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The Study GuideFor Those Learning French

Third Edition)

-)))

English

Grammar

for Students

of French)

The Study Guide

for Those Learning French)

l1Jirdedition)

Jacqueline Morton)

The Olivia and Hill Press@)))

ENGLISHGRAMMAR series)

English Grammar for Students of SpanishEnglishGramnzar for Students of German

English Grammar for StudentsofItalian

English Grammar for Students of Latin

English Grammarfor Students of Russian

English Grammar for Students ofJapaneseGramdticaespaflola para estudiantes de ingles)

@ 1993, Jacqueline Morton)

All rights reserved.No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in

any fonn of by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopyingand recording, or by any infonnation storage retrieval system, without

pennission in writing from the publisher.)

Printed in the U.S .A.)

Library of Congress Catalog CardNumber: 87-7889)

ISB N 0-934034-18-4)))

CONTENTS)

Introduction 1

1. What is a Noun? 4

2. What is Meant by Gender? 6

3. What is Meant by Number? 9

4. What are Articles? 12

Defmite Articles 12IndefmiteArticles 14Partitive Articles 15

5. What is the Possessive? 186. What is a Verb? 21

7. What is an Infinitive? 23

8. What are Auxiliary Verbs? 25

9. What is a Subject? 28

10. What is a Pronoun? 30

11. What is a Subject Pronoun? 32

12. What is a Verb Conjugation? 36

13. What are Affirmative and Negative Sentences? 43

14. What are Declarative and Interrogative Sentences? 46

15. What is Meant by Mood? 50

16. What is Meant by Tense? 52

17. What is the Present Tense? 54

18. What is the Imperative? 56

19. What is a Participle? 59

Present Participle 59Past Participle 60

20. What is the Past Tense? 63Present Perfect (passecompose) 63Imperfect (imparfait) 65

Selection of the passe compose or the imparfait 66)

iii)))

21. What is the Past Perfect Tense? 6922. What is the Future Tense? 72

Immediate Future 73

23. What is the Future Perfect Tense? 75

24. What is the Conditional? 77

Present Conditional 77PastConditional 79SequenceofTenses 80

25. What is a Reflexive Verb? 8226. What is Meant by Active and Passive Voice? 85

Changing an Active Sentence to a Passive Sentence 86Avoiding the Passive Voice in French 87

27. What is the Subjunctive? 90

28. What is an Adjective? 92

29. What is a DescriptiveAdjective? 9330. What is a Possessive Adjective? 96

Singular Possessor:my, your, his, her, its 97Plural Possessor:our, your, their 99

31. What is an Interrogative Adjective? 10132. What is a Demonstrative Adjective? 103

33. What is Meant by Comparison of Adjectives? 105Comparative 105Superlative 106

34. What is an Adverb? 109

35. What is a Conjunction? 112

36. What is a Preposition? 11437. What are Objects? 116

Direct Object 116IndirectObject 118Objectof a Preposition 119)

iv)))

38. What is an Object Pronoun? 123DirectObjectPronouns 124

Indirect Object Pronouns 126

Pronouns as Objectsof a Preposition 129Disjunctive (Stressed) Pronouns 133

39. What is an Interrogative Pronoun? 138

Subject 138Direct Object 139IndirectObjectand Object of a Preposition 141

\"Which One, which ones\" 145

40. What is a Possessive Pronoun? 148

Singular Possessor:mine,yours, his, hers, its 149

Plural Possessor: ours, yours, theirs 151

41. What is'a Relative Pronoun? 154Subjectof the Relative Clause 155

Direct Object of the Relative Clause 157IndirectObjectand Object of a Preposition in a

Relative Clause 159PossessiveModifier \"whose\" 163

Relative Pronouns without Antecedents 166

42. What is a Demonstrative Pronoun? 169

\"Thisone, that one\" and \"these, those\" 169\"Theone, the ones\"(celuiqui) 170

Celui de to Show Possession 172

Answer Key 175

Index 179)

v)))

To THE STUDENT)

English Grammar for Students ofFrenchexplains the gram-

matical terms that are in your French textbookand shows you

how they relate to English grammar.Onceyou have understood

the terms and concepts in your own language, it will be easier for

you to undertandyour textbook. With simple explanations andnumerous examples this handbookcomparesEnglish and French

grammar, pointing out the similaritiesand differences.

Most teachers incorporate English Grammar into the classsyl-labusso you will know which pages to read before doing an

assignment in your French textbook. If you are selectingthe pages

yourself, check the detailed index for the terms and concepts you

will need to understand for your assignment. When you finish a

chapter in the handbook, you can test your comprehension bydoing the short Reviews and checking your answers against theAnswer Key.)

Tips for Studying a Foreign Language

1. RULES - Make sure you understand each rule before you moveon to the nextone.Language learning is like building a house;each brickis only as secure as its foundation.

2. MEMORIZATION - Memorization plays an important part in lan-

guage learning. For instance, you will have to memorize vocab-

ulary, verb conjugations,and grammar rules. To memorize, hereare the steps you should follow:

\302\267Divide the passage into sections you can easilyretnember(for instance, 2 sentences or 5 words).

\302\267Read the first section aloud several times.\302\267Write down the first section as you repeatit aloudto

yourself.\302\267

Compare what you wrote with the original.\302\267

Repeat the above until there is no differencebetweenwhat you said or wrote and the original.

\302\267Repeat these steps to metnorize the second section.

\302\267Continue metnorizing each section in the same way,reciting frotn the beginning each time.)

vi)))

3. VOCABULARY - Use any trick or gimmick that helps youremember new words.Hereare some that students have founduseful:)

\302\267Write each word on a separate index card,Frenchononeside,English on the other.

\302\267Use index cards or pens of different colors.Thiscan

help you remember other useful information about theword:using blue for masculine nouns and red for fem-inine nouns will help you remember genders. (Youcan alsousegreen for verbs, orange for adjectives,etc. to relnelnber partsofspeech.)

\302\267When learning the French words, look at the Englishwords.Say the French word that corresponds aloud,and flip thecardto check your answer. Shuffle the

deck often so you see the English word cold (i.e.,without relnemberingthe wordorder).

4.WRITTEN EXERCISES - Read the Frenchwords and sentences out

loud as you write them.That way you are practicing seeing,

saying, and hearingthe words.It will help you remember them.

5. DAILY PRACTICE - Don't get behind.It's almost impossible to

catch up in language learning because you need daily practiceand time to absorbthe material.

6. LANGUAGE TAPES - It is betterto listen to tapes for short periodsseveral times duringthe week rather than doing everything inone long session.)

Bonnechance,

Jacqueline Morton)

vii)))

INTRODUCTION 1)

INTRODUCTION)

When you learn a foreign language,in this case French, you must lookat each word in threeways:

1. The meaning of the word-An English wordmust beconnectedwith a French word that has an equivalent meaning.

Boy, a young male child, has the samemeaningas the French

word gar\037on.

Words with equivalent meanings are learned by memorizing vocab-ulary. Sometimestwo words are the same or very similar in bothEnglish and French. These words are called cognates and are, ofcourse,easy to learn.

French English

intelligent intelligentgouvernement government

continuer continue)

Occasionally knowing one French word will helpyou learn another.

Knowing that etudiant is a male student shouldhelp you learn that

etudiante is a female student; or knowingthat vendeur is a

salesman should help you remember that vendeuse is a sales-woman.

Usually there is littlesimilarity between words, and knowing oneFrench word will not help you learn another. As a general rule, youmust memorizeeachvocabulary item separately.

Knowing that gar\037on is boy will not help you learn that fille is

girl.

In addition, there are times when words in combination take on aspecialmeaning.

The French word faire means to make; la queuemeansthe tail.

However, faire la queue means to line up, to stand in line.

An expression whose meaning as a whole (faire la queue)isdif-ferent from the meaning of the individual words (faire and laqueue)iscalledan Idiom. You will need to be aware of theseidiomaticexpressionsin order to recognize them and use themcorrectly.

2.Theclassification of the word-English and French words are clas-sifiedin eight categories called parts of speech. Here is a listof the)))

2 INTRODUC\037ON)

parts of speech:

noun articleverb adverb

pronoun preposition

adjective conjunction

Each part of speechhas its own rules for spelling, pronunciation,and use. You must learn to identify the part of speech of eachword

in order to choose the correct French equivalentand to know what

rules to apply.Look at the word what in the following sentences:

a. What do you want?

b. What mov.ie do you want to see?

c. I'll do what you want. 1

The English word is the same in all threesentences;but in French

three different words will be used and three different sets of ruleswill applybecauseeachwhat belongs to a different part of speech.

3. Theuseofthe word-A word must also be identified accordingtothe roleit plays in the sentence. Each word, whether English orFrench,plays a specific role. Determining this role or function will

also help you to choose the correctFrenchequivalent and to know

what rules to apply.Hereis a listof functions:

subject

direct objectindirect objectobject of a preposition

Let us go back again to the word what.

a. What is on the table?

b. What is she doing?c. What are you talking about?2)

1 a. Interrogative pronoun, see p. 138.b. Interrogative adjective, see p. 101.c.Relative pronoun without antecedent,seep. 166.

2 a. Subject, see p. 28.b. Direct object, see p. 116.c. Object of a preposition, see p. 119.)))

INTRODUCTION 3)

The English word is the same in all three sentences; but in Frenchthree different words will be usedbecauseeach what has a different

function.)

CarefulAs a student of Frenchyou must learn to recognize both the part ofspeechand the function of each word in a given sentence.Thisisessentialbecausewords in a French sentence have a great deal ofinfluence on one another.)

The small black shoesare on the big round table.I I

Les petites chaussures noires sont sur la grandetableronde.I

I I

I III

I I

I I

I

I I)

IN ENGLISH

The only word that affects anotherword in the sentence is shoes,which forces us to say are. If the word were shoe, we would haveto.say IS.)

IN FRENCH

The word for shoes (chaussures) not only affects the word for are

(soot), but also the spellingand pronunciation of the French words forthe, small,and black. The word for table (table) affects the spellingand pronunciation of the French words for the, big, and round. The

only word not affected by another word is sur, which means on.

Since parts of speech and function are usually determined in the sameway in English and in French,this handbook will show you how toidentify them in English. You will then learn to compare English andFrenchconstructions.Thiswill give you a better understanding of theexplanationsin your French textbook.)))

4 WHAT IS A NOUN?)

1. WHAT IS A NOUN?)

A noun is a word that can be the name of a person, an animal,place,thing, event, or an idea.)

IN ENGLISH

Let us look at some different types of words whicharenouns:

. a person professor, clown, student,girlProfessorSmith, Bozo, Paul, Mary

. an animal dog, bird, bear, snakeHeidi, Tweetie,Teddy

. a place city, state, country, continent

Paris, Michigan, France, Europe. a thing lamp, airplane, book, dress

Perrier, Eiffel Tower,Arch of Triumph

. an event graduation, marriage,birth, death, football

or activity robbery, rest, growth

. an idea poverty, democracy, humor, mathematics

or concept addition, strength, elegance, virtue, increase

As you can see, a noun is not only a word which names somethingthat is tangible, i.e., that you can touch, such as table, dog, and White

House, it can also be the nameof things that are abstract, i.e., that youcannot touch, suchasjustice,jealousy, and honor.

