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Securing a Better World with
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Human Understanding
Shannan Billings
Eleanor Binnings
ENG 1020 – 088
May 1, 2015
What does extinction mean? For a particular species of bird, it meant to have once
reigned the skies in a grandiose flock that, before long, would face a descent so earthshattering it
would perish all of its kind. What does it mean to be on the brink? For a feline, it is a life cut
short so that the stripes on its back may serve ignorance, gluttony, poverty, and what would
eventually be scarcity. What does it mean to respect life? For a pachyderm and her calf, it means
allowing a chance for survival; that if needed, the mother can protect her young with her
magnificent horn. In respecting life human beings must find common-ground amongst one
another to understand the core value of life itself. The world would be more secure and safer for
both the creatures and humans through understanding.
Human Understanding
Human beings impose the greatest impacts upon the environments. Their capacity to
make decisions can impose the greatest threats upon, not only themselves, but also on the
wildlife in their surroundings. Often enough, the consequences of endangerment and extinction
are heavily considered after the fact. Humans, however, have the aptitude to empathize and
understand one another. Much of what influences human choice is the knowledge, the values,
and the circumstances to which individuals are associated. Humans should take care in
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considering these conditions that spawn attitudes toward animals, because this will allow small
steps to turn into confident strides in the framework of conservation. The passenger pigeon, the
rhinoceros, and the tiger are strong, if not resilient, examples that express the power of human-
understanding. With the understanding of these three species, the aim is that future generations
will make further strides in conservational efforts for all species.
Passing of the Passenger Pigeon
In their noteworthy time of attention in the nineteenth century the passenger pigeons, or
Ectopistes migratorius, were birds most known for passing-by. According to educator Emily
Graslie in her Year of the Passenger Pigeon film, these pigeons would migrate in flocks of a few
billion in strength, over eastern and midwestern North American towns for nearly hours and
sometimes days (0:30). This long period of overhang was referred to as the dark-cloud and once
departed it left a landscape in an utter disarray. To the knowledge of wildlife conservationists,
Joshua Ellsworth and Brenda McComb, trees would deteriorate as toxic pigeon ejecta layered the
ground several centimeters thick and branches would give way to the weight of the pigeons as
they nestled together (1549). On occasion the pigeons were a blessing during a food shortage,
but conversely, they were seen as a curse when crops were uprooted and consumed. This
disarray, as mentioned by Graslie, made villagers fear that the apocalypse was upon them (0:41).
Little was known about the passenger pigeons. The knowledge of how species have roles in
ecosystems were not educated amongst persons at the time. Therefore, ambiguity and ignorance
wreaked havoc on these migratory birds.
Passenger pigeons did not lack in numbers, in fact, they held the largest bird population
known among any other species of birds. There is no formal reason for such an outstanding
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population-other than the fact that their kind would thrive in reproducing when flocks were
massive in size. In the late ninetieth century there was a total estimation of three to five billion
birds, a number similar to the overwintering that occurred the in the United States in 1995
(Ellsworth and McComb 1549). Unfortunately, due to the reoccurring destructions brought by
their presence the passengers became unfavorable among settlers and, in fact, were seen as pests.
Such negative repute drove settlers to exterminate the profuse populations in the latter half of the
1800s. Methods of extermination consisted of netting, poisoning, and shooting matches. The
hunting of passenger pigeons(as shown in Figures 1 and 2) became not only a means for
elimination, but also a means for temporary prosperity; the hunting and trapping brought in the
supply for making pillows and complimenting the home-economics of pies (Graslie 2:30). In
effect, the pigeons only become popular in matters of recreation, production, and consumption.
These pigeons gained a significant amount of negative attention that lead to the
engagement of homicidal interventions in the 1860s and up until the turn of the 20th century. A
small minority attempted to speak against the trapping and trading of these birds; although, it
was not necessarily the concern about extinction, but rather the cruelty of the sport (4:10).
