JUNCTION AND TYPES OF JUNCTURES IN ASSAMESE LANGUAGE

A Dissertation submitted to Assam University, Silchar in partial fulfilment

of the requirement for the degree of Masters of Arts in Department of Linguistics.

Roll 042018 No 2083100004

Registration No 20180016662

DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS

SCHOOL OF LANGUAGE

ASSAM UNIVERSITY SILCHAR

788011, INDIA

YEAR OF SUBMISSION : 2020

CONTENTS

Title Page no.Certificate 2

Declaration by the candidate 3

Acknowledgement 4

Abbreviation 5

Figure map 6

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION 71.1.0 A rapid sketch on Assam 71.1.1 Etymology of “Assam” 7-81.1.2 Geographical Location 8-91.1.3 State symbols 9-101.1.4 Assamese language and script 10-111.1.5 The society and the social order 11-121.1.6 People 12-151.1.7 Religion 15-161.1.8 Culture 16-171.1.9 Dress and Ornaments 17-241.1.10 Festivals 24-261.1.11 Food habits 26-321.1.12 Art and Crafts 32-331.1.13 Music and Musical Instruments 33-341.1.14 Dance forms 34-35

Chapter 2: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 36-37

Chapter 3: OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY 38

3.1 Objectives 38

3.2 Methodology and Sources of Data 38

Chapter 4: JUNCTURES AND TYPES OF JUNCTURES IN ASSAMESE LANGUAGE 39

4.0 Concept of Junction 39-41

4.1 Assamese Junctures 41-43

4.2 Vowel Junctures 43-47

4.3 Consonant Junctures 47-50

4.4 Bikharga Junctures 50-51

Chapter 5: CONCLUSION 52

BIBLIOGRAPHY 53-54

DEPARTMENT OF LINGUISTICS

SCHOOL OF LANGUAGES

ASSAM UNIVERSITY SILCHAR

(A CENTRAL UNIVERSITY CONSTITUED UNDER ACT XIII OF 1989)

DATE:

CERTIFICATE

Certified that the dissertation/project entitled “ Junction and types of Junctures in Assamese Language” submitted by Roll 042018 No 2083100004 Registration No 20180016662 of 2018-2019 for Master degree in Linguistics in Assam University, Silchar. It is further certified that the candidate has complied with all the formalities as per the requirements of Assam University . I recommend that the dissertation may be placed before examiners for consideration of award of the degree of this university.

5.10.2020

(Asst. Professor Paramita Purkait)

Name & Signature of the Supervisor

Department of Linguistics

Assam University, Silchar

DECLARATION

I hearby Roll 042018 No 2083100004 Registration No 20180016662 hereby declare that the subject matter of the dissertation entitled ‘Junction and types of Junctures in Assamese Language’. is the record of the work done by me. The content of this work did not form the basis for award of any degree to me or anybody else to the best of my knowledge .

The project is being submitted to Assam University for the degree of Master of Arts in Linguistics.

Date : 05/10/2020

Place : Silchar, Assam University Candidate : Shyamalima Borah.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank the following people, without whom I would not have been able to complete this research, and without whom I would not have made it through my masters degree.

The Linguistics Department at Assam University, especially to my supervisor Dr Paramita purkait, whose insight and knowledge into the subject matter steered me through this research. I am extremely grateful for our friendly chats and your personal support in my work.

I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation for Kashmiri, my friend and Ashutosh, my brother, Anamika , Partha who did not deny me to provide materials, books which are essencial for my work. I can not definitely skip to thank Pranjal , whose guidance, support and encouragement has been invaluable throughout this study. From the bottom of my heart I would like to say big thank you to my department mates, friends, neighbors for their energy.

My special thanks also to the librarian of Assam University , Silchar for allowing me to take stock of the Library when approached them.

To conclude, my parents, who set me off on the road . I would like to thank my family for supporting me during the compilation of this dissertation.

Date – 5/10/2020

Place – Assam University, Silchar.

ABBRIVIATION

Suff – Suffix

FEM – Feminine

Noml – Nominal

FIGURE MAP

The Brahmaputra Valley of Assam has most population of Assamese people. Here the area of my work is some of the districts of Brahmaputra valley. There are 22 districts in this valley where the mother tongue and the first language of the people is Assamese. Junctures are found in the speaking of those people .

I have come across the people of district of Morigaon, Nagaon, Goalpara, Darang, Dibrugarh, Jorhat, Kamrup and Shivsagar.

Most of the people of these places have use junction and junctures.

CHAPTER- 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1.0 A rapid sketch on Assam:-

Assam , situated at the extreme North-East of India , is surrounded by the states of Arunachal Pradesh , Tripura, Manipur , Meghalaya , Nagaland and Mizoram on one end and foreign countries like Bhutan and Bangladesh on the other. Assam is known as the “land of red river and blue hills” . Assam comprises of 33 districts and is divided into two important physical regions – the Surma or Barak Valley and the Brahmaputra Valley . In Assamese Brahmaputra is called Burha Lohit or Luit . It enters the North-eastern corner of Assam through the Mishimi hills and turning west , passes through all the districts of Northern Assam . It is the chief artery and highway of Assam . Brahmaputra has two river islets in it namely Majuli and Umananda Assam , situated at the extreme North-East of India , is surroundedby the states of Arunachal Pradesh , Tripura, Manipur , Meghalaya , Nagaland and Mizoram on one end and foreign countries like Bhutan and Bangladesh on the other. Assam is known as the “land of red river and blue hills” . Assam comprises of 33 districts and is divided into two important physical regions – the Surma or Barak Valley and the Brahmaputra Valley . In Assamese Brahmaputra. Majuli the larger island lies in the district of Sivsagar whereas , Umananda the smaller island lies in the district of Sivsagar whereas, Umananda the smaller island lies near to the city of Guwahati . Majuli is situated at the conjunction of the parent river Brahmaputra and Subansiri , it is noted for its gold dusts and the trade that once grew there.

1.1.1 Etymology of “Assam”:-

The precise etymology of the modern anglicised word "Assam" is ambiguous. In the classical period and up to the 12th century the region east of the Karatoya river, largely congruent to present-day Assam, was called Kamarupa, and alternatively, Pragjyotisha. In medieval times the Mughals used Asham (eastern Assam) and Kamrup (western Assam), and during the British colonial era, the British used Assam. Though many authors have associated the name with the 13th century Shan invaders the precise origin of the name is not clear. It was suggested by some that the Sanskrit word Asama ("unequalled", "peerless", etc.) was the root,

which has been rejected by Kakati, and more recent authors have concurred that it is a latter-day Sanskritization of a native name. Among possible originsare Tai (A-Cham) and Bodo (Ha-Sam)

According to a late text, Kalika Purana (c. 9th–10th century AD), the earliest ruler of Assam was Mahiranga Danav of the Danava dynasty, which was removed by Naraka who established the Naraka dynasty. The last of these rulers, also Naraka, was slain by Krishna. Naraka's son Bhagadatta became the king, who (it is mentioned in the Mahabharata) fought for the Kauravas in the battle of Kurukshetra with an army of kiratas, chinas and dwellers of the eastern coast.

1.1.2 Geographical location

Assam, state of India. It is located in the northeastern part of the country and is bounded to the north by the kingdom of Bhutan and the state of Arunachal Pradesh , to the east by the states of Nagaland and Manipur, to the south by the states of Mizoram and Tripura, and to the west by Bangladesh and the states of Meghalaya and West Bengal. The name Assam is derived from the word asama, meaning “peerless” in the now extinct Ahom language. The neighbouring states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya were once part of Assam. The capital, formerly Shillong (now the capital of Meghalaya), was shifted to Dispur, a suburb of Guwahati, in 1972. Area 30,285 square miles (78,438 square km). Pop. (2011) 31,169,272.

Average temperatures in Assam range from highs in the upper 90s F (about 36 °C) in August to lows in the mid-40s F (about 7 °C) in January. The cool season generally lasts from October to February and is marked by fogs and brief showers. Thestate escapes the normal Indian hot, dry season. Although some rain occurs from March through May, the heaviest precipitation comes with the southwest monsoon, which arrives in June, stays through September, and often causes widespread and destructive flooding. Annual rainfall in Assam is not only the highest in the country but also ranks among the highest in the world; its annual average varies from about 70 inches (1,800 mm) in the west to more (3,000 mm) in the east.

Fig Map of Assam

1.1.3 State symbols:-

The Official State symbols represent the cultural heritage and natural treasures of Assam.

