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Historians disagree about the reasons why the Civil Rights movement was a success. How far do you agree that the main reason why the civil rights movement was a success was

the leadership of Martin Luther King?

3447 words without quotes.

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Martin Luther King’s efforts, vying for greater equality, prompted a paramount change in American civilisation1: for instance, the founding of the Southern Christian Leadership Coalition (SCLC) in 1957, the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom2 in 1963, and King’s letter from Birmingham jail3 in 1963 succeeding his arrest and protest in Birmingham, Alabama.4 Subsequently, ensuring civil rights for individuals in lieu of race. Post-world-war-II, the civil rights leader and activist had a significant influence on American society amidst the “black power” era with his assassination in 1968 prompting an illumination of his achievements; the Memphis Sanitation Worker Strike in 1968, Montgomery Bus Boycott 1955-56, non-violent use of social change in the African-American Civil Rights Movement, etc.5 In consideration of his death, traditionalists during the 1970s and 1980s were consequently unable to dispute his importance in the success of the Civil Rights Movement as it could discredit the progression of the campaign entirely. In contrast, revisionism counters the ideology of great man history, advocating that progress wasn’t made solely forasmuch as King’s political skill or popularity. Non-King-centric historians might contend that although King had presented a significant role in the Civil Rights Movement, the libertine attitude of the 1950s and 1960s meant, within the longer-term, younger individuals opposed conservative norms and conformity regardless of King’s involvement.6 Conversely, alternate prominent activists in the Civil Rights Movement, such as Malcolm X, Ralph Abernathy, Bayard Rustin, Ella Baker, etc., were additionally involved among the Civil Rights Movement via a fight for rights in the United States countering violence arising in the South vis-a-vis the bombing of black churchers7 (e.g. the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing, a KKK act of white supremacist terrorism)8 and murders of civil rights workers9 (e.g. the Freedom Summer murders of Chaney, Goodman and Schwerner or the Mississippi Burning murders in Neshoba County in June 1964).10 To add, grassroots activism and a plethora of

1 YourDictionary. (2019). What Did Martin Luther King Do to Progress the Civil Rights Movement?. [online] Available at: http://biography.yourdictionary.com/articles/martin-luther-king-progress-civil-rights-movement.html [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].2 Major King Events Chronology: 1929-1968 | The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education InstituteKinginstitute.stanford.edu. (2019). Major King Events Chronology: 1929-1968 | The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute. [online] Available at: https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/king-resources/major-king-events-chronology-1929-1968 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].3 YourDictionary. (2019). What Did Martin Luther King Do to Progress the Civil Rights Movement?. [online] Available at: http://biography.yourdictionary.com/articles/martin-luther-king-progress-civil-rights-movement.html [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].4 Socio-Political Climate of 1960sdriftwood. (2009). Socio-Political Climate of 1960s. [online] Available at: https://shuhuifyp.wordpress.com/2009/08/03/socio-political-climate-of-1960s/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].5 Civil Rights Movement | History, Causes, PurposeEnglish-online.at. (2019). Civil Rights Movement | History, Causes, Purpose. [online] Available at: https://www.english-online.at/history/civil-rights-movement/civil-rights-movement-history-and-causes.htm [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].6 Fifty Years After Bombing, Birmingham is ResurrectedTIME.com. (2013). Fifty Years After Bombing, Birmingham is Resurrected. [online] Available at: http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2151804,00.html [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].7 King's Letter from a Birmingham JailAmericaslibrary.gov. (2019). King's Letter from a Birmingham Jail. [online] Available at: http://www.americaslibrary.gov/aa/king/aa_king_jail_1.html [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].8 YourDictionary. (2019). What Did Martin Luther King Do to Progress the Civil Rights Movement?. [online] Available at: http://biography.yourdictionary.com/articles/martin-luther-king-progress-civil-rights-movement.html [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].9 Civil Rights Movement | History, Causes, PurposeEnglish-online.at. (2019). Civil Rights Movement | History, Causes, Purpose. [online] Available at: https://www.english-online.at/history/civil-rights-movement/civil-rights-movement-history-and-causes.htm [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].10 Pbs.org. (2019). Murder in Mississippi | American Experience | PBS. [online] Available at: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/freedomsummer-murder/ [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].

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achievements from the National Association for the Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP), namely the Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka in 195411, shouldn’t be neglected from the progressivism of Civil Rights in America.

Source 1A cartoon of Martin Luther King illustrated by a Pulitzer Prize-winning editorial cartoonist, Reginald West Manning. The illustration was published in the Arizona Republic.

This source agrees with the notion that Martin Luther King, Jr. was mainly responsible for the success of the Civil Rights Movement. Indubitably, traditionalists akin to Clayborne Carson might controvert that “King was a prophet for all of humanity”12, utilising the political cartoon to demonstrate great man theory; suggesting King’s oratory skills were central to the progression of non-violent campaigns for African American rights, inequitable distribution to the Black population concerning the South specifically and fighting segregationism13.