Despite the concerns passenger pigeons were still sought after and trappers would still find ways
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around the unprotected rules and kill them. In Stuart Pimm and Robert Askins’ ecological
journal article, the declination was a combination of factors that included hunting as well as
disease and deforestation (9346). This largely points to the fact that human disturbances and the
lack of wildlife management were a major cause of the species’ loss. As mentioned before,
reproduction within the species was fortified most when the flocks were great in numbers. When
the passenger pigeon population rapidly declined, so did their stimulation for reproduction as
well as their incentive to attend the few hatchlings in their nests.
With numbers so exorbitant, it seemed nearly impossible for such an abundant species to
have passed-by for the last time as it did after 40 years of annihilation. Regardless, it was in 1914
that the last passenger pigeon, Martha,
died after her 29 years at the Cincinnati
Zoo (Smithsonian Institute 2014).
Subsequent to her death, Martha was
been relocated to several places,
including the Smithsonian National
Museum of Natural History (see
Figure 3), the Bird Hall, and a number
of conferences to serve as symbol of a species once lost. These particular pigeons now mark an
importance on history and the involvement humans now have with the wildlife.
The year 2014 commemorated the centennial anniversary of the extinction of Martha and
her kind. Such remembrance holds a firm lesson of how mankind, as a species, possesses the
destructive potentials against all other species. Although there is no population to recover in
respects to the passenger pigeons, there is much to be said about the other species that are
Figure 3: Martha the Last Passenger Pigeon
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presently afflicted today. Those afflictions have motivated the human race to seek their
constructive potentials. As a result of a century’s of conservation and research, many regions
have achieved small triumphs in species preservation.
Revival of the Rhinoceros
Conservation is profoundly dependent on the human race-as expressed with the passenger
pigeons. Not only does ignorance confine the movements in conservation, but so do the values
and circumstances that support the individuals involved. These diverse conditions can ultimately
make the difference between the life and the death of a species like the rhinoceros. The
rhinoceros subsist in the regions of South Africa and Eastern Asia. These locations are highly
encroached with illegal hunting or poaching of pachyderms. “Poach” is a term that the Oxford
Dictionary defines as, an “illegally hunt or catch (game or fish) on land that is not one’s own, or
in contravention of official protection” (Oxford University Press). While rhinoceros may not be
considered the average game, these exotic species are treated no better-and sometimes even
worse-than the average game. The question that comes to mind is: why are rhinos a target for
poaching?
Little attention is paid to the cultural value of the rhinoceros. It is important, however, to
know this assessment in order to comprehend the issues regarding rhino poaching. Rhinoceros
horns are structures of bone and keratin. This keratin are what similarly make up human hair and
fingernails. Biggs, Courchamp, Martin, and Possingham, experts and the authors of the "Legal
Trade of Africa’s Rhino Horns”, asserted that the rhino horn is worth more than gold, diamonds,
or cocaine per unit weight in the regions of Africa and Asia (1380). Indeed, rhino horns are
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hugely funded by merchants for its presence in the black market. In South Africa during 1993
rhino horns were priced at $4,700 per kilogram and $65,000 per kilogram in 2012 (1380). In East
and Southeast Asia are no strangers in the pursuit and consumerism of rhinoceros horns. Rhino
horns have served two major purposes since the ancient times. Horns provide raw material for
ornamental carvings. In places like Yemen horns are whittled into dagger handles (Duffy 117).
In other cases, the horns are ground into powder and dispersed into traditional Chinese
medicines. Chinese medicines containing horns are presumed to have curing properties to several
types of illnesses. The rhino keratin, unlike human keratin, has been accepted in Asian remedies
for treating common headaches and fevers as well diluting blood (118). Properties such as these
brings the notion of whether or not this particular wildlife trade should be legalized, controlled,
and taxed in order to satisfy these medical traditions and assumptions. Despite any possible
negotiations, the species of rhinoceros is undeniably declining at a rate to which there may not be
any rhinoceros left to negotiate over.
The wildlife trade is not an easy concept to grasp and conservation is not an easy task to
handle. Poaching is an intense problem but it is not the point of origin for the wild life trade.