The following are the accredited State symbols of Assam:

CATEGORY ENGLISH TERMS ASSAMESE TERMS

State song O My Dearest Country Ow Mur Apunar Dekh

State motto Hail Mother Assam Joi Aai Axom

State seal Government of Assam Axom Sarkar

State language Assamese Axomiya

State festival Bihu Bihu

State dance Bihu Dance Bihu Nrityo

State flower Foxtail Orchid Kopou Ful

State animal One-horned Rhinoceros Exingiya gorh

State bird White-winged wood duck Deo hah

1.1.4 Assamese Language and Script:-

The Assamese alphabet or Assamese script, is a writing system of the Assamese language. It used to be the script of choice in the Brahmaputra valley for Sanskrit as well as other languages such as Bodo (now Devanagari), Khasi (now Roman), Mising (now Roman) etc. It evolved from Kamarupi script. The current form of the script has seen continuous development from the 5th-century Umachal/Nagajari-Khanikargaon rock inscriptions written in an eastern variety of the Gupta script, adopting significant traits from the Siddhaṃ script in the 7th century. By the 17th century three styles of Assamese script could be identified (baminiya, kaitheli and garhgaya) that converged to the standard script following typesetting required for printing. The present standard is identical to the Bengali alphabet except for two letters, ৰ (rɔ) and ৱ (vɔ); and the letter ক্ষ (kʰjɔ) has evolved into an individual consonant by itself with its own phoneti c quality whereas in the Bengali alphabet it is a conjugate of two letters.

The Buranjis were written during the Ahom dynasty in the Assamese language using the Assamese alphabet. In the 14th century Madhava Kandali used Assamese script to compose the famous Saptakanda Ramayana, which is the first translation of Ramayana in a regional language after Valmiki's Ramayana in Sanskrit. Later, Sankardev used it in the 15th and 16th centuries to compose his oeuvre in Assamese and Brajavali dialect, the literary language of the bhakti poems (borgeets) and dramas.

The Ahom king Supangmung (1663–1670) was the first ruler who started issuing Assamese coins for his kingdom. Some similar scripts with minor differences are used to write Maithili, Bengali, Meithei and Sylheti.

1.1.4.0 Assamese symbols1.1.4.0.0 Vowels:-

The script presently has a total of 11 vowel letters, used to represent the eight main vowel sounds of Assamese, along with a number of vowel diphthongs. All of these are used in both Assamese and Bengali, the two main languages using the script. Some of the vowel letters have different sounds depending on the word, and a number of vowel distinctions preserved in the writing system are not pronounced as such in modern spoken Assamese or Bengali. For example, the Assamese script has two symbols for the vowel sound [i] and two symbols for the vowel sound [u]. This redundancy stems from the time when this script was used to write Sanskrit, a language that had a short [i] and a long [iː], and a short [u] and a long [uː]. These letters are preserved in the Assamese script with their traditional names of hôrswô i (lit. 'short i') and dirghô i (lit. 'long i'), etc., despite the fact that they are no longer pronounced differently in ordinary speech.

Vowel signs can be used in conjunction with consonants to modify the pronunciation of the consonant (here exemplified by ক, kô). When no vowel is written, the vowel অ (ô or o) is

often assumed. To so specifically denote the absence of a vowel, ( �্) may be written underneath the consonant.

1.1.4.0.1 Consonant:-

The names of the consonant letters in Assamese are typically just the consonant's main pronunciation plus the inherent vowel ô. Since the inherent vowel is assumed and not written, most letters' names look identical to the letter itself (e.g. the name of the letter ঘ is itself ঘ ghô). Some letters that have lost their distinctive pronunciation in Modern Assamese are called by a more elaborate name. For example, since the consonant phoneme /n/ can be written ন, ণ, or ঞ (depending on the spelling of the particular word), these letters are not simply called no; instead, they are called ন dontiya no ("dental n"), ণ murdhoinno no ("retroflex n"), and ঞ nio. Similarly, the phoneme /x/ can be written as শ taloibbo xo ("palatal x"), ষ murdhoinno xo ("retroflex x"), or স dontia xo ("dental x"), the phoneme /s/ can be written using চ prothom sô ("first s") or ছ ditio so ("second s"), and the phoneme /z/ can be written using জ borgia zo ("row z" = "the z included in the five rows of stop consonants") or য ontostho zo ("z situated between" = "the z that comes between the  five rows of stop consonants and the row of sibilants"), depending on the standard spelling of the particular word.

1.1.5 The society and the social order:-

Caste system in the traditional society consisted of both castes and tribes, and social status of the latter groups was evaluated with the framework of the Hindu hierarchical system. In the hierarchical system Brahmins enjoyed social superiority, but they were liberal in their outlook regarding occupations, social laws and commensal relations with other castes. Kshatriyas and Vaisyas were absent in Assam.Among the Sudras, the Kayasthas and the Kalitas were regarded as higher castes. Most of the Vaisnava preceptors belonged to the Kayastha caste and they were vastly learned people. They had achieved a socio-religious status equivalent to that of the Brahmins.

The Kalitas were agriculturists. The lower ranks among the Sudras were occupied by the Katanis, Kaibartas or Keots. The Katanis lived on spinning and agriculture while the Kaibartas were fishermen. Another caste known as Nadiyal or Dom also depended on fishing. The Haris were employed as sweepers by the Ahom kings. In medieval Assam, a number of ruling tribes were converted into castes for higher social status in the hierarchy. The Koches were given a caste status in the sixteenth century. They subsequently absorbed many local tribes who accepted their methods of sanskritization.

The Bodo-Kachari tribe was important among them. The Chutiyas, a hill tribe, was absorbed by

the Ahoms. A progressive section of them came to be known as Hindu-Chutiyas by embracing

Hinduism and they also enjoyed higher caste status even in the traditional society. The Ahoms—

a Shan tribe, embraced Hinduism in the seventeenth century. The Kacharis were a Mongoloid

tribe. The Rabhas, a Hinduized section of them, were ranked superior to the Kacharis. Miri,

Mikir, and some other tribes also constituted an important section of the tribal social structure.At

the end of the fifteenth centtury, Sankardeva’s Vaisnavite movement (1449-1569) brought

considerable changes in the social structure by- intensifying social mobility and changes in the

caste system. Sankardeva institutionalized Vaisnavism in the form of Satra (temple organization)

and namghar (temple).The spiritual bond and fellow-feelins fostered by these institutions

considerably reduced caste rigidity. The Kala-Samhati, a sub-sect, preached more liberal

ideology among the lower castes and tribes, and was able to place them in higher social status.

Therefore, Weber’s view regarding prevalence of social immobility and absolute inequality in

traditional Hindu society is not correct.

Medieval Assam was ruled by various tribal kings of whom the Ahoms were most powerful.

During 1228 A.D. to 1833 A.D., the Ahoms extended their supremacy all over Assam and

consolidated feudalism along with its class structure. In 1881, half of the indigenous population

consisted of non-Hindu and Hindu tribals who still practised shifting cultivation.The tribal

economy of shifting cultivation was based on egalitarian principles where inequalities did not

exist. Only the Ahoms practised settled cultivation. Gradually, several tribal kingdoms were

brought under the direct rule of the Ahoms where settled cultivation with its land tenure system

was introduced.

1.1.6 people:-

Austro-asiatic (5000–6000 years ago):

Austro-asiatic/Mon-khmer speakers were the first people to arrive in Assam. There are Neolithical sites present all over Northeast including Arunachal Pradesh, Sadiya, Dibrugarh, Lakhimpur, Nagaon, Naga hills, Karbi Anglong, Nagaon, Kamrup, Garo and Khasi hills of Meghalaya, etc. which shows the distribution of these early settlers. There are two theories regarding the arrival. The first theory states that this Austro-asiatic population was formed when the Australoids were absorbed by the Paleo mongoloids who arrived from Southeast Asia which gave rise to the Mon-khmer group of languages. This is same as what had happened in Southeast Asia. The second theory suggests that these people actually migrated from Southeast Asia itself after the mix between Paleo mongoloids and Australoids was formed.

Hb E genetic marker:

Hb E gene is a gene which is exclusively found in the Austro-asiatic race and resulted as a mutation. This is actually a detector gene to show the Austro-asiatic heritage of different tribes. The Tibeto-Burman tribes of Assam(mainly the Kacharis, Karbis, etc) have almost the same frequency of Hb E gene as found in the Mon-khmer(Austro-asiatic) speakers of Southeast Asia including Cambodia, Indonesia, Thailand which is 0.4–0.6. The frequency decreases from Lower to Upper Assam and towards the hills which shows that the Austro-asiatic people were more in number in the southern part of the state. Infact, Khasis and Jaintias were found to have only 0.2 of that gene due to the influence of cold climate of Meghalaya.

