FURTHER-MATHEWEEK 2

SUBJECT: F.MATH

CLASS: SS 2

Topic: PERMUTATION & COMBINATION

CONTENT:

i. Permutation or arrangementii. Cyclic permutation

iii. Arrangement of identical objects.

Sub-Topic 1: PERMUTATION OR ARRANGEMENT

I have four balls of different colours: Blue (B), Green (G), Red (R) and Yellow (Y). If I pick three of the balls, the following are the possible results of picking in order:

Each of these arrangement is called a permutation. For the above, we obtained 24 permutations of four (4) colours taking three at a time. The way this is done is as follows:

The 1st ball could be any of the four balls available;

The 2nd ball could be any of the three colours remaining;

The 3rd ball could be any of the two colours remaining.

Thus, we have 4 ×3×2×1=24

If we have five colours to arrange, taking 5 at a time, we will obtain 5×4×3×2×1=120 permutations.

We apply the basic counting principle that: ‘‘If an activity ‘A’ can be performed in x ways and another activity ‘B’ can be performed in x ways, then, the two activities can be performed one after the other in m×nways .

BGR, BRG, BGY, BYG, BRY, BYR

GBR, GRB, GBY, GYB, GRY, GYR

RBG, RGB, RBY, RYB, RGY, RYG

YBG, YGB, YBR, YRB, YGR, YRG

TOTAL = 24

The products 4×3×2×1∧5×4×3×2×1 can be written in a précised way as 4! And 5! Respectively. It is real s 4 factorial and 5 factorial.

In general, the number of numbers of different arrangement of ‘n’ different objects, is equal to the product of n× (n−1 )×…×3×2×1 or n! for short.

WORKED EXAMPLES

Ex.1: Evaluate the following: a) 7! b) 0! c) 1!

SOLUTION:

a) 7 !=7×6×5×4×3×2×1=5040

b) 0! = 1

c) 1! = 1

Ex.2: Simplify 7 !

3! 4 !

SOLUTION

7 !3! 4 !

= 7×6×5×4 !3××2×1×4 !

=35

Suppose we are only interested in the number of ways, the first and second positions can be taken by 4 people in a race, assuming there is no tie.

The first position can be taken in four ways by any of the four athletes. The second position can be taken in 3 ways by any of the remaining 3 athletes.

So, the number of ways the first and the second positions can be taken by four people in a race is 4 ×3. This arrangement is called permutation of 4 people taking 2 at a time and is denoted by

4 P2=4 ×3

Also, the number of permutations of 8 objects taking 3 at a time is denoted by

8 P3=8×7×6

Hence ,8P3=8!

(8−3 )!=8 !

5 !=8×7×6×5 !

5!=336

Thus, the general formula is

nPr=n!

(n−r )!

This is the permutation of n objects taking r at a time.

Ex.3: Evaluate each of the following: a) 10 P2 b) 100 P2

SOLUTION:

a) 10 P2=10 !

(10−2 ) !=10 !

8 !=10×9×8 !

8 !=90

b) 100 P2=100 !

(100−2 ) !=100!

98 !=100×99×98 !

98 !=9900

Ex. 4. Find the number of ways of arranging the letters of the word, EIGHT.

SOLUTION:

EIGHT has five different numbers. Hence, the number of permutation is

5 P5=5 !=5×4 ×3×2×1=120

EVALUATION:

1. Evaluate each of the following: a) 5 P4 b) 11P9

2. In how many ways can five bulbs of different colours be arranged in five socket in a row?

3. In how many ways can the letters of the word ENGLISH be arranged?

Sub-Topic 2: CYCLIC PERMUTATION

In cyclic permutation, we are concerned about arrangement of this about a circular object.

If the letters A, B, C, D are arranged in that order in a circle, and then A is moved to B’s position and B to C’s position, C to D’s position, and D to A’s position, we obtain the same arrangement. i.e,

A

B

CD

B

C

DA

To obtain different arrangement, we fix one of the letters and arrange the remaining three in the remaining spaces. This gives 3! arrangement of the 4 letters.

In general, the number of ways of arranging ‘n’ objects in a circle is given by:

No. of ways =(n-1)!

When beads are threaded in a ‘ring’ the clockwise and the anticlockwise arrangements are not distinguishable and the ring can be turn over.

Thus, the number of distinct arrangements of ‘n’ such beads is:

(n−1 ) !2

Ex. 5: In how many ways can 8 boys be arranged at a round table?

SOLUTION:

Total number of arrangements = (8-1)! = 7! = 5040

Ex. 2: Seven beads of different colours are threaded in a ring. How many different arrangement is possible?

SOLUTION:

No. of arrangements = (n−1 ) !

2=

(7−1 )!2

=6 !2

=6×5×4×3×2×12

=360

D

C

BA

C

D

BAD

B

CA

C

B

DA

B

D

CA

B

C

DA

Sub-Topic 3: ARRANGEMENT OF IDENTICAL OBJECTS

Consider the arrangement of 8 bulbs (4 red, 3 blue and 1 yellow) in a row , there are 8! Possible permutations (arrangements). Out of these permutations, 4! Permutations involving changes in position of the red bulbs are not distinguishable and the 3! Permutations of the blue bulbs are also not distinguishable.

Thus, the number distinct permutations of the 8 bulbs (4 red, 3 blue and 1 yellow) = 8 !

4 !3 !1 !

In general, the number of distinct permutations of the ‘n’ objects containing p of one type of q of a second type and r of a third type is given by:

n !p ! q !r !

Ex. 6. In how many ways can the letters of the following words be arranged ?

a. ABAKALIKIb. MATHEMATICS

SOLUTION

a) ABAKALIKI 9 letters; letter A appears 3 times, K twice, I twice, B&L once each.

No. of permutation = 9 !

3! 2!2 !1!1 !=9×8××7×6×5×4×3 !

3 !2 !2!1 !1!=756ways

b) MATHEMATICS = 11letters ( 2 M’s, 2 T’s, 2 A’s, & others once)

∴No .of permutation= 11!2 !2 !2!1 !1! 1!1 !1!

=4989600

EVALUATION:

1. Find the number of ways the letters of the words FURTHER can be permuted.

2. Five different objects are spaced out evenly round a circle. In how many ways can they be arranged?

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Simplify 4 !4 !

2!2 !2 !

A. 24B. 42C. 72D. 27

2. Five students are lined up in a row. How many arrangement could be made if the position of the last boy remains unchanged?

A. 120B. 12C. 21D. 24

3. Find the number of ways in which the letters of the word STATISTICS could be arranged.

A. 15120B. 5120C. 2020D. 1512

ESSAY

Seven students were late to a class. In how many ways can they occupy

a. Three available vacant seatsb. Nine available vacant seats.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Further mathematics project 1, by Tuttuh Adegun, M.R. et al. pg 54-55, No. 1 & 20.

READING ASSIGNMENT

Further mathematics project 1 by Tuttuh – Adegun, M.R. et al, pg 47-51.

WEEK 3

SUBJECT: F.MATH

CLASS: SS 2

Topic: PERMUTATION & COMBINATION (CONT)

CONTENT:

1. Arrangement in which repetition is allowed;2. Intro to combination and selection and probability arrangement problems involving

arrangement and selection.

Sub-Topic 1: ARRANGEMENT IN WHICH REPETITION IS ALLOWED

EX 1. (a) How many numbers greater than 600 can be formed from the digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7?

(b) How many four-digits even numbers can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 if

i. No repetitions are allowedii. Repetitions are allowed.

SOLUTION

(a) Numbers greater than 600 that can be formed from the option of 6 digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 can be a 3-digit number, 4-digit number, 5-digit number or 6-digit number.

For a 3-digit number to be greater than 600, the first digit must be any of the 2 digits (6 or 7)

The 2nd digit, any of the remaining 5 digits ( i.e, after choosing one digit from 6 or 7)

The 3rd digit, any of the remaining 4 digits.

Therefore,

For 3-digits numbers we have 2×5×4=40

For 4-digits numbers, we have 6×5×4×3=360

For 5-digits numbers, we have 6×5×4×3×2=720

For 6-digits numbers, we have 6×5×4×3×2×1=720

Total = 40 + 360 + 720 + 720 = 1840

(b) For an even number, the last digit must be 2 or 4 or 6.

i) The last digit can be any of the 3 digits.

The 1st digit can be any of the remaining 5 digits

The 2nd digit can be any of the remaining 4 digits

The 3rd digit can be any of the remaining 3 digits.

Therefore, number required = 6×6×6×3=648

Note that the solution to (a) is on assumption that no repetition of digit is allowed in the numbers formed.

If repetition is allowed, the numbers of digits greater than 600 that would be formed with 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 will be:

For 3 digits numbers, there will be 2×6×6=72

For 4 digits numbers, 6×6×6×6=1296

For 5 digits numbers, 6×6×6×6×6=7776

For 6 digits numbers, 6×6×6×6×6×6=48656

Therefore, total numbers that can be formed = 72+1296+7776+48656 = 57,800

EVALUATION:

1. How many 4-digits numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, …9 If a) repetitions are allowed b) the last digit must not be zero and repetitions are not allowed.

Sub-Topic 2: INTRODUCTION TO COMBINATION OR SELECTION

In many situations, we make selection without regard to the order. If a committee of 4 members is to be formed from 7 members of staff of DLHS, the order in which the numbers of the given committee are selected is not important.

In selecting three colours from 5 colours: (B, G, R, W, Y), BGR, BRG, GBR, RBG, RGB, are counted as 6 different arrangements (permutations), although they consist of the same 3 colours. The 6 permutations thus represent one combination. Thus, each combination of three objects yields 3! permutation.

Now, the number of the permutations of 5 colours taking 3 at a time, i.e, 5 P3=5!

(5−3 )!

The number of combinations of 5 colours taking 3 at a time, i.e, 5C3=5!

3 ! (5−3 ) !

∴5C3=5P3

3 !

In general, nC r=nP r

r != n !

(n−r ) !r !=nCn−r

CONDITIONAL ARRANGEMENT AND SELECTION

When restrictions are placed on arrangements or selection, then, the permutation or combination is said to be conditional.

EX 1:

Find the number of ways 6 people can be seated in a round table if two particular friends must sit next to each other.

SOLUTION:

If two people must seat next to each other, the number of ways these friends can sit is 2!

Therefore, the number of ways six people can sit in a round table with two friends that must be together is 2 !× (6−2 )!=2 !×4 !=48

EX 2:

A committee of 4 people is to be chosen from 5 married couples. Find how many ways the committee can be chosen if:

i) everyone is equally eligible;

ii) the committee should include at least one woman.

SOLUTION:

i) 5 married couples includes 5 men and 5 women. Since everyone is equally eligible, then, the possible ways of selecting 4 people for the committee are:

4 men and 0 women or

3 men and 1 women or

2 men and 2 women or

1 man and 3 women or

0 men and 4 women.

i.e, 5C4×5C0+5C3×5C1+5C2×5C2+5C1×5C3+5C0×5C4=¿

5 !4 !1 !

× 5 !5 !0 !

+ 5 !2!3 !

× 5!4 ! 1!

+ 5 !2!3 !

× 5 !2!3 !

+ 5!1! 4 !

× 5 !3! 2!

+ 5 !5! 0!

× 5 !4 !1!

=¿

5×1+10×5+10×10+5×10+1×5=5+50+100+50+5=210

ii) If at least one woman must be in the committee, then, the possible ways of selecting 4 members of the committee from the couples (5men & 5women) are:

3 men and 1 woman or 2 men and 2 women or 1 man and 3 women or 4 women

i.e,

5C3×5C1+5C2×5C 2+5C1×5C3+5C4=5 !

3 !2!× 5 !

1 !4 !+ 5 !

2! 3!× 5 !

2 !3!+ 5!

1 !4 !× 5 !

3 !2!+ 5!

4 !1!=¿

10×5+10×10+5×10+5=50+100+50+5=205

EX. 3:

A box contains 10 red, 3 blue and 7 black balls. If three balls are drawn at random, what is the probability that a) all 3 are red, b) all 3 are blue, c) one of each colour is drawn?

SOLUTION:

Number of ways of selecting any 3 balls from 20 balls = 20C3=¿number of element in the sample space.

Number of ways of selecting 3 red balls out of 10 = 10C3

a) P(all the 3 balls are red) = no .of selectionsof 3out of 10 red ballsno .of selectionsof 3out of 20balls

=10C3

20C3= 120

1140= 2

9

b) P(all 3 are blue) = no .of selectionsof 3out of 3blue ballsno . of selections of 3out of 20balls

=3C3

20C3= 1

1140

c) P(1 red, 1 blue & 1 black) = 10C1×3C1×7C1

20C3= 10×3×7

1140= 210

1140= 7

38

EVALUATION:

1. How many committee of size 5 consisting of three men and 2 women can be selected from 8 men and 6 women if a certain man must not be in the committee?

2. A bag contains 5 white, 2 black and 3 green balls. If three ball are drawn at random, find the probability that:

a) All three are greenb) All three are whitec) 2 are white and 1 is blackd) At least, one is blacke) 1 of each colour is drawn.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. How many committee of size 5 consisting of 3 men and 2 women can be selected from 8 men and 6 women if a certain man must not be in the committee?

A. 315B. 525C. 840D. 1287

2. In how many ways can 9 bulbs be selected from 4 red, 5 green and 6 yellow bulbs if 3 of each colour are to be selected?

A. 800B. 120C. 40D. 27

3. The number of ways of arranging 9 men and 8 women in a row, when the women occupy the even places is ---

A.17 !9 !8 !

B.17 !16!

2 !C. 9!8!

D.9 !8 !2 !

4. A panel consists of 5 men and 4 women. What is the probability of 4 men and 2 women?

A.1081

B.16

C.5

14

D.59

ESSAY

Five digit numbers are formed from digits 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8

a) How many of such numbers can be formed if repetition of digit is i) allowed ii) not allowed?b) How many of the numbers are odd if repetition of digits is not allowed?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Further mathematics project 2 by Tuttuh – Adegun, M.R. et al pg 66, No. 14, 18 & 19.

READING ASSIGNMENT

Further mathematics project 2 by Tuttuh – Adegun, M.R. et al pg 47 – 54.

WEEK 4 3rd TERM

SUBJECT: Further Mathematics

CLASS: SS 2

TOPIC: Vector in the dimensions

CONTENT:

1. Scalars product of vectors in three dimensions 2. Application of scalar product

Sub-Topic 1: Scalars product of vectors in three dimensions

The scalar product of three vectors a,b and c is defined as a.(bxc) which is a scalar quantity.

If three vectors a,b and c are given as:

a = a1i + a2j + a3k

b = b1i + b2j + b3k

c = c1i + c2j + c3k

The scalar product is found the same way as the determinant of a 3x3 matrix.

|a1 a2 b3

b1 b2 b3

c1 c2 c3|=a1 ⌈

b2 b3

c2 c3

⌉−a2 ⌈b1 b3

c1 c3

⌉+a3 ⌈b1 b2

c1 c2

⌉

We denote dot or scalar product of two vectors A and B by A.B. This dot product is defined as the product of the magnitudes of A and B and the cosine of the angle between them.

A.B = |AB|cosθ ,0≤θ≤ π

Scalar product otherwise called dot product (or inner products).

The Scalar product between two perpendicular vectors is zero.

Summary of the scalar product of unit vectors is provided below:

i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 here, θ = 00

i.j = i.k = j.k = 0 here, θ = 900

scalar product is scalar and cumulative

A.B = B.A

Note:

i. A.(bxc) =(axb).cii. Three vectors a,b and c are said to be coplanar or collinear if their scalar triple

product is zero.

Properties of dot product

1. A.B = B.A 2. A.(B+C) = A.B +A.C 3. m(A.B) =(mA).B = (A.B)m where m is a scalar. 4. i.i = j.j = k.k = 1 5. i.j = j.k = k.i = 0

If A = a1i + a2j + a3k and B = b1i + b2j + b3k

A.B = a1b1+ a2b2+ a3b3

A.A = a12 + b2

2+ b32

B.B = b12 + b2

2+ b32

6. If A.B = 0 and A and B are not null vectors, then A and B are perpendicular.

Examples

Given: a = 2i –j + k; b = 3i + 2j – k ; c = i -4j + 3k

show that vectors a,b and c are coplanar.

Solution:

We need to show that a.(bxc) = 0

a . (bxc )=|2 −1 13 2 −11 −4 3 |=2| 2 −1

−4 3 |−(−1)|3 −11 3 |+1|3 2

1 −4|=2(6-4)+1(9+1)+ (-12-2) = 2 x2 + 10

– 14 = 14 – 14 = 0

Since a.(bxc) = 0, vectors a, b and c are coplanar.

3. If p = 2i + 5j – 3k q = i + 0j + 5k r = 3i – 4j + 2k

Solution: p . (qxr )=|2 5 −31 0 53 −4 2 |=2| 0 5

−4 2|−5|1 53 2|+−1|1 0

3 −4|

= 2(0+20) - 5 (2-15) -3 (-4-0) = 2 x20 – 5x – 13 -3x-4

= 40 + 65 + 12 = 117

EVALUATION

1. Given a = i+2j+-3k, b = 2i – j + 2k, c = 3i + j – k. Find a.(bxc) = 0 2. P, q and r are three vectors given by 4i – j + 2k, 3i + 2j – 5k and –i+3j + k respectively.

Evaluation (pxq).r

Sub-Topic 2: application of scalar product

Application of scalar product to lines

We shall begin by applying the scalar product to the lines that form the sides of a triangle.

The application shall lead us to establish the cosine rule and the famous pythagoras’ theorem.

Let CB=a , CA=b∧BA=c

Applying triangle law of vectors c=b=−a

c.c = (b−a¿ .(b−a)

c2 = b .b - 2b.a+a .a

c2 = a2+b2 – 2abcosθ

The formula vis, c2 = a2+b2 – 2abcosθ is the familiar cosine rule.

If the vectors a∧b are perpendicular, c2 = a2+b2

θ=π2∧cosθ=¿ π

2¿ = 0 and the formula will reduce to c2 = a2+b2=

This is the well known Pythagora’s theorem for a right angled triangle.

Application of dot product to obtain trigonometric expansion.

Let Ox and Oy be perpendicular axes with unit vectors a , j directions OA and OB which are perpendicular too0ne another. Let OA make angle x0 with Ox.

Let unit vector c act in the direction OC which makes angle y0 with OA.

a

cb

BC

A

ca

x0y0

0 x

A

C

B

y

Resolving a along Ox and and Oy gives

a=i cosx+ j sin x

Resolving b along Ox and Oy gives

b=i( π2 +x)+ jsin x ( π2 +x )b = -isinx + jcosx

Resolving c along OA and OB gives

c =a cosy+ b sin y

Substituting for a∧b

c = cosy ( i cosx+ j sin x )+siny (−i sinx+ j cos x )

¿ (cosx cosy−sinxsiny ) i+siny (sinxcosy+cos xsiny ) j ... (i)

Resolving c along Ox and Oy gives

c = i cos ( x+ y )+ j sin (x+ y ) ... (ii)

Since (i) and (ii) represent the same vector, corresponding components must be equal and so we have

Cos(x+y) = cos x cosy – sinxsiny

Sin(x+y) = sin x cosy + cosxsiny

EVALUATION

(1) If α=2 i+3 j−k ,β=−i+2 j−4 k , γ=i+ j+k . find(α+β ) . (γ+β ) .

(2) Prove the scalar product to the lines that form the sides of a triangle. (3) Prove the application of dot product to obtain trigonometric expansion.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Define the scalars product of vectors in three dimension. 2. Scalar product otherwise called ____ product 3. List all the properties of dot product. 4. Prove the applications of dot product to obtain trigonometric expansion. 5. If α = 2i + 3j-k, β = -i + 2j-4k, γ=i+ j+k .find

(α+β) . (α+γ ) .6. Prove that x = i +2j-3k, γ=2 i− j+2k=3 i+ jj−k , find x . (Yxz ) .

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read New Further Mathematics Scholastic Series 2 by T.R. Moses pages 233-237.

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT

Read Vectors or Cross product in three dimension and application of cross product.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

Read New Further Mathematics Scholastic Series 2 by T.R. Moses pages 233-237

REFERENCE TEXT

1. New Further Mathematics Scholastic Series 2 by T.R. Moses spectrum Book Limited.

AGRICWEEK 2 CLASS : SS 2 TOPIC : LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENTCONTENTS: (a) Meaning of livestock management

(b) Requirement for livestock management (i) Diseases control (ii) Housing (iii) Feeding (iv) Hygiene, etc. (poultry, ruminant and non-ruminant. (c) Importance of these management practices (d) Livestock production project.