Poaching occurs, not out of the sole the desire to kill exotic animals, but the desire for wealth and
assets. For one thing, the poverty found in these regions entice poachers to take advantage of
situations that generates income. In her book Nature Crime, Rosaleen Duffy, a professor of the
political ecology of development also offers the concept that the upper-class are most responsible
for mandating the demand of rhino horns (218). Over the course of history, the wealthy class has
had the privilege to decree the hunting and collecting of rare species. The pursuit of an exotic
species was socially acceptable in Asian and African countries. It was also acceptable to kill a
rhino after it raided communal territories and crops. Now wildlife management has been brought
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into light and regulations have banned the hunt and trade of rhinoceros in most regions. In an
ideal state, the number of crimes should reduce after the placement of bans, but often times there
is an opposite reaction.
Because the consumption, trade, and sport was tolerated prior to the conservation
movement, the wildlife regulation struggles to supervise a blurred line between hunting and
poaching. Inhabitants have been indifferent to the new apprehension for rhinos and less willing
to break from fixed traditions and luxuries. Field researcher, Esmond Martin provides a
supporting case where the resistance in 2000 to 2003 leads to poaching of over 92 of the 544
rhinos in Nepal (87). This Asian country was considerably notorious for its activity with
rhinoceros poaching. In fact, the effects were so depraving that it drove out army personnel, who
were guarding the posts of Royal Chitwan and Royal Bardia National Parks. This thus increased
the poaching rates and violated solitude of local communities. Esmond Martin and Chryssee
Martin, report that the parks and nongovernment organizations put large sums of money into
buffer zones to local communities to improve their living conditions; instead of wining their
support in conservation, some locals, who may have not benefited much from the program,
become tour guides for the poaching gangs (49). This change in roles shows how impressionable
persons are in altering their position in conservation. Not only this, but it also shows how both
the motivation and desperation greatly influence the decision made by locals. And furthermore,
the roles that have shifted away from conservation illustrations how animals are undervalued as
disposable in deprived societies.
Anti-poachers attempt to make assertions against the wildlife trade. Though, poaching
activity is extremely difficult to monitor when rhinos
are so vulnerable in their entire existence. The ceaseless
Figure 4:A de-horned rhino slowly dies after poachers
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demand for the horns encourage gangs to willing retrieve the body parts illegally for
compensations. Economic and materialistic
demands heed no consideration for the life of
rhinoceroses (as observed in Figure 4). Rhino
poaching results in many deaths, yet, there are
methods in removing the top of the horn to allow
for a potential regrowth over time. This careful
method is seldom practiced by poachers, and
instead, the horn is habitually cut from the base.
If a rhino is not dead immediately after being shot, then a horn that is cut from the base will
surely leave a rhino to slowly bleed to death. Park rangers and conversationalists have been
known to skim off the top section in hopes of reducing the incentive to poach (see Figure 5). But
even with park rangers risking the rhinoceros’ quality of life through dehorning, the results are
proven ineffective without the provision of additional security (Biggs et al. 1038). In other
words, the poachers are still willing to harm-if not kill- the rhino in order to profit from any
value the remains may have. The rhino trade is a widely funded trade. Dealers offer exorbitant
amounts of money to poacher, whom are readily supplied with the technology to kill rhinoceros;
the mere shot at profiting from poaching appears to be worth the risk of arrestment for some
Nepalese. In a case provided by the Martins’, a Nepalese gang received 1,400,000 rupees
(19,178 USD) after retrieving a horn that had been requested by a well-off trader (50). The
incentives to poach points to the fact that poverty is a huge set back in wildlife conservation.
Alas, poachers continue to profit more as the “supply” of rhino decreases in the black market
because the buyers are willing to pay for the rarity of the species. Principally, this scarcity is
Figure 4:A de-horned rhino slowly dies after poachers
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because the rhinoceros populations are decreasing; however, the animals that are involved in
these trades are not valued as living beings, but rather as a means of wealth from a scarcity in
supply. The devastating consequence gained from the profit, status, and power of the horns is
that all rhinoceros become endangered-and not long after that they will all become extinct.
