, Stocking Guides and Growth Predictions, and FSM 2470 provide guidance on development of stocking levels. Stocking levels are based on the objective for the landscape and should be used in conjunction with an analysis of vegetation successional requirements for specific sites. Vegetation (tree) succession is well defined in silvics and


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ecological literature. Final species selection requires a site visit to review existing and surrounding vegetation, and recognition of the target condition considering both biological and management requirements.

Species stocking and other regeneration considerations are discussed in greater detail in sections 2.3 and 2.4.

3. Reports. Use the regional activity database for activity reporting. Specific regional reforestation reports are described in section 2.7, Reforestation Surveys and Monitoring. National reports are covered in FSM 2490.

4. Natural Regeneration. Natural regeneration treatments should be utilized when appropriate seed sources or reproductive materials are available. Natural regeneration offers tremendous cost savings compared to artificial regeneration methods. Natural regeneration is covered in section 2.34.

5. Artificial Regeneration Seed Sources. Seed banks for Regions 1, 2, 3, and 4 are maintained at these Forest Service nurseries: Coeur d'Alene, Lucky Peak, Bessey, and Placerville. All seed in these inventories is source identified. Seeds banks should be managed based on information in the 10-year Seed Needs Plans for each Forest.

Utilize genetic guidelines and ecological principles such as aspect, topography, and habitat type groups for identifying seed sources. See FSH 2409.26f, Seed Handbook for direction on seed collection and use.

6. Priorities and Funding. Funding and reforestation priority policies are described in FSM 2472. Districts can meet these requirements by scheduling reforestation project needs at least two years in advance in TSMRS or RMRIS. Districts shall review and adjust needs and planting schedules prior to submitting out-year budget requests and annual sowing requests. Review and update restoration needs, site preparation plans, and planting schedules at least annually.

Maintain accurate schedules to facilitate Washington Office, Regional Office, and Supervisor’s Office reviews of reforestation programs from both fiscal and program management aspect.Knutsen-Vandenburg (K-V) funds may be used as the primary source of reforestation funding on timber sale areas. Follow K-V policies when scheduling work (refer to FSH 2409.19, Renewable Resource Use for Knutsen-Vandenberg Fund Handbook). Use appropriated funds for reforestation activities where K-V funds are not available.

2.21 - District Reforestation Plans

Districts should develop a logistical plan each winter prior to the upcoming planting year.The plan is a tool to assure all logistical aspects of the program have been arranged and to assure people know what is planned and understand their responsibilities. The Ranger should review and approve the plan displaying concurrence and support of the program. An example of a plan


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for a district with a large program is presented in exhibit 01. Districts with smaller programs may not need this amount of detail, but they should have a well thought-out and well-documented plan covering the key points of their operation.

Key items to include in the Reforestation Plan are identified below:

a. Program Overview. Size of program and expected start plant date. Identify special programs associated with planting including Plant-A-Tree, Arbor Foundation funds or other special funds.

b. Personnel. Responsible persons including contracting officer, silviculturist, project coordinator, Contracting Officer’s Representatives (CORs), inspectors, wrapping shed leader, coordinator of snow plowing, and other logistics persons. Include brief description of responsibilities and expected work schedule.

c. Stock Inventory. List seed lot and assigned units.

Sub ItemAcresElevationSpeciesSeed LotEstimated QuantityActual QuantityNotes (Is a stake row needed?)

d. Stock Shipment. Identify when stock will be shipped, where will it be stored, and any special consideration. Specify who will monitor stock once it is stored and who will coordinate shipping.

e. Equipment. Provide specifics on the type of equipment to be used.

f. Coolers. Identify what coolers will be used, equipment for maintaining humidity, and checking temperatures. Specify how often coolers will be monitored and who is responsible. Identify where and how trees will be thawed.

g. Wrapping. Identify major equipment needed and if available.

h. Vehicles. Specify what vehicles will be used, and personnel assignments.

i. Camps. Identify any other accommodations, for example, trailers, camps, or administrative sites. What bid items will use them? What special requirements are required? Identify any special equipment that needs to be taken to camp.

j. Field Administration. List equipment available for field monitoring such as soil thermometers, pressure bomb, pressure jack, belt weather kits, planting weather


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guides, towels, planting hoes, bolt cutters, and hand calculators. Identify who will have them or where they will be located.

k. Communication. Give radio assignments. Identify radio contacts after office hours. Assure all employees have emergency contact at all times when they are in the field. List phone numbers of employees, Ranger Stations and other key contacts.

l. Contract. Identify contractor and contract price. Add any additional known information, for example, size of crew, expected work schedule. Most of this, however, is not known until closer to plant-start date.

m. Training/Meeting. Identify training or meetings to prepare for planting. Identify who is responsible for planning and who should attend.

n. Program Specifics. Use as much detail as needed to outline procedures. Consider these aspects:

(1) Tree wrapping and dispensing.

(2) Transport and storage at planting sites.

(3) Field inspection - Basic inspectors guide.

(4) Government Inspection Process.

(5) Documentation.

o. Stake Rows. Identify procedure; when trees will be staked, how reference points will be marked, who will do the installation.

p. Road Management. Identify any specific road management requirements or permissions that are needed. Identify to which units and restrictions. Identify coordinator if plowing or cutting of wind throw is needed.


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2.32 - Exhibit 01

Three Rivers Ranger District1998 SPRING REFORESTATION PLAN

JIM F.REFORESTATION TECHDate: February 20, 1966

REVIEWED BY RUSS G.SILVICULTURISTDate: February 20, 1966

RECOMMENDED BY CHRIS R.SUPERVISORY FORESTERDate: February 20, 1966

APPROVED BY MIKE B.DISTRICT RANGERDate: February 20, 1966

R4 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1EFFECTIVE DATE: DURATION: Effective until superseded or removed

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2.32 - Exhibit 01--Continued

PLANNING

Statement of Logistics

Our reforestation program for 1998 is 1,414 acres.

Actual planting is anticipated to begin around April 13 and be completed by mid June.

An additional 17 acres of Plant-a-Tree target and dollars has been requested, but not yet confirmed.

The district will also be establishing a White Pine progeny test area (cycle 11) this spring on about 11 acres. It is anticipated that these 4,300 trees will also be contract planted.

Personnel

1. Contracting Officer (CO): Val V.

2. Vegetation Supervisory Forester. Chris R. is responsible for within District coordination, funding, planning, and project completion.

3. Project Leader. Jim F. is responsible for the overall direction and success of the program. This includes the following:

a. Task assignment for personnel.

b. Stock coordination with SO and nursery.

c. Receipt, storage, and handling of stock.

d. Silvicultural implementation of the program.

e. Data collection, monitoring stock, and site conditions.

f. Finances

4. COR. Shauna S.

The COR will be responsible for:

a. Personnel and the contract assigned. This individual will conduct the pre-work and be on site as determined necessary. (Actual on site time may vary according to the contract, weather and site conditions, stock changes, experience level of inspectors, and any unusual problems).

b. Keeping the project leader informed on the progress of the work, along with discussions of any real or anticipated problems associated with the contract.

c. Ensuring that all seasonally or permanently restricted roads that are required to be opened for accessing the planting units are properly posted and then returned to their original status in a timely manner.

R3 SUPPLEMENT 2409.17-2002-1EFFECTIVE DATE: 05/31/2002 DURATION: This supplement is effective until superseded or removed.

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d. Ensuring scheduling and implementation of the planting activity is accomplished, while avoiding other resource damage.

e. Ensuring the quality control, quality assurance is reflective of the job being done, and that payments are current and accurate.

f. Ensure that accurate documentation is kept on access behind closure devices. Follow the district management policy.

5. Silviculturist: Russ G. Will provide silvicultural recommendations and relate professional feedback to the Vegetation Forester and Project Leader.

6. Inspectors: Larry T., Justin H. Larry T. will be the main inspector on this contract and will be responsible for communicating with the contractor in the absence of the COR. Justin will assist Larry in inspecting around mid-May.

a. Inspector tasks include observing adherence to contract requirements, such as planting spot selection, spacing, root orientation, species mixing, tree handling, taking both formal and informal inspection plots, weather monitoring, obtaining tree requests, maintaining planting records, tree counts, maintenance of daily diary, and restricted road access log.

b. There will usually be an inspector on site while any contract work is being performed. Administration for excessive or unusual hours by the contractor will be handled on a case-by-case basis.

c. Formal inspection plots will be completed within 3 days after planting is accomplished.

d. The inspector will record his/her own time and report it to the COR on a daily basis.

7. Stock and wrapping coordinator: Larry T. Larry will be responsible for the seedling storage, and preparation at both Troy and Sylvanite. Betty J. will assist Larry. These duties include the following.

a. Set up wrapping areas for a safe and efficient operation.

b. Receive tree orders and ensure that proper handling and processing techniques are employed in acclimatization, wrapping, and transportation. (Quality control)

c. Monitor and document quality of trees received by the district from the nursery supplier.

d. Reports pertinent data on all seed lots, including date and condition of seedlings when wrapped, and the amount of each seed lot sent to a bid item.

e. Ongoing inventory summaries at both storage facilities.

f. Daily monitoring of environmental factors affecting storage and acclimatization.

h. Keep project leader informed and up-to-date on progress, potential shortages, stock quality, and so forth.

i. Supervise tree-wrapping crew.


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8. Tree Wrappers. Betty J., Loni S., Faye H.

These folks will be hired on a CWN basis, from April through most of June.

9. Tree planters. Spring = Contract 100 percent

10. Snow plow, open roads. Contract and force account.As needed, a grader will be contracted to plow snow for access to the planting units.Depending on the size of the job and availability, Steve Y. and the district backhoe will be used for barrier removal and follow-up installation.

NOTE: It can be anticipated that long work days and weeks will be required of personnel, however, attempts will be made to break up work schedules to allow adequate time off. Employees will plan work schedules up to 10 hours a day, 6 days a week. Comp time (up to 40 hours) may be accrued by an individual in lieu of overtime, if desired.

1. Stock Inventory (see 2.32 - 1988 Spring Stock Inventory/Seedlot Grouping Table).

2. Stock Shipment. Most of the Troy stock and was delivered on February 12. The balance for Troy and all of the Sylvanite stock will be delivered in April.

3. Stock Assignments. All stock has been matched to individual units according to the silvicultural prescriptions, habitat type, site productivity, and stock availability (see 2.32 – Stock Assignments Table).

Equipment - Tree Storage

a. The three walk-in coolers, the portable in Troy and four of the ice culverts will be utilized for storing this year's stock. As in the past, each culvert has a 10-inch to 12-inch ice floor to reduce artificial refrigeration needs and assist in maintaining adequate humidity.

b. Environmental monitoring.

Culverts. All have minimum/maximum thermometers.

Coolers. Air temperature and humidity will be monitored daily in all four coolers.

A minimum of two tree boxes per unit have been outfitted with probes to monitor root mass temperatures. Objectives for storage conditions are temperatures at 33 degrees F., humidity over 90 percent and rootmass temperatures between 33 and 35 degrees F.

NOTE:

1. To facilitate the thawing process, the frozen stock will be segregated as follows: Container- Troy C1, Sylvanite C, C2, Troy portable Bareroot- Sylvanite C3, C4, C5, Troy C2.

2. To better control the storage temperature range, only one refrigeration unit per cooler will be utilized at a time. (Odd number in FY98)

3. Environmental monitoring will be done daily in all active storage units. Ensure that any abnormal temperatures and humidities or equipment performance is immediately reported to the project leader.


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4. Tree Wrapping. All supplies are currently on hand. Bareroot stock will be jelly-rolled in Kimtex after being dipped in water.

5. Vehicles

Vehicle Number Type Supplier Radio/phone

4550 4X4 Chev Pickup Refo/TSI 4514

3427 4X2 Ford Pickup Refo/TSI 1231

6609 4X4 Ford Pickup Refo/TSI 4511

5118 4X2 Dodge Pickup Refo/TSI

6. Camps. The living facilities at the Upper Yaak Work Center may be utilized by personnel while administering the contract.

7. Field Administration. Non-recording soil thermometers, recording soil thermometers, pressure bomb, pressure jack, belt weather kits, planting weather guides, towels, hoedags, bolt cutters, and hand calculators are all on hand and will be available to the inspector.

8. Communication. All inspectors and COR will be issued a forest net radio. Additionally, the radio/phones in 3427, 4550, 6609 are available to aid in communications in the upper Yaak. Some of the other vehicles have radio/phone capabilities from the field, by using one of the three radio/phone numbers listed above. However, contact from the base to the field via the phone is not available. (Priority use will be radio, then phone.) Both of the wrapping facilities have phones.

Title Personnel Off Duty Phone R.S. Extension

COR Shauna S. 4150Inspectors Larry T. 4110Wrappers Loni S.

Betty J.

Faye H.

Silviculturist Russ G. 4119Project Leader Jim F. 4331Mountain Communications

Troy Ranger Station

Sylvanite work center

Directions for dialing direct before 8:00 a.m. or after 4:30 p.m. and weekends.

1. Dial 297-1234 - it will ring twice before you hear a dial tone.

2. Dial 66 when you hear the dial tone.


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3. Dial extension to ring the person you want to speak with.

4. If, after 4 rings no one answers, try later.

Contract: The negotiated solicitation for the 1998 planting (with an option to renew in 1999) was opened in Mid February, and after technical and business proposal evaluations, was awarded to Forests, Inc. for $143,357.00. Final copies of the contract and proposal will be distributed to all overhead and to each inspector.Training/Meeting/Special Projects

a. April 7 (0900 Three Rivers Conference Room) KNF Revegetative Workshop, Kootenai National Forest personnel. General discussion on FY 97 stake row and indices results and the FY 98 planting contracts. The majority of this workshop is scheduled to address seedling physiology, (from nursery to the field) tree care, and stock type selection.

b. Mid-April. Three Rivers Conference room. Three Rivers Reforestation Meeting for Project leader, COR, Inspector, Wrappers). An overview of our 1998 program. Intentions are to review the reforestation plan and the contract, and to address specific operational items such as:

(1) Administrating with self-inspection clause.

(2) Communications.

(3) Tree storage, delivery and care of stock.

(4) Overtime.

(5) Documentation.

(6) Safety.

(7) Road access and management.

(8) Tree Physiology.

c. Mid-April, Troy W., tree preparation training and culling specs. Larry T., Betty J., Loni S., Faye H.

d. Mid-May. Spread creek white pine progeny test establishment. The cycle 11 white pine project should occur at this time, and last 7-10 days. With the exception of the project leader, impact on the operational program personnel should be minimal.

Program

1. The Three Rivers program of 1,414 acres, and 557,000 seedlings is again one of the larger programs in Region 1.

2. Our $126,189 stock inventory for completing the program is approximately 13 percent above our projected needs. This excess appears mainly in the mid elevation DF, plus some PP and LP. The PP will be used for the P.A.T. planting, if approved. The DF excesses will be used in adjusting for unit overruns and will allow us to be more discriminate of the quality of DF seedlings sent to the field.


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3. A few of this year's units are replants and have shown a history of being difficult to successfully establish regeneration. We need to maximize our reforestation and contract administration efforts on these units.

4. As in most years, the blow down and road damage could have a significant impact on access to some of the units. As a result, consider the following:

a. Adequate preview time prior to planting should be allowed.

b. Ensure the vehicles are equipped with a sharp workable saw, bolt cutters and the necessary safety equipment is available and used.

c. When a salvage opportunity may exist, saw the material into merchantable lengths, if possible.

d. Be aware of what you are doing, don't exceed your sawing comfort level. People must be qualified and have a card to operate a chain saw.

e. Don't rush in an attempt to get to the units where road damage may present an unsafe access for the contractor or us.

NOTE. We need to avoid damage to roads and other resources. If you or the contractor is going to cause damage to the road, back off. We can come back sometime after the road has dried up.

Whether you are reconning or actively planting, look at how the road is being affected and act accordingly. If you see runoff, don't just drive by and report it. Often times, 10 minutes with a shovel, or pulaski is all that is needed to correct the problem.

Increased emphasis on better overall land management, especially in water quality and wildlife security has made road access a major item. Proper posting and use of closed roads for planting access and the minimizing of road surface damage is required. Any significant rutting occurring as a result of our activities will need to be identified and documented for necessary repair.

1. Tree wrapping and dispensing. The contractor will submit a written tree order to the inspector 43 hours in advance of the time that the seedlings are desired. The inspector will notify Betty J., at wrapperville, who will be responsible for preparing the shipment of trees. No trees will leave without documentation.The COR is responsible for getting the tree orders to Betty J. on time. In the event that tree orders are not received 43 hours in advance, the COR will be called and can expect any of the following: late tree order, no trees for that day, or short tree order.

Upon receipt of a tree order, bareroot will be removed from storage, counted out 50 to a bundle, pruned to 10-11 inches (unless noted otherwise in appendix D) dipped in water and rolled in wet kimtex.

Container stock will be shipped in the original plastic baggies. Depending on medium condition each baggie may be given a light spray of water and then stapled shut.

Thawing frozen stock

1. Open boxes to facilitate air exchange.

2. Protect trees from wind and direct sunlight.

3. Maximum thawing temperature is 50.


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Wrapped trees will be returned to original shipping containers and the boxes labeled with seedlot group, bid item, quantity, and date wrapped.

Acclimatization Method

a. Day 1 - tree order received by 1200.

Day 2 - trees pulled from cooler, pruned and rolled.

Day 3 - trees shipped and planted.

As site temperatures begin climbing into the low seventies and humidities drop below 35 percent, initiate acclimatization method b.

b. Day 1 - tree order received by 1200, trees pulled from cooler.

Day 2 - trees pruned and rolled.

Day 3 - trees shipped and planted.

Slight variation of acclimatization time in "b" may occur but will never exceed 72 hours (cold storage removal to plant).

4. Transport and storage at planting sites.

After wrapping and acclimatization the trees will be transported to the appropriate planting sites.

Betty J., with the assistance of the COR, will be responsible for coordinating tree transportation to the units. The government has opted to accept the contractor's proposal for tree handling. He proposes to haul the seedlings from the storage facility to the planting units in a trailer, with boxes stacked no more than 2 rows deep and the bottom row will be on pallets to allow for air circulation. A space blanket will cover all seedlings while in or out of the trailer, the temperatures will be monitored and the appropriate measures taken to prevent root temperatures from exceeding 40 degrees F. It is anticipated that some supplemental hauling by us will take place. Throughout transportation, the seedlings will be protected from ultraviolet rays and desiccation by reflective tarps. On site, the trees must be protected from direct heat and wind. The trees may be kept in the truck placed in a protected, shady area, or covered by a reflective tarp if they must be left in the open. Shipping boxes and bags will be returned to the wrapping facility.

3. Field inspection - Basic inspectors guide. Ensure that you, as an inspector, are familiar with all the contract requirements including those submitted in the contractor's proposal. If you are asked to clarify or interpret, but don't know or understand, say so. Don't try to wing it, but follow up and search out the answers.