A noun that does not state the nameof a specificperson,place,thing,

etc. is called a common noun. A common noun does not begin with acapital letter,unlessit is the first word of a sentence. All the wordsabove that are not capitalized are common nouns.

A noun that is the name of a specificperson,place,thing, etc. is called

a proper noun. A proper noun always begins with a capital letter. All

the words above that are capitalized are propernouns.

The girl is Mary.I I

cotntnon propernoun noun)

A noun that is made up of two wordsis calleda compound noun. A

compound noun can be a commonnoun, such as comic strip and icecream or apropernoun, such as Western Europe and North America.Tohelpyou learn to recognize nouns, look at the paragraphbelowwhere the nouns are in italics.

The bestpurchasesfroln France include wines, perfumes, scarves,gloves and other luxury items. Today, French workers make excel-)))

WHAT IS A NOUN? 5)

lent skis and tennis racketswhich are sold the world over. Thanksto the Common Market, you can find goods from Germany, Italy,

England, and their commercial partners in all large French stores.

Thus, Italian sportscars, Englishleather,German glassware, and

Belgian lace can be bought at prices comparable to those in the

country of origin.)

IN FRENCH

Nouns are identified in the same way as they are in English.)

Terms Used to Talk About NounsGENDER - A noun has a gender; that is, it can be classified according towhether it is masculine,feminine,or neuter (see What is Meant byGender?, p. 6).NUMBER - A noun has a number; that is, it can be identified accordingto whether it is singularor plural (see What is Meant by Number?,p. 9).COUNT OR NON-COUNT - A noun can be classifiedas to whetherit is a

count noun or non-count noun; that is, whether it refersto somethingthat can be counted or not (see p. 15 in What are Articles?).

FUNCTION - A noun can have a variety of functions in a sentence; thatis, it can be the subjectof the sentence (see What is a Subject?,p. 28)oran object (see What are Objects?, p. 116).)

................REVIEW..................Circle the nouns in the following sentences:

1. The boy came into the classroom and spoke to the teacher.

2. The textbookhas a paintingon its cover.3.Mary Evans visited Paris with her class.

4. Thelionroaredand the children screamed.

5. Truth is stranger than fiction.

6. His kindness and understanding were known throughout the world.)))

6 WHAT IS MEANT BY GENDER?)

2. WHAT IS MEANT BY GENDER?)

Gender in the grammatical sense means that a word can be classifiedas masculine,feminine,orneuter.

Gender is not very important in English; however, it is at the very

heart of the French language where the gender of a word is often

reflected in the way the word is spelledand pronounced. More parts of

speech have a gender in Frenchthan in English. Parts of speech thatindicate gender:

English

pronouns

possessive adjectives)

French

nouns

articles

pronounsadjectives

Sinceeachpart of speech follows its own rules to indicategender,you

will fmd gender discussed in the sections dealing with articles and the

various types of pronouns and adjectives. In this section we shall onlylook at the gender of nouns.)

IN ENGLISH

Nouns themselves do not have a gender, but sometimes their meaningwill indicate a gender basedon the biologicalsexofthe person or

animal the noun stands for. When we replace a proper or commonnoun with he or she, we automatically use he for malesand she for

females. All the nouns which namethings that do not have a sex arereplacedby it.

Nouns referring to males indicate the masculinegender.Paul came home; he was tired, and I wasglad to see him.

1 1I. 1 .

noun mascu Ine masculInemale)

Nouns referring to females indicate the feminine gender.

Thegirl came home; she was tired, and I wasglad to see her.1

\037 .1. \037 .1.noun lemlnlne lemlnlnefemale)

All other nouns which do not indicate a biologicalgenderare consid-

ered neuter.

Theci1ty

of Washington is lovely. I enjoyed visiting if.noun neuter)))

WHAT IS MEANT BY GENDER? 7)

There are a few well-known exceptions, such as ship, which is

referred to as she. It is custom,not logic,which decides.

The S/S United States sailed for Europe. She was a beautiful ship.)

IN FRENCH

All nouns-common nouns and proper nouns-have a gender;they

are either masculine or feminine. Do not confusethe grammaticalterms \"masculine\" and \"feminine\" with the meaning of \"male\"and

\"female.\" Only a few French nouns have a grammaticalgendertiedtowhether they refer to someone of the male or femalesex,most nouns

have a gender which must be memorized.The genderof nouns based on biological gender is easy to deter-mine.Theseare nouns whose meaning is always tied to one or theother of the biological sexes, male or female.

Males \037 masculine Females \037 feminine

Paul \037ary

boy girl

brother sister

son daughter

The gender of allothernouns,common and proper, cannot be

explained or figured out. Thesenounsonly have a grammatical

gender which is unrelated to biologicalsex.Here are some examplesof English nouns classified underthe gender of their French equiva-lent.)

Masculine

boat

suicide

Japanblackboard

government)

Feminine

car

death

France

chalk

democracy)

Gender is important not only for the noun itself, but for the spellingand pronunciation of the words it influences. You will have to memo-rize the grammatical gender of every French noun you learn. Sinceanoun alone does not usually indicate its gender, whenmemorizingvocabulary you will have to learn a noun with its articlebecausethe

article does indicates gender (see What are Articles?,p. 12).)))

8 WHAT IS MEANT BY GENDER?)

CarefulYou cannot rely on biological genderto indicatethe gender of French

equivalents of nouns such asprofessorwhich can refer to a female ormale. Such nouns only have a grammatical gender which must bememorized.TTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTREVIEWTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTTT

Circle M (masculine) or F (feminine) next to the nouns whose gender you

can identify, and (?) next to the nouns whosegenderyou would have to look

up in a dictionary.)

GENDER IN FRENCH

1. boys M F ?

2. chair M F ?

3. Jane M F ?

4. classroom M F ?

5. visitor M F ?

6. sisters M F ?

7. houses M F ?)))

WHAT IS MEANT BY NUMBER? 9)

3. WHAT IS MEANT BY NUMBER?)

Numberin the grammaticalsensemeans that a word is singular orplural. When a word refers to one person or thing,it is saidtobesIn-gular; when it refers to more than one, it is plural.Moreparts of speech indicate number in French, and there aremorespelling and pronunciation changes in French than in English. Parts ofspe\037ch that indicate number:

English Frenchnouns nounsverbs articlespronouns verbs

only demonstrative pronouns

adjectives adjectives

Since eachpartofspeechfollows its own rules to indicate number,you will find number discussed in the sections dealing with articles,the various types of adjectives and pronouns, as well as in all the sec-tions on verbs and their tenses. In this sectionweshallonly look at the

number of nouns.)

IN ENGLISH

A singular noun is made plural in oneof two ways:

1. A singular noun can add an \"-s\"or \"-es\" .

book books

kiss kisses

2. A singular noun can change its spelling.)man

mouse

leaf

child)

men

miceleaveschildren)

A plural noun is usually spelled and pronounceddifferently from the

singular.

Some nouns, called collective nouns, referto a group of persons or

things, but the noun itself is consideredsingular.

A football team has eleven players.Thefamity is well.

The crowd was under control.)))

1 0 WHAT IS MEANT By NUMBER?)

IN FRENCH

As in English, the plural form of a noun is usually spelled differently

from the singular. The most commonchangeis the same as the one

made in English; that is, an \".s\" is added to the singularnoun.livre livres book books

table tables table tables

Thereis an important group of French words that end in .al in the sin-gularand which change to .aux in the plural.)

SingularIejournalI 'animal)

Plural

les journauxles animaux)

newspaper

animal)

newspapersanimals)

The gender of a noundoesnot change when it becomes plural (seeWhat is Meant by Gender?, p. 6).)

Hearing the Plural

The main differencebetweenthe plural forms in English and French isthat in French,even though you can see the plural ending if you arereadingthe word, you can rarely hear it, because the final \"s\" is never

pronounced.)

samepro\037

unciati on

I I

Ii vre Ii vres

table tables)

You will usually have to listen to the word that comes before the noun

to know whether the noun is singularorplural. The examples below

show you that in English you hear the pluralin the noun itself, whilein French you hear it in the word that precedes it.)

Singular Plural

English the book the booksthe table the tables

French Ie livre les livresla table les tables)))

WHAT IS MEANT By NUMBER? 11)

.....\037...\037......REVIEW .\037..\037.\037\037\037\037\037\037\037.\037\037..

Look at the English and Frenchwordsbelow. Indicate under COLUMN A if

the word is singular (S) or plural (P).\302\267

Say the English and French wordsaloud.Indicate under COLUMN B if you

can hear if the word is singular (S) or plural (P), or (?) if you can't tell.)

Column A Column B

1. desks S p S P ?

2. maisons S p S P ?

3. tooth S p S P ?

4. cheval S p S P ?

5. feet S p S P ?

6. etudiantes s p s P ?)))

12 WHAT ARE ARTICLES?)

4. WHAT ARE ARTICLES?)

An article is a word placed before a noun to showwhether the noun

refers to a particular person, animal,place,thing, event, or idea, or

whether the noun refers to an unspecified person, thing, or idea.

I saw the boy you spoke about.I

a particular boy)

I saw a boy in the street.I

an unspecified boy)

Definite Articles)

IN ENGLISH

A definite article is usedbeforea noun when we are speaking about aparticular person,place,animal, thing, or idea. There is one definitearticle,the.

I read the book you recommended.I

a particular book)

I ate the apple you gave me.I

a particular apple)

The definite article remains the when the noun which followsbecomes plural.

I read the books you recommended.I ate the apples you gave me.)

IN FRENCH

As in English, a definite article is usedbeforea noun when referringto a particular person, place, animal,thing,oridea.However, in

French, the article works hand in hand with the noun it belongs to inthat it matches the noun'sgenderand number. This \"matching\" iscalled agreement. (One says that \"the article agrees with the noun.\") A

different article is used, therefore,dependingon whether the noun ismasculine or feminine (gender)and depending on whether the noun issingular or plural(number).Becausethesearticlesare both pro-nounced and spelled differently, they indicate the genderand number

of the noun to the ear as wellasto the eye.)))

WHAT ARE ARTICLES? 13)

There are four forms of thedefinitearticle:three singular forms and

one plural.Le indicates that the noun is masculine singular.

Ie livre the book

Ie gar\037on the boy

La indicates that the noun is femininesingular.

la table the table

la pornme the apple

L' is used instead of Ie and la before a word beginning with a vowel. It

does not tell us, therefore,if the noun is masculine or feminine.)

I 'etudiantI

Inasculine)

the student)

I' ecoleI

felninine)

the school)

The letter \"h\" exists only in writing. It is never pronounced.When a

word starts with the letter \"h\",the word is usually considered as

beginning with a vowel: I'herbe (thegrass);l'h6tel(the hotel).

