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PERSPECTIVES ON A MINDFULNESS PROGRAMME

Perspectives on a whole class mindfulness programme

George Thomasa* and Cathy Atkinsonb

aBright Futures Educational Trust

Address: Gorton Mount Primary Academy, Mount Road, Gorton, Manchester, M18 7GR

Telephone: +44 0161 248 8411

Email: [email protected]

b Manchester Institute of Education, University of Manchester, UK

Address: Room A6.5, Ellen Wilkinson Building, University of Manchester, Oxford Road,

Manchester, M13 9PL

Telephone: +44 0161 275 3511

Email: [email protected]

* Corresponding author

https://outlook.manchester.ac.uk/owa/redir.aspx?SURL=PJEY8WzTLyY_lGtbZBlVOzbNtHcJK-7wFSYwJGmjoVLDdNpFFl7TCG0AYQBpAGwAdABvADoAdABoAG8AbQBhAHMAQABiAGYAZQB0AC4AYwBvAC4AdQBrAA..&URL=mailto%[email protected]


Abstract

This study sought to establish pupil and teacher views about a six-hour, whole-class

mindfulness programme called Paws .b. Pupil post-intervention focus groups and teacher

semi-structured interviews were used to ascertain what was interesting and useful about Paws

.b, and how it could be developed. Audio recordings were transcribed and thematically

analysed. Findings indicated the vast majority of pupils enjoyed the Paws .b and it was

deemed to be both accessible to pupils and feasible for teachers to deliver. A number of

themes highlighted the impact of Paws .b upon pupils’ attention but also on their

metacognition and social/ emotional functioning, both within and beyond the classroom.

Several potentially fruitful adaptations were also proposed. Findings are discussed relative to

mindfulness and educational psychology literature, and future directions for research are

outlined.

Key words: mindfulness; classroom intervention; qualitative evaluation; focus

group; semi-structured interview.


Introduction

Mindfulness in education

Mindfulness is defined as “the awareness that emerges through paying attention on

purpose, in the present moment and non-judgementally” (Kabat-Zinn, 2003, p. 45). Although

grounded in Buddhist philosophical traditions, mindfulness first came to the attention of the

scientific community in the 1980s when Jon Kabat-Zinn began utilising mindfulness-based

approaches in healthcare settings to help patients manage chronic pain (Kabat-Zinn, 1984),

locating mindfulness as a secular approach. Subsequent applications of mindfulness tended

to take place within health environments (cf. Hassed, 2002, 2004; Kabat-Zinn, 1990, 2005;

Sommer & Hassed, 1995) and, when applied to education, centred predominantly on the

needs of undergraduate students (cf. Shapiro, Schwartz & Bonner, 1998). It is only in recent

years that mindfulness has started to influence educational psychology practice. Indeed, use

of mindfulness was not indicated in a representative survey of educational psychologists’

(EPs’) use of therapeutic interventions reported by Atkinson, Bragg, Squires, Muscutt and

Wasilewski (2011). While the Atkinson et al., (2011) study reported a wide range of therapies

available to EPs, the most popular being solution-focused (SFBT), personal construct

psychology (PCP) and cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT), mindfulness offers some distinct

features which may make it particularly appropriate for use with younger children or pupil

groups. These include the use of metaphor and analogy (Hayes & Greco, 2008); and of

concrete instructions, limited time periods and and physical movement (Zack, Saekow, Kelly

& Radke, 2014). A year after the Atkinson et al., (2011) study, Davis (2012) stated that

whilst mindfulness-based approaches “appear to be versatile and have some evidence base

across a number of fields, these have yet to include educational psychology” (p. 35).

However, Davis (2012) asserted the potential for the wide-ranging application of


mindfulness-based approaches within educational psychology practice, including direct work

with children, young people and parents/ carers, and within consultation. Similarly from a US

perspective, Felver, Doerner, Jones, Kaye and Merrell (2013) noted that “although the use of

mindfulness is increasing in other areas of applied psychology, school psychology has yet to

embrace it in practice” (p.531).

Mindfulness has recently featured in a number of national documents pertaining to the

promotion of children’s mental health and wellbeing in schools. For example, Weare (2015)

suggested that mindfulness is a core social and emotional skill that children should be

explicitly taught within school. At a parliamentary level, the All-Party Parliamentary Group

on Wellbeing Economics (2014) recommended that all teachers should receive mindfulness-

based intervention as part of their initial teacher training in order to address the low numbers

of mindfulness practitioners and also promote their wellbeing (Weare, 2015). Burke (2010)

suggested that children as young as four or five years-old could engage well with

mindfulness, whilst Hayes and Greco (2008) proposed that the use of metaphor and analogy

in mindfulness programmes is suitable for children aged eight or younger due to their affinity

to magical and metaphorical thinking. Jones (2011) suggested that mindfulness prepares

pupils for life outside of school and is as important as exams.