Be aware and reactive to the planting quality at all times. Waiting for the results of the formal plots is not the correct approach to dealing with less than acceptable work. The end result as shown by these plots should be positive and of no surprise. Anything less, should have been identified, documented and corrected long before the final survey is reviewed. It is extremely important to pay attention to what the "real" and present planting is telling you and not become so reliant on plots as to become oblivious to what is actually taking place. Observe real adherence to requirements and enforce. When work is not acceptable, it is important for you to not only identify these problems early, but to get them corrected immediately. Ensure that the contractor and the COR are aware, and


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that corrective measures are being implemented. Should corrective action not occur after a verbal notice of noncompliance, follow it up with a written notice. Adherence to all specifications is important and required. Nevertheless, seedling root damage or planting below ground deficiencies are most damaging to the tree. Root alteration and improper handling and placement are not to be tolerated.

4. Government Inspection Process

a. A government inspector will work with the contractor’s inspector initially, to ensure and verify the competency and validity of the contractor’s inspection system, to come to common ground on inspection calls.

b. During and after the above, the government inspector will be on site daily to:

(1) Monitor proper tree care and field handling.

(2) Perform random informal sampling of actual planting and identify problems.

(3) Observe contractors inspection process for accuracy.

(4) Ensure planting weather conditions are satisfactory.

(5) Deliver trees and receive tree orders.

(6) Check rate of progress.

(7) Perform general administrative duties associated with the contract.

c. Upon unit completion of the planting and receipt of the contractor’s inspection results, the government will "cold" inspect the unit at a one percent sample using 1/50 acre plots. Each unit sampled will be gridded for sample accuracy, with the plots marked and numbered with a wire flag at each plot center. A map of the plot locations will be maintained.

d. Each unit will be treated in this manner until sufficient confidence is obtained by the COR, that the contractors inspection process is fair and unbiased. A minimum of 10 percent of the total contract acreage will be examined using this method.

Should the COR be comfortable with the results and a variation of less than 3 percent exist between the government and the contractor's inspection, then the government's formal process will be modified as follows:

(1) Select additional units as needed to be fully inspected by the government based on the following:

(2) A confidence level for continued standard performance by the contractor.

(3) Major variations in contract specs, stock types, and so forth, which may interrupt the previous acceptable patterns of work. (It is recommended that the final unit be government inspected).

If, on the other hand, the level of confidence by the COR in the contractors work has not been reached by this time, the government will continue to fully inspect as long as necessary.


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Documentation. Planting reports, diaries, tree request and road logs will be handled on a daily basis, and all problems will be carefully and completely documented as they arise. This year’s category pricing contract will require accurate documentation by the inspector with regard to the amount of various stock types planted in both per acre and per thousand units Only the COR will have the authority to issue work orders, require rework and to issue suspend/resume work orders if conditions become unfavorable for planting.

Stake Rows. Pat B. will be installing the stake rows for each planting unit. (see stock assignment notes in Exhibit 05) and recording the appropriate information on the stake row survey form. Every fifth tree on the row will be measured from the ground line, to the terminal bud, to the nearest 1 inch, and the caliper shall be measured at the root collar to the nearest mm.

MTR Units. Accuracy in plotting any of the MTR units is critical. Besides planting quality, the plots are used to determine the overall number of trees planted. On these units, any error in tree count, plus a number of other factors can greatly skew end results for payment.

Road Management. The use of seasonally or fully restricted roads for our management activities continues to be a high profile item. If we hope to maintain the ability to reasonably access the majority of our work areas, adherence to the following is important:

1. Tank trap and gate openings should be limited to the least amount of time necessary to complete the project.

2. Keep a daily record of opening and closing gates on each road.

3. Road access authorization needs to be properly posted, accurate, and then removed immediately upon completion of the project.

4. Observe all restrictions in the access authority, not only by us but the contractor as well.The following is a list of roads that will need to be opened for the spring planting program.Road numbers and approximate days of use:

Road number Days Road Number Days1055 3 4444 814357A 4 14357 44425 6 2201C 22391D 3 4651 84651E 8 14741 45840 6 757 3394 8 14153 5393(rocks) 8 902B 35955 3 5932E 56031(EB) 3 6064 36045 6 4419B 76045B 4 14736 3

Regeneration Surveys. Surveys will be run in September to determine first year survival success.


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REFORESTATION ACTION PLAN

The purpose of this exhibit is to incorporate the tree planting contract administration requirements outlined in R-1 dated February 20, 1996. The letter outlines four basic organizational needs to be addressed.

1. Contracting officer must understand the tree planting contract specifications. They must assure that competent COR are assigned to administer the contract, and they must spend enough time on the planting sites to have confidence that the contract requirements are being accomplished. The contracting officer on the contract, Val V., has hands-on experience, and knows the planting specifications. The COR assigned to this contract is well qualified with years of experience and formal training. Shauna S., COR, has 15 years’ experience. The contracting officer will spend a minimum of one day per week on each contract during the life of the contract. (More often if the need arises)

2. COR must be silviculturists, culturists, or people working under or in very close organizational contact with silviculturists, or culturists. COR will be working closely with Jim F., culturist, and Russ G., silviculturist and each individual will visit the planting sites not less than every week and a half. The first visit will be day 2 or 3 of the planting.

3. The traditional involvement of the Forest Silviculturist with tree planting must be maintained. Forest Silviculturists (or their assistant) must be involved with the contracting officers and assist with the selection of COR on planting contracts, and they, like the contracting officer, must spend enough time on the planting sites to ensure that the government needs are being met. If the Forest Silviculturist delegates these duties to an assistant, it must be clear that the assistant has responsibilities to ensure that the planting contract standards are met.

4. The District Ranger is responsible for the completion of the work. They should be aware of the award process and to whom the contract is being awarded. They are required to recommend qualified individuals for COR to the contracting officer. They should take some time to review the work progress in the field.Jim F. will provide the District Ranger with a weekly summary of all activities on the tree-planting contract. An award letter was sent out to the Ranger at the time of award.

District Ranger Contracting Officer

Date Date


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Activity Due Date Responsibility1. Refo plan 4/1 F.2. Revegetation workshop 4/7 D.3. Initiate stock thawing F.Container-Troy 4/1Bareroot-Troy 4/15Container-Sylvanite 4/15Bareroot-Sylvanite 5/14. Organize wrapping facility Mid-April J.5. Tree Wrapper training Mid-April T./J.6. Begin spring planting 4/15 District7. Road plowing 4/15 F.8. Refo activity review TBA District9. End spring planting Mid- June District10. Regeneration surveys 9/1 S.

Reforestation Assignments

Assignment NameProject leader Jim F.Stock coordination to district Jim F.Storage Monitoring Betty J.Tree wrapping facilities Betty J.Road plowing Jim F.Tree wrapping Betty J.Culling and pruning Betty J.Transportation to planting sites Shauna S.

Contract Administration

COR Shauna S.Inspector Larry T.Monitoring (weather, soil, tree physiology) Jim F.Time keeping Jim F.

Shauna S.Larry T.

Inspector training Jim F.Tree wrapper training Larry T.

Betty J.


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1998 Spring Stock Inventory/Seedlot Groupings

Seedlot group Seedlots, groups Stock type Elevation Supplier Quantity (M)A PP 6668 S9 3200 C 5.4B PP 6731 S9 4200 C 11.5C PP 673 V6 4200 C 14.4TOTAL PP 31.3D DF 7276 B2 3400 C 8.0E DF 7279 B2 4000 C 58.0F DF 4454 B2 4700 C 20.0

DF 4498 B2 4700 C 59.0G DF 7386 B2 4700 C 25.0TOTAL DF 170.0H WL 2780 B2 3600 C 7.0I WL 7283 B2 4000 C 58.0J WL 7283 S9 4000 C 5.0K WL 7283 V6 4000 C 7.0L WL 6629 B2 4500 C 24.0M WL 6135k B2 5000 C 81.0N WL 7284 B2 5500 C 17.0TOTAL WL 199.0O WP CDA V6 CTOTAL WP 138.0P ES 6461 B2 4400 C 27.0Q ES 6459 B2 4900 C 42.0R ES 6459 V6 4900 C 4.0S ES 0344 B2 6000 C 10.0TOTAL ES 83.0T LP 6252 V6 4800 C 4.0U LP 7165 V6 5500 C 9.0TOTAL LP 13.0STOCK TOTALS 634.3

Stock Notes

1. The following lots come in a variety of stock types as shown.

Lot V6 S7 B2PP 6731 C BWL 7283 K J IES 6459 R Q

2. The presence of Botrytis in the ES 6459 (v6) stock has been identified. A quick thaw, prior to the plant, and a visual inspection is recommended. This stock will be isolated in culvert 2 at Sylvanite prior to its use in Troy.


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2.32 - Exhibit 01—Continued

Stock Assignments 1998(The original of this table contains 11 pages)

Subitem Acres Elevation SpeciesSeedlotGroup

Est.Quantity TPA

Actual Quantity TPA Notes

Replant. mix evenly1.1 24 4600 WL I 2.3 1 row of 50 stakes.

DF E 2.2ES P 2.2WP O 2.2

8.9 371Razed Ruby 1

1.2 2 4600 WL K .2 14x14 Mix evenly.WP O .2 1 Row of 25 stakes.

China Salvage 20 .4 200

1.3 38 4700 WL I 5.7 DF(E), WP(O) 4:3:3DF E 3.4 Upper half Mix DF(F),WP O 2.8 WL(I), PFP(B) 3:1:1PP B 1.9 2 rows 50 stakes.DF F 5.2

19.0 500China Salvage 23

1.4 11 4200 PP B 1.4 125 3x3 Replant Shade China Sheep 11 clause5; 1 row 25

stakes.1.5 6 4400 PP B .8 Mix evenly; 12" scalp

WP O .8 1 row of 25 stakes.WL I .8DF E .6

China Salvage 22 3.0 500

1.6 8 4500 WL K .9 Mix evenly; 1 row of ES P .8 50 stakesDF F .8WP O .9

China Salvage 12 3.4 425

1.7 22 5000 WL L 2.7 Mix evenly, except keep

ES P 2.7 WP and ES off ridgeDF F 2.7 1 row of 50 and 1 row

ofWP O 2.7 25 stakes.


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2.3 - Reforestation Prescription

A silviculture prescription that is reviewed and signed by a certified silviculturist is required for all reforestation treatments. The prescription may be prepared by a culturist in Region 1 or trained reforestation personnel in Regions 2, 3, and 4. Identify reforestation objectives and vegetation treatments as a part of the landscape analysis and environmental assessment for the area in question. Prescriptions will generally meet multiple objectives and must consider all vegetation. The identification and integration of limiting factors and their impacts on tree seedling establishment and growth throughout the rotation is key to developing a biologically feasible prescription.

When management objectives make reforestation success questionable, the objective of obtaining regeneration must be reconsidered. If regeneration is still desired, then constraints that make it unlikely must be changed.

1. Prescription Elements. Address the following elements in silvicultural prescriptions for reforestation practices.

a. Species preference based on ecological succession and management considerations.

b. Reliance on natural regeneration for desired stocking including species and condition.

c. Type of planting stock, method of planting to be used, and numbers of trees to plant.

d. Site preparation requirements including fuels treatment.

e. Initial stocking requirements that consider early mortality expectations.

f. Seedling protection requirements with regard to both animals and physical environment.

g. Seedling growing space requirements considering both understory and overstory vegetation layers.

h. Potential fire, insect, disease, and weather related hazards.

2. Reforestation Practices. Incorporate the following practices into prescriptions.

a. Site Disturbance. Achieve only the minimum site disturbance necessary to provide an adequate seedbed or planting site. This includes leaving organic matter and debris on sites. Cooler prescribed burns, minimal mechanical site preparation and less site disturbance during logging are beneficial to site productivity and seedling establishment.


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On some sites, there is potential to achieve too little site disturbance resulting in poor seedling establishment and growth. Disturb the site sufficiently to remove plant competition and thick duff to assure seedling establishment. Consider both the need to protect soil and needs of tree regeneration.

b. Mixed Species. Where appropriate, mixed species should be emphasized. Natural regeneration can be utilized to complement species mix. Manage for one species only where ecologically appropriate.

c. Emphasize Microsites. Plant in microsites, as they are the best sites for tree establishment. As a result of microsite selection, trees will not appear to be planted in rows. Planted areas will not be easily distinguishable from naturally regenerated areas.

2.31 - Desired Stocking and Species

State desired stocking and species in the silvicultural prescription. Generally, all areas needing reforestation treatment, whether created by harvest or natural disturbance, must receive prompt treatment to ensure objectives in Forest Plans are met. Objectives for sites will vary, but early seral species are generally preferred where regeneration is necessary. Many western landscapes are outside the natural range of variability. There has been a shift to more shade-tolerant species as a result of past selective logging practices and reduction of wildfire across the landscape. The prescription should address all vegetation through various stages of succession.

The number of trees (stocking) required for a satisfactorily regenerated site is variable depending on objectives and varying site capabilities.

2.32 - Considerations for Reforestation Prescriptions

Consider critical factors listed in the following table prior to initiating a regeneration harvest or reforestation project. Failure to consider these factors may result in regeneration failure and waste of funds.


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Factors to be considered for Reforestation Projects

a. Aspect a. Habitat type/plant a. Site preparationb. General relief associations b. Artificial seed sourcec. Soils b. Species characteristics, availabilityd. Elevation and latitude and stand composition c. Treatment prioritye. Climate factors c. Animal use impacts Site quality

Precipitation patterns Domestic Accessibility Wildlife d. Management

d. Natural regeneration constraintspotential e. Natural versus

e. Insect and disease artificial regenerationpotential f. Desired stocking

levelsg. Stock typeh. Planting seasoni. Contract versus force

account planting

1. Physical Factors.

a. Aspect. Aspect or direction of exposure of mountain slopes is one of the most important factors affecting reforestation success. South- and west-facing exposures present a hotter, drier environment than north and east exposures and may be difficult to regenerate. Insolation varies tremendously with slope exposure during summer months when moisture becomes limited. Many south and west un-shaded slopes may fail to regenerate unless every step in the artificial reforestation project is done correctly. Shade-tolerant climax species, even when planted, will often not succeed in these aspects initially. Shade and planting of early seral species are generally required for survival on highly insolated south and west exposures. Animal use and animal damage to seedlings often occur on these exposures in the winter when other exposures are snow covered.

North and east slopes are rarely a reforestation problem when silvicultural systems are properly applied. These slopes are often overstocked. If there is an adequate mix of seed available, shade-tolerant species may become established at the onset of regeneration and compete with the shade-intolerant species.

b. General Relief. Slope steepness accentuates the effects of aspect. Insolation becomes critical on south and west slopes that are greater than 30 percent. Slope also influences site preparation methods, seed dispersal, and the ability to plant.

Topographical features influence air movement. Dips or depressions of only a few feet can affect the amount of cold air settling and can result in seedling mortality. Address potential problems from cold air drainage and frost prior to harvesting. The


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shelterwood system can reduce effects of cold air drainage or frost pockets. If clearcuts are used in frost pockets and areas of cold air drainage, species may be limited to lodgepole pine or blue spruce. Frost resistance by species is discussed in detail under 2. Biological Factors.

Topographical features also have a major effect on wind patterns and seed dispersal and subsequently affect regeneration success. Mountain saddles that create wind funnels are often very difficult to regenerate.

c. Soils. Improper site preparation techniques can damage soils. Consult with Forest and Regional soil scientists to ensure soil protection standards are met. If not done carefully, site preparation and reduction of hazardous fuels can seriously degrade the site and cause reforestation failures or future growth reductions.

Site degradation can result from:

(1) Displacement and movement of topsoil or loess caps into slash piles.

(2) Soil compaction from use of heavy equipment, especially when soils are wet and easily damaged.

(3) Alteration of soil structure.

(4) Alteration of soil surface by extremely hot burns.

(5) Excessive removal of organic matter.

Design site preparation practices to stay within Regional soil protection standards. Keep roads, trails, and landings to a minimum in logging units. Ripping may be necessary to reduce effects of compaction. Keep disturbance of the soil profile to the minimum necessary to assure seedling survival. Use excavator equipment on fragile ground. Avoid bulldozers where soil damage will occur. Maintain large woody debris to enhance nutrient cycling.

d. Elevation and Latitude. Consider elevation and latitude when selecting species and seed sources for artificial reforestation. Effects can be magnified by topography. Frost pockets and cold air drainages can be worse in higher elevations or more northern latitudes.

Elevation is particularly important when transferring seed in the Rocky Mountains primarily due to a response to cold temperatures. The affects of latitude are also important particularly in the lower elevation ponderosa pine forests.

e. Climate Factors.

(1) Precipitation Patterns. In the Rocky Mountains, precipitation patterns and summer drought potential can vary tremendously on sites only a few miles apart.


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Correctly identified habitat types are good indicators of these differences. Ensure species selections meet habitat type group guidelines.

(2) Snow Load and Movement. Consider snow load and movement when selecting planting stock. Snow movement can damage seedlings and cause heavy mortality. Snow creep is most prevalent on steep clearcuts. Shelterwood trees provide some protection. Some species are more susceptible to snow damage. Previous attempts to plant ponderosa pine in areas of heavy snow accumulation on steep slopes resulted in stem breakage due to snow movement down the slope. Both ponderosa pine and Douglas fir are susceptible to damage. Lodgepole pine, spruce, larch, and subalpine fir are more resistant to snow damage. Off-site trees are also more susceptible to snow damage. Species selections that meet habitat type group and elevation/latitude guidelines will have less potential for damage.

(3) Frost Heaving. Consider the potential for frost heaving when selecting cutting methods, planting stock, and planting seasons. Alternating freezing and thawing of the soil causes frost-heaving results, which lifts seedlings partially or totally out of the ground. Container-grown seedlings are especially susceptible. Fall planted container stock suffers most because it has little time to establish root systems outside of the plug. Therefore, container stock should not be fall planted in areas where adequate snow cover is not anticipated. Other potentially severe problem sites are where there is high silt content in the soils and on south- and west-facing slopes at certain elevations.

2. Biological Factors.

a. Habitat Type/Plant Associations. The importance of habitat type is interrelated to aspect, elevation, and climate. Ecological plant succession can be predicted if the habitat type is known. Failing to consider plant succession can result in failure or poor tree performance over the rotation. Refer to section 2.06. for references dealing with species preference by habitat types/plant association.

b. Species Characteristics and Stand Composition. Specify the acceptable tree species and tree health and condition in the prescription.

Apply these general rules when selecting species for regeneration:

(1) Species Preference. Select species that fit natural ecological succession patterns specific to habitat types. Utilize cutting systems and site preparation techniques to emphasize the preferred species. Do not plant species inappropriate for the successional stage of the stand in an attempt to obtain species diversity.

(2) Seral Species. Give preference to early seral species, but not exclusive of intermediate and late seral species. Generally, early seral species have better form, faster initial growth rates, and higher resistance to frost and insolation damage, as


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well as to insect and disease problems. Tolerant species will usually become established over time.

(3) Multiple species. Utilize practices that favor two or three species, where ecologically appropriate, as opposed to those that favor single species. There are situations where single species management is desired. For example, if lodgepole pine is the only choice due to cold or ponderosa pine due to drought conditions, then a single species is acceptable.

(4) Advanced Regeneration. Established regeneration may be retained if intermediate and climax species are desired. Preserve quality residual trees free of defect, and exhibiting potential for good growth if they fit ecologically into the newly created site conditions. This is often easy to prescribe, but difficult and expensive to logistically achieve. Logging often damages or destroys residual seedlings even when considerable effort is made to protect them.