Sub-Topic 1: MEANING OF LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT Livestock management refers to the activities carried out by a farmer in his effort to raise farm animals from day old to the point of marketing or disposing the animals. It involves the provision and maintenance of adequate housing , good feeding , sanitation and medicare.

REQUIREMENT FOR LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT: In order to successfully managed livestock for maximum benefits the following factors (requirement ) have to be made available.

1. Water2. Housing in good location with the necessary equipment3. Favorable climatic conditions4. Knowledge of the breed of animals to be produced5. Knowledge of pests and diseases the affect the proposed animals6. The technical expertise about the animals to rear7. Nearness to market, good (motorable) roads and storage facilities8. Finance available for the operating farmers

SYSTEMS OF RAISING LIVESTOCK : There are three systems of raising livestock Extensive or free range system Semi-intensive system Intensive system

EXTENSIVE OR FREE RANGE SYSTEM: In this system , animals are left to search for food for themselves. It is the oldest and traditional method of rearing animal practiced generally in Nigeria

SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM : In semi-intensive system animals are raised partly indoor and partly outdoor. Some housing and feeding are basically provided for the animal but they freely look for food and water most part of the day. Supplementary feeding is usually provided in form of concentrates, minerals , vitamins , salt licks within the shelter provided for them.INTENSIVE SYSTEM: This is the system whereby animals are restricted or confined within a pen or a cage and all feeding , watering , medication, vaccination and other management are providedREQUIREMENT FOR CATTLE MANAGEMENT : The belong to the group of known as Bovidae. These are ruminants which are reared for meat, milk hide and skin , and for work.

Breeds of Cattlea. Beef Cattle: This type of breed are reared purposely for meat. Examples include

i. N’ dama,ii. Red Bororo,iii. Sokoto Gudali,iv. Keteku, v. Kuri,vi. Rahaji, vii. Brown Swiss,

b. Dairy Cattle: this type are reared purposely for milk . Examples include i. White Fulaniii. Jerseyiii. Red polliv. Kerryv. Friesianvi. Dextervii. South devonviii. Dairy short horn ix. Ayshere x. Guemsey

c. Dua-purpose Cattle: They are reared for both meat and milk production. E.g i. Muturuii. Biu

iii. Azawaliv. Shuwa

A dairy cattle(Friesian)with large udder

Systems of Cattle Management:INTENSIVE SYSTEM: In this system, cattle herds are kept in confinement most of the time. The system provides conditions for management standards , ease control of parasites , there is protection from extreme weather conditions , predators and thieves. It requires high capital investment in terms of building and feeding, much The type of housing under this system are :Conventional Barn: Herds of cattle are confined in a place and secured by the neck with stanchions or neck chains.Loose house: Herds of cattle are loose in an open pasture having shelter where they stay when the weather is hot or cold. ADVANTAGES:

i. Cost of production is reducedii. Protection against adverse weather conditions, disasters and thieves iii. Good return on investmentiv. Proper feeding and proper health care DISADVANTAGES:i. Pests and diseases can become rampant on the rangeii. Vices like fighting and cannibalism are encouraged on the range iii. Growth may not be uniform

SEMI-INTENSIVE SYSTEM: In this system a form of housing unit is provided as shelter but the cattle herds are allowed to graze on the range and retire to the house later. It is commonly practiced by the government or academic research institutions as experimental or demonstration farms.EXTENSIVE SYSTEM: This system is basically the same for cattle, goats and sheep. The animals are left to fend for themselves. There is no special housing provided.It has the following features:

No medication for the animals It is a cheap form of system No supplementary feed for the animals Animals are exposed to weather hazards Animals can be stolen or killed by wild animals There is indiscriminate mating and the cow deliver on the field. Cattle usually destroy cultivated crops.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CATTLE:

I. Provision milk and meat for manII. Used as drought animals for work

III. The provide hide and skinIV. They provide blood meal and bone meal used as feed for animalV. The dung are used as manureVI. Provision of employment for people especially the FulanisVII. It is a source of revenue to the countryVIII. They are used for research work or educational purpose.MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN CATTLE PRODUCTIONThe various management practiced involved in cattle production are listed and explained briefly below.a. Housing: Housing is very necessary where cattle is managed under intensive and semi-

intensive system. The floor of the house(pens) should be made of concrete floor to avoid slipping . The roofing should be very high to allow for adequate ventilation .The house be kept clean regularly.

b. Feeding : Cattle feed mainly on roughages(grass and legumes) . common grass given to cattle are elephant ,guinea grass, giant star grass while legumes include centrosema and calopogonium . Zero grazing (soilage) is practiced. This involves cutting grass and giving them to the cattle in their pens. Rotational grazing can also be practiced. Hay , silage and straw can be fed on by cattle especially during the dry season. Colostrum should be fed to the newly born calves in order to give them a good start in life.

c. Mating : Mating methods include Hand mating Pasture mating Artificial mating

d. Servicing: This is the mating of a bull with a cow on heat . Signs of cow on heat are Restlessness Mucus discharge from vulva Attempting to mount other cattle in the herd Reddened vulva Reduction in milk production Tendency to urinate frequently

e. Dehorning: This is the removal of the horns. The advantages are Less space is required for feeding Animals eat more frequently They are more attractive and therefore yield more money They are easy to transport in vehicles

Methods used for dehorning are I. Cross-breeding: Using polled breed like Aberden angus produces offspring

with no hornes.II. Use of chemicals: The use caustic soda to rub the forehead of male calves

under seven days old helps to prevent the growth of the hornsIII. Use of hot iron: The hot iron is used to cut off the horns. It is quite painfulIV. Use of dehorning machines: They are special machines used to remove the

horns of older animals.f. CASTRATION: This is the removal of the testes of bulls. It is done when the animals is less the

one year of age. Castration helps to control indiscriminate mating in farm animals. It also helps to quicken the fattening up of the animals. Methods used for castration include

I. Bloodless or closed castration: An instrument called burdizzo is used to remove the testes of the animals. There is no blood loss

II. Use of emasculator or ring method: It involves putting a plastic ring around the scrotal sac to prevent the growth of the scrotum.

III. Open castration /incision: It involves cutting open the scrotal sac to remove the testicles. Much blood is lost and infection may occur. It is usually done for older animals.

g. IDENTIFICATION OF ANIMALS: The common methods used for identifying animals are I. Branding

II. TattooingIII. TaggingIV. Ear notching

h. VACCINATION: Cattle should be vaccinated against deadly disease such as Brucellosis. The advice of a veterinary doctor is necessary before carrying out any vaccination

i. HYGIENE : Strict hygiene should be maintained in cattle pen all the time to avoid disease outbreak. The pen should be swept, washed dried occasionall . Disinfectants should be used.

j. FINISHING: Finished products of cattle get to the market mainly in form of meat and milk.

Sub-Topic 2 : POULTRY Definition: Poultry refers to all birds that are domesticate by man. These include domestic fowl, duck, geese, turkey, guinea fowl, and pigeons.

(a) Requirement for Poultry production (i) diseases control (ii) Housing (iii) Feeding (iv) Hygiene (b) Importance of the management practices (c) Livestock production project.

IMPORTANCE OF POULTRY1. Provision of meat and eggs as food for man2. Feathers are used for pillows and mattresses3. Eggs are used for producing vaccines 4. Poultry manure (guano) is used to fertilize the soil. 5. Poultry industry provides employment for many people6. It is a means of income to poultry farmers7. Birds are high and economical converters of feeds.8. Birds are used for scientific experiments because the mature within a relatively short

period.

BREEDS OF DOMESTIC FOWLBreeds purposeWhite leghorn egg productionBrown leghorn egg productionShika brown egg productionPlymouth rock dual purpose Rhode Island Red dual purposeHarco dual purposeLight Sussex meat productionWhite Cornish meat production

SYSTEMS OF POULTRY PRODUCTION: The systems are : Intensive system Semi-intensive Extensive system

INTENSIVE SYSTEM: In this system, birds are reared in within a confined emvoronment. Adequate housing, feeding and good hygiene are made available.

The syste is further divided into :Deep litter systemBattery cage

DEEP LITTER SYSTM: Bird (both male and female) are reared together in a suitable room .The floor of the room is concreted and covered with wood shavings which absorbed the water associated with faeces. Water and feeds are given provided .

ADVANTAGES

1. It facilitates the management of very large stock2. It increases the rate of growth and production3. It maximizes the use of labour 4. it reduces the loss of birds to snakes and thieves5. birds are protected from harsh weather conditions6. the rate of growth and production is increased

7. it requires less capital than the battery cage systemDISADVANTAGES

1. cost of constructing the the deep litter type of house is high2. Birds tend to waste the feeds.3. Vices like cannibalism, pecking, fighting , egg sucking, feathers fluffing may be very rampant4. The spread of diseases and pests is very rapid5. Eggs are often stained by faeces on the litters.6. It is very difficult to cull unproductive birds since all of them miss together

Birds under Deep Litter SystemBATTERY CAGE SYSTEM: In this system birds are housed in individual cages each accommodating 2, 3, or 4 birds per cubicle depending on the type. The battery system of housing has proved to be the best in regard to egg production, efficiency of food conversion and reduction in mortality.

1. The spread of diseases may be very fast2. There is high cost of constructing building and equipment3. Fertile eggs cannot be produced and as such there may be reduction in chicks production4. Lack of freedom for birds which makes the birds to be bored and fatigue5. More eggs are cracked , especially very thin shelled eggs

EXTENSIVE SYSTEM: this is one of the oldest form of poultry management, where birds are allowed to fend for themselves with little or no assistance from the owners . This system is sub-divided into two forms , the fold system and the free- range system .Fold system: it is made with light materials which enable it to be moved from one place to another. About 50 to 100 birds are kept within a fold unitADVANTAGES

a. It is ideal for chick rearingb. It is mobile c. The house is cheap to buildd. It can be practiced on small land area

DISADVANTAGESa. It is not good for commercial production of birdsb. Fertile eggs may not be producedc. Eggs are often dirtyd. The spread of diseases is highe. It requires much labour in moving the house

HOUSING OF POULTRY Birds are kept in pens which are made of concrete floor and well roofed An hatchery and feed mill unit are constructed in the house The pen should be on flat land , not exposed to erosion and wind

A foot dip containing disinfectants should be constructed Electricity must be provided regularly Floor space per bird should be about 3 square meters.

FEEDING IN POULTRY Birds have simple stomach without teeth They are given mash which depends on their age They are fed constantly, that is, they eat every time There must be regular supply of clean water The mash should be rich in proteins , vitamins and minerals There should be occassional supply of vegetable like waterleaf, tridax and amranthus.

TYPES OF FEED GIVEN TO BIRDS1. Chick mash2. Grower marsh3. Layer marsh4. Broiler starter5. Broiler finisher

HYGIENE IN POULTRYThe following are the hygienic practices that should be observed regularly.

I. Remove sick or dead animals from the pensII. Visitors should not be allowed into poultry house . If permitted , their feet must be dipped into

water containing disinfectantsIII. The entire building should be disinfected regularlyIV. Water bath containing chemicals should be provided at the entrance of the buildingV. Drinkers should be washed thoroughfully

VI. Wet litters and moldy feeds should be removedVII. External parasites like lice should be controlled

VIII. Internal parasites should also be controlled by regular deworming the birds. OTHER MANAGEMENT PRACTICESCandling: This is the practice of determining the fertility of the eggs. Each egg is held against a source of light to determine whether the egg is fertile or not. Candling is done between the 9 th and the 14th day as the eggs are layed. Candler or Candling machine can be used.Incubation: This is the provision of heat to fertilize eggs to enable the embryo develop into chicks. Incubation can be natural or artificial.Sexing: It is the practice of separating male chicks from the females. It is usually done at day old Brooding : It involves all the care and attention given to the chicks. It should start at day old . It last to 4 – 6 weeks . Brooding is done in the brooding house.

Sub- Topic 3: PIG MANAGEMENTPigs are non-ruminant animals. The two main species of pig are Sus scrofa and Sus vittatu. These are very prolific animals because they mature quickly between 8 – 9 months . They have short gestation period of 114 days. They are very good and efficient converters of feed into meats.

Breeds of Pigs:1. Landrace2. Duroc jersey3. Large white4. Large black5. Hampshire6. Welsh 7. Chester white8. Berkshire9. Poland china 10. Essex saddle back11. Wessex saddle back12. West African Dwarf 13. Tamworth 14. Saddle back

Large white Large black Hampshire

Landrace Tamworth Polannd china

Berkshire Saddle back Duroc jerseySYSTEMS OF REARING PIGSThe systems are basically Extensive, Semi-intensive and Intensive systems.Extensive System: Like other farm animals the animals are allowed to fend for themselves. They do not attract any attention in terms of housing, feeding, health care. This system affects the growth rate of the animals. Semi-intensive System: In this system pigs are reared partly indoor and partly outdoor. The female pig with or without the male pigs are allowed to run outside. In this system labour requirement is low and less feed is required as the pigs grace for food.Intensive System: In this system pigs are completely raised in houses with concrete floors. This allowed for easy daily cleaning. Feeds , water, medications are provided daily in adequate quantity and good sanitation is maintained . Feeds conversion is high, hence growth rate is also high . The system is capital intensive.HOUSING The pen are divided into unit depending on the on the functions they serve .For example :

a. Farrowing Pen: For delivering of the litters b. Litter Pen: Where newly delivered are kept and given adequate care c. Mating pen: Where mating between a male and a female pigs is done.d. Growers Pen: Where piglets are kept and given adequate caree. Sickbay/Isolation pen: where sick animals are kept and treated.

While constructing a pig pen, ensures that the walls is built with blocks and iron bars, the roof made with iron sheets or asbestos, the pen well ventilated, the gates should be strong, litters are provided as beddings, shade to keep the building cool all the time. FEEDINGPigs are voracious . They feed on concentrates; tubers like cassava, yam, cocoyam; maize, sorghum and household left over. Occasionally vegetables are supplied to provide vitamins and minerals. At different stages pigs are fed with different type of rations. Piglets are given Creep feeding 2 weeks after farrowing.HYGIENE Pigs pens need to be cleaned regularly to prevent the occurrence of diseases. The following should be done on regular basis.

a. Clean the pen regularly b. Change on the wallow on regular basisc. Clean the troughs regularlyd. Change the beddings at intervalse. De-worm animals f. Disinfect the pens and carry out dipping against ecto-parasites

RABBITS MANAGEMENTThey are mono-gastric animals which belong to the family of Leporidae. They have simple stomach like that of pigs. The meat is very nutritious and low in cholesterol . It is a suitable alternative to poultry meat.

BREEDS OF RABBITS1. California white2. California red 3. Flemish giant4. Chinchilla5. New Zealand white6. New Zealand red7. Angora8. Blue beveren

HOUSING Rabbits are normally housed in hutches or cages. It can be constructed in single units ,double or tree-tie units The floor space is covered with wire mesh which allows for disposal of the faeces The hutches are made of wood with wire netting and asbestos roofing. The cages should be 1m from the ground Nest boxes should be provided for adequate care of the young onesBattery Cage: This can be used for fatteners that raised from 4 weeks (weaners) to the point of slaughter

FEEDING: They are fed with: Concentrates in mash form Green feeds suchas vegetable leaves, sweet potato leaves, Aspillia Africana, Stylosanthes gracilis

and Centrosema spp Grower mash Adult Buck and Doe should be given up to 90 – 120g of mash per day Pregnant Doe should be given up to120 – 140g of mash per day for 14days after mating Weaners should be fed ad libitum Fresh water should be put into the watering trough every morning

HYGIENEThe following hygienic practices should be carried out to ensure successful management of rabbit’s production

Remnant feed should be removed every morning Feeders and water troughs should be cleaned daily

The floor should be cleaned and disinfect at intervals De -worm them with appropriate drugs Cut bushes around the hutches Isolate sick animals Burry or burn dead animals.

Sub-Topic 4 : GOATS MANAGEMENT Goats are ruminants and very hardy type of animal which are regarded as scavengers.

Importance of Keeping Goats1. Goats provides meat as a source of protein2. Goats supply good nutritious milk3. Goats provides hides used in the manufacturing of leather works4. They provides hair(mohair) used for making carpets and bags5. It is a source of income to the government 6. They are used for many social and religious ceremonies7. The manure(droppings ) from goats used as manure on the soil

Factors Responsible for Success in Goats Productioni. Goats thrive on variety of feeds. They eat almost everything that is not soiled.

ii. They have high efficiency of feed conversioniii. Goats have short gestation interval. iv. They relatively resistant to diseases when compared with other farm animalsv. They can withstand many adverse environmental conditions

vi. Goats have fertility and reproductive rates

BREEDS OF GOATS:1. Sokoto red/Maradi2. Bornu red3. Kano brown4. Bauchi5. Sahel/Fulani/Desert Goats6. West African Dwarf Goats7. West African long legged Goats8. East African small Goats

Exotic Breed1. Anglo-nubian2. Saanen3. Toggen-burg4. Angora

HOUSING Their houses are normally built with asbestos or thatch material for roof, concrete floor . Litters as bedding are placed on the floor. Shades are provided for goats .Goats con also be reared comfortably by tethering. Tethering entails tying the goat to a tree or stand with freedom to an extent, so as to enable it graze around the tree or standFEEDINGGoats feed on roughages and concentrates . At times they are giving the peelings of yam, cassava, groundnuts, guinea corn. They browse on a variety of plants resources such as herbs, shrubs, trees or their parts. Other supplement feeds include blood meal, groundnut cake , fish meal, vitamins and minerals. HYGIENE

i. Their houses should properly cleaned, washed and disinfectii. Beddings should be removed at intervals

iii. The animals should be occasionally be dewormed and dustediv. Feeding and water troughs should be cleaned regularlyv. Sick animal should be culled or isolated

SYSTEMS USED FOR GOATS KEEPINGThe three systems used for rearing goats are similar to the ones used for all other ruminants.These are extensive , Semi-intensive and Intensive systems.

Sub-Topic 5: SHEEP MANAGEMENT Sheep belong to the genus Ovidae which is the domesticated species. Sheep where first domesticated in Asia and gradually extended to all parts of the world. Within Africa, sheep are important Kenya, Mali, Ethiopia, Tanzania and northern Nigeria.

Breeds of Sheepi. Ouda/Udaii. Merinoiii. Y’ankassaiv. Balamiv. Dorset hornvi. Lohivii. Nelloreviii. West African Dwarf sheep

HOUSING Housing in sheep rearing is similar to that obtained in goats keeping.

a. The house should be made of concrete, the roof of asbestos or iron sheets and floor of concreteb. The gates should be made of iron bars and barded wiresc. Bedding of straws or wood shavings should be providedd. Provider racks for feeding sheepe. The house should be well ventilated

FEEDING OF SHEEPa. They can be raised entirely on roughages like grasses and legumesb. Feed supplements like grains , concentrates, hay and silage are also essentialc. Feed additives like mineral salts and vitamins are also supplied to them.d. Clean water should be provided at regular intervalse. Chopped cassava tubers and plantain leaves should be providedf. The young sheep be fed more on proteins.HYGIENE

Sheep should be vaccinated with appropriate drugs They should be de-wormed and dusted at regular intervals Clean feeding troughs and water troughs on regular basis The surroundings should be kept clean and bushes around cut down.

GENERAL EVALUATIONOBJECTIVE TEST1. The humpless breed of cattle which also possesses short horn is called (a) Gudali (b) Muturu (c) White fulani (d) Red bororo2. The discontinuation of feeding of feeding young animals with milk is (a) weaning (b) lactation (c) gestation (d)sucking3. The castrated male cattle is called (a) bull (b) heifer (c) castrate (d) steer4. Which of the following husbandry practices is not carried out in cattle rearing (a) numbering by ear tattooing (b) dipping of animals (c) castration of excess male (d) application of iron supplement5. The gestation period of a cow is (a) 114 days (b) 180 days (c) 280 days (d) 165 daysESSAY QUESTIONS1. Name 5 breeds of goat and sheep each(b)State 6 general characteristics of goat2. List 4 exotic breed of cattle(b) Discuss briefly the extensive system of rearing any ruminant(c) List 3 common diseases of cattle

3. State 5 reasons for rearing goat(b) State 3 advantages and disadvantages of extensive system in goat production4. List 6 breeds of pigs(b) Write short notes on intensive method of managing pig under following headings (i) feeding (ii) sanitation 5. Explain the following management practices in animal production (a) Steaming up (b) candling (c) tattooing (d) creep feedingREFERENCE TEXTS1. Evans Agricultural Science for SSS by M.O Adeniji, et al; Evans Brothers Nigeria Limited.2. Agricultural Science for SSS by B.O Ashimolowo, et al; Melrose Books and Publishers.3. Comprehensive Certificate Agricultural Science for SSS by L.A Are, et al; University Press Ibadan.