Potential benefits of mindfulness

While there has been a focus on the usefulness of mindfulness in promoting

wellbeing, there is evidence that benefits might be more wide-ranging within a school

context. While focusing more generally on contemplative education and meditation

programmes in schools, a systematic literature review conducted by Waters, Barsky, Ridd

and Allen (2015) proposed that improved cognitive functioning and emotional regulation, as

a result of mindfulness intervention, yielded potential benefits in three areas: wellbeing,

social competence and academic achievement, although the researchers recognise that within


the third of these domains there is limited research and insufficient evidence to make any

claims about effectiveness. Felver et al., (2013) suggested that mindfulness-based

interventions could be delivered at universal, targeted (small group) and intensive

(individual) levels and could take a range of forms, depending on student needs and school

context. Potential areas proposed included supporting the social-emotional learning

curriculum and offering targeted provision to students with needs relating to internalising

disorders, executive functioning, externalising behaviours, learning disabilities and attention

deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).

In a systematic literature review published by the Mindfulness in Schools Project,

Weare (2012) reported that while there was “reasonably strong evidence for the positive

impact of mindfulness of a wide range of mental and physical health conditions” (p.2), at the

time of the review, most of the published research had methodological limitations (typically

small sample size) which meant that while findings were promising, conclusions drawn about

the effectiveness of mindfulness for school-aged children should be tentative. Studies

reviewed spanned the areas of emotional wellbeing, learning, mental health, physical health

and social and emotional learning.

The Melbourne Academic Mindfulness Interest Group (2006) framed mindfulness as

a skill which involves a number of cognitive processes, including metacognition, suppressing

attention and sustaining attention. In terms of the relationship between these cognitive

processes, Holas and Jankowski (2013) suggested that mindfulness training has a direct

impact upon an individual’s metacognitive system promoting mindfulness which, in turn,

should improve executive functions and attentional processes. Lau (2009) proposed that “we

live in a fragmented and alienated world” (p. 715) which has had a negative impact upon

children and young people’s attention, and suggests that “mindfulness training helps teachers

and students in building up concentration and attention” (p. 725).


A growing number of studies report positive effects of mindfulness on the attentional

functioning of children and young people (Napoli, Krech & Holley, 2005; Semple, Lee, Rosa

and Miller, 2010; van der Oord, Bögels & Peijnenburg, 2012). More recently Thomas and

Atkinson (2016) utilised a RCT design with a quasi-experimental cross-lag to evaluate the

impact of a six-hour manualised mindfulness programme called Paws .b (Mindfulness in

Schools Project, 2016a) on mainstream primary school aged pupils’ suppressing and

sustaining attention skills. Of the 30 8- to 9-year-old pupils, 16 were assigned to the

experimental group, leaving 14 in the waitlist control group. Paws .b was delivered across

six-weeks, with a one-hour lesson per week. According to the Attention Checklist (Das,

2002; a 12 item questionnaire completed by pupils’ teachers which measures observable

suppressing and sustaining attention behaviours), the experimental group were observed to

exhibit more desirable attention behaviours at post-intervention and 14-week follow-up

relative to pre-intervention. According to the NEPSY-II Inhibition subtest (Korkman, Kirk &

Kemp, 2007; a standardised, researcher-administered measure of the accuracy of pupils’

suppressing and sustaining attention skills), both the experimental and waitlist control groups

were assessed to have more accurate attention skills at post-intervention relative to pre-

intervention, whereby the intervention effect in the experimental group was maintained at the

8- and 14-week follow-ups. Within-condition comparisons revealed several significant pre-

vs. post-intervention effects within teacher-reported and standardised attention measures, the

majority of which were maintained at follow-up. Between-condition comparison also

revealed some significant partial condition × time-point interactions.

It should be noted that mindfulness research has not had unequivocally positive outcomes.

However, the main study which failed to report significant findings centred on an adult, non-

clinical population (Anderson, Lau, Segal & Bishop (2007).


Mindfulness programmes in schools

Jones (2011) warns of potential barriers to mindfulness in schools, such as: parents/

carers/ teachers feeling that mindfulness labels children as having problems that need fixing;

the debate over whether teachers themselves need to be mindfulness practitioners before

delivering mindfulness to their pupils (Thomas & Atkinson, 2016); and, the practicalities

assoicated with training teachers to deliver a mindfulness programme to their pupils.

Nontheless, because of its secular nature, mindfulness should not clash with pupils’ religious

or cultural beliefs and thus should be implementable within a multicultural classroom.

Whilst the above sections highlight some of the developing bodies of quantitative

research reporting the positive impact of mindfulness on children and young people’s on

specific areas of functioning, including wellbeing, social competence and academic

achievement (particularly with regards to attention); there is a general lack of qualitative and

exploratory research investigating the mechanisms by which mindfulness exerts its impact or

providing a more inductive perspective on its potential benefits. A close match to the current

study is possibly a large-scale qualitative investigation, involving 80 participants across 31

schools conducted in Australia by Campion and Rocco (2009), which looked at student,

teacher and parent interview evaluations of a meditation programme. Reported effects

included increased relaxation and feelings of calm, reduced stress, reduced anger and

improved concentration, although feedback from teachers and pupils was not unequivocally

positive.

In providing a qualitative evaluation study of the Paws .b mindfulness programme,

this research offers similar insights into a mindfulness programme, albeit on a smaller scale,

providing, to the researchers’ knowledge, the first qualitative study investigating perspectives

on a UK school-based mindfulness programme. The research questions (RQs) are as follows:

1. What were children’s feelings about the Paws.b mindfulness programme?


2. In what ways was Paws .b perceived by mainstream primary school aged pupils and

their teachers to be instrumentally helpful to promoting attention and wellbeing??