11 National & Grassroots Efforts for Civil Rights in the 1950s & 1960s | Study.comStudy.com. (2019). National & Grassroots Efforts for Civil Rights in the 1950s & 1960s | Study.com. [online] Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/national-grassroots-efforts-for-civil-rights-in-the-1950s-1960s.html [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].12 BrandeisNOW. (n.d.). Clayborne Carson: King was a prophet for all of humanity | BrandeisNOW. [online] Available at: http://www.brandeis.edu/now/2012/february/gittler.html [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].13 Martin Luther King Jr.'s Failure and America's Future: A Reflection on the 50 Year Anniversary of the Chicago Freedom MovementHuffPost. (2016). Martin Luther King Jr.'s Failure and America's Future: A Reflection on the 50 Year Anniversary of the Chicago Freedom Movement. [online] Available at: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/devon-j-crawford/martin-luther-king-jrs-fa_b_10212922.html?guccounter=1 [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].

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The extent of impact King’s use of rhetorical and oratorical devices was epitomised viz his “I have a dream” speech. Moreover, historians favouring traditionalism and contemporaries might be demurring to criticise King’s importance, fearing being regarded as destructive in regards to the amelioration procured via the Civil Rights Campaign believed to transpire between the transitional 50’s and late 60’s. Notwithstanding, great man theory and traditionalism erase the roots of the Civil Rights Movement, commencing since 1920 attributable to labor radicalism, internationalism of civil rights and communism ideology that espoused racial equality for Black Americans. Casting light on King, eclipses the early battle of Jim Crow resistors and adoption of Gandhi’s principles of passive resistance in the 1920’s.14

Contrastingly, revisionists, due to advances in the technological sector providing an increased volume of documentation would contend that King wasn’t the most essential element in reference to the Civil Rights Movement, highlighting that traditionalists only illuminate this sentiment to appear respectful by not discrediting King’s work subsequent to his death; his enlarged figure is indicative of his perceived prominence whilst his gesture is suggestive of power. Thence, illustrated by a contemporary, the source may be subjected to traditionalist parti pris. Furthermore, traditionalist historians might express reluctance to dispute King’s success and highlight his failures. Howbeit, prior to his death King’s credibility was tarnished joining the Albany Movement in 1962, exposing inadequate leadership.15

Reginald Manning’s work is known for depicting a conservative tone.16 Thus, source 1 is plagued with classical conservatism and hindered in regards to simplicity. Hence, it’s value to a historian studying the founder of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference’s (SCLC)17 role in the success of the Civil Rights Movement and initiation in sparking equality for African Americans is limited to generalised perspectives of his functions as a Civil Rights leader, shaped through the socio-political climate of his era. To add, the ceased mention of activists like Anna Pauline Murray, struggling before World War two, to contemporary academics perpetuated King’s immortalisation; unveiling the aggrandised views of King. As a pioneer feminist, lawyer, poet and Episcopal priest, Anna Murray’s causes spoken at Schlesinger Lecture in Radcliffe Gymnasium prefigured the Civil Rights Movement.18

Nonetheless, it’d be baseless to remark King as inconsequential concerning the seizing of African American social, economic and political rights. Indeed, King’s campaign brought Civil Rights activities to the foreground of American civilisation, commencing in the mid-1950s until his assassination in 1968. Albeit, the source’s unreliability stems from its omission and disregard of other relevant activists, the ubiquitous opposition from white supremacists and the foundation of efforts already preponderant during the American Revolution whence abolitionists were eliminating racial justice and institutional slavery.19

14 Reg Manning Papers An inventory of his papers at Syracuse UniversityLibrary.syr.edu. (2019). Reg Manning Papers An inventory of his papers at Syracuse University . [online] Available at: https://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/m/manning_r.htm [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].15 SCLC History - The All-New National SCLCThe All-New National SCLC. (2019). SCLC History - The All-New National SCLC. [online] Available at: http://nationalsclc.org/about/history/ [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].16 Khan Academy. (2019). Introduction to the Civil Rights Movement. [online] Available at: https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/us-history/postwarera/civil-rights-movement/a/introduction-to-the-civil-rights-movement [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].17 The first civil rights movementHarvard Gazette. (2008). The first civil rights movement. [online] Available at: https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2008/02/the-first-civil-rights-movement/ [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].18 The first civil rights movementHarvard Gazette. (2008). The first civil rights movement. [online] Available at: https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2008/02/the-first-civil-rights-movement/ [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].19 Successes and Failures

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In contrast, an excerpt might provide clarification of an author’s interpretation on King. Published in the Arizona Republic,20 the source’s purpose is to publicise the propagandistic tone that King was undoubtedly the most influential factor in proceeding the Civil Rights Movement in the South. Yet, his opposition to the Vietnam War protests was an unpopular cause he associated himself with. Resultantly, animadversion to traditionalism isn’t ungrounded. The 1968 Harris Poll maintains that King passed with a 75% public disapproval rating.21