(5) Seed Trees. Select appropriate residual trees including those for a seed source for natural regeneration. Failure of sites to regenerate naturally is frequently due to absence of a species seed source necessary to match ecological conditions on site.

(6) Site Preparation. Vegetative competition will affect the ability of some species to become established and grow. Site preparation must be sufficient to reduce the vegetation that will compete for moisture or light. Competition is discussed more in section 2.4.

(7) Shade Tolerance. Consider shade tolerance in species selection. Species are listed in the following order from intolerance to tolerance to shade.

Western larch, Quaking aspenPonderosa pineWhite pineLodgepole pineWhitebark pine, limber pine, Southwestern white pineDouglas firWhite firBlue spruceEngelmann spruceSubalpine fir, Corkbark firGrand firWestern hemlockWestern redcedar


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(8) Cold Tolerance. Frost and cold tolerances affect survival and growth. The following list identifies species listed in order of their general tolerance to cold and frost. Quaking aspen occupies a broad range of climatic conditions; therefore, cold tolerance is variable.

Lodgepole pineBlue spruceSubalpine fir, Corkbark firEngelmann spruceWestern white pineWestern larchPonderosa pine and Southwestern white pineDouglas firWhite firWestern hemlockGrand firWestern redcedar

Lodgepole pine is the most frost- and cold-resistant species. On many cold problem sites, species including Engelmann spruce regenerate only under a sheltering overstory. The cold tolerance of western larch and aspen comes from the ability to flush again following frost damage. New growth is not frost tolerant.

There is considerable variance within species and between seed lots to frost and cold damage. Cold tolerance is a major factor determining seed transfer rules.

c. Animal Use Impacts. Plantation failures can result from animals such as big game, cattle, pocket gophers, voles, or hares. Do not implement reforestation treatments on areas with historically heavy animal use unless the reforestation plan includes changing this pattern of use or providing for seedling protection.

(1) Domestic. Unmanaged livestock can destroy plantations and keep stands in the grass-sod phases of succession for years. The total effect of cattle grazing on the site is often more damaging to reforestation efforts than the direct damage they cause to trees by trampling. Overgrazing causes soil compaction and removes food supplies normally available to other animals. Both big game and rodents will browse trees when preferred vegetation becomes absent or scarce.

Coordinate with range specialists during the environmental assessment and planning stage of a project to reduce potential damage problems. Evaluate the most cost-effective way to coordinate grazing and regeneration.

Apply the following guidelines to minimize livestock damage:


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(a) Do not plan regeneration harvest units in areas with known livestock concentrations, or where future concentrations are expected unless protective measures are included and will be effective.

(b) Protect seedlings when regeneration harvests are planned and livestock damage is likely to occur. Fencing or using a rest rotation grazing rotation can be effective. In some cases, a minor shift in the location of a harvest unit may avoid livestock concentrations.

(c) Unless other protection measures are applied, avoid grazing for at least 3 to 5 years after planting or until seedlings can withstand grazing without substantial damage. Grazing systems, such as deferred rotation and rest rotation on grazing allotments provides grazing and tree regeneration at minimum costs.

(d) Additional range riding, or range improvements may be useful in controlling livestock. Fencing, both permanent and temporary, can be successful when it is properly maintained. Both K-V and appropriated reforestation funds can be used for protective fencing.

(e) Do not place salt or mineral blocks within or adjacent to regeneration areas.

(f) Do not permit cattle in regeneration areas until new tree leaders have hardened and become woody. Bulls occasionally cause rubbing damage to sapling trees and should be removed from the range by mid-season or as soon as breeding is completed.

(g) Use tree stock and species that are most tolerant to wounding when reforesting units where other means of protection measures are not possible. All species are susceptible to death or damage by trampling during the first few seasons after planting, although some species are more tolerant than others. Any scarring to the bole of the tree is an entry point for disease-causing organisms that may kill it promptly or spread throughout the tree later in its development. Tree species that are able to produce higher levels of pitch may be more resistant to wounding. Large, woody stock is more resistant. Container stock or young bareroot stock is most susceptible and should be used only when sufficient debris is left for protection.

As trees become established and develop root systems, they become more tolerant to minor damage. By the time trees are 2½ feet in height, trampling damage does not occur since branches tend to keep cattle away from the tree bole.


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Tree Species Tolerance to Wounding

Western white pine. Slightly tolerant.

Western larch, Douglas fir, grand fir, Engelmann spruce, white fir, blue spruce, and quaking aspen.

Least tolerant. Highest level of mortality when damaged. These species should not be planted in grazing areas without specific provision for protection.

(h) Natural regeneration, like artificial, is intolerant to grazing until trees are 2½ feet in height. Germinating natural seedlings are completely intolerant to trampling. Unless protective measures are taken along with proper livestock management, chances of obtaining prompt natural regeneration sufficient to meet objectives are unlikely.

(i) Utilize appropriate site preparation to meet regeneration, fuels management, and livestock grazing needs. Retain down woody debris for seedling protection. Refer to Graham reference in section 2.06g (3) Site Preparation, for appropriate levels of woody debris. Acceptable regeneration of the site requires appropriate spacing and size of debris to provide protection.

Broadcast burn and piling prescriptions should include provisions for retention of woody debris for seedling protection. During tree planting, planters must utilize the debris left for protection. Plant seedlings as close to stumps and logs as possible. Debris retention is one of the most cost-effective means of dealing not only with cattle damage, but big game damage as well.

(j) Other animal such as deer, elk, and gophers will often prefer areas used by cattle as well. Seedlings may need protection from these animals, as well as from the livestock.

(k) Monitor plantations frequently to determine when and if damage is occurring. For example, elk and deer damage tends to occur in winter and spring on transitional range. Livestock damage typically occurs during summer grazing periods. Staked trees can be useful in monitoring damage. Check staked trees, or conduct other monitoring, at the end of summer and again in spring to help identify whether damage is attributable to domestic livestock or wildlife.

(l) Develop site-specific management regimes for both forage and tree regeneration. Timing of livestock entry and exit from the range is critical, as is controlled and timely movement of livestock. Adhere to range readiness standards. These regimes must be carefully coordinated, reviewed, funded, and monitored by both range and reforestation managers.


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(2) Wildlife. Wild animal damage to seedlings in the Rocky Mountains is generally localized and predictable under certain conditions. Big game damage can be expected in winter range and some early spring ranges. Heavy levels of site preparation can increase damage by rodents, especially pocket gophers. For specific problems refer to appropriate animal damage references in section 2.06, item g(1).

Field personnel need to be able to identify animal damage causal agents. Refer to section 2.06, item g(1) for identification keys. The Guide to Wildlife Feeding Injuries on Conifers in the Pacific Northwest (Lawrence et al.) is a useful photographic key.

Animal damage patterns change over time. Be alert to these changing patterns in order to anticipate problem areas. For example, in recent years, big game populations have generally been increasing and damage to regeneration has increased correspondingly. Patterns of use have also changed with the increase in populations.

On sites where the pattern of use is of a short seasonal duration, manipulation of debris, planting extra trees, and planting in stationary microsites can be effective. Netting or vexar tubes may be effective for protection from big game browsing. Commercially available repellents should be considered for gopher control. These types of protection require repeated treatments and can be quite expensive. Thus indirect methods that avoid animal damage control are preferred.

On sites where animals remain in the area for long periods of time, and repeatedly browse plants almost to the point of obliteration, reforestation will be difficult and expensive. Alternatives can include fencing or coordinated effort to reduce animal use, or amend management objectives so that prompt regeneration is not a goal. This may result in re-classification of the land from suitable for timber production to unsuitable.

Other animals, especially rodents, have populations that cycle rapidly and their damage to regeneration can vary over short periods of time. Be alert for these changes.

Consider methods to avoid animal damage when preparing prescriptions.

(a) Piling and Burning Slash. Steps taken during site preparation are often the most prudent way of preventing animal damage available to land managers. Piling and burning of logging slash, if too intensive, facilitates big game and cattle trampling damage to seedlings and can create pocket gopher problems. Broadcast burning or piling that leaves large scattered debris and brush for protection of seedlings is beneficial.

Scatter or promptly burn concentrations (piles) of slash. Piles of slash created by dozer piling or hand piling can provide habitat for small seed-eating and seedling-damaging rodents.


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(b) Tubing. Plastic tubing can provide effective, but expensive, early protection from animal feeding damage. Refer to the reference in section 2.06 item g(1) on plastic tubes. Tubing is not a one-time expense. Tubes must be maintained yearly from 1 to 4 years after they are installed. They should be removed prior to causing damage to the seedling if they do not degrade in sunlight.

(c) Netting. Plastic netting treatments are also effective under some conditions. Netting is cheaper to apply and maintain than tubes.

It is critical that netting has the ability to stretch in areas of tree growth and at the same time hold tight near the base of the tree. Some netting is a heavier gauge and may be useful for protecting larger seedlings. Products that do not have the stretching capability may actually constrict the seedling and distort growth. Netting should have a photo degradation period long enough to protect the seedlings for 2 to 3 years. To determine the best product, districts planning to net for the first time should contact other districts that have had experience. Refer to the Regional Skills List (sec. 2.1) for a list of experienced people.

Like tubes, netting must be maintained annually for 2 to 3 years following initial application until they are removed or they photo-degrade. Netting and tubes have provided good to excellent control, primarily in areas of temporary seasonal use. In areas of very heavy or concentrated animal use, neither tubing nor netting is effective.

(d) Fencing. Fencing can exclude both cattle and big game although specially constructed fencing is required for big game. Big game fences should only be used to protect high value areas from big game due to the high costs involved. Electric fencing has generally not proven to be cost effective because of maintenance costs. Refer to the reference by Karsky, under section 2.06 item g., Special Practices, for designs and more information.

(e) Repellants. There are commercially available chemicals that have repellant qualities that cause some animals to avoid seedlings. Species respond differently to various chemicals. Success is variable and the chemical must be repeatedly applied as it provides protection for about 60 days on most areas. It is preferable to apply the chemical just prior to expected animal damage.

(f) Poison Baits. Baiting with rodenticides can be highly effective in reducing pocket gopher populations. Gopher tunnels are baited with a poison such as strychnine-treated oats. Hand baiting may be done in late summer or fall but it may be preferable to bait in spring before breeding. Repeated treatments are generally required until vegetation progresses and no longer supports gopher populations or until trees reach a size where gophers cause little damage. Pre-and post-treatment surveys are required. Refer to references in section 2.06 item g(1) Special Practices and R1 FSH 2609.22 Animal Damage Control Handbook for additional information.


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(g) Species Selection. Some species are more prone to browse damage. Make species selections considering animal use in conjunction with other ecological considerations.

(h) Microsites. Selecting appropriate microsites during planting are discussed in sections 2.4 and 2.6 on Site Preparation and Planting.

Select planting spots (microsites) in protected areas, for example, next to stumps or along logs. Use protection clauses in reforestation contracts when planting in areas of potential animal damage.

(i) Planting Densities. In areas of light or occasional use it is often effective to increase planting densities to compensate for anticipated losses. For example, plant at 8 feet by 8 feet spacing rather than 9 feet by 9 feet spacing. Often, increased stocking density, and leaving debris for protection, is effective in abating animal damage. However, in areas of heavy use, this has little effect and allows more trees to be damaged.

(j) Stock Size. Bareroot 2-0 stock can withstand some light browsing, trampling, and clipping, thus, is the best stock to use in animal-damage areas. Containerized stock and 1-0 bareroot is less able to withstand browse damage and should not be used unless there are sufficient protective measures.

d. Natural Regeneration Potential. Consider the following factors when preparing a reforestation prescription for natural regeneration.

(1) Seed Source. The seed source needs to be available either as a seed wall or as residual trees within the unit. Trees that are considered as a seed source must be phenotypically acceptable. Consider wind patterns, as they will affect seed dispersal.

(2) Seed periodicity. Periodicity of the cone crop will affect availability of seeds. Time site preparation with production of seed crops when possible. Recognize factors that affect cone crop production unique to your area. For example, western larch is frequently a poor seed producer in northern Idaho due to cold problems. Ponderosa pine cone crops are typically inconsistent in the higher elevations of its range.

(3) Insect and Disease. Consider current or potential insect and disease infections that can reduce cone production. For example, spruce budworm previously eliminated most Douglas fir seed crops over a wide area in western Montana for almost 10 years.

(4) Serotiny. Determine the level of cone serotiny for lodgepole pine stands, as it will affect regeneration patterns. Serotinous cones left on the ground after site preparation will be a good seed source, but a poor source if left on standing trees.


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(5) Coppice Sprouting. Assess sprouting potential for species such as aspen to assure adequate numbers of sprouts can be expected.

e. Insect and Disease Potentials. All Rocky Mountain species have both resistance and susceptibility to native pests that can attack them throughout their rotation. It is generally unwise to base species selection on resistance or susceptibility to one pest Keeping the stand in a healthy condition via stocking control will improve resistance. It is necessary to select the species or group of species best adapted to the site, as they will best endure the physical drought, frost, and stresses of the site. Trees that thrive in spite of these stresses will be more resistant to the diseases and insects that may attack them later in the rotation.

Consider selecting for resistance in cases like the following:

(1) On sites known to be infected with root pathogens, gains can be expected with careful species manipulation. Species chosen must fit the ecological requirements of the site; otherwise, the situation will persist.

(2) On sites being managed for a mixture of age or size classes, some insects and diseases can be more of an impact than in single-storied stands. Older trees have the potential to harbor insects and disease and affect smaller trees. Mistletoe, rusts, and spruce budworm are examples of many potential insects and disease problems that can be worse in a multi-storied stand.

(3) Due to white pine blister rust, western white pine must be managed differently from other species. Use only rust-resistant planting stock that is produced at tree improvement orchards. Seedlings have varying levels of resistance. Consider resistance levels (if known) of planting stock and hazards of the site when determining planting densities needed to meet management objectives. Utilize breeding programs and resistant stock for whitebark pine and other white pines when it is available.

3. Logistical Factors.

a. Site Preparation. Site preparation is often the most crucial part of the reforestation prescription for both natural and artificial regeneration. Maintenance of coarse, woody debris is beneficial for trees. Seedlings often require dead material, logs, and stumps for shade and wind protection as well as protection from animals. This material is also necessary to maintain organic matter on the site for both physical and biological soil enhancement.

Site preparation must be adequate to assure that established competing vegetation is reduced and microsites for new tree regeneration are created. Generally, mineral soil must be exposed and competing vegetation removed so that trees can be established in the early successional stages. However, excessive site preparation can damage soils. For example, bulldozer work to clear the site may cause soil compaction or


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disrupt the physical structure of the soil, reducing moisture retention and nutrient regimes. Excessive clearing of south and west slopes can remove essential microsites necessary to protect seedlings from insolation and animals. Site preparation that leaves debris and scattered plants of all types is preferable. On some sites, regenerating brush can be beneficial for shade and protection of seedlings as long as the site is still acceptable for tree establishment. However, once brush has fully occupied the site, it is difficult for trees to become established. Animal damage to tree seedlings is often less on sites with adequate (alternate) preferred browse. Damage from pocket gophers is less on sites that have not been excessively cleared and are more similar to natural successional conditions.

Consider probable vegetative response of the habitat type during the prescription phase of the project. Refer to the publication by Seidel in section 2.06 d. and information on habitat types in section 2.06 e. for information specific to habitat types. Some habitat types should only be burned lightly or not at all. Subalpine fir habitat types respond poorly to intense burning if lodgepole pine seed sources are not available. Engelmann spruce may not regenerate without site protection from an overstory; it also requires a thin layer of organic matter and litter for healthy regeneration. The natural fire history described for habitat types are good indicators of appropriate treatment. For example, if hot ground fires are not part of the natural fire cycle, they should generally not be prescribed.

Document the amount of site preparation necessary to meet reforestation objectives in the site-specific prescription. Follow the prescription during logging and site preparation.

b. Seed Source Availability. Evaluate both natural and artificial seed sources for the site for genetic quality. Seed from the site or from nearby sites is usually adapted to the site. However, the species must match the successional stage of the site. For example, early seral species require an open-grown, early successional condition and may not establish and grow in later successional stages. Seed source of planted seedlings shall be consistent with seed transfer guidelines described in FSH 2409.26f, Seed Handbook.

Evaluate the history of old plantations before considering them as a suitable seed source. Some older plantations were planted with off-site trees and are now of seed-bearing age. Off-site trees may have been from sources hundreds of miles away or they may have been from a local area but the wrong elevation zone. Off-site trees should be removed (harvested) whenever possible to avoid further seed and pollen contamination of the area.

c. Treatment Priority. Laws and policies guiding reforestation timeframes, described in section 2.2, shall influence priorities. Priority should also consider factors such as need for timely reforestation, site quality, seed availability, site preparation, accessibility, economic efficiency, and logistics.


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Each district shall assess reforestation needs and establish a priority list for reforestation projects. This should be done by keeping planned activity needs updated in the R-1 Timber Stand Management Record System (TSMRS) or the Rocky Mountain Region Information System (RMRIS).

Schedule treatments considering all factors. Reforestation of current harvests or recent wildfire usually takes precedence over older work because the site preparation is fresh. Inaccessible sites do not justify expensive reforestation practices if assessable sites go unattended. Plan reforestation efficiently by grouping units that are logistically easiest to accomplish, such as their proximity to each other and closeness to roads.

d. Management Constraints. Management objectives can influence reforestation work. Some management objectives can result in reforestation that is more costly or difficult to achieve. For example, if elk-feeding stations are near harvest areas, the prescription and supporting documents must include costs for seedling protection or that associated with delayed regeneration. It is preferable, however, to utilize integrated approaches that avoid conflict from the onset and eliminate the need to mitigate after the fact.

e. Natural Versus Artificial Regeneration. Select silvicultural systems that favor natural regeneration if proper seed source is available after considering species, genetic quality, and ecological succession patterns. Plan artificial regeneration after fully considering natural regeneration opportunities.

There are situation when artificial reforestation should be the selected alternative. Some examples are:

(1) Lack of proper species or genetic quality seed sources in adjoining stands or residual overstory.

(2) Low probability of seed production in quantities to regenerate the site within required time frames.

(3) Logistical problems in cutting or site preparation practices that will not allow for proper seedbed preparation for natural seedlings.

f. Desired Stocking Levels. Determine desired stocking levels for the stand based on resource objectives. The prescription must consider needs and priorities of that site for 80 to 200 years or more into the future. It is common to have desired stocking during the regeneration phase of the stand at 125 to 400 trees per acre. Dry ponderosa pine stands may be below 100 trees per acre, however, and aspen stocking may be as high as 40,000 stems per acre initially. These numbers will vary considerably across the full spectrum of specific sites due to varying objectives. Specify desired and minimum stocking levels in the prescription. Initial planting densities should reflect anticipated mortality and natural fill in. Do not set planting


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densities based on the desired stocking at maturity alone. Consider trajectory of stocking throughout the life of the stand.

g. Types of Stock. Tree stock, bareroot or container, differs in tree size (caliper and height), root length, and other physiological characteristics. The stock size and type has an affect on regeneration success.