WEEK 4CLASS: S.S 2SUBJECT: AGRICULTURAL SCIENCETOPIC: ANIMAL NUTRITION

CONTENT: • Meaning of animal nutrition• Classification of feeds

Basal/ energy feeds or carbohydrate Protein concentrateMineral / vitamins supplementRoughages

• Sources and functions of food nutrients• Types of ration/diet and their uses: - components of a balanced diet• Causes and symptoms of malnutrition and their correction in farm.

Sub -Topic 1: MEANING OF ANIMAL NUTRITION

MEANING OF ANIMAL NUTRITIONAnimal nutrition is the science of which studies the food requirement of animals.Food is the major requirement of the body for substance and maintenance of all physiological, anatomy and pathological functioning.When food is lacking the body becomes lifeless. Hence the study of food is very important. Food given to livestock is called feed.The feed is needed for (a) energy, growth repair of worn out tissues and general good health of the animals.A nutrients is any element or compound present in the food required by the animal for proper body functioning.A feed is any food substance which when fed to animals is capable of providing some of the nutrients necessary for up keep to that animal.DEFINITIONNutrition is defined as the science of feeding and nourish the body. It is the series of processes by which an organism takes in or ingests, digest and assimilate food for promoting growth and for the replacement of worn out tissues.

Animal nutrition can then be defined as the science of feeding animal with an appropriate diet capable of nourishing the animal for growth development reproduction and repairs of worn out tissue.Therefore the ingredients used for making the feeds must have the following nutrients in adequate quantities and required proportions. (a) Carbohydrate (b) Protein (c) Vitamins (d) Minerals (e) Crude fibre (f) Fat water.The level of nutrient or nutritional requirement of animal depend on the following factors• Age of the animal – young grower• Class of animal – egg producer, ruminant or non-ruminant, meat animal.• Production level – growers, young layers and old layer dry sow.Reasons for feeding farm animals feeds are fed to farm animals for the following purposes.• To provide necessary elements for repairing the wear and tear of the body to

provide raw material for synthesis of body source in growth.• To serve as a source of energy for vital processes in the body e.g growth,

work, reproduction, respiration digestion etc. For generating heat necessary for maintaining body temperature. To serve as raw materials for the production of milk meat egg wool etc.

CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF FEEDAnimal feed stuffs are classified on their chemical nutritional composition, bulkiness and use.The chemical composition or nutrients gives the potential value of the feed but does not give the actual value.Feeds can be classified into• BASAL / ENERGY FEED OR CARBOHYDRATE CONCENTRATEThis is the feed that has crude fibre content less than 18% they are feeds that are very high in energy. They are high in carbohydrate or fat. It is low protein. It is low in fibre.Basal feed is highly digestible. It is low in mineralsExamples are cereal grains like maize guinea corn wheat roots and tubers.• PROTEIN CONCENTRATEProtein is made up of carbon, hydrogen oxygen and sulphur, nitrogen and phosphorous.They may be of (i) animal sources e.g fish meal, blood meal meat meal (ii) plant sources which are soya bean, groundnut meal, palm kernel cake or meal, cotton seed.Animal proteins have a higher nutritive value than plant protein because they contain some essential amino acid which may be lack in plant proteinThey are therefore used to supplement plant proteins.Characteristics of protein concentrates• Low in crude fibre content less than 18%• High in protein• They are low in carbohydrate and fats• They are low in fibre• They are highly digestible• They are low in minerals

• MINERAL / VITAMINS SUPPLEMENTSThey are required in small quantities in feeds.They are low in energy protein and fibre contentsThey are largely responsible for food digestion and aids resistance to diseases

• ROUGHAGESCharacteristicsRoughages are characterized by the relatively large amount of crude fibre that their dry matter contains.They are bulkyThey are low in proteinThey can also be grouped into:

(a) Dry roughages : Dry roughages are (a) hays (b) straws

(b) Succulents : They are all growing fresh vegetation They are referred to as pastures. Succulent can also be (a) soilage (b) silage.

Additives : These are non nutritive materials which when added to feed improve the performance of animals but whose absence from the feed does not constitute a nutrient deficiency situation for the animals . Examples are coccidiostat , synthetic enzymes , antibiotics etc

Sub-Topic 2: SOURCES AND FUNCTIONS OF FOOD NUTRIENTSThe components of feed that are absorbed and utilized in the bodies of animals after digestion are known as nutrients.There are six classes of food nutrients which are needed by farm animals for growth and proper development these are

• carbohydrate• protein• fat and oil• minerals• vitamins• water

1.CARBOHYDRATEThis is made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen combined in such a way that there are always twice as many atoms of hydrogen as there are of oxygen. They are energy producers. Carbohydrates are usually grouped into two namely sugars and non-sugar. Examples of sugar include glucose fructose sucrose maltose lactose and raffinoseThe non-sugars include polysaccharides such as starch glycogen, cellulose dextrins and complex carbohydrates such as lignin is not a true carbohydrate.SOURCES

• cereal grains like maize guinea corn, millet rice and wheat spent grains.• Root and tuber crops like cassava, yam, and potatoes cocoyam• Grasses and forages haysilage molasses, plantain.

The cellulose and hermicellolose which are non – sugar constitute the main carbohydrate in grasses and forages. The hermic - cellulose and cellulose can not be broken by digestive enzymes but are degraded by the mirco – organisms e.g bacteria and protozoa; in the rumen, recticulum and caecum of ruminants.

FUNCTIONSCarbohydrates are broken down to release energy for muscular work, growth, reproduction and milk production. They are used for fattening or building up of fat in animals.They form part of essential materials in the body milk (lactose) brain cerebrosides and cartilage (micro-polysaccharides). The body temperature of animals is party maintained through the conversion of the chemical energy in carbohydrate into heat.Deficiency Symptoms

• Emaciation (ii) General weakness.2. PROTEIN: These are complex nitrogenous compounds made up of carbon hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen. Some may contain small quantities of sulphur phosphorous and ion. Protein on hydrolysis, yield or broken down into smaller absorbable unit called amino acid. Some amino acids are regarded as essential because they must be supplied to the animals ration.These includes:

• Tyrptophan• Histicline• Methionine• Arginine• Theonine• Leucine• Isoleucine• Valine• Lysine• Pheny – alanine.

These are called essential amino acid. These amino acids can not be synthesizes by non ruminat animal or produce at an adequate rate for growth or reproduction.They have to be supplied in the diet for these animals. The non-essential amino acids are those that non-ruminants can synthesize in adequate amounts from other nitrogenous sources and therefore need no dietary supplementationThe non-essential amino acid include: (i) aspartic acid (ii) protein (iii) serine citrulline, glutamic acid, tyrosine, glycine, hydroxproline, cysteine alanine etc.In ruminant animals e.g cattle sheep and goat, the issue of essential or non – essential amino acids does not arise because they can synthesizes the amino acids from both nitrogenous and non-notrogenous source including the microbes in their rumenSOURCESSources can be grouped into 3:Plant Protein• Toasted soya bean seeds or full fats soya (b) soya bean meal (c) palm kernel

cake / meal (d) groundnut cake / meal (e) cashew nut meal (f) cotton seed meal (g) sun flower seed meal (h) leguminous forage – centrosema stylosanthes

Animal ProteinSources of animal protein: these include fish meal blood meal meat meal and milk, feather meal, poultry offals termites insects and earth worms.Synthetic Proteins

Methione, lusine, cystine

FUNCTIONS OF PROTEIN• They are vital for the growth of young animals• Protein helps in repairing worn out tissues or cells.• They helps in the synthesis of enzymes and hormones.• It is important in pregnant animals for building the foetus• It can become a source of energy in the absence of carbohydrate and fats.• It is the raw materials for building protective covers e.g hairs, nails feathers

wool horns and hoove.• They are responsible for flesh build up• It produces milk for lactating animals.

FAT AND OILThey contain carbon hydrogen and oxygen. Fats are solid at room temperature and got from animals while oil is liquid at room temperature and is not from animals.Fats come in different colours depending on the rate at which the animal converts its food into fat.White fats are formed when species of animals convert the assimilated food into fats immediately while Yellow fats result from delay in converting assimilated food into fats.They are food nutrients that are not soluble in water but soluble in common organic solvents such as chloroforms and benzene,Fats contain more than twice the energy of carbohydrates. Although fats and oil have the same chemical composition however they differ in physical properties. Oils have lower melting points than fats.SOURCESThese include:Palm oil, palm kernel cake groundnut cake soya bean, cotton seed cake, coconut meal, milk lard and tallow are animal source of fats. Unused carbohydrate are also converted to fats and stored in the animal body. The whole seed of legumes can be used like full fat soya.FUNCTIONS

• It helps in the osmo regulation of the animals’ body• It is essential in teeth bone and egg shell formation and maintenance.• It is essential in the formation of haemoglobin or components of blood e.g

iron• For blood coagulation• For the normal functioning of the thyroid gland e.g iodine. They are

involved in nerve transmission e.g sodium and potassium of the body phosphorous e.g sodium cholrine and potassium. Some of them are components of hormones e.g iodine as a components of throxine. Sodium is important in the maintenance of tissue fluids and blood plasma.

VITAMINSThese are organic compounds which are required in small amounts for the normal functioning of the body. They can be classified into two groups. Some are soluble in fats and they are called Fats soluble vitamins while some are soluble in water they are called water soluble vitamins

i. Water soluble vitamins are; (a) vitamin B group and C group (b) vitamin C group (Ascorbic acid)ii. Fats soluble vitamins are:

Vitamin A (retinol), Vitamin D califerol, Vitamin E tocopherol, Vitamin K (phylloguinone).

SOURCESThey include vegetables, green fodder, fruits, cereals fish meal, rice bran palm oil cod liver oil milk vitamin additivesFUNCTIONSIt helps in normal growth assist in basic metabolism. They help animal to be resist to diseases vitamin K help in blood clotting vitamin E is essential in reproduction vitamin B1 and B2 help the animal to maintain a good appetite.

WATER: Water is the simplest of food nutrients but plays an important role in almost all the life processes chemically it is made up of Hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of 2:1.It is an essential component of the body of animals contain 55 = 65% of water no animal can survive without taken water. Water makes up a large part of the protoplasm.It is also a constituent of blood and lymphSOURCESource of water for farm animal include• Direct drinking water from rivers taps pond lakes• Component of feed e.g fresh grass• As metabolic water

Water C6H2O6 + 602 Energy + 6H2O + 6CO2

FUNCTIONS OF WATERa. It is a medium of chemical reactions e.g digestion , enzymatic and hormonal activities b. It is the solvent for many substances which are conveyed to and from various parts of the bodyc. It provides or maintains turgidity for muscles and cellsd. It helps in the regulation of body temperaturee. It is the constituents of milk, eggs and meatf. It acts as a cushion for the nervous system g. It helps to lubricate joints and prevents friction

FACTORS AFFECTING WATER INTAKE IN ANIMALS i. The age of the animals: Young animals more water for growth than older onesii. Physiological state of the animal: Lactating animals need more water than the non lactating animals. Laying birds need more water than those that are not laying.iii. Water content of the feed: The lower the water content of the feed, the higher the amount of water consumption

iv. The climatic or weather condition: Dry weather conditions and high ambient temperature make animal demand for more water than when the temperature is lowV. Composition of the feed: Animals on feed that contain high amount of salt or protein supplement will consume more water.vi. Health status of the animal: Fever or diarrhea would lead to an increase water consumption

EVALUATION1. What is nutrition? 2. List three characteristics of basal energy3. Mention three sources of plant protein4. List five essential amino acids 5. Differentiate between diet and rationPRE-READING ASSIGNMENT: Read about types of ration and uses fron AGRIC.SC. SS BK 2 by M.O.Adeniji et-al pages 145-150

Sub-Topic 3: TYPES OF RATION AND THEIR USESDefinition: A ration is the amount of total feed which is provided to an animal over a 24 hour period. It is the amount of feed taken an animal per day.Diet: This is the quantity of feed consumed by an animal at a meal or period.Types of Ration: Ration can be classified into : a. Maintenance rationb. Production ration

MAINTENANCE RATION: This a ration containing only sufficient that enables the animals to carry out normal life processes such as respiration, heartbeat , body movement and maintenance of good health without an increase or loss in weight. Such ration can be given to animals during rest period when they are not breeding. It can be given to non-lactating animals and unproductive culled egg laying birds so as to maintain their live weight until they are slaughtered or sold out. PRODUCTION RATION: This is the ration given to farm animals which enable them to produce. It is a ration that supplies animals with nutrients in excess of those needed for maintenanceProduction Ration includes :a. LACTATING RATION : is given to nursing mothers from the time of parturition to the time the young ones are weaned . It is very rich in proteinb. WEANING RATION: This is a special type of ration given to very young animals that have just been weaned. It is high in protein and ingredients that easily digest. Young animals are highly prone to emaciation, disease attack or death at weaning .They are therefore given a special ration called weaning ration to enable them recover from their natural source of food supply(breast feeding). The ration is made up of concentrates that are high in protein, vitamin and minerals. c. PREGNANCY OR GESTATION RATION: It consists of food quality ration that will enable the animal to maintain themselves as well as provide nutrients for the developing fetus or fetuses.

d. FATTENING OR FINISHING RATION: Animals raised for meat production need a fattening ration for rapid growth and development. This should not be high in protein only but more juicy, taste better with lean meat.e. STEAMING-UP RATION: This ration is given to pregnant animals for some weeks before parturition to enable them physiologically prepared for parturition and subsequent lactation.f. FLUSHING RATION: This is the type of Ration that is given to breeding female animals with the aim of preparing them for breeding.Flushing as the name implies involves giving special diet to the animals with the aim of increasing her fertility rate, by keeping the female animal at high nutritional level just before she is put to the male for servicing.Flushing increases the number of ova that is shed before or during mating when the female animal is on heat.g. GROWER’S RATION: This is the feed given to the animals for growth which involves building up new tissues and increasing weight.h. BROLER’S RATION: This is the feed given to Broiler chicks to enable them grow rapidly.

There are two types of broiler ration;(i) Broiler Starter Ration:This is given to Broiler chicks from day old to six weeks of age. It is high in protein between 21-24% crude protein. This enables the animal to grow very well.(ii) Broiler Finisher RationGiven to broiler chicks from 7 weeks to about 12 weeks of age. It is a fattening ration for broiler high energy to develop fully.i. LAYER’S RATIONThis is the feed given to Pullets from point of laying. It should be given at the point of laying. It may be when few (about 10%) of the bird have started laying and ended when they are no more productive i.e. the input does not justify the output.

RATION FORMULATIONRation Formulation involves the careful combination of all the food nutrients in such a way as to meet the nutritional requirement for a particular animal. When formulating ration for farm animals the following principles should be considered;PRINCIPLES OR FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN FORMULATING LIVESTOCK RATION.

1. The physiological state of the animal whether for pregnant, dry or lactating or young animals2. The availability of the feed stuff3. The composition of the nutrients4. The age of the animal5. The familiarity of the feed to animals 6. Purpose of keeping the animals7. Palatability of the feed8. The cost of the feed stuff9. The physical characteristic of the ration must be considered e.g pellet or grind

A Good Ration must carefully combine Protein sources (e.g fish meal, soybean or groundnut cake), Fat sources (e.g palm kernel cake, oils), Carbohydrate sources (e.g cereals) vitamins and mineral sources that will provide all the food nutrient needed for a balanced ration at a reasonable cost.

Supplementary feeding is the act of providing extra or additional feed or nutrients to farm animals in order to augment the feed that is normally made available to them.

METHODS OF FORMULATING RATION1. Pearson’s Square method2. Trial and Error method3. Algebraic method4. Linear Programme / Computer methodPEARSON’s SQUARE METHODThe Pearson Square method is easier when only two ingredients or two variables are involved.Example 1: Formulate 20% crude protein ration using Maize – 10% Crude Protein (C.P)Soybean – 42% Crude Protein (C.P)In addition to the diet, add the following ingredients;Rice bran – 10% which has 15% C.PBone meal – 1%Mineral / Vit premix – 0.5%Salt - 0.5%

12%SolutionLet the total % of the ingredients equal to 100%Therefore 100 – 12 = 88% will be supplied by soybean and maizeIf rice bran give 1.5% of the total protein i.e 10 X 15 = 1.5% which is 20%

100Therefore soya bean and maize will give 20 - 1.5 = 18.5%

18.5 X 100 = 21.02 88

Maize 20.98 (part maize)100%

Soy bean 11.02 Part soy bean 42% 32 - which is the addition of part Maize and part soy beanIngredient composition now calculatedPercentage maize 20.98 X 0.88 X 100

32= 57.695%

Percentage Soy bean 11.02 X 0.88 X 100 32

= 30.305%NOTE: 88% supply by maize and soybean is calculated 88/100 = 0.88

The composition for the ration is: % crude protein

Maize 57.695 X 0.10 = 5.7695Soybean 30. 305 X 0.42(%C.P) = 12.728Rice bran 10.00 X 0.15(%C.P) = 1.5Bone meal 1.00Min / Vit premix .5

21.02

Salt .5 100.0 19.9976 ≈ 20% crude protein

The feed is for 100kgTo calculate for 1000kg = 1 tonneEach ingredent X 1000 100

Sub- Topic 4 : MALNUTRITION IN FARM ANIMALSThis refers to imperfect or faulty nutrition of animals. It is the condition in which an animal shows evidence of nutritional deficiency as a result of improper feeding. It occurs when an animal takes in an insufficient quantity of feed, or eat diet which are deficient in one or more nutrients like protein, carbohydrate, minerals and vitamins. This eventually results in nutritional disease.This may also occur if there is interference with the digestion and absorption of one or more nutrients from the digestive tract, and or binding of nutrients by some substances making amounts available for utilization by the animal to be inadequate.

A TABLE SHOWING MALNUTRITIONAL DISEASE, CAUSES, SYMPTOMS AND CORRECTIONS IS SHOWN BELOW;

MALNUTRITIONAL DISEASES

CAUSES SYMPTOMS CORRECTIONS

Ricket and osteomalacia Lack of calcium, Phosphorus and Vitamin D

Flexible, curve bone and soft egg shell

Add to feed – fish meal, bone meal and oyster shell

PEROSIS (Slipped tendons) Lack of chlorine, folic acid, calcium, phosphorus in diet

Chicken lie down on their knees

Add vitamin B complex and bone meal to feed

Pregnancy Ketosis Lack of sufficient energy intake by farm animals

Loss of Appetite Feed high carbohydrate diet to animal

Milk fever Low blood sugar Loss of appetite, constipation and nervousness

Feed Oyster shell or bone meal and carbohydrate

Piglet anaemia Low iron in the blood Loss of appetite and nervousness

Inject iron dextran into the body

Night blindness Lack of vit A Inability to see clearly in dim light

Feed yellow maize and vegetable

Scurvy Lack of vit C Lesion around the connective tissue

Feed vegetable and fruit to animals

Beri Beri Lack of vitamin B1 thiamine

Lack of appetite, fatigue and loss of weight

Feed yeast, cereals and vegetable to animals

GENERAL EVALUATION1.OBJECTIVE TEST1. Feed given to animals solely to sustain their live weight is called

(a) balance ration (b) maintenance ration (c) production ration (d) weaners ration(e) broilers ration

2. The ingredient which is not a major source of minerals in animal feed is

(a) oyster shell (b) fish meal (c) bone meal (d) palmkernel meal (e) dical phosphate3. Which of the following class of poultry feeds has the highest protein content?