Your textbook will go into the few exceptionsto this rule.

The dropping of a final vowel beforea word starting with a vowellis called an elision. You will have to rely on the dictionary or your

memory to know if the word is masculineorfeminine.

Les is used to indicate that the noun is plural.Sincethere is only one

form, it does not tell us if the noun is masculineorfeminine.

Masculine plural

les Ii vres

les gar\037ons)

the books

the boys)

Feminine plural

les tables

les pOlnlnes)

the tablesthe apples)

I Vowels are the soundsassociatedwith the letters 0, e, i, 0 and u; consonants are the soundsassociatedwith the other letlers of the alphabet.)))


Indefinite Articles)

IN ENGLISHAn Indefinite article is usedbeforea noun when we are speaking aboutan unspecified person,animal,place,thing, event, or idea. There aretwo indefinitearticles,a and an.

A is used before a word beginningwith a consonant.

I saw a boy in the street.I

not a particular boy)

An is used before a word beginningwith a vowel.

I ate an apple.I

not a particular apple)

The indefinite article is used only with a singular noun; it is droppedwhen the noun becomes plural. At times, the word some is usedtoreplace it, but it is usually omitted.

I saw boys in the street.I saw (some)boys in the street.

I ate apples.I ate (some)apples.)

IN FRENCH

As in English, an indefinite article is used in French before a nounwhen referringto an unspecified person, animal, place, thing, event, oridea. Just as with definite articles, indefinite articles must agree withthe noun's genderand number.

There are three forms of the indefinitearticle:two singular forms and

one plural.

Un indicates that the noun is masculine singular.un livre a book

un gar\037on a boy

Une indicates that the noun is femininesingular.une table a table

une pomtne an apple)))


Des is used to indicatethat the noun is plural. Since there is only one

form, it does not tell us if the noun is masculineorfeminine.

Masculine plural

des Ii vres boo ks

des gar\037ons boys

Feminine plural

des tables tablesdes pOlnmes apples)

Partitive Articles

French also has another set ofarticlescalledpartitive articles because

they refer to \"part of the whole.\"They are used before certain nounscalled non-count nouns.As the name implies, a non-count noun des-ignatesan object that cannot be counted. It is, therefore, always sin-

gular. For example, the noun water is a non-countnoun because it is anoun which cannot beprecededby numbers such as 1, 2, 3, etc. (You

cannot count one water, two waters...) The oppositeofnon-countnouns is count nouns. A count noun can be singular or plural because

it designates an object that can be counted.Forexample, the noun pencan be preceded by numberssuchas 1,2,3 etc.(onepen,two pens...).

Like all articles in French, partitive articles agree with the noun's

gender and number. Since non-count nounsdon'thave a plural form

and are always singular, partitive articles only have singular forms.

As you will see in the examples below, French partitive articles can betranslated by the words some or any, but they are often left out in Eng-lish. In French,however, the partitive article must always beexpressed.Therearethree forms of the partitive.

Du indicates that the noun is masculine singular.J'achete du beurre.I am buying (some) butter.

Voulez-vous du beurre?Do you want (any) butter?)))


De la indicates that the noun is femininesingular.

J'achete de la viande.I am buying (some) meat.

Voulez-vous de la viande?Do you want (any) meat?

De I' is used insteadof du and de la before a word beginning with a

vowel. It does not tell us, therefore,if the noun is masculine or femi-.nme.)

Je bois de I'eau.I

felnin ine

I am drinking (some) water.

Devez-vousde I'argenta Marie?I

masculine

Do you owe (any) money to Mary?

This form does not tell you the genderbecausedeI' isused with both

masculine and feminine singular nouns.The aboveis a brief summary of the different forms of thepartitivearticles.Refer to your textbook for the rules regardingtheir usage.)

Hearing the Genderand Number

In spoken French the gender of a noun can usually be heard only in

the singular form of articles.When a noun is preceded by a definitearticle,thefemininegendercan be heard in the \"a\" sound at the end ofla. The masculinegenderisharder to identify because the final \"e\" of

Ie is not pronounced. When a noun is precededby a definite article,

you will have to train your ear to hearthe difference between un and

une. The number of a noun will often only be heard in the articlewhich precedesit, lesor des.)))


................REVIEW ....\037............\037Below is a list of English nouns preceded by a definite or indefinite article.

\302\267Circle which of the nouns below are count nouns (C) and which are non-count nouns (N).

\302\267Write the French article for each noun on the line provided. The FrenchDICTIONARY ENTRY shows you if the noun (n.) is masculine (m.) orfeminine (f.).)

Dictionary entry French article

1. the books C N livre (n.m.)

2. the friend C N ami (n.m.)

3. some chairs C N chaise (n.f.)

4. an idea C N idee (n.f.)

5. some money C N argent (n.m.)

6. the weather C N temps (n.m.)

7. a course C N cours (n.m.)

8. some luck C N chance (n.f.)

9. the dinner C N diner (n.m.)

10. some ice-cream C N glace (n.f.))))

18 WHAT ISTHE POSSESSIVE?)

5. WHAT IS THE POSSESSIVE?)

The termpossessivemeans that one noun owns or possesses anothernoun.)

Theb\037Ok'S payes

are torn.

possessor possessedsingular plural)

IN ENGLISH

You can show possessionin oneof two ways.

1. An apostrophe can be used. In this construction, the noun possessorcomes before the noun possessed.A singular common or proper noun possessor adds an apostrophe +

\"s\" .)

Mary's dressI

singular possessor)

the professor's booka tree's branches

A plural possessor ending with \"s\" adds an apostrophe after the \"s\".

the students' teacherI

plural possessor)

the girls' club

A plural possessor not ending with \"s\" adds an apostrophe + \"s\".

the children's playgroundI

plural possessor)

the men's department

2. The word of can be used. In this structure, the noun possessedcomesbefore the noun possessor.

A singular or plural commonnoun possessor is preceded by of theor ofa.

the book of the professorI

singular common noun possessor)))

WHAT IS THE POSSESSIVE? 19)

the branches of a treethe teacher of the students

I

plural common noun possessor)

A proper noun possessoris precededby of

the dress of MaryI

proper noun possessor)

IN FRENCH

The apostrophe structure ( 1 above) does not exist. There is only one

way to express possessionand that is by using the \"of' (de) construc-tion (2 above).

When a noun possesses another noun the structure is as follows: thenoun possessed + de + definiteor indefinite article + the noun pos-sessor)

Mary's dressI I

possessor noun

possessed)

the dress of MaryI I

noun possessorpossessed

la robe de Marie)

the professor's book) the book of the professorIe livre du professeur

I

de + Ie)

a tree's branches) the branches of a treelesbranches d'un arbre)

the lady's handbag) the handbagof the lady

Ie sac de la dame)

the students' teacher) the teacher of the students

Ie professeur des \037tudiants

I

de + les)

Careful

Do not confuse du, de la, de I', and des meaning of and of the withwords of the samespellingwhich are partitive articles (see p. 15) andthe pluralindefinitearticle(p.15)meaning some or any. When theyindicate possession, they usually come between two nouns (the bookof the teacher).)))

20 WHAT IS THE POSSESSIVE?)

\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037)

Below are possessives using the apostrophe. Write the alternate Englishstructure which is the word-far-word equivalent of the French structure.

1. somechildren'sparents

2. the dress's color

3. the school's entrance4. a car's speed

5. the books' covers)))

WHAT IS A VERB? 21)

6. WHAT IS A VERB?)

A verb is a word that indicates the action of the sentence. The word\"action\" is used in its broadest sense, not necessarilyphysical action.)

IN ENGLISH

Let us look at different types of words whichareverbs:. a physical activity to run, to hit, to talk, to walk, to box

. a mental activity to hope, to believe, to imagine, to dream,

to think

. a condition to be, to sit, to have

Many verbs, however,donotfall neatly into one of the above cate-gories. They are verbs nevertheless because they represent the\"action\" of the sentence.)

Thebookcostsonly $5.00.I

to cost)

The students seem tired.I

to seem)

To help you learn to recognize verbs, lookat the paragraph below

where the verbs are in italics.Thethree students entered the restaurant, selected a table,hung up their coats and sat down. They looked at the menu

and asked the waitress what she recommended.Sheadvisedthe daily special, beef stew. It was not expensive.They chose

a bottle of red wine and ordered a salad.Theservicewas

slow, but the food tasted very good. Goodcooking,they

decided, takes time. They ate pastry for dessert andfinishedthe meal with coffee.

The verb is one of themostimportant words in a sentence; you cannotwrite a completesentence,i.e.,express a complete thought, without averb. It is important that you learn to identify verbs because the func-tion of many words in a sentence often depends on their relationship tothe verb. For instance,the subject of a sentence is the word doingtheactionof the verb, and the object is the word receivingthe actionofthe verb (see What is a Subject?, p. 28, and What are Objects?,p. 116) .)))

22 WHAT IS A VERB?)

IN FRENCH

Verbs are identified the same way as they are in English.)

Terms Used to TalkAbout Verbs

INFINITIVE - The verb form which is the nameof the verb is called an

infinitive: to eat, to sleep, to drink(seeWhat is an Infinitive?,

p. 23).

CONJUGATION - A verb is conjugated or changesin form to agree with

its subject: I do,hedoes(seeWhat is a Verb Conjugation?, p. 36).TENSE - A verb indicates tense, that is, the time(present,past,or

future) of the action: I am, I was,I will be (see What is Meant byTense?, p. 52).VOICE - A verb shows voice, that is, the relation between the subjectand the actionof the verb (see What is Meant by Active and PassiveVoice?,p.85).MOOD - A verb shows mood, that is, the speakers'attitude toward

what they are saying (see What is Meant by Mood?, p. 50).

PARTICIPLE - A verb may also be used to form a participle: writing,written, singing, sung (see What is a Participle?, p.59).TRANSITIVE OR INTRANSITIVE - A verb can be classifiedas transitive or

intransitive depending on whether or not the verb can take a direct

object (see What are Objects?, p. 116).)

\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

Circle the verbs in the following sentences.

1. The students purchasetheir lunch at school.

2. Paul and Mary were happy.3. They enjoyed the movie, but they preferred the book.

4.Paulate dinner, fmished his novel, and then went to bed.

5. It was sad to see the little dog struggleto get out of the lake.

6. I attended a concertto celebratethe New Year.)))

WHAT ISAN INFINITIVE? 23)

7. WHAT IS AN INFINITIVE?)

An Infinitive is the name of the verb.)

IN ENGLISH

The infinitive is composed of two words:to + the dictionary form of

the verb (to speak, to dance). By dictionary form, we mean the form ofthe verb that is listedas the entry in the dictionary (speak, dance).Although the infmitive is the most basic form of the verb, it can neverbe used in a sentence without another verb which is conjugated(seeWhat is a Verb Conjugation?, p. 36).