Fig: Khasi traditional attire

Fig: Bodo tribe women. One of the Tibeto-Burman tribes having the highest Austroasiatic heritage among Tibeto-Burmans.

Tibeto-Burmans (4000–5000 years ago):

The Tibeto-Burmans which include the Kacharis(Bodo, Dimasa, Chutia, Moran, Rabha, Sonowal, Thengal, Tiwa, Garo, Koch, etc), Mishings and Karbis were the people who arrived after the early Austro-asiatic people and over time absorbed the early group. These groups form the majority of the indigenous population of Assam if included together. These people are the dominant group in Assam and formed all the dynasties of Assam including Kamrupa, Kamata, Chutia, and Dimasa.

Indo-Aryans and Dravidians (500–1500 years ago):

These groups of people migrated from East as well as North India starting from the rule of Varmans in Kamrupa. The first to arrive were Brahmins in the 6th century. It was followed by Kayasthas(7th-8th century), Kaibartas(8th century), Kalitas(11th-16th century), Nath Yogi(12th century). They form a major part of the Assamese community today and have seemingly blended with the native Tibeto-Burmans. The Brahmins brought the Prakrit language with them which overtime mixed with the Tibeto-Burman Bodish languages to give rise to Assamese. The Kaibartas were said to be fishermen who arrived from East India in the Kamrupa inscriptions, while the Kalitas were composed of mostly professional classes like smiths, potters, washermen, etc., although later on most of the Kayastha Bhuyans were also absorbed in the caste. The Nath Yogis were a religious branch which formed in North India in the 11th century and migrated to Assam in the later period. They mostly took up rearing silk worms and farming.

Fig: One of the traditional Assamese attire with Mekhela Chadar

Tai groups(300-800 years ago):

The first group of Tais to migrate into Assam were the Shans. A number of Tai men migrated from Mong Mao in the frontiers of Yunnan and Burma in the 13th century. These people upon their arrival in Assam absorbed Kacharis (Morans, Borahi, Chutias) into their population and overtime came to be known as “Ahoms”. Initially, they formed a small kingdom in present-day Sibsagar district and ruled for 300 years. During the early 16th century, due to the inefficient and weak rule of the cow-herder turned king of the neighbouring larger Chutia kingdom, the Ahoms took advantage and annexed the kingdom. This expansion enabled the Ahoms to rule the entire Upper Assam which included Biswanath, Lakhimpur, Dhemaji, Tinsukia, Dibrugarh, Sibsagar, and parts of Jorhat, Golaghat district. Due to increase in power, they quickly annexed the Dimasa kingdom as well which included parts of Jorhat, Golaghat, and Nagaon district. Over time they came to rule majority of the Brahmaputra valley from 1681–1780s(till Maomaria rebellion).

Fig: Traditional attire of Shan/Tai Ahom people

All other groups who arrived after the annexation by the Britishers cannot be termed as natives. Even though I have included the groups who arrived after the start of Christian era, the real native indigineous inhabitants includes only the Tibeto-Burman groups.

1.1.7 Religion:-

Religion is an integral part of any community or society, necessary for its development. It is often considered as an organized approach for leading a fulfilling and happy life. The religious community of Assam mainly comprises of Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism and Buddhism. Apart from this, various indigenous groups also follow Animism, Tantricism, Brahminism and Vaishnavism. Despite such vast differences in their religious faiths and beliefs, all the people within the state live in perfect peace and harmony with each other. All the festivals, whether it is Durga Puja, Id-ul-Fitr or Christmas, is celebrated by all with equal zeal and fervor in the Indian state.Hinduism, being the major religion in Assam, comprises about 64.9% of the total population, according to the Census Report of 2001. The pristine form of this religion started when the Aryans came to this region. Originally, the Assamese were practicing the rituals of Tantricism, before the advent of the Neo-Vaishnavite culture founded by Srimanta Shankardeva (1449-1568). The latter form of worship emerged in the state during the 15th century AD and comprises of a major portion of the religious beliefs of the Assamese people at present. The state, in general, has always been an open-minded society, in terms of liberalism.There are followers of Durga, Kali, Saraswati and the Vaishnavite culture in Assam. Among the various temples present in the state, the Kamakhya Temple needs special mention. The temple is dedicated to Goddess Durga and is an important pilgrimage spot of the state. Muslims comprise of the second largest religious group in the state and comprise about 30.925 of the entire population. The Powa Mecca in Hajoan is important pilgrimage centre for the Muslims and is visited by thousands of devotees and followers all round the year. Besides this, there are numerous mosques located in the state and many Muslim festivals are celebrated by the people with traditional flavor.Christians also form a sizeable population of the state (3.75%) and several churches are located here. Assam, initially, had a large number of tribes following the customs and rituals of Animism, along with elements of Hinduism. But, in recent times, many such people have adopted the customs and doctrines of Christianity. A major aspect of the religious scenario of the state is the emergence of the Brahmo Samaj, propagated by the Bodo Hindu, Kalicharan Mech. He later became known as ‘Guru Brahma’ or ‘Gurudev Kalicharan Brahmachari’. Due to to his teachings, the Bodo Brahmas (Bodos who follow this sect) gave up alcohol, heavy dowry and even meat eating.

1.1.8 Culture:-

Assam is the meeting ground of diverse cultures. The people of the enchanting state of Assam are an intermixture of various racial stocks such as Mongoloid, Indo-Burmese, Indo-Iranian and Aryan. The Assamese culture is a rich and exotic tapestry of all these races evolved through a long assimilative process. The natives of the state of Assam are known as "Asomiya" (Assamese), which is also the state language of Assam. The state has a large number of tribes, each unique in its tradition, culture, dress and exotic way of life.

Diverse tribes like Bodo, Kachari, Karbi, Miri, Mishimi, Rabha, etc co-exist in Assam; most tribes have their own languages though Assamese is the principal language of the state. A majority of the Assamese are Vaishnavas (a sect of Hinduism). The Vaishnavas do not believe in idol worshiping and perform "Naamkirtana", where the glory of Lord Vishnu is recited. The two important cultural and religious institutions that influence the cultural fabric of Assam: the "Satras", the site of religious and cultural practice which have been in existence for over 400 years and the "Naamghar", the house of prayers. Villagers generally associate on the basis of

membership of a local Centre of devotional worship called "Naamghar". Villages are usually made up of families from a number of distinct castes.

In Assam, the caste system, although it exists, is not as prominent as in other parts of India. Other religions such as Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, Islam etc. are also practiced in Assam. The state festival of Assam is the Bihu which is celebrated in three parts during a year with great pomp and grandeur by all Assamese, irrespective of caste, creed or religion. There are variious elements which are being used to represent beliefs, feelings, pride, identity, etc and are considered as important symbolic elements in Assamese culture. The quintessential symbols are the Asomiya"Gamucha", "Jaapi", "TamulPaan" and "Xorai". Traditional attire worn by women called the "Mekhela Chador" and Assamese jewellery also form an integral part of Assamese culture.

source

Fig:- Choklong, an unique traditional Ahom marriage ritual

source

Fig:- Nam kirtan

1.1.9 Dress and Ornaments:- Dresses:-

Assam is a beautiful place which happens to be one of the Seven Sisters in the North East. Assam is not just a budding state, but also a place with deep cultural roots and the people here take pride in the refinement of their cultural roots. This state portrays its beauty not

only in its serenity and lush green forests but also in the way the people dress traditionally. Tradition is the caravan of the heritage passed on to us by our forefathers, and these people here have very elegantly managed to carry forward the flame that was passed to them rightly. Here, let's have a look at the beautiful and exquisite pieces of clothing that one can find only in Assam.

Dhoti and Gamosa

Source

The Dhoti and Gamosa are said to be the native dress of the men of Assam. The Dhoti is used to cover the lower half of the body and is a well-known piece of clothing in other Indian traditions too. Wearing a Dhoti properly is not so easy and carrying it is also one tricky job. The Gamosa is a rectangular piece of cloth that is an important and significant part of the Assam culture. Gamosa means 'A cloth to wipe one's body' and is a white cloth with a beautiful red border on three sides and woven motifs on the remaining one. It is a piece of clothing that has some great significance in this state hence it is also used to felicitate and honour people who achieve some great feat. The Gamosa can be used as a cloth to wipe or can be transformed into a waistcoat which is commonly known as the Tongali. It can also be used as a Loincloth by a Bihu dancer. 