(a) chick mash (b) grower mash (c) layer’s mash (d) broiler starter (e) broiler finisher

4. The vitamin which is essential for the growth of spermatozoa in males and the development of foetus in females is(a) Vitamin A (b) vitamin D (c) vitamin E (d) vitamin K (e) vitamin B

5. Which of the following class of nutrients is used mainly for energy production in farm animals(a) carbohydrates (b) proteins (c) vitamins (d) minerals (e) amino acids

ESSAY QUESTIONS(a) Explain the term ‘Ration’

(b) Name four classes of livestock feed and list two characteristics of each class(c) Distinguish between maintenance and production ration

2. (a) State eight functions of water in livestock management(b) List eight essential mineral element required in animal nutrition

3. In a tabular form, state(a) four food nutrients in livestock production(b) two sources of each food nutrients and(c) two function of each food nutrients

4. Mention four factors normally considered when deciding the type of feed an animal should be placed on

5. Write short note on the following (a) Maintenance ration(b) Production ration(c) Balance ration(d) Malnutrition

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENTAgricultural Science for Senior Secondary Schools book 2 pages 141 to 150WEEKEND ASSIGNMENTState essential ingredients that should be in the following ration and give reasons;1. Laying bird 2. Lactating ration 3. Flushing rationWhat can you do to correct the following nutritional diseases in farm animals;(a) Ricket and osteomalacia(b) Scurvy(c) Night blindness(d) Beri Beri(e) pregnancy ketosis

BIOLOGYWEEK 2

CLASS: SS2 DATE----------------------------TOPIC: CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES

CONTENT:

(a)What it means

(b)Ways of ensuring

(c)Benefits of conservation.

SUB-TOPIC 1: MEANING OF CONSERVATION

Meaning of conservation of national resources.

Conservation is the diligent and wise use of the earth’s resources to achieve the highest quality of living for all mankind on sustainable basis. Natural resources simply mean the endorsement of nature from which man satisfies his basic needs.

Conservation of natural resources can therefore be referred to as “the controlled exploitation and diligent use of available natural resources in such a way as to sustain their availability”. It is the preservation of the amount of nature of the environment.

Recycling Aluminum CansThe Alcoa Recycling Company in New Jersey processes aluminum cans into large bales at a collection point. In an effort to conserve nonrenewable natural resources, many industries and individuals recycle waste aluminum.

Natural resources can be classified as a:

a. Abiotic natural resources which are non-living or non-replaceable. E.g. ores and materials extracted from the ground.

b. Biotic natural resources which are living or replaceable e.g. wildlife, forest, water, air, sunlight etc.

IMPORTANCE OF CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.

There is the urgent need for the effective conservation of natural resources if mankind is to get maximum and lasting benefit from nature. The following reasons necessitate the conservation of natural resources:

1. Fast depletion of natural forest through overlogging and over grazing.

2. Risk of extinction of indigenous wildlife and fish species through uncontrolled hunting and fishing.

3. Rapid soil degradation through poor land use and obsolete agricultural practices.

4. Pollution of surface and ground water resources through indiscriminate disposal of all kinds of wastes.

5. Desert encroachment.

6. Bad mining practice.

7. High population growth.

Resources that need to be conserved are:

a. Non-renewable resources like fossil fuels (crude oil), minerals.

b. Renewable resources like water, wildlife, forest.

EVALUATION

1. Waht is meant by conservation of natural resources?

2. What are the divisions of natural resources?

3. State 4 reasons why conservation of natural resources is important to a nation.

4. Mention 5 natural resources that need urgent conservation in your area.

SUB-TOPIC 2:WAYS OF ENSURING CONSERVATION.

The responsibility of conservation of natural resources should be the collective effort of both government and individuals.

These efforts should include the following:

- Government agencies: the primary task of these bodies is to see to the protection and conservation of specific areas of concern. Examples are Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, Forest Reserved Authority, Conservation Foundations etc.

- Legislation: these are usually law and treaties put in place by National and international governments and organization to protect undue exploitation of endangered species and other forms of resources. Examples are Anti-whaling law, prohibition of bush burning and tree felling and law against gas flaring.

Tanzania Game ReservesTanzania devotes a substantial portion of its land to conservation areas in order to preserve its indigenous east African wildlife. These reserves, which include Serengeti National Park, Selous Game Reserve, and Ngorongoro National Park, provide a home to animals such as elephants, baboons, zebras, and giraffes. This picture shows a migration of gnu at Ngorongoro.

- Conservation Education: this effort aims at bringing awareness and public enlightenment to the general public on the essence of conservation. Special programmes aimed at involving all and sundry in the practical activities of conservation are also effective.

- Erection of parks and reserves: this strategy involves the identifying of unique areas and setting them aside for the protection and conservation of plants and animals. E.g. Yankari, Kainji, Olokemeji forest.

Some problems militating against the above efforts at conservation are:

1. Over population which leads to increase demand on limited resources thereby causing undue exploitation of resources.

2. Inadequate awareness due in part to the failure of governments in conservation education and ineffective public awareness campaign.

3. Poor funding resulting in the poor or non-implementation of government policies and programmes on conservation.

4. Limited land for the establishment and maintenance of games and forest reserves and other related conservation projects.

EVALUATION

1. Who should bear the responsibility of conserving natural resources in a nation?

2. Mention and explain 3 ways of ensuring conservation of natural resources.

3. Why is it difficult to achieve effective conservation of natural resources.

4. In what practical ways can you contribute to the national effort of conservation.

SUB-TOPIC 3: BENEFITS OF CONSERVATION

Apart from ensuring sustained availability of high quality resources for mankind basic needs, conservation of natural resources will afford the following benefits:

1. Improvement of the quality of human life in a clean and healthy environment.

2. Preservation of the beauty of the natural environment of scenery such as lakes, waterfalls, mountains etc.

3. Boost of tourism to national parks and reserves.

4. Great scientific benefits as living organisms are studied in their natural habitats.

5. Protection of rare and/or endangered species of organisms.

6. Prevention and control of erosion and desert encroachment.

7. Prevention of exploitation of mineral resources.

EVALUATION

1. State the benefits of the conservation of natural resources.

2. In what ways do the conservation of resources in our environment improve the quality of life.

3. How does the conservation of natural resources enhances the economy of a nation?

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objectives

1. Effective control of natural resources by man is described as (a) Utilization (b) Evaluation (c) Conservation (d) Integration (e) Development

2. The following natural resources are renewable except (a) water (b) Crude oil (c) Air (d) Soil (e) Plants.

3. One of the methods of ensuring conservation of natural resources may be by (a) bush burning (b) felling of tree (b) mechanised farming (d) establishment of forest reserves (e) continuous cropping.

4. The need for preserving and conserving natural resources is most urgent these days due to _____ (a) fast depletion of natural forest resources (b) high rate of corruption (c) low prices of materials from the forest (d) bad government policies (e) slow rate of desert encroachment.

5. One of these is not a benefit of conservation of natural resources (a) poor patronage by tourists to waterfalls (b) great scientific value (c) preservation of natural beauty (d) sustained availability of resources (e) conservation of endangered species.

ESSAY

1a. Define conservation of natural resources.

1b. with two examples each distinguish between abiotic and biotic natural resources.

2a. State three reasons why conservation of natural resources is important to a nation.

2b. Explain the reasons why water as a resource need to be given special attention to conservation.

3a. In what practical way can conservation education be used as an effective tool in government’s hand to control natural resources.

4a. Discuss any four challenges facing the nation in her effort to effectively conserve essential natural resources.

5a. In what ways has conservation of resources benefited the nation? Give practical examples.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read “Exam Focus Biology” for WAEC and SSCE, by A. Egunyomi et al; Pages 126-131.

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about “Conservation Pest and Diseases of Crops”

WEEKEND ACTIVITY: List 5 challenges facing conservation of natural resources in Nigeria and suggest possible solutions to them.

REFERENCES

EXAM FOCUS: Biology for WASSCE/SSCE by:

1. A. Egunyomi et al, University Press Plc, Ibadan.

2. Modern Biology for SSS by Sarojini T. Ramalingam, Africana first Publishers Ltd.

WEEK 3.

CLASS: SS2 DATE:...................................

TOPIC: CONSERVATION, PEST AND DISEASES OF CROPS

CONTENT:

(a)Life cycles of pests

(b)Control of pests

(c)Diseases caused by pest and their agents (i)fungal diseases(ii)viral diseases(iii)bacterial diseases

(d)Control of pest.

SUB-TOPIC 1: DEFINITION OF PESTS

Pests are organisms that carry disease or cause damage to other organisms. Pests may be plants or animals. Plant pests are usually called weeds. Pests are very important to man because of their detrimental effects to humans and other organisms of concern to man e.g. agriculture or livestock production.

Crop pests are those that affect agricultural produce important to man, e.g. insects, birds etc. Livestock pests attack livestock useful to man e.g. Mites, Lice, Tapeworms.

Pests usually decrease the quantity and quality of agricultural production, especially when present in large numbers.

Crop-Destroying WeevilsWeevils are among the most destructive of pests that attack agricultural crops. Adult weevils lay their eggs in stalks or seeds of crops such as cotton, wheat, rice, and alfalfa. As larvae, weevils then feed on these plant tissues, extensively damaging the plant in the process.

EVALUATION

1. What are pests?

2. What make pest so important to man?

3. Mention 3 common pests you know.

SUB-TOPIC 2: CLASSIFICATION OF PESTS

Classification based on part attached:

Pests can be classified on the various parts of a crop plant they attack:

1. Stem borers: these are usually larvae of certain moths that bore into the stems of maize and feed on it. This result in the weakening and breaking of the stem.

2. Root feeders: these are insect larvae or adults found in the soil. They burrow into the ground and feed on yam tubers.

3. Leaf feeders: snails, bettles, grasshoppers eat up leaves of crops.

Damaged Crops in North KoreaA North Korean farmer assesses the damage done to his corn crop by poor growing conditions. In the mid-1990s severe flooding followed by droughts devastated the country's agricultural output and led to serious food shortages. By the late 1990s North Korea was experiencing widespread famine.

4. Young shoot feeders: aphids, mealy bugs and scale insects usually pierce and suck out juices from young shoots. Many sucking pests also transmit disease-causing orgainsns to the plants e.g. Cassava leaf mosaic virus is transmitted by white flies. Such pests are known as vectors.

5. Fruits and seed feeders: these are moths, fruit flies, cotton strainers and some beetles eat their way into fruits and seeds causing great damage.

Classification by their type and vertebrate pests. Pests can also be classified by their types. Most animal pests are:

- Insects like flies.

- Mites and ticks.

- Snails

- Flatworms

- Tapeworms

- Protozoa

- Birds

- Rodents

Animal Pests consists of invertebrates and vertebrates.

EVALUATION

1. Mention 2 ways pests are classified.

2. Briefly describe how pests affect root tubers.

3. Name 3 crops usually attached by pests.

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objectives

1. Pests are important to man because (a) they are rich source of protein (b) they contribute greatly to soil fertilizer (c) they affect valuable agricultural produce (d) they reproduce profusely (e) they are lower than man.

2. Plant parts usually attached by pests do not include this (a) flowers (b) stems (c) leaves (d) roots (e) fruits.

3. Which of the following crops is attached by stem-boring pests. (a) mango (b) cassava (c) maize (d) yam (e) groundnut.

4. An example of an invertebrate pest is ______ (a) adult housefly (b) aphids (c) Mosquito (d) Butterfly (e) amoeba

5. Which of the following vertebrate is not a known pest (a) Dog (b) birds (c) Squirrel (d) rabbit (e) Monkey

ESSAY

1. Explain the term Pests. What make them so important to man?

2. In what ways do Pests affect the quality and quantity of agricultural livestock produce?

3. Discuss the different types of pests that attack crops.

4. Mention 5 pests and describe the ways they attack crops and their effect on crops.

5. In what way has mono-cultural practice in commercial agriculture contributed to the emergence of pests as a production factor?

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read Nelson Functional Biology Bk 2. Pages 86-91.

PRE-READING ASSINGMENT

Read about pests and diseases of croups.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Make a table showing named pests and crops they attached and their effects on the crops.

REFERNCES

1. A. Egunyomi et al, University Press Plc, Ibadan.

2. Modern Biology for SSS by Sarojini T. Ramalingam, Africana first Publishers Ltd.

3. Nelson functional Biology for SSS by Kola Soyibo et al Bk II

WEEK 4.

CLASS: SS2 DATE:...................................

TOPIC: PEST AND DISEASES OF CROPS

CONTENT:

(a)Life cycles of pests (b)Control of pests(c)Diseases caused by pest and their agents (i)fungal diseases(ii)viral diseases(iii)bacterial diseases (d) Control of pest.

SUB-TOPIC 1: LIFE CYCLES OF PESTS

Most insect pests have the following stages in their life cycle i.e. egg- larva- pupa- adult.

The adult pests usually feed on leaves and fruit of crops. Larva that has come out from the eggs laid by the adults usually chew the bark of stems and feed on the phloem thereby damaging the crop. The larvae develop into the pupa stage and eventually into an adult.

Ticks more from egg stage to the larval stage. The larva gets attached to a nymph which then get attached to a second host begore eventually developing into an adult.

Insect pests go through either complete or incomplete life cycles but the larval and adult stages have been seen as causing most serious damages to crops.

Some examples of life cycles of pests are:

1. Yam beatle.

Egg- Larva- Pupa- Adult

The adult feed on yam tubers in the ground.

2. Colton Stainer

Egg-nymphs- Adult

The adults attack and damage cotton toll.

EVALUATION

1. What Is Meant By Life Cycle?

2. Explain the two types of life cycles.

3. Drraw the life cycle of a named pest.

SUB-TOPIC 2: CONTROL OF PESTS

Control of pest refers to the management and prevention of pestswith the sole aim of minimizing their effect on crops and livestock thereby maximising food production.

Pest control focuses on:

- Reduction in pest population.

- Protection of crops.

Nutria or CoypuIt is an irony of conservation biology that a species might be in need of protection in its native lands while it is persecuted as a rampant pest in places where it has been introduced. That is the case of the nutria, or coypu, Myocastor coypus, an aquatic rodent that hails originally from the marshes, streamsides, and lakeshores of southern South America. Overtrapping and wetlands destruction have caused many South American nutria populations to decline to the point that they have been granted official protection. Yet populations of nutrias introduced as furbearers to parts of North America and Eurasia have proved so successful that vigorous control measures must be applied to keep the numbers of these destructive rodents in check.

For effective control of pests, a good knowledge of pests’ habits and life cycles is vital. Careful study of the above will reveal the following for good use in control:

Stage and peak period of attack.

Resting stage after attack.

Most vulnerable stage for control.

Various methods have used to good effect in controlling pests.

Physical methods: these methods involve collection of pest by hand or traps are killing them. Burning, flooding and the use of scare-crows are ll methods controlling pests physically. This could be carried out in a limited are involving large-sized pests as snails, beetles, birds etc. Physical experiences are usually tedious and strenuous.

Cultural Methods: these involve modified farm practices like bush fallowing, crop rotation, mixed cropping, closed-season practice and changing planting time. The aim is make environmental condition unfavourable for the development of pests. Such methods are most effective because most pests are plant specific.

Biological methods: this involves the use of natural predators and parasites on the pests. Extracts from sources can also be used in pest control. Such are inexpensive and long lasting.

Chemical methods: this involves the use of pesticides such as insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, and rodenticide. The aim is to kill or reduce pest population thereby protecting the crops from attack. Though effective the numerous negative side effects of chemical pest control have posed serious concern.

Apart from the specified methods discussed above, there are modern developments in pest control. Sterile mode technique and use of chemicals attract and repel pests are in use. The combination of control practices and knowledge of life cycle of pests has also proved effective.

EVALUATION

1. What is pest control?

2. For an effective control of pests, what should be the focus?

3. List 3 methods of pests’ control.

4. Mention 3 pests and indicate the chemical agent used in their control.

Fungal Diseases of PlantsMost types of plant-related diseases are caused by fungi. The leaves of this plant have been infected by tar-spot fungus. Fungi can infect all parts of the plant including leaves, stems, flowers, roots, and fruit. The physical manifestations of fungal diseases of plants include wilting, club root, root rot, wood rot, cankers, various types of mildews, blights, lesions, and leaf spots. The effects of fungal diseases can be devastating as evidenced by the potato blight that destroyed the Irish potato harvest of 1845 and caused a widespread famine in Ireland.

SUB-TOPIC 3: DISEASES CAUSED BY PESTS AND AGENTS.

- Fungal diseases: Fungi diseases in crops are caused by Fungi which are usually microscopic and parasitic. Fungal diseases attack the leaves, roots and stem of plants. Smut, rust, blight, root rot, and downy mildew are fungal diseases.

- Viral diseases: these are diseases which are parasites. Common symptoms include Mosaic motting, lesions, chlorosis, stunting and recrosis. Many plant viral infections are spread by insect vectors like aphids, beetles and hoppers. Crops affected by viral diseases are Tobacco, Cassava, and garden egg.

- Bacterial diseases: these are caused by bacteria which tend to form spotting of leaves, stems and fruits. Bacteria also cause soft rots, bacterial blight, bacterial wilt and bacteria galls.

EVALUATION

1. What are the causative agents of pest diseases in crops?

2. List 3 symptoms of viral diseases.

3. Which plant parts are usually affected by fungal diseases?

SUB-TOPIC 4: CONTROL OF DISEASES CAUSED BY PESTS

Control of diseases caused by pests involves:

Prevention of crops from being infected by disease-causing agents.

Destruction of disease-causing agents and their respective vectors.

Prevention of disease plants or animals from entering into country by government.

Distribution disease-free planting materials.

Other methods are:

a. Physical methods: this involves removal of diseased plants. Weed hosts are also removed. Bush burning and soil flooding are other methods.

b. Cultural methods: this involves the modification of farming practices to destroy disease-causing agents. Early planting and use of balanced fertilizers enable plants to be well established before the peak period of infection. Planting resistant varieties also help control diseases.

c. Chemical methods: this involves the use of chemical agents to either eradicate the crops from such agents. These are best methods of diseases control.

EVALUATION

1. Mention 3 targets in the control of diseases caused by pests.

2. How are fungal diseases by pests controlled in crops?

3. What is usually involved in the cultural methods of the control of plant diseases caused by pest?

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objectives

1. Which of the following sequence is true for (a) egg-adult- Nymph- Pupa (b)egg-pupa-larva-adult (c)egg-larva-pupa-adult (d)egg-nymph-adult (e)egg-larva-nymph-pupa-adult.

2. Which stages of the life cycle of pests causes the least damage to crops (a) Nymph and Adult (b) Pupa and Larva (c) Larvae and Adult (d) Adult and Pupa (e) egg and Nymphs.

3. Pest control involves the following except (a) reduction of pest population (b) protection of crops (c) good knowledge of life cycle of pests (d) good knowledge of pest habits (e) good study of the structure of the pests.

4. One of these is a common vector of plant diseases (a)Tsetse fly (b) Butterfly (c) Agama lizard (d) Bees (e) Squirrel/

5. The use of sterile melee technique is relevant in the _______ (a) study of the sex of insects (b) study of the population of insect (c) study of economic importance of insects (d) chemical method of pest control (e) modern means of pest control

ESSAY

1. With the aid of a diagram, describe the life cycles of pest indicating the stages most destructive in their attack.

2. In a tabular form, outlines 5 common pests of crops, their symptoms and their control.

3. Explain 4 pest control methods applicable to crops.

4. Discuss the benefits and disadvantages of the use of Biological and chemical methods of pest control.

5. What is crop rotation? Explain its benefits to pest control.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read Modern Biology for SSS by S.T. Ramalingam; Pages 70-77.

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about “Reproductive System in vertebrates”.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

List two pests of livestock and how they affect their quality of production.

CHEMISTRY

WEEK 2

TOPIC: OXIDATION – REDUCTION (REDOX) REACTION

CONTENT: 1. OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

(a) REDOX REACTIONS

2. OXIDATION NUMBERS OF CENTRAL ELEMENT IN SOME COMPOUNDS

(a) CONNECTION OF OXIDATION NUMBER WITH IUPAC NAME

3. OXIDISING AND REDUCING AGENTS

(a) REDOX EQUATION

SUB-TOPIC 1: OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Redox is a short form for reduction and oxidation reactions. The two reactions are opposing and complementary and they occur simultaneously. Redox has the following definitions

1. Definition of Oxidation reactions with examples(a) In terms of addition of oxygen: Oxidation is the addition of oxygen or removal

of hydrogen from a substance. Any reaction where there is addition of oxygen to a reactant is regarded as Oxidation.