To learn is exciting.

y \037ain verbinfinitive)

It's (it\037s)

important

\037

on time.

main verb .f. ..

In Inlhve)

Paul and Mary want If\037ar

ce together.. I

bmain verinfinitive)

It has started to rain.I. I. Y

auxlhary main

L b \037 infinitivever s)

The dictionary form of the verb, Le., the infinitive without the to, is

used after a verb such as must and let.)

Paul must be home by noon.I

infinitive)

Her parents let Mary watch television.I

infinitive)

IN FRENCH

The infmitive form is shown by the last two or three letters of the verbcalledthe ending;the English word to in the infinitive has no Frenchequivalent.

danser to dance

finir to finishvendre to sell

Theseendings,calledla termlnalson in French, also tell you whichgroupeachverb belongs to:)))

24 WHAT IS AN INFINITIVE?)

-er verbs belong to the 1st group-ir verbs belongto the 2nd group

-re verbs belong to the 3rd group

It is important for you to identify the group to which a verb belongs so

you will know what pattern to followwhenconjugatingthat verb.)

Careful

When looking up the equivalentof a verb in an English-French dictio-

nary, be sure to lookfor the specificmeaning of the English verb. In

English it is possibleto changethe meaning of a verb by placing shortwords (prepositionsor adverbs) after them. For example, the verb lookin ColumnA below changes meaning depending on the word that fol-

lows it:)

Column B

to search for

I am looking for a book.

to take careofI am looking after the children.

to beware ofLookout for lions.

In French, it is impossible to change the meaning of a verb by addinga preposition or adverb as in Column A above. An entirely different

verb would be used for each of the various meanings above. When

consulting a dictionary, all theexamplesabove under Column A will

be found under the dictionary entry look (regarder), but you will haveto searchunder that entry for the expression look for (chercher) orlookafter (surveiller) to find the correct French equivalent. Don'tselectthe fIrst entry under look and then add on the Frenchequivalent

for after; the result will be meaninglessin French.)

Column A

to look for \037)

to look after \037)

to look out \037)

\037\037\037\037.\037.\037\037\037\037\037..\037\037REVIEW \037\037...\037..\037..\037\037\037\037\037.\037

Circle the words that you would replace with an infinitive in French.

1. Mary has nothingmoretodotoday.

2. The students must study their lessons.

3.Paulwants to learn French.

4. They can leave on Tuesday.5. Pauland Mary hope to travel this summer.)))

WHAT ARE AUXILIARY VERBS? 25)

8. WHAT ARE AUXILIARY VERBS?)

A verb is called an auxiliary verb or helping verb when it helps anotherverb form one of its tenses. When it is used alone,it functions as a

main verb.)

Mary is a girl.Paul has a headache.

He has been gonetwo weeks.)

is

has

has

been

gone)

main verb

main verb

auxiliary verb

auxiliary verb

main verb)

IN ENGLISH

There are three auxiliary verbs: to have, to be, and to do, as well as aseries of auxiliary words such as will, would, may, must, can, couldwhich are used to change the meaning of the main verb.\302\267An auxiliary is used primarily to indicate the tenseof the main

verb (present, past, future - seeWhat is Meant-by Tense?,

p. 52.))

Mary is readinga book.I

auxiliary to be)

present)

Mary has read a book.I

auxiliary to have)

past)

Mary will read a book.I

auxiliary will)

future)

\302\267The auxiliary verb to do is used to help formulatequestionsand

tomake sentences negative (see What are Declarative and Inter-rogative Sentences?, p. 46 and What are Affirmative and Nega-tive Sentences?, p. 43)

Does Mary read a book? interrogative sentence

Mary does not read a book. negative sentence)

IN FRENCH

There are only two auxiliary verbs:avoir(tohave) and etre (to be).The other English auxiliary verbs such as do, does, did, will or would

do not exist as separate words. In Frenchtheirmeaning is conveyedeither by a different structure or by the form of the main verb. Youwill find more on this subject under the different tenses.)))

26 WHAT ARE AUXILIARY VERBS?)

The verbs avoir and etre are irregularverbs whose conjugations must

be memorized. They are importantverbs because they serve both as

auxiliary verbs and main verbs.

J'ai un livre. avoir main verb

I have a book.)

J'ai pris un livre.

I have taken a book.

Je suis fatigu\037.

I am tired.

Je suis all\037 a la maison. etre auxiliary verb

I have gone home. aller (to go) main verb

The auxiliary verbs avoir and etre conjugatedin the different tenses

and followed by the pastparticipleofthe main verb (see What is aParticiple?, p. 59) are used to form the various tenses of the mainverb.A verb tense composed of an auxiliary verb plus a main verb iscalled a compoundtense,asopposedto a simple tense which is atense composedof only the main verb.)

avoir

prendre (to take)

\"etre)

auxiliary verb

main verb)

main verb)

Je mange.\"

II

sunp e tensepresent of manger

I eat.)

J'ai manee.I \"

I\" r\"

auxl1ary maInverb verb

compound tense

past tense of manger

I have eaten.

Let us look at some examplesofthecompoundtensesyou will

encounter in your study of French. (Thefirstsentenceofeach pair

uses a fonn of avoir as an auxiliary, and the second, a fonn of etre.)PASSE COMPOSE (PREsENT PERFEcr)-Present of avoir or etre + past par-ticipleofmain verb (see What is the Past Tense?, p. 63)

Legar\037on a mange la pommelThe boy ate (haseaten)the apple.

La fille est allee au cin\037ma.

The girl went (has gone) to the movies.)))

WHAT ARE AUXILIARY VERBS? 27)

PLUS-QUE-PARFAIT (PAST PERFECT)-Imperfect of avoir or etre +pastparticiple of main verb (see What is the Past PerfectTense?,p.69)

Le gar\037on avait mange la pommelThe boy had eaten the apple.

La fi lle etait allee au cin\037ma.

The girl had gone to the movies.

FUTUR ANTERIEUR (FUTURE PERFECT)-Future of avoir or etre + pastparticipleofmain verb (see What is the Future Perfect Tense?,p. 75)

Le gar\037on aura mange la pommelThe boy will have eaten the apple.

La fille sera alleeau cinema.

The girl will have gone to the movies.

CONDITIONNEL PASSE(PAST CONOITIONAL)-Conditional of avoir oretre+

past participle of main verb (see What is the Conditional?,p.77)

Le gar\037on aurait mange la pommelThe boy would have eaten the apple.

La fille serait alleeau cinema.

The girl would have gone to the movies.

You wilileam other compound tenses as your study of French pro-gresses.)

\037............\037..REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037..

Cross out the English auxiliary verbs which are not used as auxiliaries in

French.)

1. Did the children do theirhomework?2.They will do their homework tomorrow.

3. Do you want to study now?

4. Have the childrendonetheirhomework?)))

28 WHAT IS A SUBJECT?)

9. WHAT IS A SUBJECT?)

In a sentence the person or thing that performs the action is called thesubject. When you wish to find the subject of a sentence,always look

for the verb fIrst; then ask, who?orwhat? before the verb. The answerwill be thesubject.I

Paul speaks French.

Who speaks French?Answer: Paul.

Paul is the subject.The subjectis singular. It refers to one person.)

Are the keyson the table?W hat is on the table? Answer: the keys.

Keys is the subject.The subjectis plural. It refers to more than one thing.)

Train yourself to ask that question to fmd the subject. Never assume aword is the subjectbecauseit comes fIrst in the sentence. Subjects canbe locatedin several different places, as you can see in the following

examples (the subject is in boldface and the verb italicized):Didthegamestart on time?

After playing for two hours,Paul becameexhausted.

Looking in the mirror was a little girl.

Somesentenceshave more than one main verb; you have to find the

subject of each verb.

The boysweredoingthe cooking, while Mary was setting thetable.

Boys is the subject of were doing.(Note that the subject and verb are plural.)

Mary is the subject of was setting.(Note that the subject and verb are singular.))

In both English and French it is important to find the subject of eachverb to make surethat the subject and the verb agree; that is, you must

choose the form of the verb that goes with the subject. (See What is aVerbConjugation?,p.36.))

IThe subject performs the action in an active sentence, but is acted upon in a passive sentence (see Whatis Meant by Active and Passive Voice?,p. 85).)))

WHAT IS A SUBJECT? 29)

.\037..............REVIEW ..................Find the subjects in the sentences below.\302\267Next to Q, write the question you need to ask to find the subject of the

sentences below.\302\267Next to A, write the answer to the question you just asked.\302\267Circle if the subject is singular (8) or plural (P).)

1. When the bell rang, all the childrenran out.

Q:

A: S p

Q:

A: S P

2. Onewaiter took the order and another brought the food.

Q:A: S p

Q:

A: S P

3. The fIrst-year students voted for the class president.

Q:A: S P

4.Frenchis a beautiful language, but it is difficult to learn.

Q:A: S p

Q:

A: S p)))

30 WHAT IS A PRONOUN?)

10. WHAT IS A PRONOUN?)

A pronoun is a word used in place of one ormorenouns. It may stand,

therefore, for a person, animal,place,thing, event, or idea.

For instance, rather than repeating the proper noun \"Paul\" in the fol-

lowing two sentences, it is betterto usea pronoun in the second sen-tence.

Paul likesto swim. Paul practices every day.Paul likes to swim.Hepracticesevery day.

Generally a pronoun can only be usedto refertosomeone(orsome-thing) that has already been mentioned. The word that the pronoun

replaces or refers to is called the antecedentof the pronoun.In the

example above, the pronoun he refers to the propernoun Paul. Paul is

the antecedent of the pronoun he.)

IN ENGLISH

There are different types of pronouns,eachserving a different func-

tion and following different rules. Listedbelowarethe more important

types and the sections where they are discussed in detail.

PERSONAL PRoNouNs-These pronouns change their form according tothe function they have in the sentence.

. assubject(seep.32)I go; they read; he runs; she sings.

. as direct object (see p. 123)

Paul loves it. Janemethim.

. as indirect object (see p. 126)Janegave us the book. Speak to them.

. asobjectof a preposition (see p. 129)

Paul is going out with her.

. as a disjunctive(seep. 133)Who is there? Me.

REFLEXIVE PRONOuNs-These pronouns refer back to the subject of thesentence(seep.82).

I cut myself. We washed ourselves.)))

WHAT IS A PRONOUN? 31)

INTERROGATIVE PRONoUNs-These pronouns are used in questions(see p. 138).

Who is that? What do you want?

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONouNs-These pronouns are used to point outpersonsor things (see p. 169).

This (one) is expensive.That (one) is cheap.

POSSESSIVEPRONouNs-These pronouns are usedto show possession

(see p. 148).

Whose book is that? Mine. Yours is on the table.

RELATIVE PRONoUNs-These pronouns are used to introduce relativesubordinateclauses(seep.154).

The man who came is very nice.That is the book which you read last summer.

INDEFINITE PRONoUNs-These pronouns are used to refer to unidentifiedpersonsor things.