3. In what ways could the Paws .b mindfulness programme be developed, in order to

improve classroom implementation and pupil access?

It should be noted that while the first phase of research sought specifically to explore

the impact of Paws .b on attention (Thomas & Atkinson, 2016), this study adopts a more

open-ended approach by considering all possible benefits of this whole-class mindfulness

approach.

Method

Design

Critical realism was deemed to be the epistemological position that was most suited to

the present study, whereby the researcher felt that it provided a rationale for rigorous

scientific research. The ontological components of critical realism corroborated well with the

aim of the present study, as the researcher sought to provide an explanation of the

instrumental benefits of Paws .b in relation to the research questions. The study used

qualitative interview and focus group methods as follow up to quantitative evaluation of the

Paws .b mindfulness programme (Thomas & Atkinson, 2016) in order to gather the different

perspectives of pupils and their teachers.

Participants

Convenience sampling was undertaken at a mixed and ethnically diverse

comprehensive primary school in North West England where the first researcher was the link

EP. Prior to the beginning of the evaluation study, the school had decided independently to

introduce the Paws .b mindfulness programme into the Year-4 curriculum (i.e. for eight and

nine year-olds). The school made an ethical decision to target Year-4 as pupils begin

preparation for their Year-6 Standard Assessment Tests in Year-5.


Parental consent was obtained for 30 pupils (mean age 8-years 10-months; 50%

female) to take part in the first phase of the evaluation study: 16 from class-1 (mean age 8-

years 9-months; 44% females) and 14 from class-2 (mean age 8-years 10-months; 57%

female). Relative to the geographical location of the school, all pupils had English as an

Additional Language (EAL) with a predominance of Urdu or Bengali as their first language.

Both classes had female class teachers. However, there was unforeseen participant attrition

whereby, in anticipation of her forthcoming maternity leave, the original class-2 teacher

began a temporary role within the school half way through the evaluation study and was

replaced by another female class teacher. Both classes had the same mindfulness teacher who

was a member of the school senior leadership team and was trained to deliver Paws .b by the

Mindfulness in Schools Project, having already established her own mindfulness practice1.

After both classes had received Paws .b, a ‘names in a hat’ method was used to select

four females and four males from each class to take part in the second phase of the evaluation

study which involved four separate focus groups. The rationale for the utilisation of single-

sex focus groups came via consultation with class teachers who felt that the girls would be

more open and communicative in a single-sex group. Scott (2008) suggests that best practice

advice around the use of single sex focus groups may have arisen through conventional

wisdom, rather than empirical research, although on this occasion, the researchers were

guided by the teachers’ expertise, particularly given possible cultural factors which may have

influenced participation. However, if should be noted that the pupils may have responded

differently in mixed –sex groups.

Pupil details are provided in Table 1.

1 The Mindfulness in Schools Project require all potential teachers of Paws .b to have established and sustained their own mindfulness practice before they are able to access training (e.g., by having attended an adult mindfulness programme).


Table 1. Pupils involved in the four post-intervention focus groups

Focus

group

Clas

s

Gender Pseudonyms Mean age

A 1 Female Sofia; Iqra; Azra; Fatima 9-years 1-month

B 1 Male Haris, Hasan, Usman, Jamilur 8-years 10-

months

C 2 Female Simra; Nadia; Kiran; Natasha 9-years

D 2 Male Aqeel; Wajid; Tariq;

Mohammed

9-years 5-months

Intervention

The Paws .b mindfulness programme consists of six 1-hour lessons that are delivered

on a weekly basis; an overview is provided in Table 2. The Paws .b materials consist of a

Microsoft PowerPoint presentation and plan for each lesson. Through consultation with class

teachers and the mindfulness teacher, the language demands of Paws .b were deemed to be in

line with the Year-4 National Curriculum (Department for Education, 2013). Implementation

checks were carried out by the first researcher (Durlak & DuPre, 2008). Class-1 received

Paws .b throughout the Spring 1 half-term; class-2 received Paws .b throughout the Spring 2

half-term.


Table 2. Overview of the Paws .b mindfulness programme

Lesson

numbe

r

Activities Description

1 An introduction to the prefrontal

cortex

A discussion around our ability

to make choices

Mindfulness exercise one:

Breath counting

Home practice: Breath counting

mindfulness exercise

Pupils are introduced to the notion of ‘brain

training’ as a means of improving their

cognitive, emotional, social and behavioural

functioning. The prefrontal cortex is discussed

in terms of its functions around attention,

decision-making and learning. The breath

counting mindfulness exercise is posited as a

means of brain training and is set as the home

practice.

2 Recap of learning and

discussion of home practice

An introduction to the

‘searchlight’ of attention and

‘puppy training’


philosophy of mindfulness


hippocampus

Mindfulness exercises two and

three: ‘Chest and tummy

Pupils are introduced to the searchlight of

attention as a metaphor for being able to

voluntarily direct one’s attention. The notion of

puppy training is an analogy for training one’s

attention. The philosophy of mindfulness is

discussed in terms of mindfulness (being in the

present moment) and mindlessness (forgetting

to be in the present moment). The hippocampus

is discussed in terms of its function around

memory. The chest and tummy breathing

mindfulness exercise is posited as a means of


breathing’ and ‘finger breathing’


and finger breathing

mindfulness exercises

directing one’s searchlight of attention to where

the sensation of breathing can be noticed most

strongly. The finger breathing mindfulness

exercise is posited as a means of directing one’s

searchlight of attention to the sensation of

breathing within one’s fingers.