Some examples are:

(i) 2Mg(s) + O2(g) 2MgO(s) oxidation of magnesium

(ii) C(s) + 2ZnO(s) CO2 (g) + 2Zn(s)

In this reaction, oxygen (O) was added to carbon (C) to form Carbon (iv) oxide (CO2). That is carbon was oxidised to Carbon (iv) oxide.

(b) In terms of hydrogen removal: Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen from a compound e.g. (i) combustion of hydrogen sulphide

2HS(g) + O2(g) 2H2(l) + 2S(s)

H2S(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl2(g) + S(s)

In both reactions, hydrogen sulphide was oxidised to sulphur. The second reaction shows that oxidation can occur without the involvement of oxygen

(c) In terms of loss of electron: When an atom loses electron during a chemical; reaction, then an oxidation has taken place. For example in the oxidation

4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)

Na Na + e- the loss of electron by sodium atom (Na) to form sodium ion (Na+) in sodium oxide

2. Definition of reduction with examples

Definitions of reduction are the opposites of the definitions of oxidation.

(a) Removal of oxygenE.g. Cu(s) + ZnO(s) CuO(s) + Zn(s)

In this reaction zinc oxide was reduced to zinc(b) Addition of hydrogen

e.g. H2S(g) +Cl2(g) 2HCl (g) + S(s)

chlorine is reduced to hydrogen chloride.(c) Gain of electrons

e.g. 4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s) i.e oxygen gained electron20 + 4e- 202-

(d) In terms Of Decrease In Oxidation NumberZn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

The oxidation number of copper decreased from +2 in copper (ii) salt to zero in copper.

(e) Reduction occurs when electro negative element is added3. Redox Reaction And Electron Transfer: considering all the reactions used as

examples so far, it would be seen that both oxidation and reactions occur together see illustration below:

(i) Cs +2ZnO(s) CO2 (g) + 2Zn(s)

Oxidation

Oxidation(ii) Na(s) + O2 (g) 2Na2O(s)

ReductionBecause 2Na 2Na+ + 2e- (loss of electron is oxidation)2O- + 4e- 2O 2- (gain of electron is reduction)

The above electron transfer equations can be written for most redox reactions.More examples are

(i) 2KI + Fe2(SO4)3(aq) I2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) + 2FeSO4(aq)

Ionically

2I-(aq) 2I+

(aq) + 2e- (loss of electrons in oxidation)

The above equation is the redox reaction .Each half reaction cannot occur alone because an atom cannot receive or donate electron without another atom around that must donate or receive the electron.

Evidence of electron transfer in redox reactions can be proved using a simple electro chemical cell.

EVALUATION

1. Define reduction in terms of electron transfer.2. Explain the experiment which proves that there is electron transfer in redox

reaction

SUB TOPIC 2: Oxidation numbers of central elements some compoundsOxidation number is the electrical change assigned to an atom in accordance with some prescribed set of rules

RULES FOR DETERMING OXIDATION NUMBER

The following sets of rules are used to determine the oxidation state or number of substances.

1. The oxidation number of an element in an un-combined state is zero, for example the oxidation number of Hydrogen, Oxygen and Sodium atom in a free state or un-combined with another element is zero.

2. In most compounds containing hydrogen, the oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 except in hybrids where it is -1

3. Electrons shared between two unlike atoms are counted with the more electro negative atom. For example, in water molecule the electron are regarded as being with the more electronegative oxygen. Thus in H2O, each hydrogen atom is in +1 oxidation state, and the oxygen atom is in -2 oxidation state.

4. In most compounds containing oxygen, the oxidation number of each oxygen atom is -2 except in peroxides where it is -1. E.g. hydrogen peroxides, (H 2O2), sodium peroxide (Na2O2), barium peroxide (BaO2)

5. The oxidation number of each halogen is -1, except when bonded with fluorine which is the most electro negative. For instance in IF7, each fluorine atom is in oxidation state of -1 and iodine is in oxidation state of +7

6. The sum of all the oxidation numbers of elements in a compound is zero and with this simple relationship, the oxidation number of each element in a compound can be calculated.

7. In simple ions, i.e. ions containing one atom, the oxidation number is equal to the change on the ion. For example the ion Al3+ has on the oxidation number of +3, the ion Cu2+ has the oxidation number is -2

8. What about complex ion? In a complex ion (i.e. ion consisting of more than one element) the oxidation is the algebraic sum of all the oxidation numbers of all the elements in the ion. This will be the sign on the ion and of the same size. For example, in tetraoxosulphate (vi) ion (SO42-) the overall charge is -2 which its oxidation number is. It is obtained as follows:

(OxidationnumberofS )+ 4(OxidationnumberofO ) =¿

+6 +4 x (-2) = -2

For other ions such as OH-, NO3-, NO2-

3, SO2-3, PO3-

4, NH4+ their oxidation numbers

are -1, -1, -2, -3 and +1 respectively.

Calculation of oxidation number

With the rules for determining oxidation numbers in our memory, it is possible to calculate the oxidation number of any given element in an ion or a compound .

Worked examples

1. Calculate the oxidation number of chromium in CrO2-4

Solution

This can be solved by simple linear equation by making the unknown subject of formula. We have 4 oxygen and its oxidation is -2

Let the unknown (oxidation number of Cr be x)

But CrO2-4= -2 (because the sign on the ion is -2)

x + (-24) = -2x – 8 = -2x = -2 + 8x= +6

Thus the oxidation number of Cr in CrO2-4 is +6

Note: oxidation number is never written as a neutral number, i.e. it is either written as a neutral number, i.e .It is either written as a positive or negative number.

2. Calculate the oxidation number of sulphur in H2SO4

SolutionThe oxidation number (O.N) of hydrogen is +1 and the two hydrogen atoms will give+2. The four oxygen atoms will give (-2 x4) = -8, since -2 is the oxidation number (O, N) of an atom of oxygen

∴ 2×(+1) + x + (4 × -2) =0

+¿ 2 + x + -8 =0

x =0 +8 -2

x =+8-2

x =+6

CONNECTION OF OXIDATION NUMBERS WITH IUPAC NAMES

From all the examples considered so far, it can be seen that the names of most inorganic compounds reflect.

The oxidation numbers of the elements with variable oxidation numbers e.g. iron (ii) ion, in this, oxidation number of Fe is +2

1. the number of oxygen atoms in the compound e.g.

CO32+ is trioxo (i.e. three oxygen atoms)

SO24- is tetraoxo (i.e. four oxygen atoms

Cr2O72- is heptaoxo (i.e. seven oxygen atoms)

Hence, if the formula of a substance is known, the IAUPAC name can be written by calculating the oxidation number of the central atom using the fixed oxidation numbers of the other atoms like oxygen, hydrogen and halogen.

For example:

KMnO4 has oxidation number K= +1 and O4= 4 × -2

i.e. +1+x + -8 = 0 where x is the oxidation number of Mn, therefore= 0 + 8-1 =7. Therefore, the name is potassium tetraoxomaganate (vii)

The Following Prefixes and Suffixed Should Be Noted

PREFIX SUFFIX

1= mono- 1 SO2-3= sulphate (iv)

2= di- 2. SO4= sulphate (vi)

3.= tri - 3. MnO4=maganate (v)

4. =tetra- 4. PO3-4 = phosphate (v)

5= penta 5. ClO-3=Chlorate (v)

6= hexa- 6. CO2-3 = Carbonate (iv)

7= hepta – 7. Cr2O2-4=chromate (vi)

8. =octa- 8 . NO-3 = nitrate (v)

9.= snona – 9. BrO- = bromate (i)

10. = deca 10. IO- =iodate (i)

11. IO-3- iodates (i)

12. ClO-= Chlorate (i)

13. MnO2-4=manganate (vi)

Worked examples

1. Calculate the oxidation number of manganese in KMnO4 and hence name the compound in IUPAC nomenclature

Solution

Let unknown (oxidation number of Mn) = x

K= +1, O = -2

KMnO4= 0

1 + x + (-2 x4) =0

1 + x -8 =0

X – 8 = -1

X= -1 +8

X= +7

The oxidation number of manganese is +7 and the name of the compound is potassium tetraoxomanganate(vii) salt. The tetraoxo means there are 4 oxygen atoms in the compound.

2. Calculate the oxidation state of chromium in Cr2O2-7 and give its IUPAC name

Let the unknown = x

O= -2 and Cr2O-7 = -2

2x + (-2 x 7) = -2

2x – 14 =-2

2x = -2 +14

2x =+ 12

X=+6

The oxidation state of chromium is +6

There are two chromium atoms and there are seven oxygen atoms, there is a charge on the compound making it an ion. Thus, the name is heptaoxodichromate (vi) ion.

EVALUATION

1. What is the oxidation number of manganese in each of the following species? (i) MnCl2 (b) MnO2 (c) MnO-4

2. Determine the oxidation number of chromium in Cr2O7-2, then name in IUPAC.

SUBTOPIC 3: OXIDIZING AND REDUCING AGENTS

A. Oxidising agent: This is a substance which adds oxygen or removes hydrogen form a substance or a substance which accepts electron, i.e. electron acceptor. Consider the following reactions.

1. Oxidation in terms of addition of oxygen: oxidizing agent will add oxygen to a substance e.g.

C(s) +2ZnO(s) CO2(g) + 2Zn (s)

It is the oxidising agent because it added oxygen to (i.e. oxidise) carbon to form CO2

2. Oxidation in term of removal of hydrogen: oxidizing agent will add oxygen to a substance e.g

2H2S (g) + O2 (g) 2H2O (l) + 2S(s) or H2S (g) + Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g) + S(s)Oxygen and chlorine are the oxidizing agents because they removed hydrogen from H2S to form sulphur

3. Oxidation in term of loss of electrons: oxidizing agent will gain electrons e.g2FeCl2(s) + Cl2 (g) 2Fecl3(s) 2Fe2+ + 2Fe3+ +2e-

Cl2 + 2e-2cl-

The oxidizing agent is chlorine (Cl2) because it gained electrons lost by Fe2+

Other means of identifying an oxidising agent is the substance.

(i) Which is reduced

(ii) Whose oxidation number has decreased

B. Reducing agent: This is a substance which adds hydrogen to another substance or removes oxygen from that substance or this substance which donates election, i.e. an electron donor.

Consider the following reactions1. Adds hydrogen e.g hydrogen sulphide reduces chloride to hydrogen chloride in

H2S(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl (g) + 2S(s)

2. Removes oxygen e.g. Carbon inC(s) + ZnO(s) CO2(s) + 2Zn(s)

3. Has its oxidation number increases e.g. inZn(s) + CuSO4 (a q) ZnSO4 (a q) + Cu(s)

Zinc is the reducing agent because its oxidation number increased from zero in zinc to +2 in zinc tetraoxosulphate (vi) that is, it was oxidised.

The Table below give some common reducing agent and oxidizing agents.

OXIDIZING AGENTS

Oxygen O2

Hydrogen peroxide H2O2

Chlorine (and other halogen) Cl2

Acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate (viii) KMnO4

Acidified potassium heptaoxchromate (vi) K2Cr2O7

Hot concentrated tetraoxsulphate (vi) acid H2SO4

Concentrated trioxonitrate(v) acid HNO3

Silver salt (and metals low in the series e.g cu) Ag+

REDUCING AGENTS

Hydrogen H2

Carbon CPotassium KIHydrogen sulphide H2SSulphur(iv) oxide SO2

Iron(II) salt SO2

Sodium (and other reactive metals) NaAmmonia NH3

Generally, metals that are highly electro positive e.g. Na, K and Mg lose electrons easily and so are good reducing agents (they release their electrons to another thus reducing it). Non-metals that are highly electro negative e.g. O, Cl and F are good oxidizing agents (they easily accept electrons from another thus oxidizing it).

TEST FOR OXIDIZING AGENTS

Strong reducing agents like iron (ii) salt and hydrogen sulphide are used.

1. Green aqueous solution of iron (ii) salt turns brown in the presence of an oxidising agent .

Fe2+ Fe3+ +e-

Blue brown

Note: Freshly prepared ion (ii) salt is used.

(ii) Hydrogen sulphide forms deposit of sulphur when passed through the solution of an oxidising agent.

S2- S(s) + 2e-

TEST FOR REDUCING AGENTS

Strong oxidising agents like acidified potassium tetraoxomagnate(viii) and acidified potassium heptaoxo chromate (vi) are used

i. The purple colour of acidified potassium tetraoxomanganate (vii) is turned colourless in the presence of a reducing agent.

MnO4(aq) + 8H+(aq) +5e- Mn2+ + 4H2O(l)

Purple acid colourlessii. The orange colour of acidified potassium heptaoxchromate(vi) is turned

green in the presence of a reducing agent.Cr2O7

2-(aq) +14H+

(aq) + 6e- 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)

Orange acid green

Balancing Ionic (Redox) Equation

In balancing ionic equations, the following steps can be taken.

i. Examine the given equation carefullyii. Balance the number of atoms first by adding the correct number of H+ and

H2O on the appropriate sides of the equation when an acid is involved.iii. Next, balance the number of charges by adding appropriate number of

electrons on the right side of the equation.iv. Lastly, count the atoms on both sides of the equation. If they are equal,

then the equation is balanced in atoms (or molecules); also check the charge; if equal, then it is balanced ironically too.

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. What is the value of n in the following equation

XO-4 +8H+ + ne- X2+ 4H2O

SolutionXO-

4 + 8H+ + ne- X2 + 4H2O

In the given equation, the atoms are balanced but the charges are not. On the left of the equation, we have a net charge of

-1 on XO-4 + 8H+ + ne-, i.e. -1 +8 =+7

On the right hand side, we have just +2 which is on X2+. Then, for these charges to be equal on both sides of the equation, we have to add 5electrons which will neutralize 5 positive charges from the +7, thereby reducing it to +2, which balances the equation below

WORKED EXAMPLE 2

Balance the following Redox equation:

CrO2-7 + H+

(aq) Cr3+(aq) + H2O(l)

Solution

The first step is to balance the atoms before the charges.

On the left hand sides (LHS) there are 7 oxygen atoms on

CrO2-7,, but on the right hand side (RHS), there is only one oxygen atom, the

oxygen is balanced by writing 7 in front (coefficient) of H2O

On the same LHS, there are 2 atoms of chromium, but one on RHS; write 2 in front of the Cr3+ to balance it.

The 7 in front of H2O (i.e. 7H2O) now on RHS, gives 14 atoms of hydrogen, but only one on the LHS. Then write 14 as hydrogen, but only one on the LHS. Then write 14 as a coefficient of H+, this gives the equation below which is balanced in terms of atom, but not in charges yet

CrO2-7 + 14H+ 2Cr3+ + 7H20

Now to balance the charges

LHS: -2 on Cr2O2-7, +14 on 14H+

i.e. -2 +14= +12 net charge

RHS: +3x2= +16 net change

Add 6 electrons to neutralize the 6 excess positive charges on LHS.

This gives the balanced equation below:

Cr2O2-7 + 14H +6e- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

EVALUATION

1. Define reduction in terms of election transfer2. Using appropriate examples, explain (i) oxidizing agent (ii) reducing agent3. What is the oxidation number of iron in FeO3?4. What is the oxidation number of nitrogen in Al (NO3)2?

5. What is the value of x in the following equation?Cr2O7

2- + 14H+ + Xe- 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST:

1. The oxidation number of manganese in the reaction: MnO -4 + 8H+ + 5e-

Mn2+(aq) +4H2O(l)

(a) +3 to +5 (b) +7 to +2 (c) +3 to +2 (d) +7 to +52. Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe (s) + 3CO2(g) the oxidation agent is (a) Fe2O3 (b) CO

(c) Fe (d) CO2

3. In which of the following is oxidation number of sulphur +2? (a) H2SO4 (b) H2SO3 (c) SO2 (d) H2S

4. Which of the following can act as both oxidizing and reducing agent? (a) KMnO4 (b) H2O2 (c) SO2 (d) H2S

5. Which of these does not define reduction? (a) it is loss of electron (b) it is addition of hydrogen (c) it is addition of electrons (d) decrease in oxidation number

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. List the oxidising agent in the following

(i) 2H2O(l) + 2Fe2(g) 4HF(aq) + O2(g)

(ii) 2FeCl2(s) + Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)

(iii) H2S(g) + Cl2(g) 2HCl(g) +S(s)

2. Consider the following equation:

MnO-4 + 8H+ + Xe- Mn2+ + YH2O

State the (i) Values of x and y (ii) oxidation state of Mn in MnO-4

3. Calculate the oxidation number or state of sulphur in the following compounds and give their IUPAC names.

(i) CS2 (ii) H2SO4 (iii) H2S2O7

4. CU2S(s) +O2(g) 2CU(s) +SO2(g)

What is the change in oxidation number of copper in reaction?

5. What is the oxidation number of manganese in each of the following species? (i) MnCl2 (ii) MnO2 (iii) MnO4

-

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read comprehensive chemistry by G N C. Ohia et al

PRE READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about ionic theory from Melrose chemistry for senior secondary 2 pages 111 to 116

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

Explain the experiment which proves that there is election transfer in redox reactions

REFRENCE TEXTS

Comprehensive Chemistry by G N C Ohia et al

WEEK 3

TOPIC: IONIC TEORY

CONTENT:

1. Electrovalent and covalent compounds

(i) Electrolytes and non-electrolytes

2. Weak and strong electrolytes

(i) Electrochemical series

IONIC THEORY

Ionic theory was used to explain the behaviour of electrolytes when electric current is passed through their solution.

A Swedish chemist, Swante Arrherius (1887), was the first to present the ionic theory to describe electrolysis. The theory proposed that when an electrolyte is melted or dissolved in water, some if not all of the molecules of the substance dissociate into freely-moving charge ions i.e. positive ions (called cations) and negative ions (anions). The process of dissociation into ions is called ionization.

When an electric current is passed through an electrolyte, the free ions lose their random movement. The positive ion becomes attracted to the negative electrode (called the cathode) while the negative ion s moves toward the positive electrode (called anode). It is this ionization and mobility of ions that constitute current flow.

Arrhenius version of the ionic theory has been modified since the X-ray diffraction studies show that salts and strong alkalis consists of oppositely charged ions even in solid state. The modern theory of the proposes that ion in such solid state are pulled away from one another either as a result of heat energy applied when the solid melts or with the help of the solvent molecules when the solid dissolves. Thus,

Arrhenius theory ; NaC l ( s) →N a( aq)+¿+Cl (aq )

−¿¿ ¿

Moderntheory ;N a+¿C l−¿→Na (aq)

+¿+Cl( aq )−¿¿¿

¿¿

EVALUATION

1. Explain briefly, what happens when as electric current is passed through an electrolyte

2. Differentiate between Arrhenius version of ionic theory and the X-ray diffraction version

SUB-TOPIC 1: ELECTROVALENT AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS

ELECTROVALENT COMPOUNDS

When positively charge ions from metals bond with negatively charged ions from non-metals as a result of electrostatic force of attraction they form electrovalent compounds. The compound so formed are usually crystalline solid and soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents. Electrovalent compounds have high melting and boiling points due to the strong ionic bonds between the ions. For instance, the NaCl has 8010C as its melting point points and 14670C as its boiling point. Electrovalent compounds conduct electricity in molten state or in aqueous solution but not in solid state.

Na+¿+Cl−¿ →NaCl ¿ ¿

K+¿+Cl−¿→KCl ¿¿

Ionization and bonding in NaCl and KCl

COVALENT COMPOUNDS

Covalent compounds are formed by sharing of electrons between the two reacting atoms. The bond between the two atoms is called covalent bond and it is represented by a stroke (-) between the two atoms. More than one pair is represented by a double stroke (=) i.e double covalent bond or triple stroke (≡ ) i.e triple covalent bond. Covalent compounds have low melting and boiling points and are usually liquid or gases. They are soluble in organic solvents but insoluble in water. They do not conduct electricity in solid, liquid or solution.

EVALUATION

1. Explain the following (a) Electrovalent compounds(b) Covalent compounds2. Differentiate between (a) and (b) above

ELECTROLYTE AND NON –ELECTROLYTE

Electrolyte: these are compound (liquids) that conduct electricity and are decomposed in the process. Example include molten forms of electrovalent

compounds, molten alkalis or solution of electrovalent compounds, molten alkaline metal such as Na and K

Non- electrolytes: these are compounds that do not conduct electricity. Non-electrolytes are also called insulators. Examples include cane sugar, urea, covalent compounds, hexane, ethanol, benzene, tetra chloromethane, trichloromethane, ether etc.