One doesn't do that.

Something is wrong.

TheFrenchindefinite pronouns correspond in usage to their Englishequivalents.They can be studied in your textbook.)

IN FRENCH

Pronouns are identified in the same way as in English.Themostimportantdifferenceis that a pronoun agrees with the noun itreplaces;that is, it must correspond in gender, and usually in number,with its antecedent.)

\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

Circle the pronouns in the sentences below.\302\267Draw an arrow from the pronoun to its antecedent, or antecedents if there

is more than one.)

1. Did Mary call Peter? Yes, she called him last night.2.Thecoatand dress are elegant, but they are expensive.3. Mary baked the cookies herself.

4. Paul and I arevery tired. We went out last night.

5. If the bookis not on the bed, look under it.)))

32 WHAT IS A SUBJECT PRONOUN?)

11. WHAT IS A SUBJECT PRONOUN?)

A subject pronoun is a pronoun used as a subjectofa verb.

He worked while she read.

Who worked? Answer: He.

He is the subjectof the verb worked.

Who read? Answer: She.Sheis the subject of the verb read.)

Subject pronouns are divided into the following categories: the personspeaking (thefirst person), the person spoken to (the second person),and the person spoken about (the third person). These categoriesarefurther divided into singular and plural.Let us comparethepersonalsubject pronouns in English and French.)

Singular1stperson

the person speaking)

2nd personthe person spokento

3rd personthe person or objectspokenabout)

Plural

1 st personthe person speakingplusothers

Paul and I speak French.I I

I

we)

2nd personthe person(s) spoken to

Paul and you speak French.I I

I

you)

3rd personthe persons or objectsspoken about

Paul and Mary speak French.I I

I

they)

English) French)

I) je)

you to

he it

she elle

it it or elle

we noos)

you) vous)

they) ilselles)))

WHAT ISA SUBJECT PRONOUN? 33)

There are three English subjectpronouns which have more than one

equivalent in French: you, it and they. Let us look at each oneso that

you can learn how to choose the correct fonn.)

\"You\" \037 TU OR VOUS

IN ENGLISH

You is always used to addressthe personorpersons you are talking to.

The same pronoun you is used to address the President of theUnitedStates or your dog.

Do you have any questions, Mr. President.

You are a gooddog,Heidi.

Also, there is no difference between you in the singular and you in the

plural. For example, if there weremany people standing in a room andyou asked: \"Are you coming with me?\" the you could referto oneperson or to more than one.

IN FRENCH

There are two sets of pronounsfor you.'1.Thefamiliar form-tu singular (vous plural). This form is used

when you speak to a child, family member, a friend, an animal, or

anyone with whom you are not on formal terms.2.Theformal form-vous singular (vous plural). This form, also

calledthe polite form, is used to address one or morepersonsyou

do not know very well.

When in doubt, always use the polite form, unless speaking to a childor animal,becauseyou are likely to offend French speakers byaddressingthem with to when it is not appropriate.Seep. 37 and p. 39 for a more detailed study of these forms.)

\"IT\" \037 IL OR ELLE

IN ENGLISH

Whenever you refer to one thing or idea,you use the pronoun it.

Where is the book?It is on the table.Hereis the chair. It is comfortable.)

IN FRENCH

The singular subject pronoun you use dependson the genderofthe

noun it replaces (see What is Meant by Gender?, p. 6); that is, the-pronoun must correspondin genderwith its antecedent.)))

34 WHAT IS A SUBJECT PRONOUN?)

Masculine antecedent \037 it

Ou est Ie livre? II est sur la table.. I I .

masc. sing. masc. sing

antecedent pronoun

Where is the book? It is on the table.

Feminine antecedent \037 elle

Voici la chaise. Elle est confortable.I I

fern. sing. fern. sing.antecedent pronoun

Here is the chair. It is comfortable.)

\"THEY\" \037 ILS OR ELLES

IN ENGLISH

Whenever you refer to more than one person or more than one objectyou use the plural pronoun they.

Paul and Henry are students; they study a lot.Where are the books? They are on the table.

Here are the chairs. They are comfortable.)

IN FRENCH

The plural subject pronoun you use dependson the gender of the noun

it replaces, that is, the pronounmust correspond in gender with theantecedent.

Masculineantecedents\037 ils

Paul et Henri sont \037tudiants; ils \037tudient beaucoup.I I I

I

masc. pI. masc. pI.an teceden t pronoun

Paul and Henry are students.They study a lot.

Ou sont les livres?lis sont sur la table.t I

masc. pI. masc. pI.an teceden t pronoun

Where are the books? They are on the table.

Feminine antecedents \037 elles

Voici les chaises; elles sont confortables.I I

feln. pI. fern. pI.antecedent pronoun

Here are the chairs; they are comfortable.)))

WHAT IS A SUBJECT PRONOUN? 35)

Two or more masculine antecedents \037 ils

Ou soot Ie livre et Iecahier?lIssootsur la table.I I I

masc. sing. masc. sing. masc.pI.L antecedentW pronoun

Where are the book and the notebook? They are on the table.

Two or morefeminine antecedents \037 elles

Ou soot la cl\037 et la mootre? Elles soot sur la table.I I I

fern. sing. fern. sing. fern. pI.L antecedents \037 pronoun

Where are the key and the watch? They are on the table.

Two or moreantecedentsof different genders \037 ils

Voici la cle et Iecahier.lIssootsur la table.I I I

fern. sing. rnasc. sing. masc.pI.Lantecedents--.J pronoun

Here are the key and the notebook. They are on the table.)

\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

Write the French subject pronoun that you would use to replace the words in

italics.

\302\267Write the corresponding person and number of each pronoun.

French

subject

pronoun Person Number)

1. Am I invited?

2. Come on children, you must

go to bed now.

3. Paul and I aregoingout.4.Mommy, you have to give

me a kiss.

5. Mary and Helen are home.

6. Do you and your wifelikesports?

7. My brother and sister speakFrench.)))

36 WHAT IS A VERB CONJUGATION?)

12. WHAT IS A VERB CONJUGATION?)

A verb conjugation is a list of the sixpossibleforms of the verb for a

particular tense. Foreachtense,there is one verb form for each of thesix personsusedas the subject of the verb. (See What is a SubjectPronoun?,p. 32.)IN ENGLISH

Most verbs change very little. Let us lookat the various forms of the

verb to sing when eachof the possible pronouns is the subject. 1

Singular)

1 st person

2nd person)

I sing with the music.

You sing with the music.)

3rd person)

{

Hesings with the music.

She sings with the music.

It sings with the music.)

Plural

1st person We sing with the music.

2nd person You sing with the music.

3rd person They sing with the music.

Because English verbs change so little,you do not need to \"conjugateverbs.\" It is much simplerto say that verbs add an \"-s\" in the 3rdpersonsingular.

The English verb that changes the most is the verb to be which has

three different verb forms in the present: I am, you/we/they are,he/she/it is.)

IN FRENCH

Verb forms change constantly, and it is thereforenecessary to know

the form of the verb for each of the sixpersonsfor each tense. Memo-

rizing all the forms of all the verbs that exist would be an impossible,endless task. Fortunately, mostFrenchverbs belong to the first of thefollowingtwo categories:Regularverbswhoseformsfollowa regular pattern. Only one

example must be memorizedand the pattern can then be applied toother verbs in the same group.)

1In tJ1is section we will speak only about the present tense (seeWhat is the Present Tense?,p. 54).)))

WHAT IS A VERB CoNJUGATION? 37)

Irregular verbs whoseformsdonotfollow any regular pattern and

must be memorizedindividually.

Whatever verb conjugation you memorize, regular or irregular,a con-jugation is always made up of a pronoun subject and the verb form

that goes with that subject. The orderusedto lista conjugation is

always the same: the singular 1st, 2nd,and 3rd persons, then the

pluralIst, 2nd, and 3rd persons.)

Subject

Pay special attention to the subject pronoun in this conjugationof theFrenchverb chanter (to sing).

Singular

1st person

2nd person)

3rd person)

je chante

tu chantes

{

it chante

elle chante)

nous chantons

vous chantez

{ils chantent

elles chantent

Each subject represents the doer of the actionof the verb.

1 ST PERSON SINGULAR-The\" I form\" of the verb (the \"jeform\") is used

whenever the person speaking is the doerof the action.

Le matin je chante bien.In the morning I sing well.

2ND PERSON SINGULAR-The \"you familiar singular form\" of the verb (the\"tu form\") is used whenever the person spokento (with whom you are

on familiar terms, see p. 33)is the doer of the action.

Jean, tn chantes bien.

John, you sing well.

3RD PERSON SINGULAR-The \"he, she, it form\" of the verb (the \"ii,elleform\") is used when the person, thing, or idea spokenaboutis the)

Plural

1 st person

2nd person)

3rd person)))

38 WHAT IS A VERB CONJUGATION?)

doer of the \037ction. The 3rd person singular subject can be expressedin

one of three ways:

1. the third person singularmasculinepronoun il (he, it) and the third

person singularfemininepronoun elle (she, it)

II chante bien.He singswell.Regardez ce livre. II est interessanteLookat this book.It is interesting.

Elle chante bien.

She sings well.

Voici la chaise. Elle est confortable.Here is the chair. It is comfortable.

2. a proper noun

Mariechantebien.I

elle

Mary sings well.

Paul chante bien.I

il

Paul sings well.

In both these sentencesthe proper noun could be replaced by the

pronoun he (iI) or she (elle),so that you must use the 3rd personsingular form of the verb.)

3. a singularcommonnoun

La title chante bien.I

elle

The girl sings well.)

L'oiseau chante bien.I

i}

The bird sings well.)

In both these sentences the common noun could be replaced by the

pronoun he (iI) or she (elle), so that you must use the 3rd personsingular form of the verb.)

1STPERSON PLURAL - The \"we form\" of the verb (the \"nous form\") isused whenever \"I\"(the speaker)is oneof the doers of the action; that

is, whenever the speakeris includedin a plural or multiple subject.)))

WHAT IS A VERB CONJUGATION? 39)

Nous chantons bien.We sing well.

Marie, Paul et moi chantons bien.I I

Inous)

Mary, Paul and I sing well.In this last sentence, the subject, Mary, Paul and /, could be

replaced by the pronoun we J so that in French you must use the

nous fonn of the verb.)

2ND PERSON PLURAL - The \"you plural form\"of the verb (the \"vous

form\") is used in two instances:

1.Thepluralof tu - When two or more persons with whom you use

tu individually are the doers of the action.Paul et Marie, vous chantez bien.

Paul, tu chantes bien.

Marie, tu chantes bien.Pauland Mary, you sing well.

2. The singular and pluralpoliteform - When one or more personswhom you address formally are the doers of the action.

Madame Dupont, vous chantez bien.Mrs. Dupont,you singwell.

Monsieur et Madame Dupont, vous chantez bien.Mr.andMrs.Dupont, you sing well.