Source 2James Forman, Executive Secretary, Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee [Report on the march from Selma to Montgomery], Alabama, March 7, 1965.On Sunday, March 7, 1965, between 2,000 and 3,000 people began to march from Selma, Alabama to Montgomery to dramatize their fight for the right to vote in Alabama. At approximately 3:00 p.m. Willie Emma Scott, Negro, a member of the SNCC staff working in Selma reported that the march from Selma to Montgomery was about to begin. People were in the process of organizing into companies and squads, with company commanders and squad leaders. John Lewis, Chairman of SNCC, Robert Mants, a member of the SNCC staff, and Hosea Williams of the staff of SCLC were leading the march. Leading the march were Lewis, Mants and Williams. SNCC staff members Wilson Brown, Jerry Harrison, Frank Soracco, John Luitkys and Chris Wylie, and SCLC member Eugene Pritchett were interspersed among the demonstrators - one for every 50 people. Three other SNCC staff members Larry Fox, Willie Emma Scott and Annie Pennl Avery were stationed at Brown’s Chapel, the Negro Church which has served as headquarters for Civil Rights activities in Selma in recent weeks. At this point, SNCC staff people in Atlanta became more and more concerned about the possibilities of what might happen to the people participating in the march, especially given the fact that Martin Luther King was not present, and any

Martin Luther King, Jr. (2019). Successes and Failures. [online] Available at: https://martinlutherkingjraleader.weebly.com/successes-and-failures.html [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].20 The Arizona RepublicWeb.archive.org. (2019). The Arizona Republic. [online] Available at: https://web.archive.org/web/20100504131710/http://www.gannett.com/about/map/ataglance/phoenixnews.htm [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].21 The Different Schools of Historiography: A Reference | History: On learning from and writing history | LibraryThingLibrarything.com. (2019). The Different Schools of Historiography: A Reference | History: On learning from and writing history | LibraryThing. [online] Available at: http://www.librarything.com/topic/61376 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

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restraining influence on local police authorities which King’s presence might have provided was thereby eliminated. The SNCC staff working in Selma had been basically opposed to the idea of the march primarily because they thought the danger to the people involved was greater than the objectives and any possible achievement of the march warranted. The SNCC staff working in Selma had expressed their opposition at a meeting held between SNCC staff and SCLC staff in Selma on Friday, March 5. At that time, the SNCC staff had agreed to provide radios, the use of the WATS line, and the services of Medical Committee on Human Rights for the march. At a meeting of the SNCC Executive Committee held on Friday, March 5 and Saturday, March 6 in Atlanta, the question of the march was the subject of six or seven hours of intensive discussion.

Source 2 supports the perception that Dr. King was responsible for the successes of the Civil Rights movement. Source 2 supports the perception that Dr. King was responsible for the successes of the Civil Rights Movement. King characterised as a failure within contemporary society might be considered blasphemous22 by traditionalists that advocate King was primary to development in the Civil Rights Movement; declaring this as the source states the ‘SNCC staff people in Atlanta became more and more concerned’ ‘the fact that Martin Luther King was not present’. Contrariwise, revisionism23 might attest the approximate ‘3,000 people’ that ‘began to march from Selma, Alabama to Montgomery’ were the impetus to the liberation of African American citizens. Social historians, known additionally as ‘history of the people’,24 might justify this viewpoint asserting the aid of citizens or localised grassroot activism was epicenter of the movement’s success compared to ‘King’s presence’ which big history historians25 avouch might’ve ‘eliminated’ ‘restraining influence on local police authorities’. Perchance, revisionism offers an increasingly balanced perspective conversely to traditionalism.

James Forman, born 1928, a Civil Rights leader, was actively involved in the SNCC, Black Panther Party, freedom riders, Albany movement in conjunction with the Birmingham campaign, League of Revolutionary Black Worker and the Selma to Montgomery marches26 impinged bias upon his judgement through King’s perceived heroism. In spite of this, a strength is, in January 1965, King, president of the SCLC, had indeed inaugurated the idea of securing the right to vote in Selma. On the other hand, King ‘not present’ suggests he purely instigated the inspiration. Therefore, expounding restricted value to a historian studying this

22 Social history - Themes - Making HistoryHistory.ac.uk. (2019). Social history - Themes - Making History. [online] Available at: https://www.history.ac.uk/makinghistory/themes/social_history.html [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

23 The Different Schools of Historiography: A Reference | History: On learning from and writing history | LibraryThingLibrarything.com. (2019). The Different Schools of Historiography: A Reference | History: On learning from and writing history | LibraryThing. [online] Available at: http://www.librarything.com/topic/61376 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].24 Martin, D.Martin, D. (2005). James Forman Dies at 76; Was Pioneer in Civil Rights. [online] Nytimes.com. Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/12/obituaries/james-forman-dies-at-76-was-pioneer-in-civil-rights.html [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

25 Selma, Alabama, (Bloody Sunday, March 7, 1965) | The Black Past: Remembered and ReclaimedBlackpast.org. (2019). Selma, Alabama, (Bloody Sunday, March 7, 1965) | The Black Past: Remembered and Reclaimed. [online] Available at: https://blackpast.org/aah/bloody-sunday-selma-alabama-march-7-1965 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].26 Lyndon B. JohnsonHISTORY. (2019). Lyndon B. Johnson. [online] Available at: https://www.history.com/topics/us-presidents/lyndon-b-johnson [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

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query as the source only adduces King as influential apropos to the march from Selma to Montgomery. The neglection in respect to the ‘3,000’ marchers led by ‘Lewis, Mants and Williams’, two of which were consequently attacked by state troopers, is demonstrative of a tone appertaining to bigotry.