A discussion of ‘wobbly’

feelings

An introduction to the insula

Mindfulness exercise four: Feet

on floor – bums on chair

(FOFBOC)


and FOFBOC mindfulness

exercises

Pupils discuss wobbly feelings; a snow globe

and a weeble-wobble are used as props to show

how the mind feels when it wobbles (e.g., due

to worry). The insula is discussed in terms of its

function around noticing wobbly feelings. The

FOFBOC mindfulness exercise is posited as a

means of grounding oneself and combating

wobbly feelings.



An introduction to the amygdala

A discussion around reacting

and responding

Mindfulness exercise number

five: ‘+2’.

Home practice: +2 mindfulness

Pupils are introduced to the amygdala in terms

of its three main functions (fight/ flight/ freeze)

and its importance for our survival. The

amygdala’s function in quickly reacting to

situations is discussed and that the amygdala

often prevents us from responding to situations

in an appropriate manner. The +2 mindfulness

exercise is posited as a means of slowing down


exercise the amygdala and allowing one to respond to a

situation rather than react.



A discussion around worry

The ‘hot cross bun’ model of

Cognitive Behavioural Therapy

Home practice: Pupils are

encouraged to practice their

favourite mindfulness exercise

Pupils discuss worry and its impact on the mind

in terms of construing events in an overly

negative/ inaccurate manner; the ‘snowballing’

analogy is introduced here. The interaction

between thoughts, feelings, bodily sensations

and behaviours is discussed and applied to

different scenarios. The +2 mindfulness

exercise is posited as a means of combating

worry.



A discussing around ‘growing

happiness’

Practise all five mindfulness

exercises

Planning for the future

Pupils discuss the notion of growing happiness

and the analogy of growing flowers is

introduced to highlight the need for one to give

time and care to the development of one’s

happiness. All five mindfulness exercises are

posited as means of growing one’s happiness

and pupils are encouraged to think about their

favourite mindfulness exercises. Pupils are

encouraged to think where, and how often, they

intend to practice mindfulness.

Data gathering

Four females and four males from class-1 and -2 took part in four separate post-

intervention focus groups (see Table 1). Barbour (2007) suggested that focus groups allow


pupils to express salient views; multiple voices to be heard and facilitate more rounded and

reasoned responses to discussion questions. Focus groups are also more economical than a

series of pupil interviews, and are less intimidating to pupils (Cohen, Manion & Morrison,

2008) The focus groups lasted for 30-minutes and were moderated by the first researcher who

used a focus group topic guide to encourage discussion and interaction (Barbour, 2007; see

Appendix 1). The topic guide involved a task where pupils were provided with a worksheet

and asked to select a happy, expressionless or sad emoticon to indicate which of the

following statements they identified most with: ‘I liked Paws .b’; ‘Paws .b was okay’; or, ‘I

didn’t like Paws .b’. Once pupils completed the task, the first researcher asked follow-up

questions (e.g., “If you chose the happy face, what did you like about Paws .b?”/ “Was there

anything that you didn’t like about Paws .b?”).

The three class teachers took part in two separate post-intervention semi-structured

interviews: one for the class-1 teacher; and, one for the original class-2 teacher and the

replacement class-2 teacher. The mindfulness teacher also took part in a semi-structured

interview when she had finished delivering Paws .b to class-2. Cohen et al., (2008) noted that

semi-structured interviews require greater participant involvement and thus engender higher

levels of participant motivation than open-ended questionnaires. The three semi-structured

interviews lasted between 60- to 90-minutes and were also moderated by the first researcher

who used a semi-structured interview schedule to encourage discussion (Robson, 2002, p.

270; see Appendix 2). Unlike Campion and Rocco’s (2009) research, the interviews and

focus groups did not direct participants to potential areas for improvement, asking more

general, open-ended and exploratory questions.

The pupil focus groups and teacher interviews were audio recorded and transcribed

(McLellan, MacQueen & Nedig, 2003).

Data analysis


Data gathering resulted in four sets of pupil focus group data and three semi-

structured teacher interviews. These were individually analysed, using Braun and Clarke’s

(2006) six phase thematic analysis, as detailed in Figure 1 below. Given the researchers’

critical realist ontological stance and the assumption of the direct link between meaning/

experience and language, themes were identified at the semantic level, as opposed to the

latent level, as the researchers wanted to reflect, as opposed to unravel, the reality that they

had observed during the focus groups and semi-structured interviews (Braun & Clarke,

2006). Thematic analysis was preferred over other qualitative methods because of its

theoretical flexibility and because it provides a systematic and rigorous structure for data

analysis. It is also relatively straightforward and does not require the same degree of

technical knowledge as methods such as Discourse Analysis or Grounded Theory (Braun &

Clarke, 2006). However, researchers need to be aware of potential pitfalls of insufficient or

unconvincing analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). In this instance, inter-rater checks were made

by the authors to ensure that the analysis was representative of the data.