Assuming the stock is in good physiological condition, stem caliper is more important than height. Bareroot stock with 4 to 6 mm caliper and root systems 10 to 12 inches long will out perform tall, spindly stock. In general, trees planted on severe sites or on slopes with south and west exposure should have a 4 mm caliper; shade may also be required. Caliper is directly related to amount of bark insulating cambial tissue and water conducting tissue within the stem. Caliper also is generally related to the amount of reserve carbohydrate in nursery grown seedlings.

Tree age also is important as it affects the amount of secondary tissue. Seedlings with more secondary tissue can withstand harsher conditions.

Growing seedlings in larger containers should result in better root-to-shoot ratios; however, there is little or no secondary tissue. Thus, the seedling is still vulnerable to high insolation. Careful selection of microsites for container stock is generally better than increasing stock size.

(1) Bareroot Stock. Refer to section 2.95 for stock specifications. Information on bareroot stock types is described below:

SRING BAREROOT AND TRANSPLANT STOCK1-0 Bareroot 1-0 stock is a year old seedling grown for one season in the seedbed

prior to shipping. It is bigger than container stock and has more woody structure, but it is still a 1-year- old seedling physiologically. 1-0 does not have characteristics such as thicker bark, secondary needles, and thicker roots that 2-year old seedlings have.

2-0 Bareroot 2-0 stock is grown for two growing seasons in a seed bed and no years in a transplant bed. In general, 2-0 bareroot will perform adequately on almost all planting sites assuming tree handling and planting quality standards are met. This stock has the sturdiness and reserve power to withstand animal damage, heat damage at ground line, drought, frost, and other factors better than 1-0 stock or container stock. Bareroot can only be spring planted. Container stock may be better on shallow soils.

3-0 Bareroot Bareroot 3-0 is grown for 3 years in a seedbed and is needed when large enough stock cannot be grown in 2 years.

Transplants Transplant stock is bareroot stock that was grown in the seedbed and then moved to transplant beds for an additional growing year prior to shipment. Stock that was grown 2 years in the seedbed and one year in the transplant bed is 2-1 stock. Stock grown one year in the seed


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SRING BAREROOT AND TRANSPLANT STOCKbed and one year in the transplant bed is 1-1 stock. The general result is sturdier stock with more fibrous roots and better initial growth than a 2-0 or standard container grown tree.

Transplant stock is recommended for good sites where intense vegetative competition is expected. Roots will be more massive with a proliferation of fibrous roots, and the trees will be larger. Soils must be deep and have little rock. Shovel planting is often preferred over augers, mattocks or bars. Initial growth response is usually better than other stock. Transplants are not recommended for drought-prone or rocky sites.

Container stock grown in the green house and then extracted from the container and grown in outside transplant beds for an additional growing year is also considered transplant stock and is termed “plug+1” transplants. Small containers are commonly used when transplanting is planned. The plug+1 generally develops into a larger seedling with more root development than it would as either a container or 2-0 bareroot seedlings.

Problems unique to transplanting include root sweep and root rot problems. Transplants are expensive in relation to other stock types. Holding stock scheduled for planting the current year for another year is not the same thing as scheduled transplant stock and is generally not desirable. This stock is not cultured for transplanting and should be called transplanted holdover stock.

(2) Container Stock. Containerized trees are grown under varying combinations of enclosed greenhouses, shelter houses, and open outside conditions. In general, the longer trees are grown out of the greenhouse, the less tender the seedlings are. These seedlings respond to environmental extremes after planting much better than greenhouse seedlings. Container trees have the advantage because their roots are damaged only slightly, if at all, when extracted from the plug. Theoretically, tree size can be more precisely controlled in containers in the greenhouse and trees can be grown to specific size standards. However, all container stock is much like 1-0 stock. Growing the seedlings in larger containers does not increase the secondary tissue. However, container stock is best for good to moderate planting sites. Harsh, droughty, and animal damage prone sites can be planted with container stock if the trees are planted with good microsites.

Container stock expands planting windows beyond the traditional spring planting window. In the northern and central Rockies, container-grown seedlings can be planted in early summer (late June through early July) and in late summer-fall (mid-August through September) as well as in the spring. In the southern Rockies,


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container stock can be planted to coincide with summer rainfall patterns. They are especially useful on high-elevation sites that are snow covered in winter, are difficult to reach in spring, and have high snow plowing costs. Container stock is useful in rocky soils where it is difficult to open holes large enough for bareroot seedlings. They can be used to take advantage of recent site preparation due to the short growing time. Trees can be grown in 1 year instead of 2, and ordered in November for the next summer and fall planting seasons.

There are a variety of container stock sizes that can be used to meet specific site conditions. Work with the regional silviculturist/reforestation specialist and nursery personnel to select appropriate containers and to grow seedlings of varying specifications to accommodate specific site conditions. Seedlings produced at lower densities generally have better caliper. Refer to section 2.95 for information on standard stock size.

Characteristics of container stock grown are described below:

CONTAINER STOCK

SpringContainer

Stock grown for spring planting is sown the year prior to delivery. The exact sowing date will vary, but is usually around mid-spring. The trees complete a full growing season at the nursery. They set terminal buds and are hardened off for winter freezer storage. The trees are normally freezer stored from November or December until they are planted the next spring. These trees will initiate new top and root growth after planting. Initial root growth and overall performance has been better than fall-planted containers, but may not quite as good as summer plants because of the root growth and shoot growth patterns.

Summer Container

Stock grown for summer planting is sown in February (occasionally January). The early sowing date requires more heating and lighting at early stages. Trees undergo a part of their growing season at the nursery, but complete their growth after planting. When trees leave the nursery, they have completed height growth, set a terminal bud and have undergone some stem toughening. They are not frost hardy which is important to consider when timing the planting activity.

These summer-planted trees will complete diameter and root growth in the field. Growth and tree hardening proceeds normally during summer and fall. This scenario very closely mimics the growth and hardening process of natural seedlings. This stock will produce some very vigorous root growth in the field in the first growing season. Summer stock on high-elevation sites (usually lodgepole pine and Engelmann spruce) will out perform fall-planted trees. They also do very well with other species on moist, mid-elevation productive sites.


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CONTAINER STOCK

Larger container sizes may require an early sow or special growing conditions to assure the roots fill the plug.

Fall Container

Fall stock is sown later and grown later into the season. Fall- planted trees have undergone most of their diameter growth and root growth at the nursery. Trees planted early in the fall season still have some capacity for root growth, but there will be a large variance in the root growth capacity, depending on how trees are grown, the nursery at which trees are grown, when they are shipped, and when they are planted. Fall- planted trees have often been stressed quite hard in the nursery in late summer and early fall in an attempt to increase hardiness. This stress often has a negative affect not only on fall root growth, but also on the next spring's growth and has resulted in poor survival.

(3) Microsites and Container Planting. Microsites that shade the ground line to prevent high soil temperatures can improve survival of all stock types, but are most important when dealing with 1-0 or container stock. On harsh sites, acceptable results have been obtained by shading the ground line or tree foliage and providing protection from animal damage, solarization and wind. Plant the seedlings along logs, stumps, and other protected microsites.

(4) Harsh Sites. Consider the cause of the harsh site, as well as degree of harshness when selecting stock type. For example, a very dry site may require the use of 2-1 stock but small container stock may work better on a rocky site with good moisture. The seedling foliage may need protection to reduce transpiration if high solarization or wind is expected.

h. Season of Planting. There are three common planting windows for most of the Rocky Mountains. Dates for planting will vary depending on site conditions.

(1) Spring. Mid-April to mid-June is the primary planting season. Some planting in the southern Rockies is done as early as late February, however, planting should not proceed until soil temperatures at a depth of 4 to 6 inches have reached a minimum of 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Spring planting season occasionally may extend into early July during heavy snow pack years.

(2) Summer. Late June to late July. Plant only container stock specifically grown for summer planting. This stock is grown under specially designed regimes that differ from stock grown for spring and fall planting. Summer planting takes advantage of soil moistures from late snow loads or summer monsoon rains typical of the southern Rockies.


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(3) Fall. Mid-August to late September. Plant only container stock in the fall. Fall planting of bareroot stock results in poor survival. Trees planted earlier in the window (August 15 to September 15) do much better than those planted later. Planting after October 1 is risky and not recommended.

2.33 - Synopsis of Common Reforestation Problems in the Rocky Mountains

Reforestation in the Rocky Mountains is achievable on all productive forested habitat types with proper reforestation practices and when silvical requirements of trees are met. Problems in reforestation occur when strategies are incompatible with requirements of the tree or where prescriptions are not carried out promptly and correctly.

Some of the types of regeneration problems are:

a. Insolation and animal browsing on south and west slopes.

b. Sites with cold air drainage, frost, and wind funnel problems.

c. Delay in regeneration resulting in heavy brush or other vegetative competition.

d. Site preparation problems due to rocky soils or thin topsoils.

e. Animal damage caused by wild and domestic animals.

f. Prescriptions that do not meet silvical requirements of trees.

Appropriate silvicultural approaches reduce or avoid most problems. There are various options for resolving problems that do arise however; some may either be very costly or administratively not available.

Common regeneration problems are displayed in exhibit 01.


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2.33 – Exhibit 01Common Regeneration Problems

Sites with Potential Regeneration Problems Problems

Diagnosis of Needs and Required Treatment to Reforest Within 5 years

Timber Suitability-Ability to Reforest

1. Southerly and westerly exposure on slopes over 30 percent in ponderosa pine, Douglas fir, and most grand fir habitat type series.

Insolation loads cause water stress and solarization damage. Plant competition for moisture is high.

a. Existing forest cover. Emphasize site preparation that leaves debris for shade, favor early seral species, and use shelterwood systems. Planting early seral species may be required.

Suitable when harvest prescriptions emphasize early seral species and provide for proper site preparation, shade, and protection. Shelterwood systems or clear-cuts with some debris left for shade and protection from animals are generally required.

b. Sod and/or low brush cover. Generally Douglas fir, white fir, and ponderosa habitat types.

Site preparation required. Plant early seral species, provide shade and protection. Herbicides may be required for release from sprouting shrubs

Suitable when costly hand site preparation or herbicides are applied to control established competing vegetation during seedling establishment period.

c. High brush over 4 feet high.

Site preparation required. Plant early seral species, provide shade and protection. Herbicides may be required.

Suitable when herbicides or fire are used to control competing vegetation.

d. High brush with seedling understory.

Release required in many cases.

Suitable when herbicide release is applied to free trees

2. North- and east-facing slopes over 30 percent. Alpine fir, mountain hemlock, western hemlock, and western red cedar habitat types.

Moist sites make slash removal and site preparation difficult. Plant competition from brush is often severe if stands were previously partial cuts.

Use summer burns and/or herbicides or site preparation tools.

Suitable except near year-round aboveground water when herbicides and/or summer burns for site preparation and slash reduction are applied.


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2.33 – Exhibit 01--Continued




3. Sites subject to cold air and frost.

a. All lower subalpine fir habitat types (Pfister p. 81-106) and Daubenmire vegetation guides. Some blue spruce in or near drainage bottoms.

Clearcuts with intensive site preparation present harsh environments to regeneration due to high elevation temperature extremes.

Either shelterwood or group selection favoring residual regeneration in openings created must be employed to maintain climax species or lodgepole may be used as early seral species. Delicate site preparation techniques must often be employed, especially for natural regeneration.

Suitable when prescriptions are written to avoid frost and cold damage problems.

b. Upper alpine fir habitat types ALBA/RIMO, ABLA/LUHI, TSME/LUMI, and timberline habitat types. (Pfister p. 111 and Daubenmires equivalent).

High elevation, harsh environments, plus very short growing season make sites very slow to recover from any disturbance.

Most sites in the habitat types are very difficult to harvest without lowering site productivity below acceptable levels. They can be regenerated, but growth on regeneration will lag for a considerable time, often beyond 5 years.

Generally unsuitable to intensive forest management although many sites could provide some timber on longer regeneration cycles and through salvage programs. Any logging must be sensitive to fragile ecosystems in these habitat types.

c. All other habitat types Cold air drainage and frost pocket problems can develop from poorly designed cutting patterns or due to topographic or air movement patterns.

Potential problem sites must be identified and either harvested via a shelterwood system, planted with the appropriate cold- tolerant species such as lodgepole pine or blue spruce if protective tree cover is removed.

Areas are suitable and often very productive forest land if potential for frost and cold air drainage is realized and properly treated.


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4. Competing vegetation. Sites where management activities have or likely will result in occupancy of vegetation other than trees for periods longer than 5 years.

Vegetative competition for moisture can be very intense. Once sites are lost to brush or sod, they are very difficult to regenerate without proper vegetative treatments.

Consider all site preparation and release treatments. Sites with soils that are damaged by heavy machinery, those with thin loess caps, very rocky soils, and steep slopes will most likely require herbicide and/or manual treatments along with fire.

Suitable when all available treatments are applied. Research is needed to determine optimum treatment in some cases. In many situations, herbicides are the only viable alternative. In these cases, assure suitability analysis reflects tools available.

a. High (over 5 feet high) or very dense brush fields needing site preparation or release. Typically found on productive habitat types, grand fir series and higher: also white and ponderosa pine (PIPO/QUGA) in Southern Rockies.

Aerial herbicides will likely be necessary on majority of sites with slopes over 30 percent and soils where machine site preparation will reduce soil productivity. Manual treatment will be needed in areas near permanent above-ground water or significant western larch component.

All area suitable when the use of herbicide is available. Area requiring herbicide use should be identified and clearly stated in the forest's suitability analysis.

b. Low brush and sod competition typically found on alpine fir, Douglas fir, and ponderosa pine series habitat types.

Ground spot application of herbicides will likely be necessary on most sites with slopes over 30 percent and soils where machine site preparation will reduce soil productivity. Manual treatment will be needed in areas near permanent above-ground water.

All areas suitable when use of herbicides is available. Areas requiring herbicide use should be identified and clearly stated in Forest's suitability analysis.

5. Rocky soils. All habitat types.

Sites with high rock content that make bareroot planting very difficult due to problems with opening the planting hole.

Soils with high percent of rock must be recognized prior to harvest. Harvest systems should favor natural regeneration. If planting is absolutely necessary, containerized stock should be prescribed.

All areas are suitable when rocky soil problems are anticipated in advance.


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6. Soils with thin loess caps over relatively nonproductive subsoils.

On certain soils types, thin loess caps, duff, and litter cover unproductive subsoils. When surface soil material is removed, growth rates of regeneration may be affected.

Soils with thin productive layers overlying nonproductive sub-layers must be identified prior to harvest. Site preparation should be minimal and shelterwood or selection system should be favored for regeneration.

All areas are suitable when soil conditions are identified and addressed in the prescription prior to harvest. Helicopter harvesting is an option.

7. Soils high in silt content (Arizona, Southwest Colorado, and New Mexico)

Potential frost heaving. Use shelterwood system, keep disturbance of duff and litter to minimum, do not fall plant.

Suitable when cover and soil structure are maintained.

8. Soils overlying volcanic cinders (Arizona and New Mexico).

Maintain soil structure to avoid drought problems.

Minimum soil disturbance, avoid mixing top soil with underlying cinders.

Unsuitable for regeneration harvest. Cutting limited to salvage.

9. Animal damage. All habitat types.

Animal damage to regeneration on localized sites is a major cause leading to regeneration failure and favors establishment of competitive vegetation (brush and grass).

Where animal damage is likely to occur, the trees must be protected to ensure success within 5 years. Utilize integrated management techniques to avoid the problem.

a. Cattle. Trampling young seedlings. Cattle should be kept off regeneration areas until trees are established, 2 1/2 feet tall and then grazing should be controlled to minimize damage.

Suitable when cattle are kept off regeneration until trees are 2 1/2 feet tall and then grazed under control to minimize tree damage.

b. Deer and elk. Browsing, especially on winter range.

o regenerate areas with expected or traditional big game damage, seedling protection is required. Netting, vexar tubes, fencing or leaving debris on site for seedling protection are options. Planting density increases are recommended.

Most areas are suitable when seedling protection measures are followed. Some heavily used areas are unsuitable.


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c. Rodents (other than pocket gophers).

Browsing, seed eating, and gnawing.

Mice and voles can negate regeneration by seed consumption alone. Rabbits browse young seedlings. Planting large stock is an option.

Suitable with planting and protection where necessary.

d. Pocket Gophers. Browsing, clipping, and gnawing.

Avoid site preparation techniques that stimulate gophers. Restrict cattle from area. Poison baiting may be required.

Suitable with preventative and protective treatments. Protection may be extremely costly. Some areas are unsuitable if baits cannot be applied.

2.34 - Natural Regeneration

More acres in the Rocky Mountains are reforested with natural regeneration than artificial planting and many plantations are partially stocked with natural regeneration.

The advantage of natural regeneration is that newly established stands are of progeny that are adapted to the site assuming seed from appropriate species is available. It is also the most economical reforestation method. The main obstacle in natural regeneration is lack of available seed of desired species, or genetic quality of seed source. When desired seed is not available, sites will regenerate with less desired tree species or species not suitable for succesional stage of the site, or will not regenerate at all. Planting may be necessary in these situations to maintain or restore early seral species such as ponderosa pine, western larch, western white pine, or other desired species.

Do not rely on natural regeneration when genetically resistant stock is necesssary. For example, white pine blister rust resistant stock should be planted versus relying on natural white pine regeneration.

Nearly all forested sites in the Rocky Mountains can be reforested with natural regeneration, however, it may not provide the desired species composition, nor be within the necessary time frames. The ability to promptly reforest with appropriate species requires that many site-specific factors be met. Consider the following factors when developing prescriptions:

1. Considerations for Successful Natural Regeneration.

a. The size and degree of disturbance.

b. The type of forest ecosystem disturbed.


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c. The pattern of human and animal use following the disturbance.

d. Species to be regenerated.

e. Seedbed conditions for seed germination and establishment.

f. Conditions for sprouting if coppice method is expected.

g. Number and distribution of microsites for tree seedlings.

h. Seed availability (or vegetative material for coppice regeneration) by species.

i. Changes in the macro and micro environment (climate and microsites).

Refer to section 2.3 Reforestation Prescriptions, and section 2.4 Site Preparation for guidance; and to references specific to natural regeneration in section 2.06 2.a Primary References, and specific by species in section 2.06 2.f Tree Species for additional information.

For natural regeneration to be successful, seed must be distributed to favorable seedbeds, and microsites for seed germination must be present. The seedlings must then encounter conditions that protect them from fungi, rodents, birds, cold, heat, and drought. Natural regeneration success requires prescriptions and treatments that ensure that tree seedling needs are met in harvest and site preparation treatments on the specific sites being treated.