Mekhela Chador - The Traditional Dress of Assam

Source

The Mekhela Chador is the traditional dress for the women of Assam. It is worn by women of all ages except children. This two piece garment has a long piece of cloth that is draped from the waist downwards and is then folded into pleats and tucked in. This piece is called the Mekhela. The upper part of the dress is the Chador that is also a long piece of cloth whose one end is tucked into the Mekhela, and then the rest is wrapped around the body. This Chador is worn with triangular folds the art of which can be mastered only by sheer practice. Wearing these traditional dresses is not everyone's cup of tea and can be a magnanimous task at times. The run for traditional dresses of Assam does not end here. Assam is a state that houses different tribes who themselves have carried the flame of their tradition for generations. Each of these tribes has their set of unique culture, tradition, lifestyle and clothing. Wandering deep into the state, let us have a look at the artistic dresses of few of the major tribes that reside in Assam.

Tribal Wear Of Assam

The Dimasa TribeThe men of the Dimasa tribe are known to wear a Sgaopha or a Phagri (a turban) which is a sign of the pride they take in their name. The Sgaopha is yellow or green in colour, but on special occasions like marriages, the groom wears a white turban with a red thread tied below the chin. The Rigdo is a little muffler that these people carry with themselves. Risha and Gainthao are both Dhotis that differ in length. The Risha comes up to one's knee, and the Gainthao reaches the ankle.

Source

The women of this tribe are extremely pretty, and their amazing dresses bring out the hidden beauty in them. The dresses these women wear is fairly similar to the Mekhela Chador except the fact that the Rigu is a more standard piece of clothing here. The Rigu is a long piece of cloth worn from the waist down, usually reaching up to the ankles. Bathormai is a kind of Rigu that has one and only one design on the whole piece of cloth. The Bathormai is a particular Rigu that reaches only till the ankles and therefore is widely worn during summer seasons.

Source

The Bodo TribeThe men of the Bodo tribe are simple dressers and can be seen wearing the common dress of Assam i.e. the Gamosa. They use the Gamosa to cover the body waist down to the knee and the upper half was meant to kept bare. But with changing modern times, the men are widely accepting shirts as a part of their wardrobe. The footwear though is one distinguishing feature of the men of the Bodo tribe. They used to wear footwear made of wood until lately, and it is commonly known as Khorom.The women of this tribe have a distinguishing dressing format. The women here are seen wearing the Dokhna which is a dress like cloth that they wrap around

their body and runs right from the chest, down to the ankles. It is crafted in such a way that can be wrapped around the body only once and is tied around the waist. This Dokhna is made of various bright colours and patterns and Agor. A Dhokna without an Agor is regarded as a bridal dress and can is termed as a Salamatha. The people here have mastered the art of using the eri fibres and producing some fine clothes that everyone finds elegant.

Source

The Mishing TribeThe mishing tribe is one of the tribes that follows the code of dressing of Assam as a whole. The men of the tribe wear, what is called a Gonru Ugon which is a Dhoti that is a piece of cloth worn from the waist down. Mibu Galuk is a shirt like a dress that is used by men to cover their upper body. Like other groups, these people also have a great place for the Gamosa Dumer.The women of this tribe are also simple dresses when it comes to traditional dressing. They also wear the Mekhela Chador which is known as the Yakan Age-Gasar here and is black in colour. These women are not fancy and yet make a benchmark when it comes to colourful dresses. Bright coloured blouses are pretty common, and the occasions like marriages are boomed with the vibrant colours that these women put on.

Source

The Rabha TribeThe people of the Rabha Tribe are deeply attached to their traditions and have a unique sense of dressing when it comes to the women of the tribe. The men, however, follow the common Assamese dressing code of Dhoti and Gamosa. Though the people are doing some alterations in the same, they seem to like the native way of dressing in white ( or colourful) dhoti and the long Gamosa that is one constant in almost every tribe in the state.The women here dress very elegantly, and their dress is known as the Koum Kontong which is a skirt resembling clothing wrapped around their waists. These skirt like dresses are endorsed with exquisite patterns that are sure to blow your mind. Kambang is another piece of clothing that these women use to cover their upper body. A belt or cummerbund made of beautiful shells and pearl balls is something that these women wear as an accessory. These belts are commonly called the Labok and are tied around the abdomen

Ornaments:-

Assamese women wear attire with ornaments of following names:

source

Dug-dugi: This is an ancient Assamese decoration for a woman’s neck (necklace and earrings) and why it is called doog-dogi or dug-dugi – is still a mystery. To know the meaning of these words we have to explore Assamese dictionary and grammar of ancient times when pre-Ahom and Ahom kings ruled this land. But, interesting to see the beautiful design it bears.

Kerumoni: This is an ethnic adornment of Assamese women and theround shape – one side wide – on side narrow – the middle with hollow style called “Keru”. At the same time the other parts of these necklace is made of lots of pearls so “moni”.

Thuriya: This is used for ears and especially aged village women wear this. At present time, hard to find ladies with “thuriya”. The typical shape of this earring is known by this name where the frint side looks like a flower and the middle is thin sothat it can stay in ears and the bottom part is wider than the middle portion.

Gam-kharu: This is a bulky bracelet or bangle made of silver or gold with a clasp. It can be opened with a golden knot attached to it and therefore, it fits any standard sized hands of a woman.

Loka-paro: This is an earring embellished with identical twin birds (paro means pegions), positioned one after the other. This might be in gold ingots, ruby, mina, or flush natural enamel coating.

Jethi pota: This is an extensive band of fabric placed as a chain of tiny medallions, with an innermost pendant. This is a unique type of earring, similar to the orchid ‘kopou phool’. The wonderful design and glisten of these ornaments truthfully captivates the interest of the onlookers.

Muthi-kharu: Make a fist and the shape of your fingers clenched will be look like this Assamese solid bracelet.

Jonbiri: Jon means, in Assamese, the Moon and Biri is just the surrounding designs of this ornament. So, you can watch the photo that this ornament is manufactured like a half moon necklace. This is an eye-catching adorn accessory of women of this land.

Dholbiri: Dhol is an Assamese instrument of music and the shape of this ornament is usually prepared with a traditional dhol style. Again, biri the suffix will mean the surrounding design – so – it is dholbiri – which is regarded as one of the most popular decoration of women.

Gal-pata: gal means neck and pata means the flat sized deisgn of this ornament. The concept is the same but many jewelers make it differently to suit a lady’ appearance and her beauty.

All these ornaments are made of gold – very few Assamese people create them with silver metal. Furthermore, expert traditional jewelers of Assam use rare and costly gems stones of green, red, blue and golden colors. These Assamese traditional ornaments require a plenty amount of pure gold to make them stunning. Their shapes, style and design are extremely gorgeous and you will fall in love with them.

1.1.10 Festivals:-

Assam is a land of fairs and festivals. Most of the festivals celebrated in Assam characterize the spirit of accommodation and togetherness in the diverse faith and belief of her inhabitants. This perfect fusion of heritage of her numerous races has made Assam the home of the most colorful festivals reflecting the true spirit, tradition and lifestlye of the people of Assam. The major festivals celebrated in Assam are Bihu, Baishagu, Ali-Ai-Ligang, Baikho, Rongker, Rajini Gabra Harni Gabra, Bohaggiyo Bishu, Ambubashi Mela and Jonbill Mela and so on.  The people of Assam also celebrate Holi, Durga Puja, Diwali, Swaraswati Puja, Lakshmi Puja, Kali Puja, Idd, Muharram, Me-Dam-Me-Phi, the birth and death anniversaries of Vaishnava Saints Srimanta Sankardev and Madhabdev. The tribals of Assam have their own colourful festivals like the Kherai Puja of the Bodos, the Baikhu and Pharkantis of the Rabhas, Ali-ai-ligang and Parag of the Mishing tribe, the Sagra-misawa wansawa and laghun of the Tiwas.

Bihu Bihu is the most important festival of Assam. It is celebrated with joy and abundance by all Assamese people irrespective of caste, creed, religion, faith and belief. Three Bihus are celebrated in a year: Bohag Bihu which augurs the wish for a good harvest because this is the time when farmers start sowing, Kaati Bihu which is observed to mark the cutting and binding of grains and Magh Bihu which marks the season of harvesting of grains.

Me-Dum-Me-Phi The most important Ahom festival which deserves mention is the Me-Dum-Me-Phi, i.e., the ancestor worship festival which is observed by the whole Ahom community. This is performed annually on the 31st of January and helps to develop social contacts and community feelings among the Ahoms. Colourful processions with devotees in traditional finery are also taken out on the occasion. It is believed that if Me-Dum-Me-Fi is not celebrated in the customary way, the deities will be displeased and consequently there will be crisis in the State like political rivalry and infighting, increased activities of militancy, natural upheavals like floods and earthquakes resulting in loss of human lives and property. Therefore, performance of Me-Dum-Me-Fi is a must in the interest of overall well-being of the people and the society.