Control is important in conservation. Efforts to control becomes problematic because
authority tends to be abused. Military tactics have been used toward, not only poachers, but also
to, as Duffy states, local communities, who are criminalized and punished, sometimes with
deadly force (110). The recent undertakings to hunt and kill poachers has brought great attention
in conservation. The effectiveness may temporarily deliberate the act of poaching; however, the
slaying approach may not be sustainable for peace amongst countries and for the long term. Yet,
with the militarized enforcement, harsh penalties, and pursuits may further drive up the offered
prices. Since “supply is restricted in the face of inelastic and growing demand” (Biggs et al.
1380), traders may be forced to bargain at higher prices for the costly risks that are taken to
retrieve horns. The complications of monitoring the black marketing of wildlife products are
similar to the banning or controlling of alcohol and drug substances. The key difference is that
the Nepalese risk terminating a significant element in their culture. The rhino has a crucial role in
the Nepalese art, religion, architectures, and folklore. By removing the essence of rhinoceroses
from the region, the culture of Nepalese will not only lose its traditions, but will also lose the
knowledge and appreciation for these exotic species in next generations to come.
Despite the challenges that faced the Nepalese their conservation efforts came through. In
2014, the country accomplished a year of zero poaching. This was an astronomical achievement
that was only possible through a sharing of accountability, human understanding, and
cooperation. Biggs and experts assert that psychological principles of persuasion, attitude, and
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behavior are effective in the movement, but have not been embraced within biodiversity
conservation (1168). It certainly is proven effective for Nepal, a country that was not alone.
International organizations aided Nepal in conservation. Just to name a few, Wildlife World
Fund and Google provided the technology and funds to combat poaching. Less recognized
conservation groups and individuals found a way to get involved. Dave Johnson, a pachyderm
zookeeper at the Denver Zoo, collaborates trips to Nepal to visit the communities that take an
interest in conservation. In a personal interview, he mentioned how he raises a little extra toward
his efforts by writing children’s books that teach kids about endangered species and of the
compassion humans have for protecting them (Johnson). In addition to this, he also supports the
Nepalese children to be their own voice in wildlife preservation by funding their educational
street performances. People like Dave Johnson recognize the crucial role that children have on
influencing change. Wildlife preservation is greatly dependent on the children because their
values will carry on into the next generation. So by teaching the youth to have respect and
empathy toward animals it increases the likelihood that conservation will carry on.
The Threatened Tigers
Parallel to the passenger pigeons, tigers were strong in their numbers before their time of
attention. According to wildlife activist and researcher, Sundeep Bhutoria, at the turn of the 20th
century India was home to 40,000 tigers but today there is less than 4,000 in the wild (41). Tigers
are a popular animal among cultures all over the globe. Children and adult are fascinated by the
tiger’s exquisiteness and potency. Charisma and strength are words that best describe the tiger,
yet, mankind struggles to reflect the charisma needed to keep the tigers thriving in a world they
both could coexist in. As it was stressed with the rhinos, if tigers were to become extinct
humanity would loses yet another generation without the cultural species of tigers.
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Much like the passenger pigeon, the tigers are seen as threats to the communities, who
lose their livelihood to predatory
activity every year. As a result,
extermination becomes their
solution. Humans tend to forget that
they impose the most danger to species
and that these threats are greater than
what the tiger is capable of.
Humans must recognize that the tigers’ interactions with humans have increased because they
have been forced to come into contact with human beings as their habitat diminishes with human
expansion. Both habitat loss and tiger trades have caused populations to decline. Asian tigers
endure related complications as rhinoceroses with poaching that have severely put them into
endangerment. Tigers are sought after for their skin, bones, claws, and teeth. The skin and teeth
are used for fashion and decor such as
rugs (as shown in Figure 6) and for
clothing and jewelry. Bones and claws are
used as anti- inflammatories in
traditional Chinese Medicine (Duffy 30).