2. Potential Problems. Historically, more areas in the Rocky Mountains have been successfully reforested with natural regeneration than have failed. Some causes of failure are listed below so they can be avoided in future activities.

a. Expectation of natural tree regeneration in the absence of appropriate species seed sources. The residual seed source must be evaluated to determine if it is appropriate to meet reforestation conditions. For example, if the planned treatment will create harsh conditions that require cold-hardy seedlings, then seed from a source for a cold-hardy species must be available.

b. Harsh site preparation that creates too much site and soil disturbance. Excessive disruption of the soil profile will affect long-term productivity and regeneration success. It can result in topsoil removal, soil compaction, mixing of organic matter with mineral soil, and removal of material necessary to provide adequate microsites for seedling establishment.

c. Disturbance followed by heavy domestic grazing practices. Heavy grazing after disturbance will limit natural regeneration establishment and can cause site conversions to brush or grass.

d. Use of improper management practices in alpine habitat types. Clearcutting, followed by intense site preparation that removes all of advanced regeneration and


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most of the microsites, can create heat, cold, frost heaving, snow, and excessive water runoff problems.

e. Harvest too close to non-conifer vegetation types. Cutting trees adjacent to non-forested areas can raise water tables or expand the area of animal use precluding establishment of trees. Some examples of these areas include grassy knolls, alder patches, bracken fern glades, and meadows, which may be indicators of rocky soils, high moisture tables, frost pockets, or heavy animal use.

f. Cutting on excessively steep slopes. This can cause excessive soil, snow, and water movement that can cover or wash seedlings away.

g. Heavy cutting on steep south- to west-facing slopes. Removing all or too much overstory on hot, dry aspects will result in little or no shade for regenerating seedlings. Soil temperatures exceeding 120 degrees Fahrenheit are lethal to seedlings. Excessive site preparation and leaving no woody debris for microsites on these sites magnifies this problem.

h. Reliance on natural regeneration where only poor phenotypes exist. There will be regeneration problems if the only seed source is from potentially dysgenic trees left from past logging. These trees are poor phenotypes, indicating they may be poor genotypes and are not good seed trees for natural regeneration. Plant if there are insufficient numbers of good seed trees available.

Physically damaged trees may be left on site since they can still provide good quality seed if they have good genotypes. Do not confuse physical damage with genetic qualities. It is more likely that older trees would have been damaged at some time in the past, but they may still be genetically acceptable seed trees.

3. Use of Advanced Regeneration. Advanced regeneration present before the time of disturbance may be suitable for restocking the site. To be successful, understory trees must not be destroyed or damaged during harvest and site preparation activities. Although high-elevation spruce/fir forests are prime examples of where advanced regeneration can be utilized, all forest types have some potential to utilize advanced regeneration.

The health and potential for these young trees to develop as desired must be carefully evaluated prior to depending on them as selected trees for the new forest. Terminal leader growth is often the best indicator of potential development. However, some tolerant species have the ability to generate new crowns after release from overtopping and may eventually resume good leader growth. Prescriptions should describe the species and condition of the trees to be favored for regeneration.

4. Evaluation of Natural Regeneration Success. Monitoring natural regeneration is presented in the monitoring schedules in section 2.7, Reforestation Surveys and Monitoring. However, these schedules allow only the determination of success or failure. Evaluation of the cause of success or failure requires more frequent visits. For example, when germinates appear,


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the site should be checked frequently to assess the occurrence of dampening off, frost, bird, or rodent predation. As the season progresses into summer, sites again need to be checked for losses due to drought and possible animal trampling.

2.4 - Site Preparation

This section presents site preparation methods for natural and artificial reforestation. The physical and biological elements that must be considered in silvicultural prescriptions are described in section 2.32. Site preparation must be addressed in the harvest prescription. Coordinate site preparation methods and timing with other resource objectives. Do not attempt reforestation without adeqate site preparation.

Utilize research and operational field experience in planning site preparation activities. Local people are often the operational experts in the use of fire and mechanical treatments for their area. Units lacking specific expertise should work with nearby forests or districts and may use the Skills List (see sec. 2.1) for experienced personnel.

2.41 - Methods

Site preparation methods are briefly discussed here. Refer to literature on fire, soils, silviculture, mechanical equipment, and herbicide use for additional information. Older literature deals primarily with equipment and methods; recent publications focus on effects of site preparation on the land as well as advances in equipment. Modern treatments emphasize a broader perspective for management.

Some site preparation methods that can be utilized are:

1. Mechanical.

a. Dozer scarification.

b. Dozer scarification and fuel hazard reduction.

c. Machine chop of small trees and or brush.

d. Dozer or excavator spot treatment alone or in conjunction with fuel hazard reduction.

e. Disking.

f. Harrows and other scarifiers.

2. Chemical.

a. Aerial spray.

b. Aerial spray and burn.


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c. Ground application broadcast treatments.

d. Ground application spot treatments.

3. Fire.

a. Broadcast burning.

b. Wildfire.

4. Hand Scalping.

5. Timber Harvest Activities.

a. Log skidding.

b. Other machine operations.

2.42 - Equipment

1. Mechanical Equipment. Use of mechanical equipment is an effective means of obtaining site preparation. Equipment used for site preparation is rapidly changing and improving. Missoula Technology and Development Center (MTDC) is involved in development and evaluation of new equipment. Refer to their literature for current information.

Avoid excessive soil disturbance when using mechanical equipment. Site preparation on some sites must be timed to avoid compaction and other problems. Select the proper equipment and provide good project administration to ensure the prescribed level of disturbance is achieved. Generally, use of excavators is less damaging to soils and may be recommended over bulldozers on some sites. Heavy disks are effective for controlling grass competition on gentle slopes. The "Salmon" blade provides scarification for both natural and artificial regeneration and is effective in minimizing site disturbance. Site preparation techniques must be sufficient to reduce competing vegetation, which often is the limiting factor. Excessive site preparation, however, creates major problems in soil compaction and animal damage.

Retain coarse woody debris scattered on the site for seedling protection during fuels abatement and site preparation.

Levels of disturbance during site preparation activities can encourage establishment of weed species. Clean mechanical equipment thoroughly between sites to avoid spread of noxious weeds. Follow applicable county, state, and federal laws.

2. Herbicides. Use of ground-applied herbicides reduces vegetation without disturbing the soil surface. It is especially useful in removal of established unwanted vegetation such as grass and brush and is an option for partial site preparation for fill in planting. Contact the Regional pesticide coordinator for assistance during planning stages.


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3. Fire. During project development, design fire treatments considering ecological and landscape principals. When used appropriately, fire is an excellent tool for fuel abatement and site preparation. Use fire in site preparation in accordance with FSM 5150.Fire is one of the best tools for regenerating many species including aspen. It is a natural part of many ecosystems. In addition to preparing the seed bed, it releases nutrients and reduces fire hazards. Time fire treatments to coincide with natural seed fall as much as possible, or with planting schedules. Prepare burn prescriptions recognizing that timing of the burn can affect vegetative response, cone production, and insect resistance. Trees have varying resistance to fire and it will differ by time of year and physiological processes occurring with the trees. For example, when sap is flowing in spring, some species are at greater risk of being damaged. When fire is used, results are more variable than other treatments. High treatment costs, risk aversion, and smoke management problems can limit the use of fire.

Fire treatments, if properly done, have a beneficial effect in many Rocky Mountain ecosystems and habitat types. Care must be taken to utilize fire only in appropriate situations. On some habitat types, it may not be compatible with reforestation objectives. Fire treatments sometimes stimulate other vegetation such as cheat grass, pinegrass, and ceanothus.

4. Hand Methods. Hand scalping planting spots is usually done as part of the tree planting operation. Tools used include planting hoes, McLeod, and hazel hoes. The hoe has the advantage in that scalping can be done with the same tool used to plant the tree. McLeod tools are used to remove light vegetation, duff, and litter commonly in the auger planting operation. Hazel hoes are used for heavier vegetation such as grass sod or small shrubs. The optimum hazel hoe blade width is 7-1/2 inches. The term “scalping” can refer to cutting plants as well as the scraping the soil surface. In this handbook, scalping is used in reference to removal of plants in preparation of the planting spot.

a. Scalping Terminology. Use clearing and scalping, as defined below, in tree planting operations and contracts.

(1) Clearing. Removal of the duff, litter, ash, dry surface soil, and debris to facilitate the opening of a hole. Clearing of 6 to 8 inches is adequate on most sites.

(2) Scalping. Removal of competing vegetation prior to hole opening. Scalps are usually done to remove only vegetation tops and root crown. Scalping removes competing vegetation making more water and nutrients available to the tree seedling. Identify the size of scalp in the planting prescription. Use scalps 18 to 24 inches in diameter on sites with heavy competing vegetation. Scalps 12 inches in diameter may be suitable on other sites. Where vegetation is very dense and scalps larger than 24 inches are needed, utilize other treatments such as mechanical, herbicide, or burning. Scalps larger than 24 inches in diameter are difficult to achieve and are very expensive.

b. Depth of Scalp or Clearing. Depth of the scalp or clearing will vary depending on the site. Scalps of 1-2 inches are usually sufficient. Do not create pits during scalping. Trees planted in deep depressions will suffer from cold and over-heating problems and


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may collect excess water. Clearing depth will vary depending on amount of duff and debris on sites. Require a sufficient depth to remove debris down to the soil surface.

2.43 - Requirements for Reforestation

Achieve the following conditions during site preparation:

1. Remove excess logging slash and debris to remove fire hazard and prepare the site for regeneration.

2. Retain adequate debris to protect seedlings from insolation, animal trampling, and grazing.

3. Provide sufficient woody debris to ensure nutrient, organic matter, moisture retention, and microbiological needs for healthy soil conditions (refer to Graham, section 2.06 item g(3) Site Preparation references).

4. Provide sufficient mineral soil exposure to meet seedling establishment requirements for the preferred species where natural regeneration is prescribed. Mineral soil exposure is needed for optimum establishment of early seral species such as larch, lodgepole pine, ponderosa pine, and white pine. Shade-tolerant Douglas fir, white fir, Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, western hemlock, and western redcedar seedlings can become established without mineral soil, although thick duff is not suitable.

5. Remove competing vegetation to provide light and moisture to new seedlings. This is especially critical on drier sites where brush and sod-forming grasses cause intense competition for moisture.

6. Minimize habitat conditions that encourage rabbits, mice, gophers, and other small animals to use the site. Slash piles harbor tree and seed-eating rodents. Excessive soil disturbance in pocket gopher areas may result in habitat changes that result in increased populations. Brush fields harbor rodents, especially rabbits. Grassy areas harbor mice and voles.

7. Protect long-term soil productivity by avoiding excessive compaction and displacement of soil horizons. Compacted soils retard water percolation and root growth. Some site preparation with dozer blades disrupts soil structure. Topsoil may be mixed with litter and duff, and left in mounds. In between mounds, the stripped areas are left void of topsoil. The resulting soil may be compacted or expose rocky subsoils. In situations such as these, it is difficult to locate plantable spots.

2.44 - Additional Considerations

Successful site preparation depends on prescriptions that have considered physical and biological factors for each specific site. Harvest methods and site-preparation activities have a major


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environmental impact on any site. These activities must be coordinated with physical and biological site factors to assure that selected tree species will successfully establish. These activities also influence shrub and grass response in ways that are reasonably predictable. Knowledge of succession specific to habitat type is essential in order to evaluate possible vegetation responses that will result from harvest activities and site preparation. Treatments will affect all plants, not just trees. The vegetative response from these activities will affect light, temperature, moisture, chemical, and physical conditions of the site. Consider physical extremes that can sometimes occur, and physiological tolerance of seedlings to withstand these limits.

1. Light. Know light requirements of desired species when considering treatment alternatives. The amount and quality of light is related directly to the silviculture systems used. The percent of residual canopy will affect quantity and quality of light, which affects amplitude of air and soil temperature, and photosynthetic capability of trees. Manipulating (removing) the overstory canopy causes the most significant change in light. Site preparation technique and timing have additional effects by changing density and distribution of intermediate and understory plants. Poor regeneration will result if insufficient light is provided, especially for seral species.

2. Temperature (air, surface, and soil). The amount of daytime heat gain versus nighttime heat loss is related to canopy closure and understory vegetation. Site preparation techniques and residual overstory density will affect temperature fluctuations. Temperature is also affected by slope, aspect, ground cover, air drainage, and soil color. Site preparation techniques can drastically influence temperature regimes by the amount and distribution of duff and woody debris. Temperature extremes, relative to heat energy and how it is distributed, can cause significant mortality of seedlings during the first growing season.Minimize potential for temperature extremes during site preparation activities. Extreme low temperatures freeze plant tissue. Extreme high temperatures kill seedlings by direct injury, or by depleting soil moisture that causes moisture stress. Soil temperatures of over 120 degrees Fahrenheit are lethal to young natural regeneration and container stock due to heat girdling at ground level. Site preparation can modify thermal properties that produce extreme high or low temperatures by altering surface materials (such as, litter, burned soil layer, or mineral soil). Maintaining adequate debris will produce favorable thermal properties and provide direct shade for the seedling.

Harvest units should be designed so they do not create air drainage traps resulting in cold air pockets. Where cold air drainage is a problem, reforest with frost-tolerant species.

3. Moisture. One of the most critical limiting factors affecting regeneration is competition for available soil moisture. Utilize site preparation methods that effectively reduce vegetative competition.

In many habitat types, grasses, forbs, and shrubs preclude plantation success by competing for essential soil moisture. Some of the strongest competitors are elk sedge (Carex geyeri), pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens), Arizona fescue (Festuca arizonica), screwleaf mulhly (Muhlebergia virescens) and ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus). These species can fully exploit


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available soil moisture to the exclusion of tree seedlings. Site preparation must sever the root collar and invert the plant to expose and dry the root system, or otherwise kill the plant. Unless fire is extremely hot, it is generally ineffective in killing some grasses, such as pinegrass.

Conservation of available soil moisture usually involves removal of unwanted competitive vegetation while retaining debris and litter. Sometimes canopy shade can be utilized for site protection but plants frequently use more water than is gained from a reduction due to evapotranspiration loss. Also, roots of residual plants often reach into the soil well beyond visible plant tops, so what appears to be an open spot is actually fully occupied with roots.

4. Nutrients. The nutrient base on forest sites is usually not important for initial seedling establishment, but it is important for seedling growth and development throughout the rotation. Nutrient depletion can result if the site preparation is done without consideration for nutrient reserves. Many past practices that created excessive soil disturbance and removed the coarse woody debris depleted nutrient reserves.

Impacts to the nutrient base are especially important on shallow soils. Maintain woody debris on the site at recommended levels (refer to Graham, section 2.06 item g(3)) to avoid critical nutrient losses. Excessive soil disturbance, compaction, and severe burn treatments, can significantly reduce growth capability of forested sites. It is not essential to know exact nutrient levels for forest sites when planning site preparation, but it is important to know the relative impacts that may be caused by this activity.

Apply the following guidelines during site preparation:

a. Mechanical. Leave recommended amounts of coarse woody debris greater than 3 inches in diameter to support nitrogen-fixing organisms and mycorrhizae. Minimize the amount of compaction.

b. Fire. Avoid hot fires that deplete organic matter and reduce nutrient reserves. Fire should be sufficient to reduce competing vegetation and excess fuels but should not leave the humus layer extensively charred or destroyed. The burn treatment is too hot if the top 3 cm of the soil is dark brown to gray or pink to orange in the top 5 cm. Avoid peak temperatures in excess of 200 degrees Centigrade, which is the point where nitrogen can volatilize and become unavailable to plants. Maintain recommended levels of large woody debris for nutrient cycling.

5. Soil Structure. Soil structure is affected by any site preparation activity. Shallow soils are especially sensitive and are generally heavy in rock content. Machine site preparation may have limited capabilities on shallow soils. Machine site preparation can further reduce soil depth, and may displace nutrients, and potentially mix soil horizons depending upon the machine used.

6. Duff and Litter. Duff and litter and the immediate soil horizon play a critical role in nutrient cycling because most organic matter and nutrients are contained in this layer. Duff and litter serve as a mulch to prevent or slow drying of soil. Micro flora/fauna and seed that occur in


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this layer affects the total health of the ecosystem. Some seed may be from fire-adapted plants, like ceanothus, that await disturbance for germination.

When duff and litter are mixed with underlying mineral layers, they can cause problems. Duff and litter in planting holes causes air pockets and prevents seedling root contact with the mineral soil. Excessive amounts of duff and litter can limit natural regeneration. If this layer is too thick, it can act as a barrier to germinating seedlings.

7. Logging Debris. Cull logs, stumps, and other debris shelter seedlings from solar radiation, frost, heat, wind, rolling rocks, drifting ice and snow, and animal damage. This debris retains organic matter for soil moisture and soil microorganisms. Favor these microsites during tree planting. If site preparation or brush disposal removes most of this debris, the desired microclimate for seedlings will be reduced.

Excessive debris can make hand site preparation and planting difficult. The amount of debris desired on each site varies, but generally somewhere between 5 and 16 tons of well distributed, large-diameter debris is recommended (refer to Graham section 2.06g(3)). Some sites may not have sufficient debris available. In these cases, it is very important that debris is well distributed.

8. Competing Vegetation. Prediction and control of lower vegetation layers are essential elements in regeneration, development, and growth of forest trees. Reducing competing vegetation will improve initial survival and growth of tree seedlings, and improve long-term performance.

Prepare a site-specific analysis of existing and potential species composition to accurately assess the vegetative response and its capability to meet specific objectives. Species tend to respond in predictable ways based on habitat types.

Understand the complex vegetation interactions of the site being regenerated. As an example, snow brush ceanothus, can increase dramatically on some sites following burning, even when the plant was not readily apparent. Seeds are stored in the soil. They have a have a wax coat which is melted away by the heat of fire allowing subsequent moisture uptake and germination of seed. Several decades of seed fall can lie buried awaiting the right sequence of events for seed germination and plant development.

Consider the following factors relative to vegetative competition:

a. Desired species, its shade tolerance, and growth rate.

b. Kind and intensity of site treatment in terms of reducing competition.

c. Expected response of existing plant species to timber harvest and site preparation treatment selected.

d. Potential reactions of buried and windblown seed to selected silvicultural treatments.


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e. Duration of potential competition in terms of height-age interactions of competing species and tree seedlings.

f. Potential for animal damage.

A prescription for site preparation must include an assessment of existing and potential shrub, forb, and graminoid competition on the site. The following table provides information for many competing species.