Baishagu This festival is celebrated in Assam with much enthusiasm. Many tribe of 'Boro Kacharis' of Assam and it is the famous festival of the Boros. Famous for its myriad colours and merriment, 'Baishagu' is generally celebrated by the Bodo Kacharis during mid April. It is the most cherished festival of the Bodo tribe. The Bodos also celebrate it as a springtime festival at the advent of the new year. In this festival of Baishagu many traditional musical instruments are used. Such music instruments are: Khawbang, Jotha, Gogona, Siphung, Kham etc. At the end of this Baishagu Festival of Assam the Assamese people gather together in a specified place for a community prayer which is called as "Garjasali" in Assamese language.

Ambubachi Mela It is the most important festival of Kamakhya temple of Guwahati and is held every year during monsoon (mid-June).  It is a ritual of austerities celebrated with 'Tantric rites'.During Ambubashi the doors of the temple remain closed for three days. It is believed that the earth becomes impure for three days. During this time no farming work is undertaken. Ambubachi mela is held at the Kamakhya temple, after being closed for the afore-mentioned three days. On the fourth day only the devotees are allowed to enter inside the temple for worship. Thousands of devotees from all over the country and abroad visit this mela.

1.1.11 Food habits:- Food has been a universal connection between people for a really long time now. The fact that even though the ingredients are the same but the end product turns out to be different every time, is a sign of the diversity that the world has to offer. In fact, we don't even have to go that far. There's enough diversity in our country to begin with and Assam has to offer just right kind of flavours to tickle your taste buds. With a wide variety of indigenous food to offer, the food of Assam is famous for its distinct flavoring and influences. It is a heaven for non-vegetarian lovers. Delicious pork, chicken and mutton dishes will leave you craving for more. That's not even all! The herbs and delicate flavors, along with the influence from Bengali cuisine, make the food of Assam a joyous affair for all food lovers! Here are a few of Assam's most favourite dishes:

1. Khaar - An Assamese meat delicacy

Khaar source

This dish of Assamese cuisine is one of a kind. It is a delicious curry made from raw papaya, pulses, taro and also with a main non-vegetarian ingredient. All of these is then filtered through dried banana leaves which gives it a unique and an unexpectedly refreshing flavour. It is generally eaten with rice during lunch.

2. Duck meat curry ?- Assamese food delicacy!

Duck meat, if cooked properly, tastes heavenly. This delicacy of the food of Assam is cooked with Ash Gourd (lauki) and is generally cooked on special occasions. The use of whole spices gives it a unique flavour. The curry can be cooked according to individual preferences which varies from person to person. It can be cooked in lentil, sesame, pumpkin and a lot more!

3. Maasor Tenga (tangy fish curry)

Maasor tenga source

This graceful dish of Assamese cuisine is extremely refreshing on the palette. The fish curry is made with everything sour and yet it magically turns out to be delicious! The fish is slow cooked in a rich,tangy broth made with tomato,  outenga(elephant ear), and lemon. The end result is a melt-in-the mouth fish, flavoured in pure awesomeness. Ask any Assamese person about this dish and watch them drown in home-sickness just at the mention of it. 4. Aloo Pitika – Comfort food of Assam!

Aloo pitika source

Aloo Pitika is a simple side dish accompanied to rice and dal. A soul food in its truest sense, aloo pitika is loved by all of Assam. It is essentially mashed potatoes with mustard oil, onion, coriander and salt. This dish can be eaten at both lunch and dinner. Assam version of the humble mashed potato is delightfully simple and flavoursome.

5. Xaak aru bhaji (herbs and vegetables )

herbs and vegetables source

So this dish is a usual side dish for lunch/dinner.   Made with herbs and vegetables, the components of this dish are generally seasoned with ginger, garlic, cinnamon, onions and sometime lemon. It is a staple form of food of Assam which is consumed on a regular basis, and is still tasty and flavorsome!

6. Ou Khatta – Food of Assam to tingle your taste buds!

Elephant Apple source

Elephant apple source

Ou khatta is a delicious sweet and sour chutney made out of ou(elephant apple) and jaggery. The ou is first boiled and then mashed lightly. Then it is sautéed with mustard seeds in slight oil and then the jaggery is added. The dish then ready as a great compliment to your meal.

7. Paro Manxho (pigeon meat) – A traditional delicacy of Assam

Pigeon meat curry source

As cruel as it might sound, pigeon meat is a delicacy in Assam. It is simply a delight for non-vegetarian. Pigeon meat usually makes your body warm and is perfect to eat in winters. It tastes best when eaten with koldil (banana flower) which is a common side dish in the food of Assam. This is a wonderful Assamese dish which combines the deliciously texture of the banana flower with Pigeon meat. Banana flowers are the buds of the banana plant, which are soaked and shredded for use in curries. 8. Silkworm – Creative food of Assam to stoke your imagination!

Silkworm source

Yes, Assamese people like to eat creepy crawlies too and make it taste awesome! I think the word ‘exotic’ would best describe this dish. Essentially a tribal dish, the larva is stir fried with spices. It is crunchy on the outside and liquid-like on the inside. Might not please everybody, but is definitely worth a try!

9. Baanhgajor Lagot Kukura (Chicken with Bamboo Shoot)

Bamboo shoot source

This is a unique dish of the food of Assam made with chicken meat, bamboo shoots and lentils. The taste of bamboo shoots is not very common and doesn’t suit everyone but once you eat it, it leaves behind a unique taste which is generally complimentary to meat dishes.

10. Pitha – Home cooked Sweet dishes of Assam

Pitha  source

Pitha is one of the most popular snack time dishes, usually eaten at breakfast or with evening tea. There is a wide variety of pithas available. They can be sweet or savoury,

steamed or fried, cooked in a many different techniques. This is one of the most technical foods of Assam and needs a lot of precision to get the dish to turn out correct.

1.1.12 Art and crafts:-

The people of Assam have traditionally been craftsmen from time immemorial. Though Assam is mostly known for its exquisite silks and the bamboo and cane products, several other crafts are also made here. Different regions of Assam are known for their different forms of art and handicrafts.CANE AND BAMBOO

Cane and bamboo have remained inseparable parts of life in Assam. Grown in abundance here and hence most of the household articles in the homes of Assamese are made of cane and bamboo. They happen to be the two most commonly-used items in daily life, ranging from household implements to construction of dwelling houses to furniture to weaving accessories to musical instruments.The Jappi, the traditional sunshade continues to be the most prestigious of bamboo items of the state, and it has been in use since the days when the great Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsang came to Assam that visitors are welcomed with a jaapi.METAL CRAFTS

Bell-metal and brass have been the most commonly used metals for the Assamese artisan. Traditional utensils and fancy articles designed by these artisans are found in every Assamese household. The Xorai and bota have in use for centuries, to offer betel-nut and paan while welcoming distinguished guests.The entire population of two townships near Guwahati - Hajo and Sarthebari, are engaged in producing traditional bell-metal and brass articles. They have also used their innovative skills to design modern day articles to compete with the changing times.Gold, silver and copper too form a part of traditional metal craft in Assam and the State Museum in Guwahati has a rich collection of items made of these metals. Gold however is now used only for ornaments.WOOD CRAFT

Assam has always remained one of the most forest-covered states of the country, and the variety of wood and timber available here have formed a part of the people's culture and ecomony.While decorative panels in the royal Ahom palaces of the past and the 600-years old satras or Vaishnative monasteries are intricately carved on wood, a special class of people who excelled in wood carving came to be known as Khanikar, a surname proudly passed down from generation to generation.The various articles in a satra and naam-ghar(place of worship) are stiff cut on wood, depicting the guru asana (pedestal of the lords), apart from various kinds of birds and animals figuring in mythology.Modern-day Khanikar have taken to producing articles of commercial values, including figures of one-horned rhino and replicas of the world-famous Kamakhya temple - two items heading the list of demands of a visitor from outside.