3RD PERSON PLURAL - The \"they form\" of the verb (the \"ils,elles form\is usedwhen the persons, things, or ideas which are spokenabout are

the doers of the action. The 3rd personplural subject can be expressedin one of three ways:

1. The third person plural masculine pronoun i1s(they) and the third

person plural feminine pronounelles(they)

lis chantent bien.

They sing well.

RegardezcesIivres. lis sont interessants.

Look at these books.They are interesting.

Elles chantent bien.They singwell.

Voici les chaises. Elles sont confortables.Here are the chairs. They are comfortable.)))

40 WHAT IS A VERB CoNJUGATION?)

2. two or more proper or commonnouns

Marieet Paul chantent bien.I I

I

ils

Mary and Paul sing well.

La tilleet Iegar\037on chantent bien.I I

I

ils

The girl and the boy sing well.

3. a plural noun.

Les rilles chantent bien.I

elles

The girls sing well.)

Verb Form

Let us look again at the conjugation of the verb chanter (to sing),paying special attention to the verb forms. Notice that each of the six

persons has a different verb form.However, when two pronouns

belong to the same personthereis only one verb form. For instance,the 3rd personsingularhas two pronouns, il and elle, but they bothhave the sameverb form: chante.

je chante

tu chantes)

iI

elle })chante)

nous) chantons

chantez)vous

ils

}elles

TheFrenchverb is composed of two parts:

1. The stem(alsocalledthe root), ilia racine\" in French, which is found

by dropping the last two or three letters fromthe infinitive (see

What is the Infinitive?, p. 23).)

chantent)))

WHAT IS A VERB CONJUGATION? 41)

Infinitive

chanter

finir

vendre)

Stemchant -

fin-

vend-)

In regular verbs the stem rarely changes throughout a conjugation.

2. The endlng,\"laterminaison\"in French,which changes for each

person in the conjugation of regularand irregular verbs. You willknow which endingsto add when you have established which groupthe verb belongs to.)

Conjugation of Regular Verbs

Regular verbs are divided into three groups, also called conJugations,basedon the infinitive ending.)

-er) -ir) -re)

1st group 2nd group 3rd group

Eachof the three verb groups has its own set of verb endings for each

tense (see What is Meant by Tense?, p. 52). You will have to memo-rizeallthe tensesof only one sample verb from each group in order toconjugateany regular verb belonging to that group. As an example, letus lookmore closely at regular verbs of the first group (-erverbs),that is, verbs like parler (to speak) and aimer (to love) that follow the

pattern of chanter (to sing),conjugated above.

1. Identify the group of the verb by its infmitive ending.

parleraiIner)

-+ 1st conjugation or group)

2. Find the verb stem by removing the infmitive ending.

parl-

aim-)

3. Add the ending that agrees with the subject.

je parle j'aimetu paries tn aimes

it parle il aimeelle parle elleaimenons parlons nons aimons

vons parlez vons aimez

ils parlent ils aiment

elles parlent elles aiment)))

42 WHAT IS A VERB CoNJUGATION?)

The endings for verbs belonging to the other groupswill be different,

but the process of conjugation will always be the same for regularverbs:

1. Identify the group of the verb by its infinitive ending.

2. Find the verb stem.

3. According to the group, add the ending that agrees with

the subject.

As irregular verbs are introduced in your textbook, the entire conjuga-tion will be given so that you can memorize them individually. Be suretodosobecause many common verbs are irregular (avoir, to have,etre, tobe,and faire, to make, for example).)

CarefulA special word must be said about the verbs of the first group.

Although you can easily see the differencesamong the various verb

forms when they are written (parle,paries,parlent),they are all pro-nounced in the same way (parle). In orderto write them correctly youwill have to identify the subject.)

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Write the stem and conjugate the regularverb porter (to carry, to wear).)

Stem:.Je nous

tu vous

il/elle ils/elles)))

WHAT ARE AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCES? 43)

13. WHAT ARE AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE

SENTENCES?)

A sentence can be classifiedasto whether it is expressing a fact or sit-uation that is or a fact or situation that is not.

An affirmative sentence expresses a fact or situation that is; it affirmsthe information.

France is a country in Europe.

Paul will work at the university.They likedto travel.

A negative sentence expresses a fact or situation that is not; it negatesthe information. It includesa word of negation.

France is not a country in Asia.

Paul will not work at the university.They did not like to travel.)

IN ENGLISH

An affIrmative sentence can become a negativesentencein one of two

ways:

1. add the wordnot after some verbs)

Affirmative NegativePaul is a student. Paul is not a student.

Mary can do it. Mary cannot do it.

They will travel. They will not travel.

Frequently, the word not is attachedto the verb and the letter \"0\" is

replaced by an apostrophe; this is calleda contraction. The con-

tracted fonn of \"will not\" is \"won't.\

Paul isn't a student.I

is not)

Mary can't do it.I

cannot)

They won't travel.I

will not)

2. add the auxiliary verb do,does,ordid+ not + the dictionary form

of the main verb (do ordoesisused for negatives in the present)))

44 WHAT ARE AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCES?)

tense and did for negatives in thepasttense-see What is the Pre-

sent Tense?, p. 54 and What is the Past Tense?, p. 63)Affirmative Negative

We study a lot. We do not study a lot.

Mary writes well. Mary does not write well.

The train arrived. The train did not arrive.

Frequently, do, does,ordidiscontracted with not: don't, doesn't,didn't.)

IN FRENCH

The basic rule for turning an affirmative sentence into a negativesen-tence is to put ne before the conjugated verb and pas after that verb.

(If the conjugated verb starts with a vowel, ne dropsthee and

becomes n'.))

We eat a lot.)

Negative

Nous nemanfeons

pas beaucoup.conjugated verb

We do not eat a lot.)

Affirmative

Nous mangeons beaucoup.)

Marie ecrit bien.) Marien'\037crit pas bien.

conjukated verb

Mary does not write well.

Le train n 'est pas arriv\037.

. I

conjugated verb

The train has not arrived.)

Mary writes well.)

Le train est arrive.)

The train has arrived.)

The placement of ne and pas varies somewhatwhen an infinitive is

negated and when there is an object pronoun in the sentence. Be sureto consultyour textbook.)

CarefulRemember that there is no equivalentfor the auxiliary words do, does,

did in French; do not try to include them in a negative sentence.)))

WHAT ARE AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCES? 45)

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Write the negative of each sentence.\302\267Circle the words which indicate the negative in the sentences you have just

written.

\302\267Box in the English words around which you would place the ne . . . pas in a

French sentence.)

1. We want to speakEnglishin class.)

2. He does his homework.)

3. Helenwas home this morning.)

4. Paul can go to the restaurant with us.)))

46 WHAT ARE DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES?)

14. WHAT ARE DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE

SENTENCES?)

A sentence can be classified accordingto itspurpose,whether it

makes a statement or asks a question.A declarative sentence is a sentence that is a statement;it declares the

information.

Columbus discovered America in 1492.

An Interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a question.

When did Columbus discoverAmerica?

In written language, an interrogative sentence always ends with a

question mark.)

IN ENGLISH

A declarative sentence can be changedto an interrogative sentence in

one of two ways:1. Add the auxiliary verb do, does, or did before the subjectand

change the main verb to the dictionary form of the verb (do and

does are used to introducea questionin the present tense and did tointroduce a question in the past tense-see What is the PresentTense?,p.54and What is the Past Tense?, p. 63).)

Declarative sentence

Philip likes the class.I

present 3rd pers. sing.)

Interrogative sentence

Does Philiplike the class?I I

present 3 rd pers. sing. + dictionary form)

Paul and Mary sing together.I

present 3rd pers. pl.)

Do Paul and Mary sing together?I I

present 3rd piers. pI. + dictionary fonn)

Alice went to Paris.I

past)

Did Alice go to Paris?I I

past + di \037tionary form)

2. Invert the normal word orderof subject+ verb to verb + subject.This Inversion process can only be used with verbs that can be usedas auxiliaries(seeWhat are Auxiliary Verbs?, p. 25).)

DeclarativesentencePaulishome.

I

subject + verb)

Interrogative sentence

Is Paul home?I

verb + subject)

I am late.I

subject + verb)

Am I late?I

verb + subject)))

WHAT ARE DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES? 47)

She will come tomorrow.I

subject + will + maio verb)

Will she come tomorrow?I

will + subject + maio verb)

IN FRENCH

A declarative sentence can be changedto an interrogative sentence in

one of two ways:1.Add the expression est-ce que before the statement.

Vous mangez a la maison ce soir.Est-cequevous mangez a la maison ce soir?You are eating at home this evening.

Are you eating at homethis evening?

Paul mange a la maison.Est-ce que Paul mange a la maison?Paul eats at home.DoesPauleat at home?

Jepeux manger maintenant.

Est-ce que je peux manger maintenant?

I can eat now.Can I eat now?

2. Usethe inversion form, that is, put any subject, except je, after the

verb. (If je is the subject,use the est-ce que form.)

When the subject is a pronoun,simply invert the verb and pronounsubject.

Vous mangez a la maison ce soir.Mangez-vousa la maison ce soir?

You are eating at home this evening.

Are you eating at home this evening?

When the subject is a noun, followthesesteps:1.State the noun subject.

2. State the verb and, when writing, add a hyphen.3. State the subjectpronoun that corresponds to the gender and

number of the subject (seep.32).Paul est a la maison.Paul est-it a la maison?(word-for-word: Paul is he home?)Paul is home.Is Paulhome?)))

48 WHAT ARE DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES?)

La montre et la cl6 sont sur la table.Lamontre et la cle sont-elles sur la table?(word-for-word: The watch and the key are they on the table?)

Sinceboth subjects (18 montre and 18 cle) are feminine, the

pronoun will be feminine plural; i.e., elles.

The watch and the key are on the table.Are the watch and the key on the table?

Paulet Mariechantent ensemble.

Paul et Marie chantent-ils ensemble?(word-for-word: Paul and Mary do they sing together?)

Since one subject is masculine (Paul) and the other feminine (Marie), the

pronoun will be masculine plural; i.e., Us (see p. 35).

Paul and Mary sing together.DoPaul and Mary sing together?)

Tag Questions

In both Englishand French when you expect a yes-or-no answer, you

can also transform a statement into a question by adding a short phraseat the end of the statement.Thisshort phrase is sometimes called a

tag.

IN ENGLISH

The tag repeats the idea of the statementas a negativequestion.Paul and Mary sing together, don't they?The watch and the key are on the table,aren'tthey?)

IN FRENCH

The words n'est.ce pas? can be addedto a declarative sentence to

turn it into a question.Paul et Mary chantent ensemble, n'est-ce pas?Paul and Marysingtogether, don't they?

La montre et la cl6 sont sur la table,n'est-cepas?The watch and the key are on the table, aren't they?

Notice that although the English tag changes, theFrenchexpressionn'est.cepasdoesn'tchange.)))