SUB-TOPIC 2: WEAK AND STRONG ELECTROLYTES.

Weak electrolyte: a weak electrolyte is one that will undergo partial dissociated it does not dissociate completely. Examples are ethanoic acid, water, aqueous ammonia etc,

(i) (NH 4OH ) (aq )→NH 4 ( aq)+¿+OH (aq )

−¿¿ ¿

C H3COOH 3(aq)→CH 3COO(aq )−¿+H ( aq )

+¿¿ ¿

Strongelectrolyte: Strong electrolyte dissociates completely. Examples H2SO4, Pb (NO3)2, NaOH, Ca (OH) 2

H 2SO4 (aq)→2 H (aq )+¿+SO4 (aq)

2−¿¿ ¿

NaOH (aq)→Na(aq )+¿+OH( aq )

−¿¿ ¿

Pb (NO3 )2→Pb( aq)2+¿+OH ( aq)

−¿¿¿

EVALUATION

1. Distinguish between electrolyte and non-electrolyte.2. Classify each of the following as strong/weak electrolyte: potassium chloride,

sodium ethonoate, petrol, aqueous ammonia, cane sugar.3. Explain why NaCl(s) does not conduct electricity, but NaCl (aq) does

SUB-TOPIC 3: ELECTROCHEMICAL SERIES

Electrochemical series also known as reactivity series is an arrangement of the standard electrolyte potentials of metal ions/metal half cells and those of non-

metal/non-metal half cells in order of starting from the most negative to the most positive. Strongly electropositive series while strongly electronegative elements (usually non-metals and oxidizing agents) are at the bottom of the series.

Importance of electrochemical series

1. Predicting the preferential discharge of ions in electrolysis. Metal down the series is preferentially discharged to the one above it and the non-metal higher in the series is discharged in preference to the ones below it.

2. Chemical reactivity of elements: metals in the series are arranged in decreasing order of chemical reactivity except for calcium which is less reactive than sodium but is above sodium.

3. Natural occurrence: metals above hydrogen in the series do not occur in the free state instead, they exist as compounds e.g. chlorides, sulphides, oxides etc.

4. Displacement and redox reactions: the series shows at a glance the order in which element will displace another. Metals will displace metals which are below them I the series. For redox reactions, reducing power of elements decrease down the reactivity series while their oxidizing power increases down the series

Factors affecting the preferential discharge of ions

1. Position of ions in the electrochemical series; the more electronegative ions is discharged at the cathodes while the more electropositive ions will be discharged at the anode.

2. Concentration of the competing ion; the ion with greater concentration is discharged in preference to the other regardless of the position on the electrochemical series

3. Nature of the electrode:4. The nature of the anode used affect the discharge of ions because it can take

part in the reaction, or products formed at the anode may react with it immediately after formation unlike the cathode whose nature does not usually affect products at the electrodes

EVALUATION

1. (a) define electrochemical series (b) Explain the factors affecting preferential discharge of ion

2. State the importance of the electrochemical series

GENERAL EVALUATION

OBJECTIVE TEST

1. Which of the following methods cannot be used to distinguish between a strong acid and a weak acid? (a) conductivity measurement (b) action on starch iodide paper (c) measurement of pH (d) measurement of heat of reaction

2. Which of the following substances decomposes when an electric current is passed through it? (a) glucose solution (b) zinc rod (c) tetrachloromethane (d) hydrochloric acid

3. Which of the following is not an electrolyte? (a) silver trioxonitrate (V) solution (b) sugar solution (c) copper (II) tetra sulphate (VI) solution (d) acidulated water

4. In electrolysis, reduction takes place at the ---- (a) anode (b0 cathode (c) electrodes (d) cations

5. Electrolysis is not applied in ---- (a) tin plating (b) purification of copper (c) extraction of aluminium (d) extraction of iron (e) manufacture of sodium hydroxide

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. (a) define the term anode and cathode(b) Distinguish between weak electrolyte and strong electrolyte

2. (a) What is an electrolyte? Give two examples(b) What is non-electrolyte? Give two examples

3. some metals are found to occur freely in nature while others occurs as compounds, explain each occurrence with examples of each types of metals

4. Differentiate electrolyte from non-electrolyte. Give examples each

5. briefly discuss ionic theory

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read New school chemistry for senior secondary schools by Osei Yau Ababio, pages 200-206 and 219-221

PRE-READING ASSIGNEMENT

Read about electrolysis

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

1. state the laws of electrolysis2. What are the uses of electrolysis?

WEEK 4TOPIC: ELECTROLYSISCONTENT: Meaning Of Electrolysis Terminologies – Electrodes, Electrolytes, Electrolytic Cell, and Electrochemical cell.Factors affecting the discharges of ions / product of electrolysisExamples of electrolysis – electrolysis of acidified water, copper (ii) sulphate and brine.

SUB TOPIC 1: MEANING OF ELECTROLYSISElectrolysis is the chemical decomposition of a compound brought by a direct current passing through either a solution of the compound or the molten compound.

TERMINOLOGIES

(a) Electrode: Electrodes are conductors in the form of wires rods or plates through which an electric current enters or leaves the electrolyte. We have the cathode and the anode

Note: In an electrolysis cell, the negative electrode is known as the cathode while the positive electrode is known as the anode.

In an electrochemical cell, the negative electrode is the anode while the positive electrode is the cathode.

ELECTROLYTES An electrolyte is a compound, in a molten or aqueous state which can conduct electricity and is decomposed in the process.Electrolytes conduct electric currents by movement of ions. Examples of electrolytes include NaCl, CuCl2, CUSO4, HCl, H2SO4 etc.Electrolytes may be weak or strong. Strong electrolyte ionizes completely and can conduct large electric current since they are composed entirely of free moving ions. Weak electrolytes e.g. organic acids are partially ionized and so do not conduct electricity. Non-electrolytes do not conduct electricity since they do not ionize. Examples are urea ethane, benzene, trichloromethane, cane sugar, ether, tetrachloromethane.An electrolytic cell is an assembly of two electrodes in an electrolyte and is used for the electrolysis of a substance.

An electrochemical cell is a devise in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. It can also be called voltanic cell or galvanic cell.

i. Electrolysisii. Electrolyteiii. Electrodesiv. Weak electrolytev. Strong electrolyte

vi. Non-elctrolyte

SUB TOPIC 2: FACTORS AFFECTING THE DISCHARGEDuring electrolysis the ions in the electrolysis positively and negatively charged. The negatively charge ion will immigrate to the negative charged cathode. In order to know which of the ions will be preferentially discharged at the electrodes, the following factors must be taken into consideration.1. The position of ions in the electrochemical series e.c.s

Electrochemical series

CATIONS ANIONES

K+ If two cations are present in an electrolyte the cation below the other one in the electrochemical series will be preferentially

If two anions are present in electrolyte, the anions that is above the other one in the electrochemical series will be preferentially

OH-Na+ I-Ca2+ Br-Mg2+ Cl-Al3+

Zn2+

Fe2+ NO3

discharged. dischargedSn2+

SO42-

Pb2+

H+F-

Cu2+

Hg2+

Ag+AU+

Pt+

Electrolysis of sodium chloride solution using inert electrodesNote: Inert electrodes are the electrodes that will tamper with the electrolysis. Examples are carbon (graphite) and platinum.

DIAGRAM

At the anode: Both OH- and Cl- will migrate to the anode where OH-

ions will be preferentially discharged because they are above Cl - in the electrochemical.cathodic half reaction: 4OH-

(aq) 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e-

At the cathode: Both Na+ ions and H+ ions migrate to the cathode where H+ ions are preferentially discharged because they are below Na+ ions in the electrochemical series.anodic half reaction: 4H+(aq) + 4e- 2H2(g)overall reaction: 4OH-

(aq) + 4H+(aq) 2H2(l) + O2(g) + 2H2(g).

Products of electrolysis: Hydrogen gas is produced at the cathode and oxygen gas is produced at the cathode oxygen is produced at the anode.

Effect of electrolyte on the electrolysis: At the end of the electrolysis, the electrolyte will more concentrated since OH- and H+ have been removed from the electrolyte.

2. CONCENTRATION OF IONS IN THE ELECTROLYTE e.g electrolysis of concentrated NaCl(aq) using inert electrodes.the electrolyte cell is the same as in number factor above, but the electrolyte is concentrated NaCl(aq)

ions in the electrolyte:CATIONS ANIONSNa+ OH-H+ Cl-

At the anode: Both, Cl- and OH- will migrate to the anode where Cl- ions will be preferentially discharged because they are more concentrated. (i.e they are more in concentration inside the electrolyte). anodic half reaction: 2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e-AT THE CATHODE: Bothe Na+ and H+ will migrate to the cathode where H+ will be preferentially discharged. This is because even though Na+ ions are more in concentration in the electrolyte, the distance between Na+ and H+ in the electrochemical is discharged. (in order words the first factor is still operating at the cathode)cathodic half reaction: 2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(g)

Overall reaction of electrolysis: Chlorine gas is produced at the anode and hydrogen gas at the cathode.

Effect of electrolysis on the electrolyteAt the end of the electrolysis, the electrolyte will become alkaline. H+ and Cl- have been removed from the electrolyte remaining Na+ and OH- which forms NaOH solution. 3. EFFECT OF THE NATURE OF ELECTRODEe.g Electrolysis of CuSO4 solution using copper anode. The cathode can be any electrode e.g platinum, graphite or even copper.The electrolysis cell is the same as above but the anode is copper and cathode is graphiteIons in the electrolyte:

CATIONS ANIONSCu2+ SO4

2-

H+ OH-At the anode: Both SO4

2- and OH- will migrate to the anode but none of them will be discharged. The reason is that, the anode (which is a copper metal) has the nature as the metallic ions (copper (II) ions) in the electrolyte. Cu (s) Cu2+

(aq) + 2e-(from anode)At the cathode: Both the Cu2+ ions and H+ ions will migrate to the cathode where Cu2+ ions will be preferentially discharged.Cathode half reactionCu2+

(aq) + 2e- Cu (s)Product of electrolysis: Since the normal electrolysis did not take place, the anode ionizes into the electrolyte. Copper metal get deposited on the surface of the cathode and the cathode becomes bigger in size.ELECTROCHEMICAL CELLS

When two half – cells with different electrode potentials are connected through a salt-bridge, they form a cell called Electrochemical cell. The electrochemical is also called a Voltaic cell or Galvanic cell, and

it is a device in which chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. In the electrochemical cell oxidation occurs in one –half –cell while reduction occurs in the other half –cell. The overall redox reaction results in flow of electrons or electric current. For example if the Zn2+

(aq) / Zn(s) half –cell is connected to Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s) half cell

through a salt bridge with the Cu2+ / Cu(s) made the right hand electrode, the cell produced is called a Daniel cell. In this cell, oxidation occurs at zinc electrode, this electrode is then negative electrode of anode. Reduction occurs at the copper electrode which functions as positive electrode or cathode as shown ion fig 7 presents the diagram of Daniel cell. The diagram is written in a short – hand form as Zn(s)/ Zn2+

(aq) // Cu2+(aq) / Cu(s). A n electric flows through the wire

connecting the two metals or electrons outside the solution. In this system, chemical energy is converted to electrical energy. In the fig7, Zinc atoms at the Zinc electrode lose two electrons each (oxidation) to form zinc ions which go into solution. In doing so, the zinc electrode becomes negatively charged and hence behaves as a negative electrode or anode. The excess electrons on the zinc electrode move along the wire to the electron deficient copper (II) ions. The copper (II) ions thus becomes reduced by gaining two electrons each to form metallic copper, which deposits itself on the copper electrode. The copper electrode becomes positively charged and behaves as positive electrode or anode. It is important to distinguish between the electrochemical cells and electric cell. In both, oxidation always occurs at the anode and reduction at the cathode. In an electrochemical cell, the negative electrode is the anode while the positive electrode is the cathode. In electrolytic cell on the other hand, the negative electrode is the cathode while the positive electrode is the anode.

ION: ion can be defined as element which has either gained or lost electron.

EVALUATION1. Differentiate the following terms; Electrolysis, electrodes, anode,

cathode, ions, electrolytic cell, electrochemical cells.

SUB TOPIC 3: ELECTROLYSIS OF ACIDIFIED WATER (DILUTE TETRAOXOSULPHATE (VI) ACID).

The equation of the reaction that is involved in this process is given as shown below:H2SO4 2H+ + SO4

2--------------------- (1)H2O H+ + OH- -------------------------- (2)At the cathode: H+ ions migrate to the cathode and are reduced by gaining electrons to become neutral hydrogen atoms. H+(aq) H(g) reduction.The hydrogen atoms then combine in pairs to form diatomic hydrogen gas molecules Hg + H(g) H2(g).At the Anode: SO4

2- and OH- anode. The ions migrate to the anode. The OH- ions being lower than SO4

2- in the electrochemical series are preferentially discharged. OH-(aq) OH(g) + e-. The OH groups interact to form water and oxygen molecules; 4OH H2O(L) + O2(g)The net result of the electrolysis is that two volumes of hydrogen are produced at the cathode and one volumes of oxygen is produced at the anode. The migration of SO4

2- ions to the anode and the discharge of the H+ ions cause a decrease in the concentration of H2SO4 acid around the anode disturbs the ionic equilibrium of water. To reverse this, more water ionizes H2O(L) H+ + OH-(aq). This produces an access of H+ ions and with the incoming SO4

2- ions, an increase in the concentration of H2SO4 acid is obtained at the anode. The overall result of the electrolysis is that the total amounts of the acid in the solution remain unchanged at the end of the electrolysis. Since two volumes of hydrogen are obtained at the cathode and one volume of oxygen is obtained at the anode, the entire process is equivalent to the electrolysis of water.

ELECTROLYSIS OF COPPER (II) CHLORIDE USING COPPER – CARBON OR PLATINUM ELECTRODEA copper rod is used as the cathode and carbon rod as the anode. The equations of the reaction involved were given as shown below: CuCl2 (aq) Cu2+ (aq) - Cl-(aq)

H2O(l) H+(aq)+ OH-(aq)

When electric currents is passed through the electrolytic solution, Cu2+

and H+ ions migrate to the cathode, and Cl- with OH- migrate to the anode. At the cathode: Cu2+ being lower than H+ in the electrochemical series is preferentially discharged. The Cu2+ gains two electrons from the cathode; which are in turn deposited as neural metallic copper at the cathode.Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu (s)At the Anode: Cl- for its higher concentration than OH- is preferentially discharged as it loses an electron to the anode and becoming chlorine atoms. Cl- (aq) Cl (g) + e-. The chlorine atoms then combine to form chlorine molecules. The discharge of copper and chlorine causes the electron to become progressively dilute as evidenced by the fading away of the light green colour of the electrolyte. If electric current is passed continuously without adding mire electrolyte, at a stage, the hydroxyl ions begin to discharge, because at this stage, the influence of concentration of Cl- ion is no longer the overall controlling factor. In the end, a mixture of chlorine and oxygen is obtained at the anode.

ELECTROLYSIS OF CuSO4 using copper –copper electrodes (i.e copper as cathode and copper as anode).The equation of the reaction of the electrolysis is given as shown below.CuSO4(aq) Cu2+ + SO4

2-(aq)H2O(L) H+(aq) + OH-(aq) In this case, because both the cathode and anode are made up of copper metal, at anode three possible mechanisms occurs.a. Discharge of SO4

2- ion by loss of electronsSO4

2-(aq) SO4 (g) + 2e-b. Discharge of OH- ions by loss of electrons OH-(aq) OH(g) + e-c. Copper metal loses electrons become Cu2+(aq)

Cu (s) Cu2+ (aq) + 2e-

Out of these possibilities, (c) occurs most readily because it requires the least energy. as a result, no ions are discharge at the anode. For each copper atom deposited, at the cathode, one atom of copper is dissolved from the anode to form Cu2+ ion in solution. Therefore, there is no change in the concentration of the electrolyte. The electrolysis

merely produces copper ions at the anode and deposits same at the cathode. The colour of the electrolyte does not change.

ELECTROLYSIS OF CuSO4 Solution Using copper – carbon electrode.The electrolyte ionizes as follows

CuSO4 (aq) Cu2+ + SO42-(aq)

H2O(l) H+(aq) + OH-(aq) When electric current is passed through the electrolyte Cu2+ and H+ ion migrate to the cathode, and SO4

2-(aq) and OH- ions migrate to the anode. At cathode, Cu2+

(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)At anode: The OH- ions is discharged preferentially because it is lower in the electrochemical series. Hence, oxygen is liberated at the anode.OH-(aq) OH(g) + e-4OH H2O(L) + O2(g)The solution gradually becomes acidic due to the presence of H+ and SO4

2- ions left behind in the solution. This is evident from the gradual fading away of the blue colour of the electrolyte.

ELECTROLYSIS OF BRINE: Concentrated sodium chloride solution (ionic NaCl solution) Note that in this electrolysis, the cathode can be either platinum carbon to the anode must be carbon to resist attack by chloride.The electrolysis ionizes thus:

NaCl(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)H2O(L) H+(aq) + OH-(aq)

When electric current is passed through the electrolytic solution Na+

and H+ ions migrate to the cathode, while Cl- and OH- ions move to the anode.At Cathode: Cu2+ being lower than H+ in the electrochemical series is preferentially discharged. The Cu2+ gains two electrons from the cathode and is in turn deposited as neutral metallic copper at the cathode.Cu2+(aq) 2e- Cu(s)At Anode: Cl- ions is preferentially discharged because its concentration is much higher than that of OH- ions. The Cl- ion loses an

electron to the anode and becomes chloride atoms. The chlorine atoms then combine to form chlorine molecules. Cl(g) + Cl(g) Cl2(g). The discharge of copper and chlorine causes the electrolyte to become preferentially dilute as evidenced by the fading away of the light green colour of the electrolyte. If the passage of electric current through the solution continues without adding more electrolytes, a stage is reached when the hydroxyl ions begin to be discharged. This is because at this stage, the influence of concentration of Cl- ion is no longer the overall controlling factor. In the end, a mixture of chlorine and oxygen is obtained at the anode.

EVALUATION1. Distinguish between a conductor and an electrolyte 2. Distinguish between an electrolytic cell and an electrochemical cell.3. How would you purify an impure copper metal?

GENERAL EVALUATION1. Describe fully with their equations the electrolysis of the following:

(i) acidified (ii) copper ii chloride (iii) copper ii tetraoxosulphate vi (vi) brine with copper-carbon electrode.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENTRead 2nd edition of comprehensive certificate chemistry by G.N.C. Ohia et al; pages 151 – 170

PRE READING ASSIGNMENTRead Faraday’s law of electrolysis and calculations, uses of electrolysis, purification, extraction and electroplating of metals, electrochemical series and factors that affect the discharge of ions in electrolysis or factors affecting the products of electrolysis

WEEKEND ACTIVITY1. List the factors affecting the products of electrolysis.2. State the Faraday’s law of electrolysis3. State three uses of electrolysis.

CIVIC-EDUCATION

WEEK 2

SUBJECT: CIVIC EDUCATION

CLASS: S.S.2

DATE ……………………….

TOPIC: TRAFFIC REGULATIONS

CONTENT: 1. Meaning of traffic regulations.

2. Traffic regulations

SUB-TOPIC 1: MEANING OF TRAFFIC REGULATIONS

Traffic rules and regulations refer to a set of laws prepared for road casers on how to behave on the road. Traffic regulations are those laws, rules and regulations which all road users must follow. The road users include pedestrians, motorcyclists, and drivers of all kinds of vehicles. It is called a high way code in UK, traffic code in USA and highway codes in Nigeria.

ROAD SIGNS AND TRAFFIC LIGHTS

Every day, we come across many signs on our roads.

Such signs include:

1. Traffic Lights : This is usually located at cross-roads junctions. Traffic lights have three colours, which are green, amber and red.

Each colour gives specific instruction to road users, e.g. Amber (Yellow light) indicates get ready to go, Green means go while red means stop.