MASKS

With tribal art and folk elements form the base of Assamese culture, masks have found an important place in the cultural activities of the people. Masks have been widely used in folk theatres and bhaonas with the materials ranging from terracotta to pith to metal, bamboo and wood.Similarly, among the tribals too, the use of masks is varied and widespread, especially in their colourful dances which again revolve chiefly around thier typical tribal myth and folklore. Such traditional masks have of late found thier way to the modern-day drawing rooms as decorative items and wall-hangings, thus providing self-employment opportunities to those who have been traditionally making them.TERRACOTTA

Two categories of people – Kumars and Hiras – made pottery their own. But the ones that carved out a niche are the terra cotta craftsmen of Asarikandi in Dhubri district. The distinctive style has made Asarikandi an ethnic art brand in India. Asarikandi is also known for its sola pith craft, made from the soft core of a special kind of reed. Terracotta as a medium has dominated the handicraft scene of Assam since time immemorial. The tradition itself has been handed down from the generation to generation without break. Today we have the descendent of such families engaged in improvised terracotta versions of various common figures of gods and goddesses to mythological characters, while toys, vases, etc have also found a new life.TRADITIONAL PAINTINGS

The tradition of paintings in Assam can be traced back to several centuries in the past. Ahom palaces and satras and naam-ghar etc still abound in brightly-coloured paintings depicting various stories and events from history and mythology. In fact, the motifs and designs contained in Chitra-Bhagavata have come to become a traditional style for Assamese painters of the later period, and are still in practice today.

1.1.13 Music and Musical Instruments:-

Musical Instruments of the Assam add to the rhythm of the festivals of the state. Assam is land of beautiful culture and tradition. To enrich the culture of this land, the traditional music of different tribes and sub-tribes of the state has played a major role. Music is an integral part of Assam and there are various musical instruments. It is the music of Assam through which everybody celebrates any festival or occasion and that is why there are abundance of musical instruments available across the state.

A list of some of the popular musical instruments of the Assamese and also the Bodo people from the state are given below;

Gogona - Gogona is a type of Jew’s harp, a reed instrument that is used for traditional music especially for Bihu. The Gogona is made of a piece of bamboo that has a bifurcation on one end. The solid end is gripped with teeth and the free end is struck repeatedly with fingers to emit the distinctive sound of the instrument.

Dhol - Dhol is an important part of the folk culture of Assam. This drum like instrument is used to maintain the merry rhythm of Bihu. People of Assam consider the Dhol to be the instrument of the Gods. Singa or Pepa - The Singa or Pepa is an integral part of Bihu and hence an integral part of Assamese culture. The word Singa has come from Sing or horn and is made of a buffalo horn with a bamboo pipe thrust into it.

Khol - Khol is also known as Mridanga in Bengali language. It is a terracotta two-sided drum for devotional music. The khol is an integral part

of Vaishnava music in Assam.

Tokari - The Tokari is a kind of musical instrument with a single string which is played with fingers. It is mainly used for Tokari Geet.

1.1.14 dance forms:-

Classical Dance

Bhaona - This dance form is basically performed in the village Namghars and Satras, in order to promote the Vaishnavite culture in Assam. It is actually a theatrical depiction of the one-act play Ankiya Nat, initiated by Sankardeva. An integral part of the dance is the Sutradhara, who recites the slokas, sings, dances and explains the various stages of Bhaona in detail. Another form of dance included in Bhaona is the Natuwa or Cali dance. One of the subdivisions of this dance form is the Hajowaliya, which is basically a woman’s dance and is the combination of both Tandava and Lasya.

Oja Pali - Oja- Pali is a form of classical dance, representing the rich tradition and cultural heritage of Assam. Oja and Pali are actually a group of chorus singers and dancers, with Oja as the leader and Palis as his assistants.

Satriya Nritya - Satriya dance is a renowned classical dance of the state of Assam and was introduced by Srimanta Shankardev to propagate the religion of Vaishnavism.

Folk Dances

Bihu Dance - This is the most popular folk dance of Assam and as the very name suggests, is related to the Bihu festival, which is celebrated with much pomp and glory throughout the state.

Jumur Nach - This is a typical folk dance performed by the tea community in the state, locally called ‘Chah Baganar Jumur Nach’ or the Jumur dance of tea garden. Boys and girls hold each other’s waist and dance to the tunes of the Jumur dance, with exact precision of foot work. Watching them sway to the tunes of the song is indeed a very pleasant experience.

Ali Ai Ligang dance - The Mishing community of Assam performs a dance while making an offering to their deities during the Ali Ai Ligang festival. This form of dance is seen only in the north-eastern parts of the state, namely Sonitpur and Lakhimpur.

Deodhani - Deodhani is a dance form associated with the worship of the snake goddess Manasa. This dance is performed by a girl who, in a trance-like inspired state, goes on dancing to the beats of the Ciphung (flute) and the Kham (drum). At one stage of the dance, she even takes a sword and a shield performing a virile war dance, honoring various gods and goddesses, like Shiva, Lakshmi etc.

Barpeta’s Bhortal Nritya - This form of dance is mainly a propagation of the Sankari culture of Assam and was originally developed by the well known Satriya artist, Narahari Burha Bhakat. During the festivals in the Barpeta and Guwahati regions, this dance is performed by a group of 6-10 dancers equipped with cyrnbols.

Dhuliya and Bhawariya - This is basically a form of theatrical performance, using masks, drums and cymbals.

Bodo’s Bagurumba - This is one of the best folk dances performed by the Bodo community of Assam. A number of Bodo girls, dressed in colorful apparels, dance to the tune of the tribe’s traditional musical instruments, with slow steps and outstretched hands. This is commonly seen in the Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Nalbari, Darrang and Sonitpur districts of Assam.

Khamba Lim - This is a typical folk dance of Assam, performed by two groups of men and women, who stand in two rows.

satriya nritya (source)

CHAPTER- 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Some of the Linguists or researchers have already studied the Assamese language and some new research work is still on the process . Therefore , the development of Assamese language is becoming more static and popular in the recent past . The first Assamese grammar book, “Grammatical notes on Assamese Language (1848)” compiled by Reverend Nathan Brown , has been recovered from the library of the university of California . The chief editor of the Assamese National Dictionary , Devabrata Sharma said that , “ They found it in exactly the same format, However they have included a long introduction on the history of Assamese grammar.”

Sandhi is there in Assamese language too, but because of phonetical nature of the language the grammarians of Assamese language avoid discussing about junction. Pioneer of Assamese grammar Hemchandra Baruah writes in his “padotuka” that “…sandhi is present only in Sanskrit language” , thus he thinks that there is no junction in Assamese language ,so he never mentions about it.

Another renown Assamese Grammarian Satyanath Borah , in his ‘Bohol Byakaran’ said with confidence that, “ Sandhi is present only in Sanskrit Language, in Assamese only it is the use of Sanskrit Sandhi, which is dependent only with the writer.

In 1910, Grammarian Loknath Sharma has written ‘Axomiya Byakaran’ ,where in the publication of 1961 it is discussed one paragraph about the ‘Junctures’. Mr. Surendra Nath Mohan Das has added many new chapters in the book. About Assamese Sandhi here it is said that, “ Junction in Assamese language is natural. In pure Assamese the use of junction is less. In some cases in case of using junctures,the rules of Assamese junctures is different than the other languages.”

Kaliram Medhi in his research book ‘Axomiya Byakaran and Bhakhatotwo’ (1936) has discussed about Assamese Sandhi. He said , “ The comparison of the definition of junction in

Sanskrit and Assamese is totally wrong. We can not justify Assamese junction according to the definition of Sanskrit Junction. “

On the other hand in “Axomiya Guluk Byakaran” (1st edition, 1972) it is discussed properly about the Assamese Junction eligible for schooling level. It has the definitions of Assamese junctures with salient examples.

CHAPTER- 3

OBJECTIVES AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Objectives:-

The objectives of the propose works are as follows:-

To establish the junctures of Assamese language. To find out the salient features of junctures and specially juncture in Assamese language. To find out the types of junctures in Assamese language. To find out the using of junctures among the Assamese speakers in day to day life.

3.2 Methodology:-

The data for this propose work will be collected from two main sources known as primary and secondary.

Primary data :- As I am the native speaker of Assamese language, my own data is used for the propose work. I also collected data from the people like my family members, friends, relatives, etc. who speaks the same variety and also do have touch with other varieties, they made a cross check with my own data.

Secondary data: - Some of the data are collected from the existing from available in the form of such as – books, journals, articles, electronics gazettes like – mobile phones, internet, etc.

CHAPTER- 4

JUNCTION AND TYPES OF JUNCTURES IN ASSAMESE LANGUAGE 4.0:- Concepts of Junctures

“Junction” means the joining of two word , the joining between the last letter of the first word and first letter of the second word. Junction is used for proper pronunciation and fluency of words in Language .

For example:-

/ami binapanir sɔrɔnɔt puspɔ anzɔli prɔdan kɔru / /ɑmi binapɔnir sɔrɔnət puspɔ nzɔli prɔdan kɔru /

” We offer flowers to goddess Saraswati.”