Forman might’ve subjected his report to racial prejudice. Formann’s report omits alternate activists which critically limits the use of this source. Nevertheless, a prevalent strength of source 2 is that the extract provides an aspect that is verbalised which might deliver more value than a photograph or illustration by explanation of Forman’s evaluation of King’s importance. To add, non-King-centric historians might maintain the fight for African Americans would’ve been dramatized without King. Notably when violence towards marchers was televised to the nation and termed the ‘bloody Sunday’.27

A myriad of individuals favour revisionism as academics and scholars of this history find the inconsistencies within historical narratives, making unthought of edits. Revisionists are appraised as juster relative to other forms of history; with historians examining reasons behind historical ‘facts’. In retracing history, revisionism might incorporate theoretical approaches or a negative perspective to re-examine recorded events. Conversely, revisionist history may overcomplicate historical events by purposely challenging conclusions that are deep-rooted, intent on forging controversy through critical claims. Notwithstanding, revisionists have the capability to expose the intentional efforts of contemporary historians to distort historical events in King’s esteem.28

Source 3President Lyndon B. Johnson gives Dr. Martin Luther King one of the pens used in the signing of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, in the background is Rep Claude Pepper (centre) and Rev. Ralph Abernathy, August 6, 1965.

27 AnonTandfonline.com. (2019). [online] Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/1369823042000300090 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].28 Montgomery Bus Boycott | The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education InstituteKinginstitute.stanford.edu. (2019). Montgomery Bus Boycott | The Martin Luther King, Jr., Research and Education Institute. [online] Available at: https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/encyclopedia/montgomery-bus-boycott [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

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The conceptualisation that King was responsible for the Civil Rights Movement is undeniably epitomised and agreed in the photograph; depicting the political activist and President Lyndon Baines Johnson29 on positive terms. Traditionalism30 might agree and attribute superabundant responsibility towards King’s role in spurring achievements in the Civil Rights Movement. These historians might dispute it was solely “King’s passive resistance philosophy”31 that “eliminated violence in the boycott that ended segregation on buses in Montgomery”.32 Inversely, revisionist interpretations insinuating King wasn’t pivotal prior to the increase in accessible documentation is supported viz a quantitative history poll in 1966

29 Shafer, J. (2019). The MLK History Forgot. [online] POLITICO Magazine. Available at: https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/01/martin-luther-king-struggle-history-forgot-214637 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].30 1960 to 1970 SOCIAL/POLITICAL ISSUES LEADING TO THE COUNTERCULTURE AND REVOLUTIONmaureen powers. (2012). 1960 to 1970 SOCIAL/POLITICAL ISSUES LEADING TO THE COUNTERCULTURE AND REVOLUTION. [online] Available at: https://maureenpowers.com/2012/10/12/1960-to-1970-socialpolitical-issues-leading-to-the-counterculture-and-revolution/ [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].31 AnonArchives.gov. (2019). [online] Available at: https://www.archives.gov/files/press/exhibits/dream-speech.pdf [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

32 Martin Luther King Jr.'s Failure and America's Future: A Reflection on the 50 Year Anniversary of the Chicago Freedom MovementHuffPost. (2016). Martin Luther King Jr.'s Failure and America's Future: A Reflection on the 50 Year Anniversary of the Chicago Freedom Movement. [online] Available at: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/devon-j-crawford/martin-luther-king-jrs-fa_b_10212922.html [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

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inferring solely 32%33 of Americans viewed King favourably.In addition, revisionism contests that during the 1960s, American society had already

become synonymous with radical events triggered by subversive behaviour. Occasionally referred to as a classical Jungian nightmare cycle,34 the era was incapable of restraining “freedom” and “racial justice” within a rigid civilisation in lieu of King’s achievements. Likewise, counterfactual history asserts the need for young Americans to deviate from conservative norms and societal constraints implies that “the chains of discrimination” would’ve been destroyed regardless of King’s acclaimed “I have a dream speech”35. Undoubtedly, counterculture in the 1960s meant the younger generation would extricate from mainstream liberal ideology, supporting revisionism in this aspect.

Revisionists might insist that other activists gave incentive for King to promote the Civil Rights cause. Foundations from Abraham Lincoln issuing the Emancipation Proclamation outlawing slavery to the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments, established a foundation for legal gains and the abolishment of the Jim Crow laws.36 Thus, attesting that King was unjustly earning credit for events that social history notes injustice on African American that led to social unrest in the 1950s and 1960s was fought by plenty of black Americans that rose up to the social systems and public authorities. Though King was a great spokesperson against prejudice, particularly in Southern states, hard-won political rights and freedom also stemmed from the effort of citizens.