Phase Name Description

1 Familiarising yourself

with the data

Familiarise yourself with the depth and breadth of the

data by repeatedly reading the data in an active manner

(i.e., by searching for patterns); make notes for future

coding.

2 Generating initial

codes

Use descriptive codes to identify interesting features

within the data and thus begin to organise the data into

distinct groups; the same data extract can be coded more

than once; coding can be done manually or through a

software programme (e.g., Nvivo).

3 Searching for themes The list of codes are combined into overarching themes


and the data extracts for each theme are collated; visual

representations (i.e., thematic tables/ maps) can be used

to arrange the codes into themes.

4 Reviewing themes The set of candidate themes are refined following two

levels of reviewing: (1) at the level of the coded data

extracts (i.e., do the data extracts form a coherent pattern

relative to the overarching theme); (2) at the level of the

entire data set (i.e., do the candidate themes match the

overall data set).

5 Defining and naming

themes

Once satisfied, the themes are named for the purpose of

being presented within the overall data analysis.

6 Producing the report Tell the story of the data set relative to the overarching

themes using data extracts for exemplification.

Figure 1. Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phase thematic analysis

Results

It should be noted that these qualitative findings are part of a mixed-method study.

Quantitative findings, as reported in the Introduction section, are presented in full in a paper

by Thomas and Atkinson (2016). The reader may find this a useful reference point for

contextualising qualitative findings. These will be now considered in relation to the research

questions.

Table 3 shows the themes and sub-themes that pertain to RQ1 and RQ2 which were:

1 What were children’s feelings about the Paws.b mindfulness programme?

2 In what ways was Paws .b perceived by mainstream primary school aged pupils and

their teachers to be instrumentally helpful to promoting attention and wellbeing?


Within the text, sub-themes are italicised and exemplary data extracts are provided.

Table 3. Themes and sub-themes arising from thematic analysis of the focus group and

semi-structured interview data with reference to the perceived usefulness of Paws.b

Themes Sub-themes

Programme format Enjoyable

Novel

Accessible

Feasible

Classroom applications Attention/ distractibility

Metacognition

Self-regulation

Relaxation

Relationships

Wider applications Generalisation/ adaptation

General anxiety

Lifelong learning

School community

Programme format

Pupils found the Paws .b mindfulness programme to be both highly enjoyable and

novel. Fifteen of the 16 pupils selected the happy face to indicate that they liked Paws .b and

one pupil selected the neutral face to indicate that Paws .b was okay. Pupils were curious of

and interested in Paws .b from the outset, and teacher reports suggested that pupils became

increasingly excited as the programme progressed. For example, Simra stated: “I really liked

[Paws .b] – I want to do it again;” while the class-1 teacher reported that her pupils “were

excited about [Paws .b] whenever they knew that a lesson was going to happen.” Pupils were


also instilled with a pioneering sense of pride having received Paws .b as Fatima explained:

“our school is very lucky to do mindfulness and I don’t think other schools get to do

mindfulness.”

Paws .b was also deemed to be accessible by all those involved in data gathering. In

terms of the programme’s design/ format and curriculum content, Wajad explained that

“there’s no right or wrong in mindfulness, so there’s no need to be showing off” and Usman

stated that Paws .b “was quite fun because it was the first time that we’ve been learning about

the brain.” In term of Paws .b being process rather than outcome-focussed and not relying on

pupils’ academic ability, the class-1 teacher noted that “there is no good or being good about

[Paws .b].” In terms of Paws .b enabling all pupils to ‘catch’ the experience of mindfulness,

the mindfulness teacher reported that “you can almost see the moment at which they caught it

– they noticed their breathing for the first time.”

Furthermore, the mindfulness teacher felt that Paws .b was a feasible intervention

because it was enjoyable to deliver and enhanced by her personal mindfulness practice. The

mindfulness teacher reported that “seeing how my stress levels diminished as the teaching

went on, it became more of a joy.” The mindfulness teacher also stated: “I think if you

weren’t a mindfulness practitioner yourself, you’d lose all that richness.”

Classroom applications

The Paws .b mindfulness programme had two reported cognitive applications within

the classroom: one pertaining to attention/ distractibility, the other pertaining to

metacognition. It was felt that Paws .b enabled pupils to notice and reduce mind wanderings,

and become less forgetful, whilst also challenging their metacognitive skills. In terms of

attention/ distractibility, Simra explained that “when you need to concentrate on something

and if you hear a sound, you go about that and you forget what you’re doing – mindfulness

can help you and if you try mindfulness, that wouldn’t ever happen again,” and Natasha


highlighted that “mindfulness…can help you remember stuff, like if your mum tell you to put

£25 in her bag and then you can remind her.” In terms of metacognition, the mindfulness

teacher stated that Paws .b was “a real challenge to [pupils], that sort of metacognition and,

“What is a thought?” – it’s hard; it’s BA2 Philosophy kind of territory in some respects.”

Paws .b had two emotional applications within the classroom: one pertaining to self-

regulation and the other to relaxation. It was felt that Paws .b taught pupils techniques to help

them manage their emotions and relax, particularly in difficult situations. Tariq was candid in

asserting that “mindfulness can calm you down if you are proper angry at something,” whilst

Aqeel explained that “if we have something like bullying, bad things happen to you – if you

do mindfulness, you cannot remember those times.” Haris then highlighted that “when you

open your eyes [after a mindfulness exercise] you feel more relaxed and it’s like your brain is

sleeping.”