These two sentences – The second one is more fluent than the first one.

Similarly,

Instead of saying ,

/pɔrɔ adʰin zatir xɔnman nai / /pɔradʰin zatir xɔnman nai / is more fluent.

“A country has less respect which is not independent.”

Well, in the discussion of languages the use of ‘Junction’ is more. People use to talk to express emotions ,and until the ending of the speech they continuously speak. If the speech ends in one paragraph then also it is shown there are more sentences in that paragraph. Again there are so many sub sentences in the sentences. These sub sentences are joint with each other. These kind of joining in between the sentences are considered as Junction , External Open Juncture. These kind of junction is detected with the use of punctuations.

As similar as the juncture in between the sentences, juncture takes place in between the word class. This kind of junction is known as Internal Open Juncture. Like this, the Internal Close Jucture is found in between the letters of the word class. Thus junction is the expansion of tone, sounds from sentence to sentence , word to word , phoneme to phoneme.

‘Sandhi’ or ‘Junction’ is present in almost every language in the world. Even in English Language ,the use of junction is shown.

Assamese Juncture:-

Assamese Junctures are those when new words are formed from the joining of affixes with the Assamese nouns and verbs . /uzɔni/ “Upper” and /namɔni/ “Lower” , both regions have dialects and dialects have their junctures.

The use of junctures in Lower Assam is more than upper.

For Example:-

/tud dɔre deka bɑhud dekʰsu ha, katimaha gɔbad dekʰu xɔnaiwei/?

If we break the junction then,

/tur dore deka bɑhut dekʰisu aru katimohija gɔbar dekʰu xuna ei/

“ I have seen many boys like you, you seem like the dung of the month of ‘kati’ “.

Many words like /xunkal/ “early” is pronounced as /xɔnkalte/

Instead of /jenekɔi tenekɔi/ “like this and that” this dialect has the pronunciation /jeŋke teŋke/

In Upper Assam, junctures are found between two consonants from two word classes.

For Example:-

/pag gʰɔr/ “/pak gʰɔr/ “

“kitchen”

But it never can be possible to be /pag kʰala/ for /pak kʰala/

Some junctures are used in both lower and upper Assamese.

For Example:-

/bud bar/ “/budʰ bar/” , /xad dinija/ , /xadinija/ “/xat dinija/”

“weekly”

The most important features of Assamese junctures are given below,

Junctures are found in nouns, verbs including preposition, affixes and division. Junctures are essential in some special vowels.

The junctures of consonants are less in number. It is not necessary that junctures are only available in between the nearest vowels,

well junction can be occurred if the high vowels like / ͥ/ , /u/ are there in place of the low vowels.

There are some rules are discussing below which shows the Assamese junctures of nouns and verbs with the use of suffixes and division.

If the noun or verb has vowel sound in the last position and the added suffix has the same vowel sound in first position then the vowel sound of the suffix gets omitted .

For Example:- /lɔra/+ /ali/ = /lɔrali/

‘boy’ -suff “childhood” If the noun or verb has the high vowel in the last position and the suffix has low

the vowel then /w/ or /j/ sound can be occurred. Many of the Assamese junctions have the occurrence of /w/ and /j/ .

4.1:-

Some of the Assamese junctions are given as,

4.1.1:- If the last position of the first word has /i/ and if the juncture is /e/ or /ɔ/ then /i/ becomes /j/

For example

/toi/ + /e/ = /toe/ “you, inferior”(pointing towards)

4.1.2:- If the juncture is /i/ or /u/ then word that is ended by consonant convert it’s /o/ or /o:/ to /u/ or /u:/

For example

/obʰɔt/ + /i/ = /ubʰɔti/ “return”

/dʰol/ + /ija/ = /dʰulija/ “one who plays ‘dhol’, an instrument”

4.1.3:- If the word has /a/ in final position and the word has /ɔ/ sound in it, and the juncture is /i/ then instead of /ɔ/ /a/ will be there and the final /a/ omits.

For example

/kɔna/ + /i/ = /kani/ “blind of one eye”(Fem)

/ozɔla/ + /i/ = /ajali/ “innocent”(Fem)

4.1.4:- If the word has consonant in the last position and juncture is vowel, then vowel should be converted into consonant.

For example

/manuh/ + /e/ = /manuhe/ “by people”

/bɔsɔr/ + /ek/ = /bɔsɔrek/ “annual”

4.1.5:- If the verb has /ɔ/ or /a/ in the final position then the suffix /ɔ/ becomes /w/ .

For example

/za/ + /ɔ/ = /zaɔ/ “go”

/kʰa/ + /ɔ/ = /kʰaɔ/ “eat”

4.1.6:- /w/ can occure if other vowels juncture with /u/ and /o/ .

For example

/ulu/ + /oni/ = /uluoni/ “full of mulberries”

/modʰu/ + /e/ = /modʰue/ “by Modhu”(Noml)

4.1.7:- If the verb has /ɔ/ or /a/ in the final position and the juncture is /a/ then both becomes /oa/ .

For example

/kʰa/ + /a/ = /kʰoa/ “eat”

/za/ + /a/ = /zoa/ “go”

4.1.8:- If word with /o/ in final position has the junction of other vowels then /o/ becomes /w/

For example

/gao/ + /olija/ = /gawlija/ “villager”

4.1.9:- Some words are meant for junctions.

For example

/dilli/ + /iswɔr/ = /dilliswɔr/ “king of Delhi”

/hisap/ + /adi/ = /hisapadi/ “counting,calculation”

Let us now discuss about the types of junction. According to the grammarians junction has 3 types

Vowel junction /swɔr sandʰi/

Consonant junction /bjɔnzɔn sandʰi/

Bikharga junction (:)

Many people still consider bikharga to be included among the consonant junction.

4.2. vowel junction –

Junction of one vowel with the same vowel or the different vowel is known as vowel junction .

4.2.1

/ɔ/ + /ɔ/ = /a/

For example

/debɔ/ + /ɔkʰor/ = /debakʰor/ “king of devils”

/nIl/ + /ɔsɔl/ = /nilasɔl/ “a mountain”(Noml)

/xotɔ/ + /ɔbdɔ/ = /xotabdɔ/ “century”

/dekʰ/ + /ɔntɔr/ = /dekʰantɔr/ “end of country”

4.2.2

/ɔ/ + /a/ = /a/

For example

/pɔrɔm/ + /anɔndɔ/ = /pɔrɔmandɔ/ “God”

/hɔtɔ/ + /ahɔtɔ/ = /hɔtahɔtɔ/ “injured”

/him/ + /aloi/ = /himaloi/ “a Mountain”(Noml)

/bibek/ + /anɔndɔ/ = /bibekanɔndɔ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

4.2.3

/a/ + /a/ = /a/

For example

/moha/ + /axoi/ = /mohaxoi/ “sir”

/xudʰa/ + /akɔr/ = /xudʰakɔr/ “one who can give water to your mouth”

/bidja/ + /aloi/ = /bidjaloi/ “school”

/kara/ + /agar/ = /karagar/ “jail”

4.2.4

/a/ + /ɔ/ = /a/

For example

/kɔtʰa/ + /ɔmrit/ = /kɔtʰamrit/ “good speech”

/xima/ + /ɔntɔ/ = /ximantɔ/ “ending’

/akʰa/ + /ɔtit/ = /akʰatit/ “no hope”

/bidja/ + /ɔlɔŋkar/ = /bidjalɔŋkar/ “genius”

4.2.5

/i/ + /i/ = /i/

For example

/ɔti/ + /it/ = /ɔtit/ “past”

/prɔti/ + /iti/ = /prɔtiti/ “starting to ending”

/ɔti/ + /ib/ = /ɔtib/ “excess”

/muni/ + /indrɔ/ = /munindrɔ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

4.2.6

/i/ + /i/ = /i/

For example

/pɔri/ + /ikʰja/ = /pɔrikʰja/ “examination”

/giri/ + /ikʰ/ = /girikʰ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/zɔti/ + /ikʰ/ = /zɔtikʰ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/prɔti/ + /ikʰja/ = /prɔtikʰja/ “waiting”

4.2.7

/i/ + /i/ = /i/

For example

/xoti/ + /ix/ = /xotix/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/mɔhi/ + /ix/ = /mɔhix/ “Lord shiva”

/sri/ + /ix/ = / srix/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/dilli/ + /iswɔr/ = /dilliswɔr/ “king of Delhi”