WHAT ARE DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES? 49)

CarefulMake sure that you do not use the auxiliaries do, does and did when

you are asking a question in French.Just like est.ce que, they signal aquestion and are not translated. Also, use only one interrogativeformor the other, either est.ce que with no inversion of the verb and sub-

ject, or the inversion form.)

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I. Write the interrogative form for each of the sentences below.\302\267Circle the words which indicate the interrogative in the sentences you have

just written.

1. Paul and Mary studied all evening.)

2. His brothereatsa lot.)

3. The girl's parents speak French.)

II.Let us see the different ways the declarativesentencebelow can be

changed to an interrogative sentence in French.

My mother and father went to the movies.

1. Box in the word before which you would place est-ce que?

2. Circlethe word after which you would place n'est.ce pas?

3. To use the inversion form, fill in the answers to the steps below.

4. In the space provided, fill in the answer in French.

\302\267State the noun subject:

\302\267State the verb:

\302\267State the pronoun that

corresponds to the subject:) \037 In French:)))

50 WHAT IS MEANT BY MooD?)

15. WHAT IS MEANT BY MOOD?)

Verb forms are divided into moods which,in turn, are subdivided into

one or more tenses.Theword mood is a variation of the word mode,meaning manner or way. The various grammatical moods indicatetheattitude of the speaker toward what he or sheis saying. For instance, if

you are making a statement you use one mood, but if you are givingan

order you use another. As a beginning studentof French, you only

have to recognize the names of the moods so that you will know whatyour Frenchtextbookis referring to when it uses these terms. You will

learn when to use the various moods as you learn verbs and their

tenses.)

IN ENGLISH

Verbs can be in one of three moods:INDICATIVE -The indicative mood is used to state theactionofthe verb,

that is, to indicate facts. This is the mostcommon mood, and most of

the verb forms that you use in everyday conversation belong to theindicativemood.Most of the tenses studied in this handbook belongtothe indicativemood:the present tense (see p. 54), the past tense(seep.63),and the future tense (p. 72).

Paul studiesFrench.I

present indicative)

Mary was here.I

past indicative)

They will come tomorrow.\037

future indicative)

IMPERATIVE-The imperative mood is used to give commandsor orders

(see What is the Imperative?, p. 56). Thismoodisnot divided into

tenses.

Paul, study French now!Mary, be homeon time!)))

WHAT IS MEANT BY MooD? 51)

SUBJUNCTIVE-The subjunctive mood is usedto expressan attitude or

feeling toward the action of the verb.Sinceit stressesfeelingsabout

the fact or idea, it is \"subjective\" about them.(SeeWhat is the Sub-

junctive?, p. 90.) In English,this moodis not divided into tenses.

The school requires that students study French.

I wish that Mary were here.

The teacher recommends that he do his homework.)

IN FRENCH

The French language identifies four moods.INDICATIVE- As in English, the indicative mood is the mostcommon,

and most of the tenses you will learnbelongto this mood.

IMPERATIVE-As in English, the imperative mood is usedto give orders

and it is not divided into tenses.

SUBJUNCfIVE-Unlike English, the subjunctive mood is used very fre-quently and it is divided into tenses. The Frenchsubjunctive has two

main tenses: the present subjunctiveand the past subjunctive. The pre-sent subjunctive is commonlyusedin conversation and in writtenFrench. Textbooks use the term\"present subjunctive\" to distinguishthat tense from the \"presentindicative\" and the \"present conditional.\"

CONDITIONAL-Frenchgrammar also recognizesa moodcalledthe con-

ditional. The conditional mood (see p. 77) is frequently used to

express the action of the verb as a possibility or an impossibility if a

certain condition is filled. Thereare two tenses: the present condi-tional and the past conditional.

Sij'avaisde I'argent, j'acheterais ce livre.

If I had money, I would buy this book.

Les etudiants seraient allesaParis,s'ilsavaient eu Ie temps.The students would have gone to Paris, if they had had the time.

Textbooks use the term \"present conditional\"to distinguishit from the

\"present indicati ve\" and \"present subjunctive.\"If noreferenceismade to the mood, the tense usually belongs to the mostcommon

mood, the indicative.)))

52 WHAT IS MEANT BY TENSE?)

16. WHAT IS MEANT BY TENSE?)

The tense of a verb indicates the time when the action of the verb

takes place (at the present time, in the past,or in the future). The word

tense comes from the sameword as the French word \"temps,\" whichmeans time.)

I aID eating.I ate.I will eat.)

presentpastfuture)

As you can see in the above examples, just by putting the verb in adifferent tense and without giving any additional information (such as\"Iam eatingnow,\" \"I ate yesterday,\" \"I will eat tomorrow\,") you canindicate when the actionof the verb takes place.

Tenses may be classified accordingto the way they are formed. A

simple tense consistsof only one verb form (I ate), while a compoundtenseconsistsof two or more verb forms (I am eating).In this section we will only consider tenses of the indicativemood(seeWhat is Meant by Mood?, p. 50).

IN ENGLISH

Listed below are the main tenses of the indicativemoodwhose equiv-

alents you will encounter in French:)

PresentI study

I aID studying)

present

present progressive)Past)

I studied

I have studied

I was studyingI had studied)

simple past

present perfect

past progressivepast perfect)

Future)

I will studyI will have studied)

future

future perfect)

As you can see, there are only two simple tenses (present and simplepast), all of the other tenses are compound tenses formed by one ormoreauxiliaries plus the main verb (see What are Auxiliary Verbs?,

p. 25).)))

WHAT IS MEANT BY TENSE? 53)

IN FRENCH

Listed below are the main tenses of the indicativemoodthat you will

encounter in French:)

Presentj' etudie

Past

j,etudiais

j'ai etudie

j' avais etudie

Future

j' etudierai

j,aurai etudie)

I study, I am studying present (Present))

I was studying

I have studied

I had studied)

imparfait (Imperfect)

passe compose (Present Perfect)passe anterieur (Past Perfect))

I will studyI will have studied)

futur (Future)

futur anterieur (Future Perfect))

As you can see, therearemore simple tenses than in English (Present,Imperfect, Future).Thecompoundtensesin French are formed withthe auxiliary verbsavoir oretre+ the past participle of the main verb.

This handbookdiscussesthe various tenses and their usage in separatesections: What is the PresentTense?,p.54; What is the PastTense?, p. 63; What is the Past Perfect Tense?, p.69; What is theFutureTense?,p.72; and What is the Future Perfect Tense?,p. 75.

CarefulDonot assume that tenses with the same name areusedin the same

way in English and in French.)))

54 WHAT ISTHE PRESENT TENSE?)

17. WHAT IS THE PRESENTTENSE?)

The present tense indicates that the action is happeningat the present

time. It can be:)

. when the speaker is speaking

. a habitual action

. a general truth)

I see you.

He smokes when he is nervous.

The sun shines every day.)

IN ENGLISH

There are three forms of the verb whichindicatethe present tense,

although they have slightly different meanings:Mary studies in the library. presentMary is studying in the library. present progressiveMary does study in the library. present emphatic

When you answerthe followingquestions,you will automatically

choose one of the above fonns.Where does Mary study?

Mary studies in the library.Where is Mary now?

Mary is studying in the library.

Does Mary study in the library?Yes,Mary does study in the library.)

IN FRENCH

There is only one verb form to indicatethe present tense. It is used toexpress the meaningof the English present, present progressive, and

present emphatic tenses. In Frenchthe idea of the present tense isindicated by the ending of the verb, without any auxiliary verb such asis and does. It is very important, therefore, not to translate theseEng-lish auxiliary verbs. Simply put the main verb in the present tense.)))

WHAT IS THE PRESENT TENSE? 55)

Mary studies in the library.I

etudie)

Mary is studying in the library.I I

I

etudie)

Mary does study in the library.I I

I

etudie)

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Fill in the proper form of the verb to read in the following answers.\302\267Write the French verb form for sentences 2 and 3.)

1. What does Mary do all day?She2.Has she read The Red and the Black?

No,but she it right now.

3. Does MaryreadFrench?

Yes, she French.)

FRENCH VERB: lit.)

FRENCH VERB:)

FRENCH VERB:)))

56 WHAT IS THE IMPERATIVE?)

18. WHAT IS THE IMPERATIVE?)

The Imperative is the command form of a verb.It isusedtogive

someone an order. There are affirmative commands (an ordertodosomething) and negative commands (an order not to do something).

IN ENGLISH

There are two types of commands, dependingon who is being told todo, or not to do,something.\"You\" command -When an order is given to one or morepersons,the

dictionary form of the verb is used.

Affirmative imperative Negative imperativeAnswer the phone. Don'tanswerthe phone.

Clean your room. Don't clean your room.

Talk softly. Don't talk softly.Notice that the pronoun \"you\" is not stated. The absenceof the pro-

noun you in the sentence is a goodindicationthat you are dealingwith an imperative and not a present tense.

You answer the phone.I I

I

present)

Answer the phone.I

imperative)

\"Well command - When an order is given to oneselfaswell as to

others, the phrase \"let's\" (a contractionof let us) is used followed bythe dictionary form of the verb.)

Affirmative imperative

Let's leave.

Let's go to the movies.)

Negative imperativeut's not leave.ut's not go to the movies.)

IN FRENCH

As in English, there are also two basic types of commands, dependingon whom is beingtoldto do,ornottodo,something. However, there

are three forms because the \"you\" command has both a familiar (tu-form) and a formal form (vous-form).

For the imperative, most verbs use thepresenttense without the sub-

ject pronoun. Your textbook will go over the few verbs that useanother tense for the imperative.)))

WHAT IS THE IMPERATIVE? 57)

UTu\" command - When an order is given to someone to whom one

says tu.

Affirmative imperative Negative imperativeChante. Ne chante pas.Sing. Don't sing.

Va avec Paul. Ne va pas avecPaul.Gowith Paul. Don't go with Paul.

Notice that verbs with an infinitive ending in -er (ex. chanter,aller,etc.)dropthe final \"s\" of the tu form of the presenttense(present

\037 tu chantes, tu vas; imperative \037 chante, va).

uVous\" command - When an order is given to more than one person to

whom one says tu or to onepersonto whom one says vous.

Affirmative imperative Negativeimperative

Chantez. Ne chantez pas.Sing. Don't sing.Allez avec Paul. N'allez pas avec Paul.Go with Paul. Don't go with Paul.

uNous\" command - When an order is given to oneselfas well as to

others.)

Affirmative imperative

Chantons.

Let's sing.

Allons avec Paul.Let'sgowith Paul.)

Negative imperative

Ne chantons pas.Let's not sing.

N'allons pas avec Paul.Let's not go with Paul.)

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I. Change the sentences below to the imperative affirmative.

1. You should study every evening.)

2. We go to the movies once a week.)))

58 WHAT ISTHE IMPERATIVE?)

II. Change the following sentences to the imperative negative.

1. You shouldn't sleep in class.)

2. We don't speak in class.)

III.Circle if the verb of the sentences below is in the imperative (I) or the

present (P).)