2.44 - Exhibit 01

List of Competing Vegetation in Rocky Mountains

Plant Name(Genus Species)

Seed Transport Reproduction Methods, Tolerance, Rooting Habit

Height(Feet)

NotesDry MoistRocky Mountain Maple(Acer glabrum)

Wind transported; not soil stored; partial shade germination, on scarified soil; Stumps re-sprout; highly tolerant; non-rhizomatous; deciduous

10 15 Allelopathic Moderate competitor,wide crown

Sitka Alder (Alnus sinuata)

Wind transported; not soil stored; germinates on moist soil in full sun; stumps re-sprout; non-rhizomatous; slight shade tolerance; deciduous

6 13 Spreading crown nitrogen fixer

Serviceberry (Amelanchier alnifolia)

Birds, mammal seed transport, seed soil stored; germinates on soil litter in partial shade; non-rhizomatous; moderate shade tolerance, deciduous

4½ 8 Moderate competitor

Big Sagebrush (Artemesia tridentata)

Wind dispersed seed; subspecies vaseyana stores in soil; germinates on bare soil in full sun; non-rhizomatous; intolerant, evergreen

1 3 Major competitor

Creeping Oregon Grape(Mahonia repens)

Sprouts; rhizomatous tolerant; evergreen ½ 3 Moderate competitor

Snowbrush ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus) & Redstem ceanothus(C. sanquineus)

Seed soil stored; no obvious transport; germinates mainly from burning and partially from scarification in full sun; intolerant; non-rhizomatous; evergreen

2½ 6 200-300 year seed storage in soil. Nitrogen fixer major competitor

(Lonicera utahensis) Birds, mammals store seed; germinates on soil litter beneath; shade tolerant; non-rhizomatous; deciduous

2 8

Mt. Mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus) Curlleaf Mt. Mahogany(C. ledifolius)

6 23 Moderate competitor

Birchleaf Mahogany(C. betuloides)

Wind, birds; does not sprout; germinates on soil; non-rhizomatous; partially shade tolerant;

6 12


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evergreenOceanspray (Holodiscus discolor & Shallow ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceaus)

No obvious transport; seed soil stored; germinates on bare soil in partial shade; re-sprout; shade tolerant; extensive root system; deciduous

3 5 Major competitors


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Height(Feet)

NotesDry MoistCommon juniper(Juniperus communis)

Bird-dispersed seed; shade tolerant; non-rhizomatous; evergreen

1 2½

Rusty menziesia (Menziesia ferruginea)

Sprouts from root crowns; shade tolerant; extensive root system; evergreen


Mountain lover (Pachystima myrsinites)

Sprouts from root crown & buds on taproot; shade tolerant; evergreen

½ 2½ Moderate competitor

Choke cherry (Prunus virginiana) & Bitter cherry (Prunus emarginatus)

Bird & mammal seed transport/seed soil stored; germinates following burning or scarification in full sun; semi-shade tolerant; deciduous

4 15 Moderate to major competitor

Antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata)

Rodents primary transport; not soil stored; very weak sprouter; germinates best on mineral soil in full sun; non-rhizomatous; may layer; moderate shade tolerance; evergreen

1 2½ Inhibitory fixes nitrogen, major competitor

Wax currant (Ribes cereum)

Birds, mammals transport seed; seed soil stored; weak sprouter from root crown; germinates on scarified mineral soil in full sun; non-rhizomatous; low shade tolerance; deciduous

1½ 3½ Moderate competitor, blister rust in western white pine, allelopathic

Prickly currant (Ribes lacustre)

Birds, mammals transport seed; seed soil stored; sprouts from root crowns below soil surface; germinates on scarified mineral soil in full sun; non-rhizomatous; low shade tolerance; deciduous

1½ 4 Moderate competitor, blister rust

Sticky currant (Ribes viscosissimum)

Birds, mammals transport seed; seed soil stored; weak sprouts from root crowns; germinates on scarified mineral soil in full sun; non-rhizomatous; low shade tolerance; deciduous

2 3½ Moderate competitor, blister rust

Thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus)

Birds, mammals transport seeds; seed soil stored; germination conditions unknown; increase by root crown & rhizomes; moderate shade tolerance; deciduous

2 4 Moderate competitor


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Height(Feet)

NotesDry MoistScouler willow (Salix

scouleriana)Wind transported; not soil stored; germinates on moist mineral soil in full sun; stump re-sprout; non-rhizomatous; slightly shade tolerant; deciduous

Seed 7

Sprts15

Seed 12

Sprts30

Extremely rapid re-sprout growth; sprout growth from very tall, narrow crown, major competitor

Russet buffaloberry (Sheperdia canadensis)

Birds, mammals transport seed; sprouts from root crown & buds on taproot; non-rhizomatous; moderately shade tolerant; deciduous

2 12 Nitrogen fixer moderate competitor

Mtn. Ash(Sorbus scopulina)

Birds, mammals transport seed; sprouts from root crown; slightly shade tolerant; non-rhizomatous; deciduous

7 12

White spirea (Spiraea betulifolia)

Transport unknown; seed not stored in soil; germination unknown; increases by deep rhizomes in shade or sun; will root re-sprout; moderately shade tolerant; deciduous

1 3 Very deep rooted, moderate competitor

Common Snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus)

Birds, mammals transport seed; not soil stored; germination unknown; increases by deep rhizomes in shade or sun; will root re-sprout moderately shade tolerant; deciduous

1 2 Moderate competitor deep rooted

Mountain snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilas)

Birds, mammals transport seed; not soil stored seed; germinates on bare soil in partial shade; non-rhizomatous; moderately shade tolerant; deciduous

1½ 3½ Moderate competitor

Rubber rabbitbrush (Chrysothamnus nauseosus)

Seed wind transported; requires bare soil; non-rhizomatous; shade tolerant; evergreen

1 2½ Major competitor

Mock orange (Philadelphus lewisii)

No obvious transport; storage unknown; germinates in full sun on mineral soils; stumps re-sprout; non-rhizomatous; moderately shade tolerant; deciduous

4 8

Blue huckleberry (Vaccinium globulare)

Birds, mammals transport; seed stored in soil; germinates on moist soil in partial shade; increases by shallow rhizomes; shade tolerant; deciduous

2 3½ Withstands only low intensity fires

Grouse whortleberry (Vaccinium scoparium)

Birds, mammals transport; seed stored in soil; germinates on moist soil in partial shade; increases by shallow rhizomes; shade tolerant; deciduous

1/2 1½ Withstands only low intensity fires


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Height(Feet)

NotesDry MoistGambel oak (Quercus gambelii)

Birds, mammals transport seed; germinates on bare ground in moist shade; reproduces from soil surface adventitious buds, lignotubers and rhizomes; deciduous

3 45 Major competitor, allelopathic

Mountain whitehorn (Ceanothus cordulatus)

Soil-stored seed; no obvious transport; germinates mainly following fire or on bare soil in full sun; intolerant; rhizomatous; evergreen

2 8 Major competitor thorns

Fendler ceanothus(Ceanothus fendleri)

Seeds soil stored; no obvious transport; germinates mainly following fire; slightly tolerant; germinates on mineral soil in full sun; rhizomatous; evergreen

½ 3 Major competitor

Skunkbush sumac (Rhus trilobata)

Birds, mammals transport seed; germinates only after heat treatment or animal scarification; re-sprout; intolerant deciduous

2 6

Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi)

Birds, mammals transport seed; germinates on moist soils; sprouts from stolons, root crowns and lignotubers; moderately intolerant; evergreen

1 ½ Moderate competitor, also called kinnikinnik

Greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula)

Birds, mammals transport seeds; germinates bare ground; sprouts from stolons, root crowns; intolerant evergreen


Common beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax)

No obvious transport; sprouts from surviving stout surface rhizomes; moderately tolerant; evergreen

Major competitor

Bluebunch wheatgrass (Agropyron spicatum)

Wind disseminated, bare soil, full sun seed; non-rhizomatous bunchgrass in dry, steppe-like areas may be rhizomatous spreading in forested areas; intolerant

Competitor

Cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)

Animal transport of seed; non-rhizomatous bunchgrass in dry, steppe-like areas may be rhizomatous spreading in forested areas; intolerant

Competitor

Bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis)

Wind disseminated; rhizomatous; moist site regeneration; moderate shade intolerance

Competitor

Pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens)

Wind disseminated seed; rhizomatous; bare soil, full sun to partial shade; relatively shade tolerant

Major competitor


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Height(Feet)

NotesDry MoistElksedge (Carex geyeri)

Wind disseminated; bare soil, full sun; bunch form rhizomatous mat more extensive than above ground plant; moderately shade tolerant; some soil stored seed

Major competitor

Ross sedge (Carex rossii)

Wind disseminated; bare soil, full sun; tufted; short rhizomes; seed stored in duff or soil

Moderate competitor

Idaho fescue, Arizona fescue (Festuca idahoensis & arizonica)

Wind disseminated; bunchgrass, non-rhizomatous; moderate shade tolerance

AZ fescue is allelopathic, both are competitors

Junegrass (Koeleria cristata)

Wind disseminated seed; tufted form, non-rhizomatous; slightly tolerant

Woodrush(Luzula hitchcockii)

Wind disseminated; rhizomatous, slightly tolerant

Nerved bluegrass (Poa nervosa)

Wind disseminated; rhizomatous; relatively shade tolerant

Competitor

Blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis)

Wind disseminated; rhizomatous mat; intolerant -

Mountain muhly (Muhlenbergia montana)

Wind disseminated; non-rhizomatous bunchgrass; intolerant

Competitor

Indian ricegrass (Oryzopsis hymenoids)

Wind disseminated; non-rhizomatous tufts; intolerant

Smooth Brome (Bromus inermis)

Seeded by man; bare soil full sun; wind disseminated; rhizomatous moderately tolerant

Major competitor

Spotted Knapweed (Centurea maculosa)

Seed that is persistent in soil for several years, moderately tolerant, major increase with disturbance, especially on dry sites.

Major competitor introduced noxious weed that will take over the site from native vegetation.

Musk Thistle (Carduus nutans)

Seed, increases with disturbance and cattle grazing

Moderate competitor

Canada Thistle (Circium arvensis)

Seed, increases with disturbance and cattle grazing

Major competitor

Wavyleaf oak (Quercus X pauciloba)

Prolific sprouter 10 15-20 Strong competitor

Gray oak (Quercus grisea)

Animals carry seeds 15 25-30 Competitor


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Seed Transport Reproduction Methods, Tolderance, Rooting Habit

Height(Feet)

NotesDry MoistArizona white oak (Quercus arizonica)

Animals carry seeds 15 25 Competitor

Canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis)

Animals carry seed, sprouts 5 15 Strong competitor on dry sites

Emory oak (Quercus emoryi)

Animals carry seed 15 35 Strong competitor

Silverleaf oak (Quercus hypoleucoides)

Animals carry seed, sprouts, forms clumps 15 35 Strong competitor

Netleaf oak (Quercus rugosa)

Animals carry seed, sprouts 5 25 Strong competitor

Shrub live oak (Quercus turbinella)

Animals carry seed, sprouts 5 15 Strong competitor

New Mexico locust (Robinia neomexicana)

Prolific sprouter 5 15 Very strong competitor

Pointleaf manzinita (Arctostaphylos pungens)

Animals carry seed 5 20 Strong competitor

Kentucky bluegrass(Poa pratensis)

Spreads by rhyzomes 3 6 Strong competitor when well established as a sod

*Competitor, refers to potential competition with conifer regeneration. All species compete for water and or light, but those noted, cause moderate to major problems in regeneration establishment.

2.5 - District Seedling Care and Handling

A successful tree planting operation requires a multitude of sequential steps to be done correctly. The foundation of success in these operations is quality seed and seedlings. Proper tree care from the time seed is sown until the time it is planted is essential to success. Plantation failures can result from a single major tree care error, or it may result from an accumulation of small insults to trees as they pass through the sequence of steps. The guides that follow emphasize basic principles of tree care and storage.

2.51 - Receipt of Tree Seedlings

Proper tree care during shipping is critical for tree survival. Forest Service nurseries usually contract for tree shipping. When trees are grown at private nurseries, shipping must be


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contracted as well. The shipping contract shall assure proper conditions are maintaned during shipping. Regardless of who is responsible for shipping, inspect for contract compliance.

Follow these guidelines when accepting delivery of trees.

1. Handling of Tree Boxes. Remove boxes from truck with care. Rough handling of trees may result in a reduction of tree survival. This is especially important when handling frozen stock. Frozen trees are full of ice crystals and they are very brittle.

2. Inspection of Trees. Open a sample of the boxes and inspect trees upon receipt. People responsible for care and receipt of trees must have a basic understanding of tree quality standards. Refer to section 2.9, Nursery Coordination for regional standards for stock quality. If possible, report stock not meeting quality standards immediately, but it can also be done after trees are thawed or when trees are prepared for planting. Districts are not responsible for costs of poor-quality trees not meeting specifications. Do not plant trees that do not meet specifications if it will affect survival.

Report to the nursery, and Regional silviculturist/reforestation specialist if trees do not meet specifications or shipping was not done properly. Notify the Contracting Officer immediately if contract violations occur. At the Forest level, notify the Forest stock coordinator or Forest silviculturist of poor quality stock. Contact the nursery and reforestation specialist directly if the stock coordinator is unavailable. Inspect for the following upon receipt:

a. Temperature problems (too warm or too cold).

b. Torn or damaged packages.

c. Incorrect District and lot numbers.

d. Mold or sour odors.

e. Incorrect number of trees.

Additionally, during tree preparation check the following:

a. Root lengths and root dormancy violations.

b. Height and caliper standard violations.

c. Lammas growth and top dormancy violations.

d. Tree counts shortages.

e. Dry trees, especially roots or plugs.

f. Excessive mud in bare root boxes.


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g. Damaged, unhealthy or dead trees in boxes.

h. Mold or sour odors.

3. Temperature of Delivered Tree Seedlings. Assure proper temperatures of the delivered stock. The desired temperature may vary with the stock type and season of delivery.

a. Spring Delivered Trees. All bareroot stock and some container stock are delivered in the spring. The stock may be shipped frozen or thawed.

If frozen, the inside tree box temperature should be between 28 to 31 degrees Fahrenheit. Truck compartment temperatures should not be below the mid-twenties. Temperatures below this can cause damage to trees. Check temperature of boxes next to the refrigeration unit especially if cold air from the unit has been blowing directly on the boxes. Trees that are shipped frozen should arrive frozen. If they are not, and are only beginning to thaw, they can be stored as frozen trees in the cooler. However, if they have thawed, there may be a problem with refreezing. It is generally best to handle this stock as thawed stock to avoid potential problems. Notify the nursery immediately that the stock has warmed.

If thawed stock is shipped, temperature inside the tree box should be 33 to 35 and not exceed 36 degrees Fahrenheit at any time during shipment. This is imperative since heat may begin to initiate respiration of trees inside the boxes. This will further stimulate trees and any microbe activity in the boxes. Once these processes start, it may increase at an exponential rate and be difficult to stop. This is very important in bareroot pine stock. Lodgepole pine is very prone to increasing respiration at low temperatures. If this happens, set your district coolers to draw down temperatures to below 36 degrees Fahrenheit immediately, and get them to 32 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit within 2 days.

Test a sample of the boxes on the load at delivery using soil probe type or digital electronic probe thermometers. Probe thermometers 12 inches in length have been used successfully. Insert thermometers into the center of box and leave for 2 to 3 minutes or until temperature stabilizes with temperature inside the box. Test sample boxes throughout the load, including from top of the load. Usually 5 to 10 boxes will give an adequate sample. If warm boxes are found, sample more boxes to ascertain the problem fully. Prior to use, calibrate the thermometer for accuracy by checking it against a good mercury thermometer or placing it in a glass of ice water (32 degrees Fahrenheit). Several thermometers should be on hand as they need to be replaced periodically.

Contact the nursery, reforestation specialist or regional silviculturist if there are any questions or concerns about temperatures of delivered trees.

b. Summer- and Fall-Delivered Trees. Only container-grown stock is delivered in summer and fall. Generally, this stock is ordered for delivery just prior to planting


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and no long-term storage is needed. Temperature of delivered trees is not as critical as for spring-delivered trees. Plant trees within 3 to 10 days of delivery for summer planting and within about 2 weeks for fall planting. Temperatures of arriving trees to be planted in the fall should be 33 to 35 degrees Fahrenheit. Trees delivered in the summer can be 38 o 42 degrees Fahrenheit. Both fall and summer must not be frozen. Follow the same box sampling schemes as for spring-delivered trees. Contact the nursery if trees are frozen, if they exceed 38 degrees Fahrenheit (fall) or 45 degrees Fahrenheit (summer) on arrival, or if other problems are detected. If they are too warm, place them into the cooler until the temperature is reduced to desired levels.

3. Assessing Stock Quality. When checking for stock quality, refer also to planting stock standards in section 2.9, Nursery Coordination. Provide the nursery with information on the quality of delivered stock. The Stock Quality Assessment Form, R1, 2, 3, 4-FS-2470-21, can be used to document condition (see Exhibit 01) or a message specifically stating the problems. Be sure to include the seed lot number, pack number, and pack date from the box label to aid the nursery in determining specific problems. Check the following tree quality items:

a. Bareroot Stock (Seedlings).

(1) Root Length. Check root lengths to see if standards are met. At least 94 percent of trees in the lot (or percent stated in contract) should meet the specified standards listed, unless otherwise modified by prior agreement between district and nursery.

(2) Live Roots. Check roots by stripping outer layers of bark with a pocketknife or fingernail to expose the cambial tissue. This tissue is white in healthy roots and brown to yellow-tan in dead roots. Samples should be taken from the top, center, and bottom of the box. It is normal for some roots to have died back a quarter of an inch or less from the cut ends. In some species, especially Douglas fir, a portion of the fine root system may die with no apparent adverse effect to the tree. However, if more than 15 to 25 percent of the roots are dead more than one-half of an inch back, there is reason for concern. Seek advice from the nursery, regional silviculturist or reforestation specialist on the quality of the trees.

(3) Root Dormancy. Check roots for elongation of new white root tips. A dormant root system will have little, if any, new elongating white growing tips. If new root tips are longer than a quarter of an inch on more than just an occasional root, the trees have broken dormancy prior to receipt. Trees with appreciable new root growth prior to planting have a risk of reduced survival, except on moist sites. Grand fir, and to a lesser degree western white pine, may exhibit a small amount of winter root growth during mild winters. However, new root tips should be short and few in numbers.

(4) Top Caliper and Height. Nursery cull standards for both top height and stem diameter are listed under Nursery Standards, section 2.9. Unless agreed to otherwise, at least 94 percent (or as stated in the contract) of the stock packed should meet this standard.


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(5) Color. Foliage of healthy stock is various shades of green, however, the shade can also be misleading. Yellow-green or gray-green tints are normal in dormant stock but can also be a sign of a problem. If the off color is accompanied with other signs, such as dryness or discoloration of the cambial tissue of stems or roots, there is a problem. A purple cast is acceptable in lodgepole pine.

(6) General Tree Health. Check for the following conditions if there is reason to suspect tree problems.

(a) Root and Stem Cambium. Peel back exterior bark of roots and stems to check the cambial tissue. The cambium underneath should be glistening white. If it is brown, yellow, or creamy brown, trees have been damaged by freezing, poor storage, or fungal attack. This may also be an indication of frost damage prior to packing.

(b) Buds. Slicing buds vertically should reveal green healthy internal tissue. Brown, black, or yellowish internal tissue in buds is a definite sign that the bud is damaged. If just the terminal bud has been damaged, trees are still plantable. If other buds are also damaged, the stock should be destroyed.

(c) Needles. Dry or wilted foliage are signs of stress or damage. Spruce and Douglas fir needles that fall off when brushed are dead. Pine needles that easily break when bent are also dead, unless they are frozen.

(d) Plant Moisture Stress. Pressure bomb readings are a good measure of stress on thawed non-dormant trees, although this is not required. If used, sample trees across the load. Readings exceeding 15 atmospheres may indicate a problem. Contact the nursery for assistance.

(7) Lammas Growth. Lammas growth is the abnormal late season growth of terminals or buds. It can occur on all species, however, it tends to create problems in pines. The late growth is often succulent and not hardened off properly. Trees in this condition may not be fully dormant and will not store well. Experience has shown that lodgepole with succulent lammas growth will spoil in storage conditions suitable for dormant trees.