Paws .b also had a social application within the classroom pertaining to peer and

teacher-pupil relationships. With regards to peer relationships, Mohammed stated the

following: “I like [Paws .b] because you can share your feelings with other people who

you’ve never seen before or never met before.” With regards to teacher-pupil relationships,

the mindfulness teacher reported that “a real closeness developed and now as the second half

of the term has gone on and I’ve seen the pupils from the [class-1] around school, I think

there’s definitely a connection.”

Wider applications

In addition to classroom applications, the Paws .b mindfulness programme also had

wider applications. From the pupil perspective, children appeared to go through a process of

generalisation/ adaptation and reported utilising their mindfulness skills at home. Simra gave

the following example: “At home, my brother makes me really angry, he’s really annoying,

but then I calm down myself and tell him to stop.”2 Bachelor of Arts – a UK degree programme


From the adult perspective, class teachers were able to provide several examples of

how Paws .b appeared to help pupils with general anxiety. For example, the class-1 teacher

provided the following anecdote:

“You know, there were simple little things like Ayat was really scared by going

swimming; Ayat became very anxious all the time, but they are now in the water and

Ayat is doing alright – Ayat is a lot more confident.”

The adults also felt that Paws .b served to embark pupils on a journey of lifelong

learning related to mindfulness. Upon recounting the final Paws .b lesson, the mindfulness

teacher reported that she told pupils the following: “This is just the beginning – you’ve got all

the tools you need, it’s now down to you to use it as and when you want, and when you need

to – this is it, you’ve got the skills.”

Furthermore, Paws .b also impacted upon adults within the school community by

evoking class teachers’ interests in mindfulness. For example, the replacement class-2 teacher

said: “I’m now thinking that I’m going to go to the mindfulness drop-in sessions because I’m

really interested to know what it would be like from an adult perspective.”

Table 4 shows the themes and sub-themes that pertain to RQ3: In what ways could the

Paws .b mindfulness programme be developed, in order to improve classroom

implementation and pupil access?

. Within the text, sub-themes are italicised and exemplary data extracts are provided.


Table 4. Themes and sub-themes arising from thematic analysis of the focus group and

semi-structured interview data with reference to RQ2

Themes Sub-themes

Implications for future practice Potential adaptations

Differentiation

Implementation

Implications for future practice

Pupils identified a number of potential adaptations that they would like to make to the

Paws .b mindfulness programme, both in terms of the curriculum content and the number/

length of mindfulness exercises. Generally, it was felt that it would be better for the Paws .b

curriculum content to be delivered across a greater number of shorter lessons. For example,

Wajad asserted that “[Paws .b lessons] should be shorter time but more weeks – you could do

[Paws .b lessons] twice a week so it can be shorter.” Furthermore, some pupils wanted

Paws .b to include some mindfulness practices that lasted longer than 5-minutes. For

example, Tariq stated: “We need more [Paws .b mindfulness exercises],” adding: “What’s the

point in doing 5-minute [exercises] when you need to do more than 5-minutes really, like

half-an-hour?”

For the mindfulness teacher in particular, differentiation was highlighted as barrier to

the effective delivery of Paws .b within the present school context. Specifically, the

mindfulness teacher felt that it would have been beneficial for the Paws .b curriculum content

and mindfulness exercises to have been differentiated: “I think that a development for the

future would be, “How do you differentiate a Paws .b mindfulness lesson? How do you

differentiate a [Paws .b mindfulness exercise] delivery?””. As a potential solution, the


mindfulness teacher suggested that Paws .b lessons could be delivered in small groups: “Had

we had the opportunity to do small group-focussed mindfulness, it would have been

amazing” and/ or that less able pupils could be pre-taught curriculum content/ mindfulness

exercises: “Pre-teaching…would be so much more productive in supporting them in their

practice.”

Lastly, there were several implications pertaining to the implementation of Paws .b.

Although Paws .b is a discrete intervention, the class teachers and mindfulness teachers felt

that it would have greater impact if it was more thoroughly embedded within school. For

example, the class-1 teacher stated the following: “I think to get the best out of [Paws .b] it

really would need to be more embedded.” In terms of how this could be achieved, it was felt

that pupils would benefit from being taught Paws .b by their class teachers as opposed to a

mindfulness teacher. For example, the mindfulness teacher highlighted that “it would be

lovely, obviously, to have the person delivering [Paws .b] being that class teacher – that you

can just then carry on and do daily [mindfulness exercises] with the class, as and when.”

Discussion

In light of the national context in which mindfulness is being strongly endorsed as a

means of promoting children and young people’s mental health and wellbeing (All Party

Parliamentary Group on Wellbeing Economics, 2014; Weare, 2015) the present study offers

the first qualitative evaluation of a mindfulness programme within a UK school context.

Furthermore, the research sought to establish, from an inductive perspective, pupil and staff

views about applications mindfulness in general, rather in relation to a specific domain (e.g.

emotional wellbeing; learning) or skill set (e.g. attention; social competence).