Withal, the reliability of source 3 is debatable. Source 3 could’ve been arranged to portray and president Johnson in agreement. Ergo, in this perspective, the source is not as valuable to a historian studying King as largely responsible for the Civil Rights Movement’s success. Martin Luther King, Jr. is pictured with President Johnson at a joint session of Congress on March 15, 1965, in order to urge the passage of voting rights bill in response to King’s campaign in Selma. The source might be intended for a wider audience, e.g. the public, to drive the movement forward.

Source 4Newspaper article titled “Negroes’ Boycott Cripples Bus Line” from the New York Times in 1950, they seek to inform the United States Public about black American protests of busses and the repercussions taken by government to keep the bus system in business.

NEGROES’ BOYCOTT CRIPPLES BUS LINENegro Woman Convicted

The boycott began with the arrest of Mrs. Rosa Parks, a Negro seamstress employed by a

33 Montgomery bus boycott | United States historyEncyclopedia Britannica. (2018). Montgomery bus boycott | United States history. [online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/event/Montgomery-bus-boycott [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].34 HISTORY FROM THE BOTTOM UPLaguardia.edu. (2019). HISTORY FROM THE BOTTOM UP. [online] Available at: https://www.laguardia.edu/maus/bottomup.htm [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].35 The Arrest of Rosa Parks: An Act of Disobedience & the Start of a MovementBeacon Broadside: A Project of Beacon Press. (2019). The Arrest of Rosa Parks: An Act of Disobedience & the Start of a Movement. [online] Available at: https://www.beaconbroadside.com/broadside/2014/12/the-arrest-of-rosa-parks.html [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].36 Bundles, A. and Bundles, A. (2019). Know your history: Understanding racism in the US. [online] Aljazeera.com. Available at: https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2015/08/race-history-ferguson-150814082921736.html [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

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downtown department store. Mrs. Parks had refused to give up her seat when told to do so by the driver.

At the time the incident occurred, there were twenty-six Negroes and ten white persons seated in a thirty-six-passenger bus. Law requires the bus driver to segregate the passengers but leaves it within his discretion where the line is to be drawn. Thus, on many routes serving populus Negro areas it is uncommon to see Negroes occupying all but a few seats.

When the driver asked Mrs. Parks and three other Negroes to give up their seats, a number of white persons were about to board. There were already some white persons standing as well as a number of Negroes. The driver explained later in court that he was “equalizing” seating facilities.

Mrs. Parks refused to yield her seat and was arrested for violation of a city segregation ordinance. Later the charge was changed to read a violation of a state law, which gives bus drivers the power to assign and re-assign seating. The law makes it a misdemeanor for anyone to disobey the driver’s orders.

Mrs. Parks was found guilty in City Recorder’s Court and fined $10. Her attorneys filed a notice of appeal. At a mass meeting in a local Negro church the night following the court hearing, Negro citizens were urged not to ride the buses. The following morning Negro patronage was down by an estimated 90 per cent. Today it is close to 100 percent off.

Source 4 disagrees with the concept that King was mainly responsible for the successes of the Civil Rights Movement. The article commences with “The Boycott began with the arrest of Mrs. Rosa Parks”, signifying Parks as the instigator of the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Charged with “a violation of state law”, Parks’ offence inspired a Bus Boycott that ended on December 20th 1956 subsequent to 381 days.37 The source delineates Parks as more influential in the Civil Rights Movement’s success than King.

Revisionist historians might assent to this concept contrary to traditionalists, King-centric historians and historians influenced by big man history perspectives that would dissent against present-day evaluations of King’s role, arguing that the portrayal of King and Park as equally pivotal concerning the Civil Rights Movement is unjustified irrespective of her inspiration. Despite diplomatism testifying political importance, socialism and virtual history reprimands political activism as mainly responsible and controverts the honour of history from the bottom up.38

Non-King centric historians may contend the arrest of Rosa Parks on December 1st, 195539 culminated in King’s recognition during the Bus Boycott. By contrast, comparative history might evince that the differences among American institutions, pertaining to racial issues, and other other societies that led to the humiliation of America alongside “equalizing” the rights of African American citizens,40 supported by conveying limited detail in connection

37 Thurgood Marshall BiographyChnm.gmu.edu. (2019). Thurgood Marshall Biography. [online] Available at: http://chnm.gmu.edu/courses/122/hill/marshall.htm [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].38 Brown v. Board of EducationHISTORY. (2019). Brown v. Board of Education. [online] Available at: https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/brown-v-board-of-education-of-topeka [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].39 Our Documents - Brown v. Board of Education (1954)Ourdocuments.gov. (2019). Our Documents - Brown v. Board of Education (1954). [online] Available at: https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=87 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019.40 Our Documents - Brown v. Board of Education (1954)Ourdocuments.gov. (2019). Our Documents - Brown v. Board of Education (1954). [online] Available at: https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=87 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

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with other political activists. The omission of further clarification in written form restricts the usefulness of this source in respect to a historian studying the elements responsible for the success of the Civil Rights Movement. Parks’ emotive language and thoughts are not apparent either and emphasis should be placed upon differing activism as records are lacking comparative to King’s celebrity.

The journalistic piece indicates strengths through incorporation of assertions deriving from both races. Notwithstanding, limitations are contrastive to visual sources, which allow regulation of bias extent and bigotry by record of concrete moments. The nameless author of this extract reveals an inability to verify intentions or messages inextricably linked in this source. Ergo, the study of an assortment of sources and evidence to establish a valid conclusion is required.