4.2.8

/i/ + /i/ = /i/

For example

/mɔhi/ + /indrɔ/ = /mɔhindrɔ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/mɔhɔti/ + /iʦa/ = / mɔhɔtiʦa/ “great desire”

/xudʰi/ + /indrɔ/ = /xudʰindrɔ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

4.2.9

/ɔ/ + /i/ = /e/

For example

/dev/ + /indrɔ/ = /devendrɔ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/nɔrɔ/ + /indrɔ/ = /nɔrendrɔ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/gɔzɔ/ + /indrɔ/ = /gɔzendrɔ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/itɔr/ + /itɔr/ = /itɔretɔr/ “to and fro”

4.2.10

/ɔ/ + /i/ = /e/

For example

/gɔnɔ/ + /ix/ = /gɔnex/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/deb/ + /iswɔr/ = /debeswɔr/ “king of gods”

/din/ + /ix/ = /dinex/ “person’s name”(Noml)

4.2.11

/a/ + /i/ = /e/

For example

/mɔha/ + /indrɔ/ = /mɔhendrɔ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/jotʰa/ + /iʦa/ = /jotʰeʦa/ “much desire”

4.2.12

/a/ + /i/ = /e/

For example

/rɔma/ + /ix/ = /rɔmex/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/mɔha/ + /ix/ = /mɔhex/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/tarɔka/ + /iswɔri/ = /tarɔkeswɔri/ “person’s name”(Noml)

4.2.12

/ɔ/ + /u/ = /o/

For example

/padɔ/ + /udɔk/ = /padodɔk/ “footwear”

/hit/ + /upɔdekʰ/ = /hitopɔdekʰ/ “good advice”

/prɔsnɔ/ + /uttɔr/ = /prɔsnottɔr/ “question answers”

/nɔndɔ/ + /utxav/ = /nɔndotxav/ “festivals of happiness”

4.2.13

/a/ + /u/ = /o/

For example

/mɔha/ + /udai/ = /mɔhodai/ “sir”

kɔtʰa/ + /upɔkatʰɔn/ = /kɔtʰopɔkatʰɔn/ “discussion”

4.2.14

/u/ + /ɔ/ = /w/

For example

/anu/ + /ɔi/ = /anwɔi/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/xu/ + /ɔsti/ = /swɔsti/ “relief”

4.2.15

/e/ + /ɔ/ = /ɔi/

For example

/ne/ + /ɔn/ = /nɔjɔn/ “eye”

/xe/ + /ɔn/ = /xɔjɔn/ “sleep”

4.3. Consonant junction:-

Junction between the consonant and consonant or consonant and vowel is known as Consonant junction.

4.3.0

/dik/ + /ɔntɔ/ = /digɔntɔ/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/ut/ + /gɔti/ = /udgɔti/ “progress”

/xɔt/ + /axɔj/ = / xɔdaxɔj/ “respected sir”

/ut/ + /nɔti/ = /unnɔti/ “development”

/xɔt/ + /upɔdekʰ/ = /xɔdopɔdekʰ/ “good advice”

/bak/ + /ix/ = /bagix/ “expert in talking”

4.3.1

/xɔt/ + /sɔritrɔ/ = /xɔsɔritrɔ/ “good character”

/ut/ + /swax/ = /uʦax/ “encouragement”

/sɔlɔt/ + /sitrɔ/ = /sɔlɔsitrɔ/ “film”

/zabɔt/ + /ziwɔn/ = /zabɔʣiwɔn/ “whole life”

4.3.2

/bak/ + /mɔi/ = /baŋmɔi/ “good speaker”

/sit/ + /mɔi/ = /sinmɔi/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/ut/ + /mad/ = /unmad/ “desire”

/mrit/ + /mɔi/ = /mrinmɔi/ “person’s name”(Noml)

4.3.3

/jas/ + /na/ = /jasnja/ ”need”

/jɔz/ + /nɔ/ = /jɔgjɔ/ “fireworks”

/raz/ + /ni/ = /ragji/ “queen”

/xɔm/ + /raz/ + /ni/ = /xɔmragji/ “queen”

4.3.4

/xɔm/ + /gɔti/ = /xɔŋgɔti/ “company”

/kim/ + /tu/ = /kintu/ “but”

/xɔm/ + /tan/ = /xɔntan/ “offspring”

4.3.5

/xɔm/ + /lɔgnɔ/ = /xɔŋlɔgnɔ/ “connection”

/xɔm/ + /bad/ = /xɔŋbad/ “news”

/xɔm/ + /har/ = /xɔŋhar/ “finish”

4.3.6

/hris/ + /tɔ/ = /hristɔ/ “healthy”

/ut/ + /kris/ + /tɔ/ = /utkristɔ/ “best”

/pus/ + /tɔ/ = /pustɔ/ “wealthy”

4.3.7

/ut/ + /tʰan/ = /uttʰan/ “development”

/ut/ + /stʰapɔn/ = /uttʰapɔn/ “mention”

4.3.8

/xɔm/ + /krit/ = /xɔnskrit/ “a language”

/xɔm/ + /kar/ = /xɔnskar/ “good behavior”

4.3.9

/a/ + /sadɔn/ = /aʦadɔn/ “mention”

/bi/ + /sed/ = /biʦed/ “separate”

4.3.10

Some junctures are occurred without following any rules.

/tɔt/ + /kɔr/ = /tɔskɔr/ ”treasure”

/xɔm/ + /kam/ = /xɔkam/ “act of worship”

/mɔnɔkʰ/ + /ikʰa/ = /mɔnikʰa/ “person’s name”(Noml)

/go/ + /pɔd/ = /gospɔd/ “name of a vllage of Andhra”

/ek/ + /dɔkʰ/ = /ekadɔkʰ/ “eleven”

4.4 Bikharga junction (:)

Junction between bikharga(׃) and consonant or vowel is known as bikharga junction.

4.4.0

/ni/ + /akar/ = /nirakar/ “no shape”

/du/ + /gɔm/ = /durgɔm/ “inaccessible”

/ni/ + /nɔi/ = /nirnɔi/ “decision”

/oh/ + /nixa/ = /ohɔrnix/ “continuously”

4.4.1

/ni/ + /sɔi/ = /niʦɔi/ “end of identity”

/ni/ + /tʰur/ = /nistʰur/ “cruel”

/mɔnɔ/ + /tap/ = /mɔnɔstap/ “mental peace”

4.4.2

/pura/ + /kar/ = /puraskar/ “award”

/bɔnɔ/ + /poti/ = /bɔnɔspoti/ “name of an ayurvedic medicine”

/bʰa/ + /kɔr/ = /bʰaskɔr/ “person’s name”(Noml)

4.4.3

/ni/ + /pap/ = /nispap/ “holy”

/bɔhi/ + /kar/ = /bɔhiskar/ “expel”

/du/ + /kɔr/ = /duskɔr/ “vicious”

4.4.4

/mɔn/ + /zog/ = /mɔnozog/ “attention”

/mɔn/ + /hɔr/ = /mɔnohɔr/ “awesome”

/mɔn/ + /rɔm/ = /mɔnorɔm/ “wonderful”

/tɔpɔ/ + /bon/ = /tɔpobon/ “garden”

/purɔ/ + /hit/ = /purohit/ “priest”

4.4.5

/ni/ + /rog/ = /nirog/ “healthy”

/ni/ + /rɔv/ = /nirɔv/ “silence”

/ni/ + /rɔkʰ/ = /nirɔkʰ/ “tasteless”

CHAPTER- 5

CONCLUSION

The work present the study of “types of Junctures in Assamese language” . On the basis of the detailed analysis of junctions in Assamese language , the following points can be drawn :

In Assamese it is essential to discuss about the vowel and consonant junctures of Sanskrit language because there are various similarities with the “tatsam” words of Assamese words with Sanskrit words.

The rules for the junctures of /nɔjɔn/, /bʰabuk/, /ragji/ is not available in Assamese grammar and it is not even necessary .

The junctures are also found in English language too, For example,

Describe + tion = descriptionPrescribe + tion = prescription

Here , ‘be + tion’ becomes ‘ption’ There is a question may come that some words like /himalɔi/, /zɔgɔnnatʰ/,

/mɔhɔdanɔndɔ/ these are usually use many times, though like other Sanskrit words these donot have junctures. Why? The answer is very simple, Assamese speakers use these junctures so many times as well as the decompositions like /him/, /aloi/, /zɔgɔt/ etc in their speech equally.

Junctures do help in correcting the pronunciation as well as mainly the spelling of words.

In Assamese there is less number of consonant junctures and bikharga junctures , in one word no consonant junctures is available in Assamese Language. According to some grammarians these junctures are found only informally.

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