There are three types of lammas growth concerns:

(a) Lammas Shoots. Shoots that develop by bud bursting and then elongation of the current year’s terminal bud. This will result in 2-0 stock having the appearance of 3-0 with the last growth whorl in varying degrees of hardening off, some of which may not be cold hardy.

(b) Long buds. The current year’s terminal elongates with no corresponding bud burst. Elongation may be from 0.25 to 5 inches. The result is often a long, skimpy, succulent terminal with a soft, un-hardy terminal bud.


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(c) Proleptic Shoots. Shoots that emerge from current year's lateral buds with the terminal bud remaining dormant.

While these classes are clearly defined, lammas growth will vary in gradation and some tree lots will exhibit growth that is a mixture of classes. The nursery should cull lammas shoots with succulent green stem growth and soft buds. Report to the nursery if more than 10 percent of the tree lot (or as specified in the contract) are included in shipment. Do not plant trees with lammas growth longer than 3 inches or if soft buds are present.

(8) Top Dormancy. Top dormancy is exhibited by candle elongation or bud swelling. With pines, it is often hard to distinguish candle elongation in the packing box from elongation that occurred previously in the nursery bed. One way is to look at curvature of the candle. Pine candles that are curved upward or curled in loops (extreme situation) have broken dormancy in storage. As buds and candles break dormancy, they also soften and turn green. A slight curvature is okay, but the more the curvature, the greater potential for problems. If they are curled they should be destroyed. Once green needles appear, trees should be destroyed. Root condition (live or dead) should be closely checked in lots that are breaking dormancy.

(9) Dry Roots. Roots should feel moist to the touch. Roots that feel dry to the touch may be damaged. If dry roots are suspected, check cambium condition by peeling bark with your fingernail or a knife. If the tissue inside is white and has moisture down to within a quarter of an inch of the end of the root, trees are in an acceptable condition. Wrapping trees in polypropylene or similar towels and dipping roots in water, can also be used to evaluate root health. Usually, within 12 hours, healthy trees will take up water and moisture can be observed in the cambial tissue of the cut roots and stem.

(10) Mold or Fungus Mycelium. Check for presence of visible mycelium. Presence of visible mycelium (white or black threads or strands of fungal tissue) may be cause for some concern. However, most molds on roots are either saprophytic (living on dead substances) or mycorrhizal (symbiotic). Mats of mycelium on foliage are a major concern. If dead or dying trees are packed in the box, mold will often spread rapidly from these trees into healthy adjacent trees. Fungi associated with strong odors, brown cambial tissues in roots or stem, or spotting of needles are a problem. Keep tree boxes with developing mold as close to freezing as possible. Fine strands of mycelium on foliage or tufts in the roots without other symptoms are not usually harmful. When in question, request help from the nursery, reforestation specialist, or forest pathologist.

(11) Mud or Dirt in Boxes. Trees packed in boxes should be relatively clean. Excess mud and dirt, especially on foliage, will promote fungal problems and foliage discoloration. Muddy trees are also an indication of lifting in soils that are too wet. This can result in excessive root damage that results in tree mortality. Based on experience, ponderosa pine is especially vulnerable.


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(12) Tree Count. Count tree seedlings in at least 2 percent of the boxes.

b. Container Stock.

(1) Adequate Root Mass. Root mass should be developed to the point where the plug can be extracted from the container and still retain its original form. Excessive root development (pot binding) is not acceptable. To check this, shake the plug until medium pulls away from roots. Most of the roots should be pointing downward with the exception of smaller lateral horizontal roots. Larger roots should not be circling or spiraling around the plug. The tree is suffering from pot binding if there are large horizontal roots that are spiraling, or if the roots stay in a thick net (the shape of the original plug). Often pot bound trees will not develop into a normal tree.

(2) Root Media Moisture. Roots and plugs should generally be moist, however, spring- delivered dormant stock may be frozen or relatively dry.

(3) Live Roots. Check roots for live tissue using the same technique as described for bareroot stock.

(4) Top Caliper and Height. Ensure top height and caliper meet contract or nursery standards. Refer to section 2.9, Nursery Coordination.

(5) Sturdy, Standing, and Erect. Individual trees must be capable of standing erect without support.

(6) Top Dormancy. Only spring stock can be dormant. Summer and fall stock will not be dormant.

(7) Color. Color standards described for bareroot stock are applicable to container also.

(8) Mold. Any signs of strands or threads of mycelium on tree foliage or buds should be noted. Light mold is generally correctable by proper handling at the district. Heavy mold in foliage should be reported immediately.

(9) General Health. Check for general seedling health. Use guidelines described for bareroot stock.


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2.51b - Exhibit 01

USDA – Forest Service R3-FS-2470-21 (5/2002)STOCK QUALITY ASSESSMENT FORM(Ref. FSH 2409.26b and FSM 2742.62)

FOREST Boise DISTRICT CascadeSEED LOT NO. 1 0 7 0 PACK NO. 4 2 2 PACK DATE 11/1/00

BAREROOT STOCKSTANDARD 95% OF TREES MEET STANDARD STANDARD 95% OF TREES MEET STANDARD

ROOTS YES NO TOPS YES NO1. Length 4. Caliper

2. Live 5. Color

3. Dormant 6. No Lammas Growth

7. Dormant

8. Height

BAREROOT PACKAGING9. Packing Material & Rppts Moist

12. Temperature

10. Mold Absent 13. Tree Counts

11. Trees Free of Excess Mud

14. Package Free of Damage

CONTAINER STOCKROOTS TOPS

1. Root Mass Adequate 4. Caliper

2. Media Moist 5. Sturdy

3. Live 6 Dormant

7. Color

8. Mold Absent

9. Height

BAREROOT PACKAGING10. Temperature

11. Tree Count

12. Package Free of Damage

NARRATIVE (Comments and reasons standards were not met).Greater than 5% of trees exceeded 12” maximum root length and had to be trimmed at the time of wrapping.

Pete Greenup 3/15/2001Name & Signature Date


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2.52 - Tree Seedling Storage

The purpose of tree storage at the ranger district facility is to keep the trees in a healthy condition from the time of receipt until planted.

1. Principles. It is essential to keep the seedlings in optimum conditions so that they maintain normal functions, both physiological and phenological. Proper tree storage will keep the tree's physiological activity to a minimum. Bareroot and spring-delivered container stock should be kept as dormant as possible. Keep temperatures low in long-term cooler storage to prevent heat build up and minimize tree respiration and minimize the activity of microorganisms, especially fungi. Tree coolers must be in good operating condition must be properly calibrated, and monitored daily to ensure proper temperatures and humidity are maintained.

Trees need air movement to reduce heat buildup. Provide space between boxes for adequate airflow to permit removal of heat, carbon dioxide and other gases that build up from respiration. The rate at which heat and gases are created is minimal at 33 to 35 degrees Fahrenheit, but begins to increase slowly at 36 degrees Fahrenheit and exponentially around 40 degrees Fahrenheit. If air space is not provided, tree packages can warm rapidly even when ambient storage temperatures are ideal. Leave 3 to 4 inches between boxes initially so that at least 1 inch of space is maintained between boxes after settling.

2. Storage by Stock Type and Season of Planting. Stock storage requirements vary with the type of stock being planted and the season it is planted.

a. Bareroot Stock (spring planting only). Successful bareroot planting is dependent upon trees being lifted from nursery bed while they are dormant and keeping them dormant until planting in spring. Nurseries must wait until trees are dormant in the fall to initiate lifting, or lift trees as soon as possible in the spring before trees break dormancy. Fall lifting is preferable although early winter weather conditions may occasionally delay lifting until early spring.

(1) Fall-Lifted Trees. Trees are lifted in the fall when they have reached a level of dormancy that allows them to be stored frozen. The inside box temperature of trees is maintained at 26 to 28 degrees Fahrenheit. Conifers in full dormancy and fully hardened can withstand very low temperatures, but since the degree of hardening cannot be guaranteed, storage temperatures should not drop below 26 degrees Fahrenheit. Usually, coolers set at 28 Fahrenheit will maintain good frozen storage.

Fall-lifted trees are often shipped frozen to the districts as early as February or as late as May, just prior to planting. Trees will be packaged in a bag and box combination to prevent freezer drying. Do not use the humidifier when storing frozen stock because the cooler will ice up. Thawing of trees prior to planting is covered in section 2.53. Airflow between boxes of trees must be maintained even with frozen trees.


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(2) Spring-Lifted Trees. Spring-lifted trees are shipped to districts a few weeks after lifting. They are not frozen in storage at the nursery and are delivered unfrozen. When these trees are lifted, they are in the process of initiating physiological activity, so they must be kept as cold as possible without freezing them. Temperatures inside the tree box must be maintained between 32 and 34 degrees Fahrenheit, but not exceeding 36 degrees Fahrenheit. With pines, it is best to be as close to 32 degrees Fahrenheit as possible. These storage temperatures may result in some ice crystals in the box, but as long as trees are not frozen below 30 degrees Fahrenheit they will not be damaged. If lodgepole and ponderosa pine are stored at 36 degrees Fahrenheit or above for very long they may begin to create enough heat via respiration to rapidly accelerate temperature increases in the boxes. This internal box heating will stimulate fungi and toxic gas production that will result in tree spoilage. This is a classic problem with pines, but can occur in all species under poor conditions. Maintain humidity at 95 percent or more in coolers used for long- term, above-freezing storage.

Do not mix fall-lifted frozen and spring-lifted trees in the same cooler if possible. Spring-lifted trees cannot be frozen, nor can they be subjected to higher cooler temperatures sometimes used to thaw frozen stock. Set the refrigeration unit to meet spring stock requirements when only one cooler is available. This may require a lengthy thawing period for frozen stock, or it may have to be thawed outside the cooler.

b. Container Trees. Container trees can be planted during spring, summer, and fall planting windows. Container stock is more tolerant of temperature variations than bareroot stock.

(1) Spring Planting. Spring container stock can be delivered either frozen or thawed. Refer to fall-lifted bareroot stock storage requirements for frozen stock and spring- lifted stock storage requirements for thawed stock.

(2) Summer Planting. Summer planting is done in a short planting window and requires very short storage. Plant trees promptly after receipt. Storage can be done either at local coolers or at planting sites. Request multiple deliveries to minimize storage time.

If trees are held more than 7 to 10 days, the initial growth benefit of summer planting will begin to decline. Trees for summer planting are not conditioned for long storage periods. These trees are very active physiologically and have active root growth.

(a) District (Local) Coolers. Set cooler temperature to maintain inside tree box temperatures at 34 to 38 degrees Fahrenheit. Temperatures above 38 degrees Fahrenheit will stimulate respiration, mold, and gas build up in the closed boxes. Although trees can take temperatures below 35 degrees, it is critical not to freeze them as new root tips are easily damaged by freezing. Properly set and monitor


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coolers to maintain low risk of freezing. High humidity levels in coolers are desirable but not required due to the short storage time.

(b) Planting Site Storage. Store trees in sheltered areas not exposed directly to sun and wind. Open boxes so that trees are exposed to ambient air. Check trees every day and water if necessary. Protect trees from freezing that may occur at high elevations even in July. Cover tree boxes with space blankets, shiny side down, or similar coverings to protect seedlings. Cover boxes and select a suitable storage site to minimize possible animal damage.

(3) Fall Planting. Fall planting stock is also designed for short storage regimes, but it is permissible to store it longer than summer stock. The best planting time is between mid-August and late September. By this time the stock has completed most of its seasonal growth and is entering the fall hardening off phase. Some root growth may occur if stock is planted early. If planted late (after mid-September), trees will resume growth the following spring.

Utilize coolers or on-site storage as described for summer planting. However, these trees can be stored 10 to 20 days in coolers. Maintain inside box temperatures at 31 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit to prevent molding. Botrytis will develop rapidly, especially in western larch if stored above 34 degrees Fahrenheit for any length of time.

Plant trees stored on site as soon as possible after delivery.

3. Tree Storage Coolers. For long-term storage of tree seedlings, refrigerated storage units must maintain product temperatures of 32 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit and relative humidity of over 95 percent. Specially designed tree storage cooler units are normally required. Ordinary coolers are not acceptable for long-term stock storage due to long defrost cycles.

For short-term storage, refrigerated trucks, grocery, meat, or beverage coolers can be used. To keep the storage period short, trees should be left at the nursery until right before planting starts and should be stored 7 to 10 days at most. Use of these coolers for short-term storage is discussed in Other Storage Options, section 2.55.

Some older refrigeration units can be modified to meet storage requirements by adjusting the defrost system (hot air defrost) and providing a means to manipulate humidity. An experienced refrigeration maintenance firm should make these adjustments.

a. Maintenance of Tree Coolers. Refrigerated tree coolers represent a substantial initial investment. Proper maintenance is necessary to maintain its designed capability. Qualified service representatives recommended by the manufacturer should perform maintenance. Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for operation, start-up, and shutdown.

b. Monitoring Storage Conditions. Monitor coolers frequently to ensure proper temperatures are maintained and to prevent unintentional freezing or thawing of


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seedlings. Some coolers have warnings devices such as alarms, telephone calls, and flashing lights that indicate the cooler is not operating properly. Do not rely solely on these devices. Assign a person to monitor the cooler at least twice daily when trees are in storage.

c. Temperature. Monitor ambient air temperature and inside box temperature. To determine the inside box temperature; use a probe thermometer with either a digital readout or circular dial. Use a probe that is at least 12 inches long so it can reach to the center of the box. Measure temperature of boxes in various parts of the cooler. Measure ambient air temperature in various locations as well.

Calibrate the thermometer so that it reads 32 degrees Fahrenheit when inserted into a container of water packed with ice. Some digital thermometers operate within a certain temperature range and should not be left in the coolers. If the digital read out unit gets too cold, it will give false readings. They should be calibrated occasionally throughout the season.

d. Relative Humidity. Relative humidity is primarily a concern with long-term storage of non-frozen trees. Relative humidity should be at least 95 percent for long-term storage of unfrozen trees. The nursery should package trees to provide reasonable moisture barriers. Low humidity will cause trees to become desiccated as moisture evaporates even through moisture barriers. Use sling psychrometers or hygrometers with digital readouts to monitor humidity.

Check relative humidity of the cooler when it is empty to identify its initial capability. Simply putting trees in a cooler can increase humidity in the ambient environment because of moisture coming from trees. A general slow decline in humidity is an indication that moisture is being lost and needs to be replaced. Humidity can also be maintained by keeping wet sawdust on cooler floors.

e. Hygrothermographs. Hygrothermographs are used to measure and record temperature and humidity over time. Recalibrate and maintain these instruments annually to assure accuracy.

4. Stock Temperatures.

a. Frozen stock. Maintain frozen stock at 26 to 28 degrees Fahrenheit. Thaw it slowly over a period of 1 or 2 weeks by setting cooler controls at 36 to 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Reset temperature controls when stock reaches 33 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit. Once stock thaws do not allow it to refreeze.

b. Non-frozen Stock. Keep trees at 32 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit. Do not allow trees to freeze and do not allow temperatures to exceed 36 degrees.

Stock can be severely damaged if allowed to freeze depending on the physiological condition of the stock at the time of freezing. Stock lifted early in the spring and kept


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cold has a high probability of being dormant and relatively inactive physiologically. This stock may not suffer damage if frozen. However, stock lifted later in the spring or stock exposed to higher temperature during storage may have begun breaking dormancy. This stock has a high probability of damage if frozen. Since it is not possible to know the exact condition of trees, it is critical to assure stock does not freeze.

2.53 - Tree Care from Storage to Planting

During all aspects of tree handling, keep seedlings cool and roots relatively moist. Root hairs can be damaged in minutes by exposure to dry wind and low humidity. Temperatures over 36 degrees Fahrenheit will increase respiration and cause depletion of food reserves. High temperatures can also result in accumulation of gases in tree boxes. These gases can damage trees severely and are a particular problem in pines that are coming out of dormancy. Trees damaged or killed in this manner cannot be easily distinguished from healthy trees.

1. Thawing Frozen Stock. Frozen trees are brittle and will be damaged easily. Handle boxes carefully to avoid damage. Do not handle trees before they are properly thawed. It may take 10 to 14 days to properly thaw container seedlings. Begin the thawing process allowing for adequate lead-time prior to the start of planting or the arrival of non-frozen tree shipments, which ever comes first. Careful stock monitoring is required as rates of thawing may vary by species and/or cooler location. Follow these practices when thawing trees:

a. Handle seedlings very carefully. They are full of ice crystals and very brittle. Never attempt to separate frozen trees or bundles. Do not throw boxes of trees around.

b. Let bundles thaw slowly at cool temperatures between 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit and in an area protected from wind and direct sunlight. Thawing time will vary depending on several variables. Allow sufficient time for thawing.

c. Never place trees in warm water to thaw.

d. Once thawed, handle as non-frozen stock. Reset cooler temperatures and maintain optimum temperatures.

e. If it is necessary for the cooler to handle both frozen and thawed stock, frozen stock should be removed by taking individual boxes or groups of boxes from the cooler. The stock should be taken to a relatively cool storage area and allowed to thaw slowly. Inside storage areas such as sheds or warehouses where temperature ranges are generally 40 to 50 degrees Fahrenheit, are ideal. If outside areas are used, space blankets or tarps should be used to protect the trees from nighttime low temperatures. Never allow tree boxes to be exposed to direct sunlight. Rapidly thawing trees is not advisable. Be aware that if inside box temperatures raise above 36 degrees Fahrenheit for more than a few hours, molds may develop rapidly. It is best to keep them in the 32 to 34 degrees Fahrenheit range.


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2. Bareroot Tree Preparation for Planting. There are two basic preparation systems, one for early spring season planting when freezing temperatures may be a problem, and the other for late spring season planting when warming temperatures are the problem.

a. Early Spring. (No Acclimatization needed). Handle seedlings as little as possible during the early spring when seedlings will likely be exposed to freezing nighttime temperatures. During this time of year, day temperatures are commonly below 70 degrees Fahrenheit for extended periods and warm temperatures are reached for only a few hours in the afternoons. Soil temperatures do not warm in these conditions.

Completely thawed trees should be taken from boxes and prepared for wrapping. Trees should be dipped briefly in water or misted and then wrapped in moist kimtex type towels or clean burlap. If roots are sufficiently moist, dipping may not be necessary. Details on wrapping are shown in exhibit 01. Wrapped trees should be kept cool and planted within 48 hours of wrapping. If trees are wrapped ahead of planting, they should be placed immediately back in cold storage (32 to 36 degrees Fahrenheit) with the tops of the tree bundle up and exposed to air.

An alternate method is to remove trees from storage boxes at the planting site, dip small bundles of trees briefly in water and place immediately in insulated planting bags ready for planting. Ensure all roots are wet. Do not allow planters to carry too many trees, as they will dry out if kept in bags for long periods of time. Regulate the number of trees based on the temperature and humidity conditions on site.