Irrespective of positive documentation, King’s animous to expand the bus boycotts southwards was met by frustration as the African-American populace was restricted to an ineffective magnitude. Other areas propelled the white population to render bus services bankrupt in preference to desegregation. Moreover, the SCLC founder was worried of the death threats posed to him and his family.

Source 5Thurgood Marshall write a letter to Herbert Levy of the ACLU, thanking him for his support on the Brown case on June 9, 1954.

NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF COLORED PEOPLE 20 WEST, NEW YORK 18, N.Y.

JUN 10, 1954June 9, 1954

Herbert Monte Levy, Esq. Staff CounselAmerican Civil Liberties Union170 Fifth Avenue New York 10, New York

Dear Herb:So sorry I could not acknowledge your letter sooner but have been going almost

continuously from the date of the decision to the present time trying to get things moving toward implementing the decision.

We sincerely appreciate your words of congratulations realizing that you are

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familiar with our work to the extent of knowing that the victory of this case was a combined effort of literally tens of thousands of people, including the entire staff, volunteer lawyers, and other experts, our branches, state conferences and the Negro press among many others.

With the assurance of such continued cooperation, we look to the future with renewed confidence.

With all the best wishes.Sincerely,

Thurgood MarshallSpecial Counsel

Source 5 dissents with the sentiment that Martin Luther King, Jr. was mainly responsible for the success of the Civil Rights Movement. The letter, written by Thurgood Marshall, lacks mention of King as focal to the organisation.41 However, King only became the movement’s figurehead from 1954 onwards. Source 5 acknowledges other parties in the Civil Rights Movement citing the Brown v. Education (1954)4243 as “a combined effort” of “tens of thousands of people”, “staff”, “volunteer lawyers”, “other experts, our branches and the Negro press”. Acknowledgement of others achievements minimises the bias within this letter, unlike the bigotry exhibited by great man or King-centric historians.

Social historians and counterfactualists might adumbrate that society provided foundations for successes in the Civil Rights Movement. Yet, Marshall was partially responsible for the successes made towards promoting the Civil Rights by founding the NAACP legal Defense and Educational Fund.44 Furthermore, the concept of history from below, focusing on the viewpoints of ordinary people, may agree with this approach.

A major strength of source 5 is that the author is well-known and widely-documented, supplying a plethora of documents useful to a historian studying the subject. This source’s purpose isn’t intended to be seen, wherefore strengthening the legitimacy of the source as it is not designed to impress a mass audience. Withal, Thurgood Marshall competently brought an assortment of cases before the supreme court: most notably the Brown v. Board of Education45 (1954) prior to his appointment as America’s first African Justice in the Supreme

41 History - Brown v. Board of Education Re-enactmentUnited States Courts. (2019). History - Brown v. Board of Education Re-enactment. [online] Available at: https://www.uscourts.gov/educational-resources/educational-activities/history-brown-v-board-education-re-enactment [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].42 Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948)Justia Law. (2019). Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. 1 (1948). [online] Available at: https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/334/1/ [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

43 Landmark: Smith v. Allwright | NAACP Legal Defense and Educational FundNAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. (1944). Landmark: Smith v. Allwright | NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund. [online] Available at: https://www.naacpldf.org/case-issue/landmark-smith-v-allwright/ [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].44 The Different Schools of Historiography: A Reference | History: On learning from and writing history | LibraryThingLibrarything.com. (2019). The Different Schools of Historiography: A Reference | History: On learning from and writing history | LibraryThing. [online] Available at: http://www.librarything.com/topic/61376 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].45 AnonStudy.com. (2019). [online] Available at: https://study.com/academy/lesson/marxist-interpretations-of-historiography.html [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

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Court, Shelley v. Kraemer,46 and Smith v. Allwright,47 hinting the substantial roles Marshall and Levy occupied.

Political and diplomatic history exclusively analyses political events, leaders, parties, etc.48 The reductive nature of this field of history is solely one negative of this historiography. Alternative to the support of political and diplomatic historians, psychohistorians aim to study psychological motivations behind the achievements in the Civil Rights Movement rather than the social and political circumstances.49 Emotional origins, antedating Martin Luther King and Thurgood Marshall, is theorised as the main reasons for success among the Civil Rights Movement.

Traditionalists, on the contrary, might quibble that the letter is inconsequential to the figure King represented: believing in the redemption of whites, his philosophy and tendency for diplomatic compromise. Though, traditionalist historians have a tendency to transcend King to a higher regard. Even so, King occupied vitally betwixt the ‘conservative’ and ‘radical’ wings.