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TRAFFIC LIGHT

2. Zebra Crossing : This is used to indicate where pedestrians (people walking) can safely cross the road. Once a pedestrian steps on the zebra line, motorists, motorcyclists and bicycle riders are expected to stop. Zebra crossing are usually constructed in front of schools, hospital, markets and busy spots.

3. Road Diversion : it is a road sign that prepares road users for a change in the direction of the road.

4. Hill Sign : the hill sign means to inform road users about the hill nature of the road ahead.5. Road Block : are stops on the road usually for security checks e.g. the police check point,

customs, immigration and Federal Road Safely Commission ( FRSC)

EVALUATION

1. What is Traffic Regulation2. What is Traffic Regulation called in the following countries:

a. USAb. UKc. Nigeria

3. List and explain 4 traffic signs

SUB-TOPIC 2: SOME TRAFFIC REGULATIONS IN NIGERIA

1. Registration of vehicles2. Obeying traffic officials3. Avoiding over speeding4. No driving by minors5. Do not drink and drive

6. All drivers must possess valid driver’s license7. Stopping for pedestrians to cross when you see zebra crossing8. Do not overtake in the bend9. No driving when mentally or physically unfit to drive10. Fire service vehicles and ambulance to be given free passage11. Traffic signs and lights must be obeyed12. No one shall park his vehicle in public place in such a way that it causes danger,

obstruction to other road users.

EVALUATION

Itemize 10 traffic rules and regulation

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Define traffic rules and regulation2. What is the name attached to traffic rules and regulation in the following countries

a. Nigeriab. USAc. UK

3. Explain in detail the following termsa. Traffic lightb. High hill signc. Road diversiond. Road block

4. Enumerate 8 traffic rules and regulation

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Set of laws prepared for road users on how to behave on the road is known as ________

(a) Road laws (b) Motor laws (c) Traffic rules (d) none of the above

2. In UK traffic regulation is called ________ (a) high way code (b) traffic code (c) road

codes (d) high way order

3. Amber in the traffic lights represents (a) go (b) ready to go (c) stop (d) ready to stop

4. Stops on the road usually for security checks is known as__________ (a) hill sign

(b) traffic light (c) road diversion (d) road block

5. Some of the traffic regulation include the following except ________ (a) Registration of vehicles (b) Obeying traffic officials (c) Zebra crossing (d) Avoiding over speeding

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Define traffic regulations

2. Mention 5 traffic rules and regulation

READING ASSIGNMENT

Read Mind Exploits Civic Education for Senior Secondary Schools 2 by B.S. Amao, pages 108 –

111.

PRE –CLASS READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about the roles of individuals and government in maintaining traffic regulations

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

State five individual and government role in maintaining traffic regulation.

REFERENCE TEXTS

1. Rasmed Civic Education for Senior Secondary Schools by Oyekunle Oyelami et al, Rasmed

Publication Limited, pages 149 – 150.

2. Melrose Civic Education for Senior Secondary Schools 2, O.O. Oyelami el at, Melrose Book

and publishing limited, pages 23 – 24.

WEEK 3

SUBJECT: CIVIC EDUCATION

CLASS: SS2

DATE: ……………………….

TOPIC: TRAFFIC REGULATION

CONTENT: 1. ROLES OF INDIVIDUALS AND GOVERNMENT IN MAINTAINING TRAFFIC REGULATIONS

SUB–TOPIC 1: ROLES OF INDIVIDUALS IN MAINTAINING TRAFFIC REGULATIONS

Traffic regulations are the guiding rules that are made to assist road users to bring about safety, orderliness and timely flow of traffic on the roads.

The four categories of road users are–: Pedestrian, Riders of bicycles of all types (including motor bikes), Riders of motor-tricycles and Drivers of automobiles of all types (cars, buses, vans, articulated Lorries)

i. It is the responsibility of all road users to obey all traffic rules and regulation in order to ensure the safety of all and smooth flow of traffic. All road signs, traffic lights warden or authority must be obeyed.

ii. All road users are to co-operate with the traffic officials.

iii. Individuals are to stay away from alcoholic substances before driving.

iv. We should be our brothers’ keepers by helping/offering assistance to genuine victims of accidents.

v. Drivers should drive within speed limit allowed for their vehicles – no phone calls, eating, smoking on the steering. They should undergo traffic training for proper education

vi. Pedestrian should walk on the pedestrian pathway or pavement.

vii. Wearing of reflective garment especially in the night while walking on the road.

viii. Parents should educate their children on road safety at home.

ix. Use of road safety belts while on seats of cars and safety helmet.

x. Traders should not obstruct traffic and endanger their lives by selling on the road sides and hawking on the road.

EVALUATION

1. What is traffic regulation?

2. Mention four categories of road users.

SUB-TOPIC 2: THE ROLES OF THE GOVERNMENT IN MAINTAINING TRAFFIC REGULATIONS.

The Nigerian Government established Federal Road Safety Commission (FRSC) by decree No. 45 of 1988 under the Military Regime of General Ibrahim Gbadamosi Babangida, February

1988. Amended in 1992 and passed into law by 2004. It was established to perform these functions.

- Prevention and reduction of road accidents on all public roads across the country

- Regulate, enforce and co-ordinate all road traffic and safety management activities.

- The government is responsible to strengthen traffic laws by making new laws and amending ineffective laws.

- Punishment of offenders that disregard or disobey traffic rules.

- Construction of road traffic signs on the major highways to enhance safety.

- There should be pubic enlightenment for example: public lectures, symposia, workshops, newspaper articles among others. So that the consequences of disobeying the law.

- NGOs also obey and assist traffic officials such as boys and girls brigade, boys scout. They visit function where there are traffic jam to regulate traffic. They also provide First Aid to accident victims.

The three main functions of the FRSC are:

- Making the highways safe for motorists and other road users.

- Recommending works and infrastructures to eliminate or minimize accidents on the highways.

- Educating motorists and members of the public on the importance of road discipline on the high ways.

Government also uses other bodies/agencies to maintain traffic regulation:

- Traffic Warden

- Highway Patrol Team

- Road Traffic Officer

- Vehicle Inspection Officers (VIO)

- Customs, Army Volunteered Special Road Marshal, Man O’ war, Nigerian Security and Civil Defense Corps.

EVALUATION

1. Explain four things an individual can do to maintain road safety.

2. List some programmes that the government can hold to enlighten the public.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Define traffic regulation?

2. Highlight four categories of road users.

3. Explain four things an individual can do to maintain road safety.

4. Enumerate some programmes that the government can hold to enlighten the public

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Objective Test

1. A motorist is expected to do all except

(a) Obey all road signs and traffic light signal

(b) Drive vehicle under 18 years.

(c) Drive vehicle properly insured

(d) Drive vehicle with proper identification number (plate number)

2. The main government agency that manages road safety and traffic regulation is ……..

(a) Federal Road User safety corps

(b) Federal Road Safety Council

(c) Federal Road safety command

(d) Federal Road Safety Corps

3. All these are agencies involved in maintaining traffic, regulates with the exception of ___ (a) Traffic warden (b) Traffic woman (c) Vehicle inspection officer (d) Highway Patrol Team.

4. The FRSC uses these media except ______ to reach the general public in its education programme on road safety.

(a) Radio (b) Television (c) Telephone (d) Newspaper

5. Which of these Nigerian Head of State established the FRSC?

(a) Olusegun Obasanjo (b) Muhammed Buhari (c) Ibraham Babangida (d) Sanni Abacha

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. State the roles of government in maintaining traffic regulations.

2. Mention some agencies that help to maintain traffic regulations.

3. List four functions of the Federal Road Safety Corps.

READING ASSIGNMENT

Read Basic Civic Education for Senior Secondary Schools. By Ukegbu Merry N et al Pages 114 – 123

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about interpersonal relationship and types of interpersonal relationships.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

List four examples of inter personal relationships

REFERENCE TEXTS

1. Mind Exploits Civic Education for Senior Secondary Schools by B. S. Amao

WEEK 4 DATE……………………….

SUBJECT: CIVIC EDUCATION

CLASS: SS2

TOPIC: RELATIONSHIPS

CONTENT: INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

SUB – TOPIC 1: MEANING OF INTER-PERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS.

Interpersonal relationship simply means relationship that exists between two parties. It is a relatively long-term association that may be based on emotions like love and liking, regular business interactions, or some other type of social commitment. It could also be said to be a mutual or cordial relationship that exists between people despite race, age, colour, tribe, political, social or religious affiliation.

Interpersonal relationships take place in a great variety of contexts, such as family, friendship, marriage, acquaintances, work, clubs, neighbourhoods, and places of worship. This interpersonal relationship may be regulated by law, custom or mutual agreement or society as a whole. Although human beings are fundamentally social beings, interpersonal relationships may not always be cordial or healthy. Unhealthy interpersonal relationships are those laden with frictions, quarrel and misunderstanding as well as those based on crime and other anti-social behaviours.

Good healthy true and sincere interpersonal relationships help to promote cordial relationship, peaceful and mutual co-existence, and tolerance for one another, harmony, concord and understanding in the society, all round well being and the development of the society.

Interpersonal relationship can take the form of:

i. Co-operation: This is having the ability and willingness to work together to achieve a common goal. This is very necessary to promote a peaceful and a happy society.

ii. Competition: This is a social situation in which people and organizations contest or compete with each other to obtain what may not be available for everyone in the society. It can also be a circumstance in which people compete to determine the best at something. Competition can be positive, healthy and pleasant or negative, unhealthy and unpalatable at times. It can bring about joy as well as sadness.

iii. Conflict: This refers to a state of disagreement, quarrel and confusion. Emotions, temper and hot anger rises when there is conflict that can result into violence. Conflict can be triggered off as a result of Domination, Deprivation, Envy, Ethnicity, Rivalry, Bribery and Corruption, Neglect, Religious bigotry, Marginalization, Cheating and Lack of Trust.

iv. Coercion: This involves the use of force to make someone or group of people do certain thing against their will. This action is very common among the law enforcement agencies and armed bandits. This is a crude and primitive style of relationship that should be discarded.

v. Exchange: This entails giving somebody something in return for good deeds done or services rendered. It may also be doing something to reciprocate what was done to one earlier. In this type of relationship, goods for goods, or goods for services, or goods for money, or service for money. Exchange enhances smooth and successful trade and business.

EVALUATION

1. State and explain the meaning of interpersonal relationship.2. List and discuss the forms of interpersonal relationships.

SUB-TOPIC 2: TYPES OF INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS

Many types of Interpersonal Relationships exist. However, we shall consider the following:

1. Family Relationship: This can be (a) Intra-family relationship

(b) Inter-family relationship

(a) Intra Family Relationship is friendship that exists within a family, either the nuclear or the extended family. This involves relationship among father, mother and their children i.e. (nuclear family relationship) and the relations within larger family setting i.e. uncles, cousins, nephews, in-laws- (extended family relationship).

(b) Inter Family Relation: This type of relationship exists between one family with another or with other families in the neighbourhood. This type results due to either residency, career, business, school, or religious group. They see themselves as “family friends”.

2. Marriage Relationship: This is relationship that exists between a man and a woman in marriage.

3. Friendship: This type of relationship is usually found among peers, classmates, neighbours and people of same faith.

4. Business Relationship: This type of relationship exists among people that associate with each other in trading activities such as buying and selling of goods and services, business transactions such as in banking, market, school management and administration. Wholesale and retail transactions etc.

5. Workplace Relationship: Some people associate with each other because they work in the same organization.

6. Community Relationship: This type of relationship exists among members of a community or society.

7. Group Relationship: This is the relationship that involves a number of people gathering together for a particular purpose e.g. for meetings, conferences, workshops, seminars, etc. Relationship in this setting takes place in corporate set up such as offices, companies, organizations, camps etc.

8. Trado-Rural Relationship: This type of relationship exists among rural dwellers. A village may associate with another during festivals, hunting expenditure and ceremonies.

9. Inter Cultural Relationship: People of different cultures can also relate with one another. This can be in form of inter tribal cultural exhibition etc. This is common among tribes and ethnic groups in Nigeria.

10. National Relationship: This relationship exists between nationals and citizens of the same country. For instance a Nigerian can associate and interrelate with another Nigerian in any part of the country.

11. International Relationships: This is a relationship that cuts across the globe. One country can relate with another in any part of the world. In this type of relationship, the Nigerian government can relate with USA, Britain, China, India, Ghana, South Africa etc. In the same vein, Nigerians can interrelate with citizens of other countries may be at friendship level, business associate etc.

12. Relationship can also be:

i. Formal: Those involved in this relationship are usually very polite to each other and dealings with each other are on official basis.

ii. Informal: In informal relationship, parties relate very intimately in a relaxed and friendly mood. Relationship is not with any restriction or boundary and is not bounded by any rules of polite or officious behaviour.

iii. Very close relationship: parties in this type of relationship are usually very close acquaintances. They share personal secrets, burdens and experiences with each other. They assist each other in times of need and difficulty.

EVALUATION1. Mention and discuss five (5) types of interpersonal relationships you know.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Highlight and discuss five (5) types of interpersonal relationships you know2. State and explain the meaning of interpersonal relationship.3. Mention and discuss the forms of interpersonal relationships.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Objective Test:

1. Interpersonal relationship can take the form of these but one ________ (a) co-operation (b) competition (c) communion (d) conflict

2. Interpersonal relationship can be regulated by one of these. (a) Conflict (b) Togetherness (c) Magic (d) Law

3. _________ is the ability to work together towards a common goal (a) commitment (b) cooperation (c) competition (d) consistency

4. The under mentioned are some of the factors that can cause conflict except___________ (a) poverty (b) ethnicism (c) crime (d) understanding

5. Relationships can be ____________ (a) formal, informal and unpleasant (b) formal, very close and violent (c) formal and very close (d) formal, very close and pathetic

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. Interpersonal relationships may not always be healthy. Discuss2. Why is good and healthy interpersonal relationship in the community? Explain

READING ASSIGNMENT

Read Cosmopolitan Civic Education for Senior Secondary Schools 2, by Adeshola Olubunmi et al, Cosmopolitan Book Services (pages 111-114)

PRE-READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about skills that promote interpersonal relationship

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

Mention and explain four (4) skills and values that promote international relationship

COMMERCEWEEK 2

SUBJECT: COMMERCE

CLASS: SS II

DATE: ....................................

TOPIC: TOURISM

CONTENT: (a) Definition and Meaning of Tourism

(b)Forms of Tourism

(c)Advantages and Disadvantages of Tourism

Sub-Topic 1: DEFINITION AND MEANING OF TOURISM

DEFINITION OF TOURISM

The Advanced Learners Dictionary defines tourism as a business activity connected with

providing accommodation, services and entertainment for people who are visiting a place for

pleasure. Tourism is one of the facilities that aid trade. It belongs to the hospitality industry,

covering entertainments and accommodation which is aimed at providing centers for pleasure

and indirectly facilitating trade and promoting the economy.

MEANING OF TOURISM

The term tourism refers to travel for recreational leisure or business purposes. Tourists are

people who travel to stay in places outside their usual environment for not more than a year.

EVALUATION

1a.What is tourism?

b. Distinguish between tourism and tourist.

Sub-topic 2: FORMS OF TOURISM

Tourism is concerned with the activities of those who engage in creating tourist attractions in

different tourist centers. The forms of tourism include;

Accommodation e.g. hotels

Resort centers

National parks

Historical centers

Entertainment centers

ACCOMMODATION

These are in the form of hotels, guest houses, motels, etc that can provide tourist, travelers,

sportsmen etc with an alternative home for rest and relaxation.

RESORT CENTERS

These are places people go for vacation or holiday. It could be at the beach, mountains, lakes,

island, and thick forest etc where one can visit himself/herself or with the members of his/her

family to have a nice time.

NATIONAL PARKS

These are areas in public land in a town or city where people go for a walk, for play or

relaxation. It could be an enclosed area with field and trees, attached to a country house. It is

called national park if it has been nationalized.

HISTORICAL CENTERES

Historical centers are places that are connected with the past history of a place or group of

people. These places become a sight for visit as a result of their creative value, entertainment

value etc.

ENTERTAINMENT CENTERS

These are places where people visit to be entertained with varieties of music, local foods, songs

etc. People who visit entertainment centers are sometimes entertained by folk band local

entertainers etc.

All the forms of tourism mentioned above are aimed at providing high level of hospitality with

the motive of boosting commerce and trade.

EVALUATION

1. List and explain the forms of tourism and how it can boost commerce in Nigeria.

Sub topic 3: ADVANTAGES OF TOURISM

1. Tourism facilitates trade by giving tourist the opportunity to trade at tourist centers.

2. It attracts people from other countries or places to a country or place because of the tourist

attraction.

3. It serves as a good source of revenue to the government because the tourists pay certain fees

and levies to the government.

4. Tourism promotes a country’s balance of trade and payments.

5. It can offer employment opportunities to a large number of people e.g. transporters, retailers,

wholesalers, cleaners etc.

6. Tourism can also increase the standard of living of the people in the vicinity or tourist centers

by promoting economic activities in the area.

7. It promotes foreign investments as tourist maybe encouraged to discover an investment

opportunity as a result of the visit to a tourist center.

8. Tourism could make a place to become very popular like Obudu Cattle Ranch, Tinapa etc in

Calabar where people visit during their holiday or vacation.

9. It encourages educational research.

EVALUATION

1a. What is the economic benefits of tourism?

b. State five advantages of tourism.

2. How can tourism help to improve the local economy? Give examples.

Sub topic 4: DISADVANTAGES OF TOURISM

1. Tourism may expose a country or a place’s historical centre to foreign interest at expense of the people living in such a place.

2. It might not be very easy to get money to improve and make the tourist centres attractive for tourist.

3. Tourist centres could be target for enemy country if there is any external invasion.4. It may expose the beauty and local heritage of the place to foreign criticism and attack.5. It may be used as a strategy to beat the security of the country or place; in terms of

immigration.6. The people’s values, tradition and culture could be impaired and destroyed by the influence of

tourism.

EVALUATION

1. In what ways can tourism adversely affect indigenous culture?

2. Why is it unwise for any country to be heavily dependent on tourism?

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objective Test

1. One of these does not aid trade

a. retail b. transport c. tourism. d. warehouse

2. The following are examples of tourism except

a. guest house b. motels c. stadium d. shrine

3. The motive of tourism is to: a. promote peace b. promote popularity c. promote trade d.

increase revenue

4. Foreign tourists spending money in Nigeria are a/an a. invisible import. b. invisible export. c.

visible import d. visible export

5. How many common forms of tourism do we have? a. 2 b. 5 c. 4 d. 3

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1a. What is tourism?

b. How can tourism affect foreign exchange?

2. ‘Tourist and tourism have many benefits but there are also cautions’ Explain

3. Explain the difference between the terms ‘tourism and tourist’

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read Complete Commerce for Senior Secondary School by Alan Whitcomb and Adekoya Fatai

Olusegun pages 129-132

Read Commerce for Senior Secondary School Book 2 by P.S. Onuka, M.A. Adesola, O. O.

Oyefesobi pages 120-122

PRE–READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about tourist centres in your locality, in Nigeria and other places.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

1. Write down the tourist centres in:

i. your locality.

ii. Nigeria.

iii. other places

REFERENCE TEXTS

1. Complete Commerce for Senior Secondary School by Alan Whitcomb and Adekoya Fatai

Olusegun

2. Commerce for Senior Secondary School Book 2 by P.S.Onuka, M.A.Adesola, O.O.Oyefesobi

WEEK 3

SUBJECT: COMMERCE

CLASS: SS2

DATE: ……………………..

TOPIC: TOURISM

CONTENT: (a) Tourist centers

(i) in the locality

(ii) in Nigeria

(iii) in other places

Sub-Topic 1: TOURIST CENTRES IN THE LOCALITY (LAGOS CAMPUS)

Eko Hotel and Suite.

Airport Hotel.

Sheraton Hotel.

Federal Palace Hotel.

Southern Sun Ikoyi Hotel.