Findings indicate that the vast majority of pupils enjoyed the Paws .b programme. It

was deemed to be accessible and feasible, both from the pupil perspective (having received


the intervention) and from the mindfulness teacher perspective (having delivered the

intervention). Furthermore, as a result of Paws .b, there were pupil reports of being more

attentive/ less distractible; better able to utilise their metacognitive skills; better able to self-

regulate; and more relaxed in school. There were also evidence which suggested that Paws .b

helped some pupils in developing and strengthening peer/ teacher relationships. Pupils and

teachers also described applications beyond the classroom. There were examples of pupils

generalising and adapting their mindfulness skills for use at home, and applying their

mindfulness skills during anxiety-provoking situations outside of the classroom (e.g. during

school swimming lessons). One teacher felt Paws .b was seen as the beginning of pupils’

lifelong learning related to mindfulness and it evoked the interests of adults within the school

community who had yet to discover mindfulness.

The present study also established pupil and teacher views about the ways in which

the Paws .b could be developed and alluded to possible mechanisms which restricted the

impact of Paws .b.. From the pupil perspective, it was felt that Paws .b could be delivered

across a greater number of shorter lessons and include a greater variety of mindfulness

exercises with extended practice time. There were suggestions that Paws .b could be

improved by differentiating the curriculum content and mindfulness exercises using small

group mindfulness and pre-teaching, and that Paws .b could have had greater impact within

the school had it been implemented in a more embedded manner.

Relative to pre-existing literature, there are parallels with findings from other

published research. In line with the review conducted by Waters et al., (2015), there is

evidence here that some pupils found benefits in terms of wellbeing (i.e., they were better

able to manage anxiety and were more relaxed), social competence (i.e., they developed and

strengthened their peer/ teacher relationships) and academic achievement (i.e., they were

more attentive/ less distractible and better able to utilise their metacognitive skills) in school.


It is also noteworthy that to a certain extent the qualitative findings of the present study also

complemented the robust findings of quantitative studies highlighting the statistically

significant impact of mindfulness on pupils attentional functioning (cf. Napoli et al., 2005;

Semple et al., 2010; Thomas & Atkinson, 2016; van der Oord et al., 2012).

There are also parallels with the large-scale research conducted by Campion and

Rocco (2009) who reported meditation effects in the areas of relaxing and calming; emotional

regulation and stress management; and concentration and classroom behaviours. However,

while there was almost unequivocal positive feedback for and engagement with the Paws. b

mindfulness programme in this study, Campion and Rocco (2009) reported some negativity

from around a third of teachers and resistance from 16% of pupils to their meditation

programme. It is interesting to note that, while this research is referred to as mindfulness in

the Waters et al., (2015) review, it incorporated religious themes and teaching and the use of

mantras, although the mixed reception may have been more related to feelings that the

programme had been “pushed too hard” (Campion & Rocco, 2009, p.50).

Operationally, the researchers feel that two sub-themes may be of particular interest to

the Mindfulness in Schools Project: potential adaptations and differentiation. In terms of the

relationship between adaptation and fidelity, adaptations are seen as inevitable for school-

based programmes such as Paws .b and positive outcomes are able to be achieved with as

little as 60% fidelity (Durlak & DuPre, 2008). However, Durlak and DuPre (2008) also

highlight that it is imperative for programme developers, such as the Mindfulness in Schools

Project (2016b), to specify the theoretically important component of their programmes so that

implementers (i.e., mindfulness teachers) can achieve the necessary levels of fidelity (i.e.,

≥60%). Therefore, in terms of the potential adaptations identified by the pupils (i.e.,

delivering Paws .b across a greater number of shorter lessons and including a greater variety

of longer mindfulness exercises) and the differentiation needs identified by the mindfulness


teacher (i.e., small group mindfulness and pre-teaching), it may be beneficial for the

Mindfulness in Schools Project (2016b) to state whether such adaptations could be made

without compromising the theoretically important components of Paws .b.

In terms of educational psychology practice, whilst the present study did not

investigate EPs’ use of mindfulness in direct work with children, young people and parents/

carers, or within consultation (see Davis, 2012), it does highlight an organisational role for

the EP in supporting schools to implement and evaluate the impact of a mindfulness

programme such as Paws .b when implemented at the universal (i.e., whole-class) or targeted

(i.e., small-group) level (Fallon, Woods & Rooney; Felver et al., 2013). Given the emerging

evidence base pertaining to the positive impact of mindfulness-based interventions for

children and young people, were surveys such as that by Atkinson et al., (2011) to be

repeated presently, the researchers believe that mindfulness may have emerged strongly

within EPs’ repertoire of therapeutic interventions. However, a major barrier to EPs’ wider

use of mindfulness based-interventions within schools (e.g., in direct work with children,

young people and parents/ carers, or within consultation; Davis, 2012) may be the tradition of

establishing one’s own mindfulness practice before one can be trained to deliver mindfulness-

based interventions (see Kostanski & Hassed, 2008). Given the recommendations for initial

teacher training (All-Party Parliamentary Group on Wellbeing Economics, 2014; Weare,

2015) regarding the upskilling of teachers and support staff to provide universal and targeted

social, emotional and mental health support for children and young people this may present

significant cost and training implications for mindfulness delivery in schools., Similarly, it

may be that professional doctorate programmes for the initial training of EPs decide to

provide trainees with mindfulness-based intervention to both promote trainee wellbeing and

to address the low number of qualified EPs who are also mindfulness practitioners. This


should be in addition to other therapeutic modalities already in place with EP training

(Atkinson et al., 2011).