China, is a country responsible for the
farms that raise tigers specifically for
consumerism. The Chinese government
argues that the slaughtering is humane, while turning a blind eye to the ethical violations of
supporting these farms. Malnutrition, speed breeding, inhumane slaughter, and abuse are just of
Figure 6: India Tiger Trade
Figure 7: Tiger carcasses in cold storage at Xiongsen Tiger & Bear
Park, Guilin, China
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few of the unethical approaches taken in these farms (see Figure 7). The unethical approaches go
against China’s claim to conservation efforts with these farms. Such false claims fail to regard
conservation as preserving the quality of life, rather than just not just the species’ numbers and
existence. Gaston and Fuller, biodiversity and macro-ecology analysts, articulate that it is
becoming increasingly apparent that common species are fundamental to the structure of most
assemblages and ecosystems (14). Dismissing the purpose that tigers have in their ecosystem for
the purpose they have had on the trade industry will further preclude social growth and only
foster corruption the power of humans.
In the face of poverty humans must ask themselves whether the animal trade is the only
option for economical feats and the only way to appreciate tigers. The point of origin in the
wildlife trade comes from the higher class. Tiger products are only esteemed in satisfying
inferior or competitive egos of the wealthy class. Humans appreciate the tigers’ beauty;
conversely, this beauty has been abused when it is transformed into materialistic attractions.
Perhaps, if this particular class knew, in detail, about the exploitation that occurs when
smuggling a tiger, then they would prioritize their wealthy expending to conservation. The
participation of the higher class becomes vital in conservation. Shifting attitudes from the
indifference of the tiger trade toward conservation may alter the wildlife trade significantly
because the demands will fall. Economical inequalities pose problematic, yet not impossible,
solutions to solve. In the Earthscan’s book, Poverty and Biodiversity in Conservation, it is
believed that former poverty leads to increased environmental degradation caused by ignorance
or overexploitation of resources (34). Although conservation may temporarily worsen financial
poverty by excluding the financially wealthy from their exotic resources, such focus may inspire
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a change of heart in persons to value an animal’s innocence and life. As a result this would drive
more demand for the solutions to preserve the biodiversity and improve the poverty.
Poverty as well as biodiversity are major components that must be heavily considered in
conservation efforts. Wildlife tourism may be an alternative in flourishing the biodiversity as
well as the economic stance of an underdeveloped country. In their critique in the Economics of
the Wilds text, Barnes, Burges, and Pearce suggest that great thought should be taken toward the
management of wildlife tourism in developing countries (136). Tourism gives purpose to
preserving animals while utilizing the land to engage in economic developments. This brings
attention to the appreciation for nature and wildlife in its natural surroundings. Tourism
generates revenue and employment which build sturdier foundations in destitute countries.
Visitations and attractions employs the animals in less harmful ways as well as educates locals
about their environments. In short, wildlife tourism is one of the conceivable solutions in
managing poverty and biodiversity instantaneously; but tourism must be managed at sustainable
capacities so that both the local communities and animals are not compromised from it.
A change in roles may be a strong component in conservation, especially for poachers.
There have been successful transformation where poachers have altered their lifestyle against
prior poaching and for bettering conservation. In the video, Confessions of a Tiger Poacher,
World Wildlife Fund interviews the ex-poachers Plot Chien and Lean Kha Both, like most
poachers, are locals who are most familiar with noting where the promising habitats and
conditions that these exotic wildlife can be found. Their tenacity for poaching was for the profits
involved. Ultimately, it is the merchants who drive the trade while the poachers are at the
merchants’ every command. According to the ex-poacher, if the merchants did not come to
locals and set the prices for these animals, then a lot of species would not have been hunted by
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locals (WWF 2:24). The poverty in these countries lie mostly in the local villages because the
money lies mostly in the hands of the wealthy class. Befallen agriculture and animal disruption
in these regions encourage rash outlets for more turnover. In the documentary both ex-poachers
consider themselves as hunters, rather poachers and consider their old trade as hunting, rather
than poaching. This consideration further supports that idea that the line of hunting and poaching
are still hazy in these societies. Nevertheless, Lean Kha was approached by conservationists who
ended up convincing him to give up poaching and join them in protecting endangered animals
(4:00). Since then, Lean has convinced fellow poachers to join him in his new found adaptation.