The weaknesses of traditionalism are presumptively conspicuous. Disparate to contemporary styles of history, the literature of King and Afro-American protests aren’t as extensive. Whilst King’s cachet heaved the Civil Rights Movement to a national stage, the emphasis of the individual, King, was mainly at the expense of the black citizens; distorting his actual importance in history, id est use of his charismatic label. Rather, King was a leader brimming with self-doubt and awareness of his limitations.50

Source 6Excerpt of Daisy Bates’ letter about the “Little Rock Nine” on December 17, 1957.Conditions are pretty rough in the school for the children. Last week, Minnie Jean’s mother, Mrs. W. B. Brown, asked me to go over to the school with her for a conference with the principal, and the two assistant principals. Subject of conference: “Firmer disciplinary measures, and the withdrawal of Minnie Jean from the glee club’s Christmas program.” The principal had informed Minnie Jean in with-drawing her from the program that “When it is definitely decided that Negroes will go to school here with the whites and the troops are removed, then you will be able to participate in all activities.” We strongly challenged this statement, which he denied making in that fashion.

We also pointed out that the treatment of the children had been getting steadily worse for the last two weeks in the form of kicking, spitting, and general abuse. As a result of our

46 AnonIowaculture.gov. (2019). [online] Available at: https://iowaculture.gov/history/education/educator-resources/primary-source-sets/school-desegregation/daisy-bates-letter [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].47 The Different Schools of Historiography: A Reference | History: On learning from and writing history | LibraryThingLibrarything.com. (2019). The Different Schools of Historiography: A Reference | History: On learning from and writing history | LibraryThing. [online] Available at: http://www.librarything.com/topic/61376 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].48 Garden, H. and Myth, H.Garden, H. and Myth, H. (2009). How Revisionist History Works. [online] HowStuffWorks. Available at: https://history.howstuffworks.com/history-vs-myth/revisionist-history.htm [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].49 Did Martin Luther King achieve his life's dream?BBC Timelines. (2019). Did Martin Luther King achieve his life's dream?. [online] Available at: https://www.bbc.com/timelines/z86tn39 [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].50 AnonEu.usatoday.com. (2019). [online] Available at: https://eu.usatoday.com/story/opinion/2018/04/04/martin-luther-king-jr-50-years-assassination-donald-trump-disapproval-column/482242002/ [Accessed 6 Jan. 2019].

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visit, stronger measures are being taken against the white students who are guilty of committing these offenses. For instance, a boy who had been suspended for two weeks, flunked both six-weeks tests, and on his return to school, the first day he knocked Goria Rey into her locker. As a result of our visit, he was given an indefinite suspension.

Thanks for sending Clarence to help. I don’t know how I would have made it without him. I am enclosing a financial statement, and as you can see we are in pretty bad shape financially. On December 18, we will probably have to make bond for three of our officials from the North Little Rock Branch. December 18, midnight, is the deadline for filing names and addresses of members and contributors. I have talked with Mrs. Birdie Williams, and we are attempting to have them spend the night away from their homes, because we have been informed that they plan to arrest them after midnight.

I am suggesting that a revolving fund be set up here of $1,000.00 to take care of emergencies and an accounting could be given at the end of each month. We are having trouble getting cost bonds executed on the North Little Rock suit. We had to put up $510.00 collateral plus three co-signers. We informed Bob Carter of our difficulty, and he asked Jack to see what could be done on that end. Please check with him.

Source 6 disagrees that King was essential to the Civil Rights Movement. Marxist historiography correlates class struggles to Civil Rights developments,51 videlicet “the form of kicking, spitting and general abuse” endured by the Little Rock Nine.52 The Little Rock nine were nine African-American children given permission by the Supreme Court to attend Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas.53 On the contrary, traditionalist historians and great man theory connotes King as the main reason for the Civil Rights success, irrespective of the media amplification generated across the nation in support of the Little Rock nine.54

Antithetically, social historians accredit the movement’s success to civilians such as the “Daisy Bates” and “Millie Jean”. Their challenging of the “principal’s statement” that “Negroes will… be able to participate in all activities… when it is definitely decided” that African-Americans will have the right to receive equal schooling assisted in drawing attention to contemporary racism. Contradictorily, cyclical and linear historians might refute this while expostulating that Malcolm X and black power, opposing King’s non-violent schemes, led to a dialectic clash that drove the Civil Rights Movement’s progression forward.55

51 profile, V.profile, V. (2009). What is Radical Consciousness?. [online] Mahesh-radical.blogspot.com. Available at: http://mahesh-radical.blogspot.com/ [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].52 The Different Schools of Historiography: A Reference | History: On learning from and writing history | LibraryThingLibrarything.com. (2019). The Different Schools of Historiography: A Reference | History: On learning from and writing history | LibraryThing. [online] Available at: http://www.librarything.com/topic/61376 [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].53 AnonKinginstitute.stanford.edu. (2019). [online] Available at: https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/martin_luther_king_jr_-_charismatic_leadership_in_a_mass_struggle.pdf [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].54 HuffPost. (2016). Martin Luther King Jr.'s Failure and America's Future: A Reflection on the 50 Year Anniversary of the Chicago Freedom Movement. [online] Available at: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/devon-j-crawford/martin-luther-king-jrs-fa_b_10212922.html [Accessed 7 Jan. 2019].55 Why “Bottom-Up” History is Useful TodaySolidarity-us.org. (2019). Why “Bottom-Up” History is Useful Today. [online] Available at: https://solidarity-us.org/p2189/ [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