It is critical to keep trees, especially pines, from becoming active physiologically and transporting a lot of water to the stem and tree crown. Trees full of water may be damaged after they are planted when temperatures drop below 28 degrees Fahrenheit. Early season mortality in ponderosa and lodgepole pine can be partially attributed to freeze damage from planting trees with excess water in stems and needles just prior to temperature drops into the mid-twenties or lower.

b. Late Spring Season. (Acclimatization Needed). As the planting season progresses and the days become warmer, it is advantageous to acclimatize trees coming out of cold storage before planting. Wrap seedlings a day prior to planting and keep in a shaded area such as the wrapping shed where temperatures are above 40 degrees Fahrenheit and preferably 50 to 60 degrees Fahrenheit. Plant trees the following day. Acclimatization is generally done at the storage unit and not at field sites. Place seedlings upright in boxes or tubs with tops exposed to air. Wrapped bundles must be kept moist. This can be done is several ways, such as, place upright bundles in 1 or 2 inches of water to maintain the wicking action to keep the wrap wet. Another way is to periodically wet bundles with a hose. This provides moisture to keep the kimtex or burlap wet.

Trees planted without acclimatization on days with temperatures that exceed 75 degrees Fahrenheit may suffer from shock, due to rapid water loss in tree crowns. Water loss cannot be replaced in a tree that has just thawed, since water transport


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functions are not yet fully physiologically active. The effect is similar to winter physiological drought when crown temperatures are warmed to the point that moisture demands cannot be met by their cold physiologically inactive roots and stems.

Avoid problems by following these general guidelines:

(1) Ensure frozen trees are completely thawed prior to preparation for planting, as they are brittle and easily damaged. Never attempt to separate tree roots while they are frozen.

(2) Do not allow sealed tree package temperatures to rise above 36 degrees Fahrenheit for any appreciable time.

(3) Do not place trees that have warmed above 40 degrees Fahrenheit during wrapping procedures back in boxes and seal or roll the bag closed. Once trees have been wrapped and warmed, keep tops upright and exposed to fresh air.

(4) Do not acclimatize trees prior to planting if sub-freezing weather is in the forecast. Trees full of moisture can be damaged as temperatures drop below the mid-twenties. Consider suspension of planting if severe cold weather is expected.

3. Tree Wrapping Process. The wet wrap method is recommended for tree preparation. Wrapping can be eliminated if other precautions are taken to ensure root systems are not exposed to drying. However, wet wrap offers some insurance against root drying and may be more efficient than increasing inspection time at planting during sunny weather to ensure trees are not being abused.

Other methods, such as placing trees in insulated tree bags, are acceptable as long as monitoring ensures roots are not drying. Cellulose products can be mixed with water before the trees are dipped, however, if the slurry is too thick or rubbed on roots, it will harm the roots.

Conduct tree wrapping under full shade and in an area protected from wind. It is best to be inside buildings or in canvas shelters with low temperatures and high humidities.

Remove trees from boxes in groups of 20 to 50. Roots may be briefly dipped in tubs of clean fresh water, or misted prior to wrapping.

Wrap trees in wet kimtex-type towels pieces or clean burlap, about 15 by 30 inches in size (ex. 01). Kimtex-type towels are lighter, easier to prepare, and are disposable (thus cleaner) at the end of the planting season. Wrapping material must be clean to avoid spreading molds from one bundle to the next.

Separate seedlings gently and place one layer on the wrap. Roots should not be tangled. The wrap should extend about 6 inches below root ends. Fold the bottom 5 inches of wrap over roots, ensuring roots are not folded. Roll the bundle and fasten with a nail or plastic wrap. The


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planter must loosen the roll slightly prior to planting to prevent root stripping when extracting seedlings. Indicate the seed lot and other information such as time of wrapping and wrapper name, for bundles. Colored flagging or other tagging with this information marked on it will aid in administration of the wrapping process.


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2.53 - Exhibit 01


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4. Root Pruning. Root systems are pruned at some nurseries according to specifications. Report stock not meeting pruning specifications to the nursery and the regional silviculturist/reforestation specialist.

Although root pruning at the district is generally not recommended, stock not pruned at the nursery may need pruning before wrapping. District pruning should be coordinated with the nursery. Any pruning must be done at the time of wrapping, never at the time of planting. Scissors or paper cutters are recommended for root pruning while trees are laid on the wrapping table. Long laterals may be snipped off at this time, but major alterations of the root system should be avoided. Pruning taproots is not desirable.

Pruning just prior to planting can be detrimental because root ends do not have time to heal (callus) over and to generate new growing centers prior to planting. Late pruning of trees, especially ponderosa pine, can cause tree mortality. Long lateral root ends can be placed in the bottom of the planting hole without compromising future tree development.

5. Storage of Wrapped Trees. Plant trees as soon after wrapping as possible. The wrapping process can initiate warming that results in increased tree physiological and microorganism activity. Microorganisms can damage wet, warm foliage in a short time.

Follow these practices:

a. Wrap trees as they are needed. Do not store wrapped trees for longer than 48 hours. It may be more expensive to wrap trees as needed but is necessary for survival

b. Do not store wrapped trees horizontally in the original shipping bags and then reseal the bag. This will cause heating, aeration, and disease problems. Water may also accumulate in the bottom of the bag and drown the trees.

c. Store wrapped trees with treetops upright and well aerated until ready for shipment to the planting site. Stock temperature should be maintained at 33 to 36 degrees Fahrenheit. Do not allow cold refrigeration air to blow on treetops as it can freeze the trees.

6. Transport of Trees.

a. Wrapped trees. Protect tree bundles from drying wind during transport. Do not transport them exposed in open trucks. It is best to transport bundles inside tree shipping cartons with tops exposed to air in insulated tree transport units, covered vans, canopied pickups, or trailers.

If it is necessary to stack boxes for transport, wrapped trees may be laid horizontally in original nursery bags and then placed in boxes for short periods. Do not roll or seal the bags. Once at the site, bags should be reopened and bundles placed upright. Air


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exchange is important when trees are exposed to temperatures over 36 degrees Fahrenheit.

b. Unopened Tree Boxes. Trees in unopened boxes should be transported in canopied trucks or vans. They can also be transported in open pickup beds providing they are well covered with white or reflective tarps. Do not expose tree boxes to wind or direct sunlight.

7. Tree Care While Planting.

a. Keep boxes in shade. Cover boxes at all times to keep them cool using reflective tarps (shiny side down) such as space blanket type tarps. Stacked boxes of trees shall be separated to provide free air movement between boxes. Punctured or torn containers must be promptly resealed.

b. Planting bags for bareroot stock must have a minimum depth of 15 inches. Canvas bags with a silver colored reflective material on the outside and an inside compartment of neoprene and drain holes are preferred. This should be specified in the contract.

c. Seedlings, whether individual, in bundles, or bags, must be protected at all times from drying, heating, smothering, freezing, crushing, drowning, abrasion, rapid temperature fluctuations, or contact with injurious substances.

d. Do not remove trees from shipping containers until they are to be placed in planting bags. If water has accumulated in the bag, it must be emptied before being filled with seedlings.

e. Plant tree seedlings without further root or top pruning, or culling. If pruning or culling appears necessary, or if mold, dry roots, evidence of injury, or dying is seen, the condition shall immediately be reported to the Contracting Officer or the Planting Foreman.

f. Do not handle frozen stock until it is completely thawed.

g. Trees in planting bags shall have only their tops exposed. Loosen wrap from trees just prior to planting to allow trees to be easily extracted from the roll.

h. Do not remove a tree from the planting bag until the planting hole has been opened.

i. Remove seedlings gently from planting bag, one at a time, to prevent root stripping or other injury, and quickly and gently insert it in the planting hole.

j. Seedlings carried in planting bags shall not exceed the amount that can be carried and removed without injury, or which can be planted before critical heating or drying


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occurs. Once trees are placed in bags they must be planted and not returned to storage.

k. Container trees are extracted from tubes or blocks in which they are grown and placed in plastic bags for shipment. Each bag contains a set number of trees, usually 25 to 30 trees per bag depending on the grower. Some growers may wrap trees in plastic wrap rather than bags. Spring-shipped trees may be frozen. They must be thawed prior to planting.

l. Bagged trees go directly from the box to planting bags. Place trees vertically, with tops up, in planting bags. Do not overload planting bags. Do not double stack seedlings in planting bags, even if tops are only 6 to 8 inches high.

m. Summer-delivered trees should be planted as promptly as feasible, as they are not conditioned for storage.

8. Weather and Soil Hazards During the Planting Operation. Refer also to section 2.82.3.c. for more detailed guidelines for planting in harsh weather conditions.

a. Cold Air Temperature Hazards.

(1) Spring Planting. Do not begin planting until the probability of severe cold events has lessened to avoid freeze damage. Most planting windows in the northern Rockies are not open until after mid-April. Planting may begin earlier further south. Monitor the weather forecast once planting has started. Plan to suspend planting on days when extreme cold events such as Canadian air masses are expected to move in.

Normally, it is not early morning frosts that damage trees right after planting, it is extended periods of cold in lower teens and twenties that cause problems, and winds can make it worse. Plant when trees are still dormant. Dormant trees will withstand cold better.

Do not plant during freezing temperatures, and do not expose roots to freezing temperatures during planting.

Experience has shown that planting too early in the season can result in high mortality. Even though a site may be free of snow, do not plant when there is still a chance of killing frosts or when soil temperatures are low. The moisture content of the stems and needles in trees coming from packing boxes is high. When exposed to low temperatures during late freezes, the water in the plant tissues freezes, killing the tissue.

(2) Summer Planting Container. There may be freezing temperatures during the summer plant season at high elevations, especially at night. Summer stock is not frost hardy. Trees stored on site must be protected from severe freezing as new root tips are easily damaged. Do not start planting until the chances of hard frosts are over.


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(3) Fall Planting. Fall-planted container stock is subject to frost damage when planted later in the season (after October 1).

Trees planted from mid-August through September are able to harden off normally as days shorten and night temperatures decline. By mid-October, these trees become cold hardy and can withstand temperatures well below freezing. If severe cold (teens to low twenties) weather is forecast, delay planting until low temperatures are expected to rise to normal fall temperatures. The moisture content of containerized trees coming out of the cooler will often be high. It will take a few days on the site for trees to lose the high moisture content and become more resistant to freezing.

b. Frozen or Cold Soils. Trees cannot be properly planted in frozen soils. It creates problems in opening the planting hole and filling it properly. Suspend planting operations if soils are frozen more than an inch deep. Do not plant if soils are below 40 degrees Fahrenheit at rooting depth. Adequate soil temperatures are needed for seedlings to absorb soil moisture.

c. Drying Winds. Winds can damage trees by drying roots and tops. Watch seedlings closely for signs of soil or root drying. Consider suspending operations if tree roots are drying between the planting bag and planting, or if soils are drying before the hole can be closed. Use temperature/humidity charts developed specifically for Rocky Mountain sites to determine suitable planting windows.

Warm winds can desiccate trees that have open stomata, typical of trees just removed from the planting box. Consider suspending planting operations if there are warm drying winds and temperatures exceed 80 degrees Fahrenheit.

d. Dry Soils. Sufficient soil moisture is needed so the planting hole can be properly opened and closed. Base the decision to plant on soil condition and experience of local moisture patterns and planting windows. For example, if soils are dry in the last week of June and no rain is forecast, planting may not be appropriate. Although there are risks, if soils feel dry in April, trees can be planted assuming normal rains will occur.

On low to middle elevations in southwestern Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico, and southern Utah, do not plant trees in May or June unless soil moisture is adequate to get roots established. These are typically the driest months of the year. Do not rely on anticipated monsoon rain patterns to make up current moisture deficits.

Seasonal moisture expectations dictate planting strategies during the fall planting season. Trees are becoming dormant and their moisture needs are declining as the season progresses. As well, trees with less water content will be less prone to freeze damage. Trees planted in late August will need more soil moisture than those planted in mid- September. Trees planted at high elevations after mid-September will need relatively little additional moisture until next spring.


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Planting late in the fall while waiting for wetting rain can result in cold damage to trees that are not properly conditioned and hardy for freezing temperatures.

e. Snow-covered Sites. Snow can make finding planting spots difficult. If planters cannot find planting spots, stop planting until the snow melts enough that planting spots can be detected. On some sites only an inch or two of snow can make planting spots difficult to find.

f. Warm Temperatures. Warm temperatures alone may not be extremely harmful, however; there are cases when heat may be a concern. For example, if it is 70 degrees Fahrenheit at 10 am and will be in the 80 degree-plus range most of the day, it is probably desirable to delay planting. Consider planting in early hours and late evening on very warm days or moving crews from south and west slopes to north and east slopes. Consider compounding factors particularly wind. Moderately warm temperatures coupled with drying winds are extremely stressful to trees.

g. Water-Saturated Soils. Trees planted in waterlogged soils will suffocate and die. Tree roots must have air to function. Saturated soils also affect the ability to plant, especially in high clay or silt content soils. Soils must be well drained enough to properly open and close a hole for successful planting. Often soils too wet to plant immediately after snowmelt or heavy rains are plantable a few days or a week later.

On very wet sites, it may be necessary to change the stock type or season. For example, in spruce bottoms that are so waterlogged they can only be planted with summer and fall container stock.

9. Trees Left Over at End of Planting Day. Avoid having leftover trees by limiting trees delivered each day. However, when trees are left over at the end of the planting day, consider the physiological condition of trees. If they are still dormant, and box temperatures are low, these trees may be retained and returned to the tree cooler or appropriate storage area. However, discard trees if they have warmed or are becoming physiologically active. Do not return any trees that have been in planting bags. Also consider the availability of stock and how long before trees will be needed in making the decision for returning stock to coolers. If there is a shortage of trees, there may be a need to take more risks in holding over trees than if there is tree excess.

Plant trees that are returned to storage on the next working day. If the trees are wrapped, they must have the tops upright in open boxes, unless below freezing temperatures are expected in exposed shelters.

2.54 - Testing for Spoiled or Damaged Trees

Exclusive of visual cues, there is no precise method for evaluating seedling quality. If spoiled or damaged trees are suspected, request nursery assistance or conduct field tests. Quality dormant stock can sometimes look off-color or have small damage, but still be plantable with high survival potential. A thorough evaluation is sometimes necessary.


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1. Seedling Quality Tests at the Nursery. The nursery has traditionally used morphological characteristics, health indicators, dormancy, moisture stress, and limited nutrition measurements to evaluate seedling stock. Forest Service nurseries can test trees for cold hardiness, root growth potential, and stress tests. Contact the nursery for directions on how to submit a sample for testing if there are suspect seedlings.

2. Pot tests. There are relatively simple procedures that can be used as indicators of seedling quality. The easiest is a simple potting test and can be used at the district. Plant seedlings in plastic pots or constructed wooden bins. Forest soil is suitable for the potting medium.

Place pots either inside or outdoors where seedlings will receive at least a half-day of full sun. Place pots where they are not influenced by pavement or other artificial factors. Winter tests have to be inside with about 8 to 10 hours of lighting, but once the weather warms in spring, pots can be placed outside during the day and brought in at night if a severe freeze is expected. Water trees as needed. Results of the test are expressed in live or dead condition, bud flush, and root growth. This test is somewhat crude, but can indicate the ability of stock to flush and/or grow roots. It takes several days to see results, which is a limitation of this test.

2.55 - Snow Caches and Other Storage Options

1. Snow Caches. Properly constructed snow caches are suitable for storing dormant conifer tree seedlings. Snow cache temperatures will hold constant at between 30 to 33 degrees Fahrenheit with humidity in excess of 90 percent for 4 months or longer. Districts needing assistance in constructing a cache for the first time should contact the regional silviculturist or reforestation specialist for referrals and suggestions. Some of the basic considerations for snow caches are listed below:

a. Site Selection. Select sites in the fall before heavy snowfall, when the ground profile is still exposed.

Caches should be on northern aspects or shaded sites that retain snow reserves. The facility should not be in direct sunlight for more than an hour or so in early morning or late evening. A large cache can be economically constructed on or near mountain highway passes or ski areas where snow removal equipment is available and safe access is assured. Smaller caches can be located on or near individual planting sites. Locate caches where they can be periodically checked.

b. Designs. There are several designs available, including pit and pile, log house, icehouse, culvert, and permanent cement house snow cache. The culvert and permanent cement house are more cost efficient and are generally less dependent on deep snow packs.

The pit and pile is presented here to emphasize some principles of snow caching. Assistance in design of snow caches can be found in the references in section 2.06(d)


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and by contacting persons listed in the Skills List as having the needed skill. The following materials are needed for conventional pit and pile design:

(1) 2 by 4s or 2 by 6s.

(2) Sawdust or boughs.

(3) Canvas or opaque plastic tarps (space blanket is best).

(4) Long poles to mark location of cache.

(5) Snow removal equipment.

c. Construction of Snow Caches. Construct the cache before receiving seedlings so they will not be exposed to sun or extreme temperature variations. Stockpile snow early in winter by covering mounds of snow with boughs, sawdust, weed-free straw, canvas, or space blanket tarps that have been sewn together. When plastic is used, it must be placed over the top of deep insulation, not directly on the snow.

After delivery of trees, construct the cache with stockpiled snow. Keep a minimum of 2 feet of snow between tree boxes and the ground and a minimum of 6 to 12 inches between stacks of boxes. This space should be filled with snow as the cache is being covered. This will prevent heat buildup and provide for air circulation. Refer to exhibit 01 for a diagram of the snow cache interior.

The following items will aid in management of the snow cache:

(1) Draw a diagram of the cache showing location of trees by seed lot prior to snow cache construction. Denote changes on the diagram made during construction.

(2) Place seedlings in cache so stock needed first will be near the entrance and that needed last is at the back.

(3) Mark the entrance with poles.

(4) Place 2 by 4s or 2 by 6s on edge between boxes to aid in breaking boxes loose from snow during removal.

(5) Do not compact snow too tightly at the entrance or between boxes, as snow may turn to ice. Make sure there are 6 to12 inches between rows of boxes.

(6) Keep heavy snow-moving equipment from top of cache to avoid crushing boxes.

(7) Keep the cache intact as much as possible when removing trees. Maintain insulating cover over the cache until all trees have been removed.


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2.55 - Exhibit 01


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2. Other Refrigeration Units. Refrigeration units not specifically designed for tree storage may be used for short-term storage (up to 4 weeks). Some types of refrigerated coolers include milk/beer coolers, meat coolers, fruit storage facilities, and refrigerated semi trucks. Use these units only for short-term storage because it is difficult to maintain appropriate temperatures and high relative humidity with these units. Most refrigeration units are not designed to operate at low temperatures (32 to 34 degrees) and high humidity (above 95 percent). Temperature fluctuations cause trees to break dormancy and create moisture condensation problems, both of which stimulate development of microorganisms. The increase in biological activity increases heat and toxic gases in the tree boxes. Improper refrigeration will result in tree mortality.

Use only units that have temperature adjustments and monitor them frequently. Temperatures should be as close to 34 degrees as possible and avoid as much temperature fluctuation as possible.

If fruit storage facilities are used, keep trees separate from fruit and any respiration retardants used to preserve fruit. Ripening of fruit will increase tree growth and some chemicals can kill trees.

During short-term storage, maintaining high humidity is not a concern providing the boxes are closed and sealed. Check boxes for damage and repair as needed. Air space is required between boxes to allow for heat removal from the individual packages. This is critical, especially for pine species.

Keep all short-term storage time as short as possible. Leave trees at the nursery as long as possible, or arrange for multiple shipments to reduce storage time.

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