African Garden Hotel

B. Jays Hotel

Blue Sea Hotel

Chelsea Suites

Conform Suites

Le Meriden Eko Hotel and Suites etc

EVALUATION

1. Mention the name of five tourist centers in your locality.

Sub-Topic 2: TOURIST CENTRES IN NIGERIA

1. Sheraton Hotel ---- Abuja.

2. Trans Corp Hilton Hotel --- Abuja

3. Hamadallah Hotel --- Kaduna.

4. Durbar Hotel ----- Kaduna.

5. Kakanfo Hotel ----- Ibadan.

6. Meriden Ogeyi Palace Hotel ----- Port Harcourt.

7. Obudu Mountain Resort ----- Calabar.

8. Tinapa Business Resort ----- Calabar.

9. New Palace Hotel Kofar Kanra ----- Kano.

10. Airport Hotel ----- Lagos

11. Sheraton Hotel ----- Lagos

12. Federal Palace Hotel ----- Lagos

13. Eko Hotel and Suite ----- Lagos etc.

EVALUATION

1. List ten tourist centers in Nigeria.

Sub-Topic 3: TOURIST CENTRES IN OTHER PLACES

Delware Water Gap ----- Pennsylvania

Navy Pier ----- Chicago

Universal Orlando Resort----- Florida

Cape Cod National Seashore--- Massachusetts

World Resort ----- Florida

Disneyland Resort ----- California

San Antonio River Walk ----- Texas

Salt Lake Temple ----- Utah

Metropolitan Museum of Art--- New York etc.

EVALUATION

1. Give the names of other 15 tourist centres.

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objective Test

1. Where is Chelsea Suit located in Nigeria?

a. Port Harcourt. b. Calabar c. Lagos. d. Abeokuta.

2. The following are tourist centres in Nigeria except

a. Hamadallah Hotel. b. Sofitel the Moorhouse c. Disneyland Resort d. Blue Sea Hotel

3. Ikogosi waterfalls is in------ a. Osun State b. Ekiti State c. Ondo State d. Cross River

State

4. The first storey building in Nigeria is located in------- a. Aba b. Owerri c. Abeokuta d.

Badagry

5. Olumo Rock is in-------; a. Jos b. Calabar c. Abeokuta d. Ado Ekiti

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1a. Give the names of three natural and cultural attractions for tourist in Nigeria.

b. Mention the names of five waterfalls in Nigeria

2. List five tourist centres in West Africa

3. ‘Tourism is an invisible earner’ Explain the statement.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read Complete Commerce for Senior Secondary School by Alan Whitcomb and Adekoya Fatai

Olusegun pages 129-130.

Read Commerce for Senior Secondary School Book 2 by P.S.Onuka, M.A. Adesola,

O.O.Oyefesobi pages 122-123

PRE–READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about the definition, History of insurance and the basic principle of insurance

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

1. Define the term ‘insurance’.

2. Give a brief history of insurance in Nigeria.

3. Mention the basic principle of insurance

REFERENCE TEXTS

1. Complete Commerce for Senior Secondary School by Alan Whitcomb and Adekoya Fatai

Olusegun

2. Commerce for Senior Secondary School Book 2 by P.S.Onuka, M.A.Adesola, O.O.Oyefesobi

WEEK 4

SUBJECT: COMMERCE

CLASS: SS2

DATE: ……………………..

TOPIC: INSURANCE

CONTENT: (a) Definition of insurance

(b) History of insurance

(c) Basic principle of insurance

Sub-topic 1: DEFINITION OF INSURANCE

Insurance can be defined as a method of protecting a person, a business or some other form of organisation against financial loss resulting from damage to theft of personal and business assets (general insurance) and against injury and death (accident and life insurance).

Insurance can also be defined as a legal contract in which one party undertakes to indemnify another party against damage, loss or liability, resulting from the occurrence of uncontrollable events. It is one of the aids to trade that relieves businesses of some risk of being in business and releases capital in case of emergency.

There are man-made risks and natural risks. Some risks are insurable while others are not insurable. Insurance works on the principle of pooling risks. The premium (contributions) of many clients is pooled together and the losses of few clients are compensated from the pool.

Difference between insurance and assurance: At one time ‘insurance’ and ‘assurance’ had different meaning but today this difference is less important but the word ‘assurance’ is still often used in relation to life policies. Insurance is used in terms of risk that might or might not happen, while assurance is concerned with events that are inevitable

Evaluation

1a. Define the term insurance

b. Why is insurance said to be ‘an aid to trade’?

Sub- topic 2: HISTORY OF INSURANCE

Insurance started formally in Nigeria in 1921 but before then, there existed in many communities within Nigeria some form of organised social aid insurance scheme like extended family systems, age-grade group and cultural affiliations. These groups collectively pooled fund together from members and gave to the members who were in need especially those who lost a family member or property. These social clubs still exist today. However in 1921, insurance started in Nigeria as a formal business when a branch of the Royal Exchange Assurance Company Limited was opened. In 1949, three other British owned insurance companies started operation in Nigeria. At independence the number of operating insurance companies in Nigeria increased to 25.They became 88 by 1984. In 2005, government decided to consolidate the insurance industry by imposing recapitalisation on the insurance company operating in Nigeria. Prior to the recapitalisation plan, Nigeria had 105 insurance companies but after the recapitalisation in 2007, the number dropped to 71.

The first major step of Nigeria in regulating the activities of insurance business was after the report of J.C. Obande Commission of 1961. The report brought about the establishment of the Department of Insurance in the Federal Ministry of Trade but later transferred to the Ministry of Finance. The report also led to the enactment of the insurance Act of 1961, which came into effect on May 4th 1967. In 1968, the Insurance Company Regulations were put in place to facilitate the implementation of Act No. 58 of 1961.

The first all embracing law for the regulation and supervision of insurance in Nigeria was the Insurance Decree No 59 of 1976. Decree No 58 of 1991 improved on the provision of Decree No58 of 1979 and No 40 of 1988. In 1992, the Insurance Special Supervision Fund Decree No 62 was enacted, establishing a body known as National Insurance Supervisory Board, bringing out insurance supervision from core civil service supervision. The name of the Insurance Supervisory Board was changed to National Insurance Commission when Decree No 1 and 2 of 1997 was enacted.

EVALUATION

1. Give a brief history of insurance in Nigeria.

2. Mention three informal insurance activities that were practised in Nigeria before 1921.

Sub-topic 3: BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INSURANCE

The principles of insurance refers to the necessary conditions that be fulfilled in insurance. These include:

1. Principle of Insurable Interest: The principle of insurable interest implies that the insured must have insurable interest in the subject matter of insurance. Insurable interest therefore, means that only one person will suffer financial loss by the damage of the insured object. Put in another way, one can only insure what he own and not what another person owns. The presence of the insurable interest is a legal requirement for the insurance contract to be valid.

2. Principle of Indemnity: This is the insurance principle by which a policy-holder is compensated for the loss incurred. The amount of compensations is limited to the amount assured or the actual losses, whichever is less. The compensation must not be less or more than the actual damage or what the insurance policy covers. Insurance contract is not undertaken for the purpose of profit making but to get compensated in case of any damage or loss.

3. Principle of Uberrimae Fidei (Utmost good faith): Uberrimae Fidei means utmost good faith, which implies that both the insurer and the insured must disclose all material facts whether asked or not concerning the insurance contract. The law requires the insured to disclose all important material facts about the object of insurance to enable the insurance company determine the premium for the contract. The insurance company is also required by law to provide the facts of the risk to be covered. Non-disclosure of the material fact will render the contract null and void at the option of the aggrieved party. This principle applies to all insurance contracts.

4. Subrogation: To subrogate means ‘to take the place of’. When an insurance company pays out compensation on a claim, the money they payout takes the place of the article damaged, for instance, a car insured had an accident and damaged beyond repair, it becomes the property of the insurance company as soon the compensation is paid. The car could be sold at scrap and the scrap value retained.

5. Principle of proximate cause: Proximate cause means there must be close connection between risk insured and the loss actually suffered. When an insurance policy covers a particular risk, it is quite possible that damage may be incurred which is not directly related to the terms of the policy. Proximate cause helps to determine whether the insurance company is liable or not. An insurance company will not be liable if the cause of damage was not insured against.

6. Principle of the contribution: This principle states that where a person has insured a certain risk with two or more insurance companies, he cannot claim compensation in full from each of the insurance companies. This means that the insured cannot receive contribution from both insurance companies with the aim of making profit. Once the insured has been settled by one insurance company he is not entitled to receive any contribution from other insurance companies.

EVALUATION

1. List and explain five principles of insurance.

2. Explain with an example, the meaning of ‘insurable interest’.

3. Carry out a research on other insurance principles that is not in this e-learning notes.

GENERAL EVALUATION

Objective Test

1. Which of the following is not a principle of insurance?

a. Indemnity

b. Insurable interest

c. ownership

d. subrogation

2. Uberrimae Fidei means?

a. Utmost good faith

b. Proximate cause

c. Contribution

d. Indemnity

3. A basic principle of insurance is that the insured must not fail to disclose any material fact.

This principle is known as:

a. Utmost good faith

b. Insurable interest

c. Proximate cause

d. Subrogation

4. Which of the following risks cannot be insured against?

a. fashion changes

b. dishonesty by employee

c. accident to customers

d. a fire in a warehouse

5. To subrogate means

a. ‘Pay off’ b. ‘scrap value’ c. ‘to take the place of’ d. ‘compensation’

ESSAY QUESTIONS

1. In relation to insurance, briefly describe the meaning of the following terms;

i. Indemnity

ii. Utmost good faith

iii. Insurable interest

iv. Premium

2. Briefly describe other insurance principle apart from the ones in your e-learning note.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

Read Complete Commerce for Senior Secondary School by Alan Whitcomb and Adekoya Fatai

Olusegun pages 134- 136

Read Commerce for Senior Secondary School Book 2 by P.S.Onuka, M.A.Adesola,

O.O.Oyefesobi pages 125-128

PRE – READING ASSIGNMENT

Read about the types of insurance.

WEEKEND ACTIVITY

1. List five types of insurance policy.

COMPUTERWEEK 2CLASS: SS 2SUBJECT: COMPUTER SCIENCETOPIC: PROGRAM DEVELOPMENTCONTENTSi. Definition of program ii. Characteristics of a good programiii. Precautions

The heart of computer science is of course the computer, but the heart of the computer is computer software (program). To be an expert in the field of computer science, an in-depth knowledge of software is required – what is it? How does it work? How is it created? How does it interact with the computer?

Sub-Topic 1: DEFINITION OF PROGRAM This is a general term used to describe the set of instructions, which computer use to solve problems. These instructions are written by humans and it is used to direct the hardware component on what, when and how to accomplish (solve) a given task (problem).These programming instructions cause the computer to perform arithmetic and logical operations or comparisons or to input or output data in a desired sequence.

EVALUATION1. What is program development?

Sub-Topic 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD PROGRAM 1. Accuracy/Correctness: It ensures the software does what it is meant to do and

according to the design specifications. It is stable and doesn’t crash. 2. Readability: This means that the program must be easily read and understood by any

programmer. This includes putting proper and adequate comments and aligning the codes properly.

3. Maintainability: The program should be easy to be upgraded and /or revised. 4. Efficiency: It ensures that the software makes good use of its resources (e.g.

memory, disk, CPU, network, etc) it uses no more computer resources than is absolutely essential. This means that it is low on CPU time and RAM use and that it only installs features it needs to run

5. Generality: This implies that the program solves the problems it is intended to solve and accomplishes the goal of the owner and users.

6. Clarity: This takes into account the program should be clear enough to be understood by others.

7. User-friendliness: It ensures that the program is easy to use by the intended users. It should have a sensitive user interface – such that the user is able to figure out how to use the software without the necessity of having to reference a manual.

8. Robustness: How the software responds to unexpected conditions (e.g. wrong input)9. Re-usability: It enables parts of the program to be easily reused to build other software

systems.10. Portability: It ensures that the software can easily be ported (moved) to other

operating system.11. Security: It ensures that the software protects the information it is responsible for.

12. Simplicity: It ensures that the software does not required the user to perform any task (mouse click, menu selections, key presses, etc) than are absolutely necessary for it to perform a task.

Precautions to be taken when writing programs 1. Do not rush; be stable, steady and patient when writing programs. Remember anything

that is worth doing at all is worth doing well.2. Do not skip any step3. Follow the order of execution.

EVALUATION1. State two precautions to be taken when writing program.2. List and explain 5 characteristics of a good programGeneral Evaluation1. Accuracy is one of the characteristics of a good program, Explain. 2. Explain program development.

READING ASSIGNMENTRead and summarize the following week topic.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT 1. What property ensures that a program is easy to use by the intended users?

(a) Robustness (b) User-friendliness (c) simplicity (d) Efficiency2. What property ensures that program can be easily modified to adjust to changes?

(a) Security (b) Interoperability (c) Adaptability (d) Portability 3. What property enables parts of the program to be easily reused to build other software

system? (a) Correctness (b) Robustness (c) Efficiency (d) Reusability 4. What property ensures the software does what it is suppose to do and according to the

design? (a) Correctness (b) Interoperability (c) Adaptability (d) Portability 5. What property ensures that the software easily interface with other software system?

(a) Security (b) Interoperability (c) Adaptability (d) Portability

WEEK 3CLASS: SS 2SUBJECT: COMPUTER SCIENCETOPIC: PROGRAM DEVELOPMENT (CONT’D)CONTENTSi. Steps/ Description involved in Program development ii. iii. Examples of (i) Interpreted programs (ii) Compiled programs

Sub-Topic 1: STEPS / DESCRIPTION INVOLVED IN PROGRAM DEVELOPMENTi. Problem Definition

ii. Problem Analysis iii. Flowcharting iv. Desk Checking v. Problem Coding vi. Program Compilation vii. Program Testing /debugging viii. Program Documentation

Description of each of the stages 1. Problem DefinitionThis step is very important for the completion of a satisfactory program. It is impossible to solve a problem without a clear understanding and identification of the problem. Inadequate identification of problem leads to poor performance of the system. The programmer should put his significant portion of time in problem identification. If he does not spend enough time at this stage, he may find that his well-written program fails to solve the real problem.

2. Problem AnalysisThis stage is the formal description of the task. It includes the specification of inputs and output processing requirements, system constraints and error-handling methods.

3. FlowchartingThis involves putting the steps in program development in diagrams. More details of flowcharting are given in the next chapter of this book.

4. Desk CheckingThis involves manual checking of the logic of a program for correctness.

5. Problem Coding (Program Writing)This stage translates the program design into computer instructions. These instructions are the actual program or the software product. During this step, the programmer follows particular language syntax to write the instructions of the program. The coding is simply converting the design (algorithm or flowchart) using the language rules (syntaxes) to write the instructions.

6. Program CompilationThe codes (instructions), which are usually written in high-level or object-oriented language, are in the human readable form. Here, the codes are translated into computer-executable instructions (machine language) through compilation/interpretation.

7. Program Testing/DebuggingThis stage is the validation of the program. Testing ensures that the program performs correctly the required tasks. Program testing and program debugging are closely related. Program debugging is the discovery and correction of programming errors (bugs). Few programs run correctly the first time, so debugging is an important and time-consuming stage of software

development. Testing is essentially a later stage of debugging in which the program is validated by trying it on a suitable set of cases.

8. DocumentationThis stage is the documentation (recording explanation) of the program features so that those who use and maintain it can understand it, and the program can be extended to further applications. Documentation is a stage of software development that is often overlooked. Yet, proper documentation is not only useful in the testing and debugging stages but also essential in the maintenance and redesign stages.

EVALUATION 1. What are the goals of preparing a test plan?2. List out steps involve in program development.

Sub-Topic 2: EXAMPLES OF (I) INTERPRETED PROGRAMS (II) COMPILED PROGRAMSINTERPRETED PROGRAMS An interpreter does not produce an object program. It may translate the source program line by line into an internal intermediate form that it can execute or it may simply execute the source program statements directly.

Examples of some interpreted programs are as follows:1. APL, ASP Web scripting language, BASIC (although Darmouth BASIC was compiled as

many modern BASICs), thin Basic, JavaScript, Jscript.2. Equation manipulation and solving systems: GNU Octave, IDL (Programming language),

Mathematical, MATLAB3. Euphoria (Interpreted or compiled), Game Maker Language, Inform, Lava, Perl, PHP, Lisp4. Spreadsheets: Excel How an Interpreter WorksJust like the compiler, an interpreter also has a parser that controls it. Its scanner does the same job as that of the compiler. However, an interpreter has an executor instead of the code generator.

c+b=a ExecutorParserScanner

a – b + c

COMPILED PROGRAMSA compiler translates the entire program written in a high-level language into a low-level language, which can be the assembly or even the machine language of a particular computer. The low level language is called the source program and its translated version is the object program.Examples of some compiled program are as follows:1. Ada, ALGOL, Algol 60, Algol 68, C, C++, Objective-C, COBOL, Cobra, Common Lisp, Delphi,

Eiffel, Fortran, IBM RPG, Java, Modula2&3, Pascal, Visual Basic, Visual Foxpro, Visual Prolog.

How a Compile WorksThe figure below shows the parts of a compiler. The figure contains the constitute parts of a typical compiler. The brain of computer is the parser. The parser knows the syntax (rule) of the source language or grammar rules that determine how the source statements are written. The parser controls the compilation process. Whenever the parser needs more of the source program statements to work on, it calls upon the scanner. The scanner reads in the source program statement and break it into a sequence of tokens – words, numbers, identifiers, operators, etc.

`

C+b=a

EVALUATION1. List three languages that can be implemented as compiled or interpreted.2. What are the useful techniques in program design?

GENERAL EVALUATION 1. ____ reads in the source program statements and hands it to the parser. 2. State two examples each of programming languages that the programs are:

i. Compiled ii. Interpreted

READING ASSIGNMENT Read and summarize the next week topic

MOV ax, WORD PTR b

ADD ax, WORD PTR c

Code Generator

ParserScanner

A – b + c

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT 1. A good programmer should be able to to: (a) design effective algorithm (b) translate

source program into object programs (c) write program that do not need debugging (d) make a machine programmable

2. The first stage in program development is (a) problem solving (b) Problem analysis (c) Problem definition (d) problem refining

3. Which of the following is a feature of a good program? (a) versatility (b) eligibility (c) rigidity (d) capability

4. desk checking refers to: (a) refining algorithm (b) writing algorithm (c) refining flowchart (d) drawing flowchart

5. The last stage in program documentation is __ (a) program compilation (b) program documentation (c) program writing (d) program testing

WEEK: 4CLASS: SS 2SUBJECT: COMPUTER SCIENCETOPIC: ALGORITHMS AND FLOW CHARTCONTENT: (a) Definition of: (i) Algorithm (ii) Flowchart (b) Functions of algorithm (c) Characteristics of algorithm

Sub-Topic 1: Definition of AlgorithmAlgorithm can be defined as sequence of steps that defines how a particular problem can be solved in a finite and ordered manner. It is a set of rules and sequential steps. To make the computer do anything one has to write a computer program, and such programs has to be in a step by step manner, the computer then executes the program, following each step mechanically to accomplish the end goal.Algorithm can also be defined as a specific set of instructions for carrying out a procedure or solving a problem. They are usually written in English and some few mathematical notations.

Functions of Algorithm:1. It helps the programmer to know all the steps required for writing a program without

skipping any.2. It improves program development skills of a programmer.3. It shows the order of sequence of steps in a program4. It helps programmer to know each step required for a program

Sub-Topic 2: CHARACTERISTICS OF ALGORITHM There are four feature of a good algorithm;

1. It must be precise and unambiguous: This means every step must be clearly show what it should do.

2. It must be effective: Every step should be understood and executed by the machine when translated into machine codes.

3. It must be finite: This means it must have a beginning and end.4. It must start by accepting input and end with an output result: This means that it must

have input data or instructions to accept and then process, to produce an output.

EVALUATION:1. Define an algorithm.2. State four (4) features of a good algorithm.

GENERAL EVALUATION:1. What does it mean for an algorithm to be finite?2. State Four (4) functions of an algorithm.

READING ASSIGNMENT: Students are expected to read ‘Algorithm and Flowchart’ on the next page of Handbook on Computer studies for SS2.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:1. A set of instruction is called-------------

(a) Flowchart (b) Program (c) Correct steps (d) Repeated steps2. There are --------- methods used for solving of problems

(a) 6 (b) 3 (c) 2(d) 103. ------------ is a sequence of steps used to solve a given problem

(a) Flowchart (b) algorithm (c) Sequence (d) Looping4. ---------- is not a characteristic of algorithm

(a) Finite (b) Precise (c) Effective (d) Ambiguous5. ---------- is not a function of an algorithm (a) It improves program development skills of a programmer. (b)It shows the order of sequence of steps in a program (c) It helps programmer to know each step required for a program (d) None of the above.