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Antagonistically, Social historians and marxists, most notably, ordinarily canvass that grass root activism and civilians were the main reason for the Civil Rights advancement. Bottom-up, or social history, holds advantages scrutinised beside a top-down approach; attention to everyday citizens lives and reasoning to their mass resistance56 against white hegemony57 and radical consciousness.58 A social approach assists in deviating ignorant marginalisation and curtail in power of ordinary African American civilians. Such trivial offenses towards a neoliberal working class had decimated African Americans in the 1960s. The minority were still experiencing inequality, demonetisation and racism. In essence, the heroic resistance espied in great man theory isn’t imputed in marxist perspectives, but the oppression of ordinary members of the African American community.59 It is their defeat that is irradiated, contributing a ‘fresh’ angle.

Meanwhile, meta history critiques revisionism and traditionalism through rejecting the supposition that historians and journalists have the potentiality to document the past and present as it transpires.

The visual aspect of a photo or cartoon might be more advantageous in inferring graphic evidence. Thusly, source 5’s criticism is its unregulated potential of parti pris and as a result unreliable to a historian studying the main reason of the Civil Rights Movement’s accomplishments.

To conclude, King is averred to be a visionary leader through radicalisation, political nous and oratorical talent. His infamous ‘I have a dream’ speech was the inspiration for millions and King did accomplish success in the disenfranchisement of African-Americans. Per contra, American economy for black Americans was still not remunerative juxtaposed adjacent to white Americans. In consequence, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was not the main reason why the Civil Rights Movement was a success despite great man history, King-centric historians, political historians, diplomatic historians and big man history postulating this.60

The New York Times perpetuates the overestimation of King’s power and an underestimation of his symbolic martyrdom.61 Though a polarized political climate currently, Martin Luther King, Jr.’s, approval rating was appalling low.

As maintained by social historians and marxists, the bottom-up approach exhorts that the attainment fostered by the Civil Rights Movement was imputable to the fabric of ordinary people enduring specific circumstances nurturing the beginnings of mass resistance to white

56 Why “Bottom-Up” History is Useful TodaySolidarity-us.org. (2019). Why “Bottom-Up” History is Useful Today. [online] Available at: https://solidarity-us.org/p2189/ [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].57 Call It What Is Is: White HegemonyHuffPost. (2014). Call It What Is Is: White Hegemony. [online] Available at: https://www.huffingtonpost.com/trey-lyon/call-it-what-is-is-white-_b_6234484.html [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].58 Why “Bottom-Up” History is Useful TodaySolidarity-us.org. (2019). Why “Bottom-Up” History is Useful Today. [online] Available at: https://solidarity-us.org/p2189/ [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].59 Library, U.Library, U. (2019). Catalog results for "Dictionary of the History of Ideas" | UVA Library | Virgo. [online] Search.lib.virginia.edu. Available at: https://search.lib.virginia.edu/catalog?f%5Bdigital_collection_facet%5D%5B%5D=UVa+Text+Collection&op=AND&per_page=100&search_field=advanced&sort=title_sort_facet+asc%2C+author_sort_facet+asc&sort_key=title&title=Dictionary+of+the+History+of+Ideas [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

60 Goins, J.Goins, J. (2015). The Secret Behind Martin Luther King, Jr.'s Success. [online] Goins, Writer. Available at: https://goinswriter.com/mlk-success/ [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].61 AnonKinginstitute.stanford.edu. (2019). [online] Available at: https://kinginstitute.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/martin_luther_king_jr_-_charismatic_leadership_in_a_mass_struggle.pdf [Accessed 10 Jan. 2019].

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supremacy.62 King’s career spanned merely an approximate decade, but the reality is a gradualist change in American attitudes directed at Black Americans alternate to an activist modification.

Admittingly, his prestige yielded changes for the African American populus. Yet, ample amounts of sources credit Coretta Scott King responsible for this. An abundance of his idiosyncrasies were disregarded: smoking, repeated adultery, etc. King’s legacy is complexly indebted to his wife. With colossal public pressure, his wife stood beside King as his infidelity was used to discredit him, founded the Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Action and battled for the establishment of the commemorative holiday that symbolised racial reconciliation and the civil rights of Black Americans.63

Historians fond of traditionalism, great man theory or King-centric historians may refute this claim. To numerous academics, his connections to the White House and effectiveness in communication of the Negro aspirations were invaluable. Inextricably linked, a Great Man theory is interpreted as a necessity to the process of social change; it is a myth to surmise Martin Luther King, Jr.’s, ‘charisma’ as the catalyst of astronomical revision to America during this period.

Only recently scholars have implied that King was different from his King-centered biographies. In summary, King must be recognised as major in localised leadership, but the notion of a Great Man as a prerequisite for social change should be minimised. Undeniably, his oratorical skills were of brilliance, still the savv of King as divinity and ignoration of alternate dynamics in black politics should not be undervalued. Ideas were circulated bottom up and top down by black and white activism. King-centric scholars simply posit the illusion that King derived his ideas external to the struggle of blacks and due to his Gandhian education, electing King as distinct to other civil rights leaders.64

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