Limitations of the research

Perceived benefits were reported by pupils and teachers in relation to attention,

metacognition, self-regulation, relaxation and relationships. Attentional gains are

triangulated by quantitative outcomes (Thomas & Atkinson, 2016) but it should be noted that

without wider sampling or specific focus, claims in relation to the other areas may be to an

extent anecdotal. Without further research, caution should be taken not to presuppose,

without more rigorous research, that Paws.b can offer a range of benefits that it might not

deliver. The areas emerging in the evaluation do however represent useful foci for future

studies.

Regarding the methodology of the present study, the dependability of the pupil focus

groups and teacher semi-structured interviews were high due to the first researcher’s use of a

focus group topic guide (see Appendix 1) and a semi-structured interview schedule (see

Appendix 2), both of which directly reflected the RQs. The credibility of the pupil focus

groups and teacher semi-structured interviews were also high due to the first researcher

taking steps to build rapport with pupils and staff, both prior to the present study as the

school’s link EP and throughout the research process (i.e., when commissioning the research

and at the beginning of each focus group/ semi-structured interview). However, this is also a

potential limitation of the study, as the absence of an independent evaluator increases the risk

of acquiescence and social desirability bias (Scott, 2008). Additionally, individuals’

completion of the questionnaires within the focus groups may have been compromised by

peer groups processes. As for the thematic analysis of the qualitative data generated by the

pupil focus groups and teacher semi-structured interviews, dependability was high due to the

specific use of Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six phase thematic analysis, which is highly


prescriptive. However, the data collection may have been enriched had the researchers set out

to gather data which related specifically to domains in which effects might have been

predicted (e.g. emotional wellbeing, social competence, academic achievement), particularly

given that the children were so young and may not have been able to readily identify benefits

without this sort of additional prompting. The possible downside to that is that the questions

may very much have influenced the data, as may have been the case in Campion and Rocco’s

(2009) research. Furthermore, as all pupils had EAL and given that the present study took

place in a single context, the transferability of the findings may be limited.

Future directions

Future directions for research include the possibilities of:

Replicating the present study but asking specifically about areas previously mentioned

as effects of mindfulness in previous studies (e.g. Campion & Rocco, 2009; Waters et

al., 2015; Weare, 2012);

Replicating the present study in a different context with a sample of non-EAL pupils;

Replicating the present study using an in-depth exploratory case study using older

pupils;

Comparing the impact of Paws .b when delivered at universal, targeted (small group)

and intensive (individual) levels (see Felver et al., 2013) on one or more areas of

competence;

Investigating EPs’ use of mindfulness-based interventions in direct work with

children, young people and parents/ carers, or within consultation (see Davis, 2012).

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Appendix 1 – Focus group topic guide

Introduction- Explain the purpose of the focus group;- Assure confidentiality;- Explain audio recording technology and transcription protocol;- Ask for consent to record focus group.

Warm up- Imagine you were talking to a friend at another school who had never heard of

Paws .b. What would you tell them about Paws .b?

Main body- I’m going to give each of you a face chart (See visual prompt) to see how much you

liked Paws .b. Don’t look at each other’s answers. If you liked Paws .b, put a tick in the box above the happy face; if you thought Paws .b was okay, put a tick in the box above the blank face; if you didn’t like Paws .b, put a tick in the box above the sad face.

- If you ticked the happy face, why did you like Paws .b?o Was there anything that you didn’t like about Paws .b?

- If you ticked the blank face, why did you think Paws .b was just okay?o Was there anything that you liked about Paws .b?o Was there anything that you didn’t like about Paws .b?

- If you ticked the sad face, why didn’t you like Paws .b?o Was there anything that you did like about Paws .b?

- If another school was thinking about using Paws .b, what would you tell the school about Paws .b?

Cool off- Is there anything about Paws .b that could be improved?- Is there anything else that you would like to say about Paws .b?

Closure- Thanks and goodbye.

Visual promptDid you like Paws .b?

Please put a tick above one face.

I didn’t like Paws.b Paws.b was OK I liked Paws.b


Appendix 2 – Semi-structured interview schedule

Introduction- Explain the purpose of the interview;- Assure confidentiality;- Explain audio recording technology and transcription protocol;- Ask for consent to record interview.

Warm up- How do you think the Paws .b mindfulness programme went?

Main body- In what ways do you feel that the Paws .b mindfulness programme helped your

pupils?o Can you give any examples of how the Paws .b mindfulness programme

helped your pupils?- In what ways do you feel that the Paws .b mindfulness programme supported your

teachingo Can you give any examples of how the Paws .b mindfulness programme

supported your teaching?- Has the Paws .b mindfulness programme caused any problems for your pupils?- Has the Paws .b mindfulness programme caused any problems for your teaching?

Cool off- Is there anything else that you would like to feedback about your experience of the

Paws .b mindfulness programme?- Do you think the Paws .b mindfulness programme is something that the school should

run again?- Why?

Closure- Thanks and goodbye.

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