Anti-poaching laws in Asia and conservation work to protect the wildlife, their habitats, and the
other animals they prey on. Rhoit Singh, technical advisor-enforcement of the WWF Cambodia,
relates that the struggle faced for conservation organizations is having enough human resources
to manage the areas where these species reside. Some poachers, like Plot and Lean, are more
willing to convert while others are not. Since conservationist and patrols cannot be present all
24/7 (6:35), persistent poachers have learned to be mindful of the timing and location to which
they will be less likely to get caught. The ex-poachers that were interview admitted they regret in
damaging the biodiversity and only hope that others will comprehend crucial preservation is. The
impression behind this shift in poachers becoming ex-poachers offers hope to humans that they
may find refuge in conservation-if given right motives to do so. Such results would entail a
future without violent retaliation or execution against poachers because the resolution is based on
the sharing of core values.
The mere aesthetic value and the fascination that human beings get when seeing an
animal up close may be all it takes to remind humans of the significance for preserving animals.
Economical values are short-term and ever changing. But emotional and social values are for the
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long-term and influence the human mind as well as innovate change. As observed with the
rhinos, humanity has the potential to remove the tigers from their threatened status. People need
to depend on and take great value in creatures like tigers. The tiger is a well-founded symbol in
Indian culture and are believed to be the protectors of children. With more awareness about their
kind and to their trade, perhaps the tigers will be protected by their very own kinfolk.
Small Steps into Significant Strides
The passing of the passenger pigeon, the revival of the rhinoceros, and the current threat
on the tiger species are representative paths of human verdicts. As the world continues to rely on
materialistic agendas, it becomes more important to emphasize the need for human cooperation
in order to save species that are threatened by human disturbances. Humanity tends to forget that
each region of the world is responsible for their own potentials in conservation. It is assumed that
it’s the job of the conservationist to preserve animals; and this is fairly true. Conservationists are
responsible for understanding the controversies such as wildlife trade, for identifying the roles
involved, and classifying the impacts on the ecosystems. Conservationists also raise public
awareness to the negative bearings that illegal (or perhaps soon legalized) trade has on species
and harmful cultural assumptions and traditions (Biggs at al. 1168). It must be recognized that it
is not a job for one party. Conservation is complex. It extends to all branches of society and all
types of circumstances. It needs great attention in the human-race because the values and
potentials of the human have not reached to their fullest potentials. Poverty and ignorance does
not have to surpass human compassion, in fact, it has been shown to attract cultural fusion.
Internal as well as external entities have come together to explore the possibilities of human
potentials in regards to preserving wildlife. This sharing of values brings a promising, non-
violent, future in the relationship and involvement between the regions of the world. That is why
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persons should also be open to the possibility of change and of the unique communicators in
conservation. Ex-poachers have been known to turn away from their prior trade. Being given a
chance to make a better future, ex-poacher become the essence of influential change. Most
crucially, person should also be open to the idea that children must be shown a future with
conservation. Children must get involved in activities and organizations that support animal
conservation because they shape future generations.
As for the passenger pigeons, they were breathtaking in both their presence and in their
numbers. Yet, what is most alarming is that mankind managed to heedlessly remover all traces of
this bird from the sky. Humans must not focus on utilizing their knowledge and technology to
bring back these birds, but take prodigious warning from their extinction to impress upon
themselves how crucial their role is in environmental preservation. The conservation success
with the rhinoceros is far from reaching perfection, but the rival embeds a human potential that
offers many species at risk, a more secure future. Humans must recognize their successes in
order to continue to seek their potentials in preventing extinction. The rhinoceros is an example
of how thinkable the united effort of mankind really is and how power human understanding is.
For it is human understanding and compassion that is the most powerful weapon in conservation;
and the only tools in turning smalls steps into resilient strides in animal preservation.
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