1. Tu lis beaucoup. I P

2.Parlons fran\037ais. I P

3. Vous allez en France. I P

4.Ne dormons pas. I P)))

WHAT IS A PARTICIPLE? 59)

19. WHAT IS A PARTICIPLE?)

A participle is a form of a verb whichcanbeused in one of two ways:with an auxiliary verb to indicate certain tenses, or as an adjective or

modifier to describe something.

I was writing a letter.I I

auxiliary participleL past tense.J)

The brokenvase was on the floor.I

participle describing vase)

There are two types of participles: the presentparticipleand the past

participle. As you will learn, participlesarenot used in the same wayin English and French.)

Present Participle)

IN ENGLISH

The present participle is easy to recognize becauseit is the -ing form

of the verb: working, studying,dancing,playing.

The present participle has two primary uses:1.as the main verb in compound tenses with the auxiliary verb to be

She is singing.I I

I

present progressive of to sing)

They were dancing.I I

I

past progressive of to dance)

2. as an adjective

This is an amazing discovery.I

describes the noun discovery)

He was a gooddancingpartner.I

describes the noun partner)))

60 WHAT IS A PARTICIPLE?)

IN FRENCH

The present participle is formed by adding -ant to the stem of thenousformofthepresenttense (chantant, fmissant, etc.)

We refer you to your textbookfor the useofthe present participle in

French, since it is only introducedin advancedFrench.)

CarefulKeepin mind that the French equivalents of the commonEnglishtensesformed with an auxiliary + present participle (she is singing,they were dancing) do not use participles in French. TheseEnglishconstructionscorrespondto a simple tense of a French verb.)

She\037s

\037in\037

ing.

present progressive)

\037) Elle chante.I

present)

They were dancing.I I

I

past progressive)

\037) lis dansaient.I

imperfect)

He will be writing.I I

I

future progressive)

\037) II ecrira.I

future)

Past Participle)

IN ENGLISH

The past participle is formed in several ways. You can always find it

by remembering the form of the verb that follows I have: I havespoken, I have written, I have walked.

The past participlehas two primary uses:

1. as the main verb in compoundtenseswith the auxiliary verb to have

I have written all that I have to say.He hasn't spoken to me since our quarrel.

2. as an adjective

Is the written word more important than the spoken word?I I

describes the noun word describesthe noun word)))

WHAT IS A PARTICIPLE? 61)

IN FRENCH

Regular verbs have a regular past participle:-er verbs add -e to the stem-ir verbs add -i to the stem-re verbs add -u to the stem

Infinitive Stem Past participle

chanter chant- chantefinir fin- fini

repondre repond- repondu

You will have to memorize irregularpastparticiplesindividually. As

you can see in the examples below, they may be very different fromthe infinitive.)

Infinitive

etre

avoir

recevoir

comprendreecrire)

Past participle

ete

eu

re\037u

compris

ecrit)

As in English, the past participlecanbeusedas part of a compoundverb or as an adjective.

1. as the main verb in compound tenseswith the auxiliary avoir (to

have) or etre (to be)Nous avons compris la I\037on.We have understood the lesson.

Paul est aile h la Inaison.

Paul has gone home.

Many tensesareformed with the auxiliary verbs avoir or etre plusthepastparticiple of the main verb (see What is the PastTense?,p.63).These tenses are discussed under various sections of thishandbook.

2. as an adjective

When the past participle is usedas an adjective it must agree with

the noun it modifies in gender and in number.

the spoken languagela langue parlee

Spoken modifies the noun language. Since la langue (language) isfeminine singular, the word for spoken must be feminine singular.This is shown by adding an -e.)))

62 WHAT IS A PARTICIPLE?)

the written words

les mots ecritsWritten modifies the noun words. Since les mots (words)is masculine

plural, the word for written must be masculine plural. This is shown

by adding an -s.)

\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

Circle the auxiliary + present participlesin the sentences below which arethe equivalentof a simple tense in French.

1. I am speaking French.

2. Pauland Mary.were studying for the exam.

3. Are you bringing the book to class?

4. The students will be trying to memorize the verbs.)))

WHAT IS THE PAST TENSE? 63)

20. WHAT IS THE PAST TENSE?)

The past tense is usedtoexpressan action that occurred in the past.)

IN ENGLISH

There are several verb forms that indicate the action took place in thepast.

I worked

I was workingI used to workI did work

I have worked)

simple pastpast progressivewith helping verb used to

past emphaticpresent perfect

1)

The simple past is called \"simple\"because it is a simpletense;Le.,itconsistsof one word (worked in the example above). The otherpasttenses are compound tenses; Le., they consist of more than one word,

an auxiliary plus a main verb (wasworking,did work,etc.).

IN FRENCH

There are two French tenses which correspondto allthe English past

verbal forms listed above: the passe compose(the present perfect)

and the Imparfalt (the imperfect).)

Present Perfect (passecompose)The passe compose is formed by the auxiliary verb avoir (to have) or

etre (to be) conjugated in the present tense+ thepastparticiple of the

main verb (see What are Auxiliary Verbs?,p.25and What is a

Participle?, p. 59). As in English, the past participle does not changeform from one person to another.

j'ai parl\037 I spoke, I have spokenI . I . .

avo\037,: past participleauxIlIary)

nous avons parl\037 we spoke, we have spoken

je suis all\037 I went, I have goneA

I I . ..:tr\037. past participleauxIlIary)

il est all\037 he went, he has gone)

1A separate section is devotedto the past perfect (I had worked), seep.69.)))

64 WHAT IS THE PAST TENSE?)

\"

Selection of the Auxiliary Avoir or Etre

Mostverbsusethe auxiliary avoir. Therefore, it is easier for you tomemorize the listof verbs conjugated with etre and assume that allthe other verbs are conjugated with avoir.

There are approximatelysixteenbasicverbs, sometimes referred to bygrammar books as \"verbsof motion,\"that are conjugated with etre.\"Verbs of motion\"is not an accuratedescriptionof these verbs since

some of them, such as rester (to stay, to remain), do not imply motion.You will find the \"etreverbs\" easier to memorize in pairs of oppo-sites:)

venir to come

rester to remainsortir to go out

partir to leavedescendre to go down

tomber to fallnaitre to be born *' mourir to die

Verbs derived fromthe aboveverbs are also conjugated with etre:rentrer (to return),revenir(to come back), and devenir (to become),among others.)

aller

retourner

entrer

arri ver)

to goto return

to come in

to arrive)

monter) to climb)

*'

*'

*'*'

{:)

Agreement of the PastParticiplesThe rules of agreement of the past participle dependon whether the

auxiliary verb is avoir or etre.1.Agreement of past participles conjugated with etre

When the auxiliary verb is etre, thepastparticiple agrees with the

subject (review the sectionWhat is a Subject?,p.28).Pierre est aile au cin\037lna.

I I

subject past participleL tnasc. sing..-J

Peter went to the movies.)

Marie est allee au cinema.I I

subject past participle

Lfetn. sing..-J

Mary went to the movies.)))


fay)9

t Marie sootalfes

au cinema.

subjects past participleL masc. pI. \037

Paul and Mary went to the movies.)

2. Agreementofpastparticiplesconjugated with avoir

When the auxiliary verb is avoir,thepastparticipleagrees with the

direct object if the direct objectcomesbefore the verb in the sen-tence (review the sectionondirectobjects,p.116).If the direct

object comes after the verb, thereisno agreement and the past par-ticiple remains in its masculinesingularform.Your textbook will

go over this rule in detail. In the meantime,herearea few examples

showing some structures where there is agreement.Quand avez-vous vu Paul? Je I 'ai vu hier.-

I I

dir.obj. past part.L masc.sing.

.-J

When did you see Paul? I saw him yesterday.)

Quand avez-vous vu Marie ? Je I'ai vue hier.. l I

dlr.obJ. past part.L fern. sing. .-J

When did you see Mary? I saw her yesterday.)

Quand avez-vous vu Paul et Marie? Je les ai vus hier.I I

dir.obj. past part.L masc. pI. .-J

When did you see Paul and Mary? I sawthem yesterday.)

Remember these two steps when using the passe compose:

1.Determine whether the verb takes avoir or etre as the auxiliary.

2. Depending on which auxiliary verb is required,apply the appro-

priate rules of agreement.)

Imperfect (imparfait)

The imparfait is a simple tense formed by adding a set of endings tothe stemof the verb. The conjugation is so regular that there is noneedto repeat what is in your French textbook.)))


There are two English verb forms that indicate that the imparfaitshould be used in French:1.when the English verb form includes, or could include,the helping

verb used to.)

I used to go to Franceevery year.

J'allais en France chaque ann\037e.

I

itn parf ai t)

As a child I went to France every year.I

could be replaced by used to goComme enfant j 'allais en Francechaque ann\037e.

2. when the English verb form is in the past progressive tense, as inwas singing,wereworking.

At 8:00 P.M. last night, I was eating dinner.A huit heures hier soir, je dinais.

I

imparfait

Except for these two English verb forms,the English verb will not

indicate to you whether you should use the imparfait or the passe\037

compose.)

Selection of the Passe compose or the Imparfait

Whether to put a verb is the passe composeor the imparfait will often

depend upon the context in whicha sentenceisused.As a general

guideline, remember the following:

passe compose\037 tells \"what happened\"

imparfait \037 tells \"how things used to be\" or \"what was going on\"

Let us consider the sentence\"Hewent to France.\" The same form ofthe verb,namely \"went,\" is used in the two English answers below;however,the tense of the French verb aller (to go) will bedifferent

depending on which question the verb answers.\302\267\"What happened?\"

QUESTION: What did Paul do this summer?

ANSWER: He went to France.

In this context, you are asking and answering the question \"what hap-

pened last summer\"; therefore, the verb \"did do\" and \"went\" will be in

the passe compose.)))


Qu'est-ce que Paul a fait cet \037t\037?

ypassecompose

II est aile en France.

ypassecompose)

\302\267\"How things used to be\"

QUESTION:Duringhis childhood,where did Paul go

for the summer?

ANSWER: He went to France.

In this context, you are asking and answering the question \"how

things used to be;\"therefore,the verb \"did go\" and \"went\" will be in

the imparfait.)

Pendant sonenfance,ou est-ce que Paul allait en \037t\037?

I

imparfait)

II allait en France.I

ilnparfait)

As you can see from the two Frenchexamplesabove, the tense of

the answer will usually be the sameas the tense used in the ques-ti on.

\302\267\"What was going on?\"

Since the imparfait and the passecomposeindicateactionsthat

took place during the same time period in the past,you will often

fmd the two tenses intermingledin a sentenceor a story.

I was reading when he arrived.Both actions \"reading\" and \"arrived\" took place at the same time.

What was going on? I was reading \037 imparfait

What happened? He arrived \037 passe compose

Je lisais quand il est arrive.

im\037arfait \037passe cOin pose)

Your French textbook will give you additionalguidelinesto help you

choose the appropriate tense. You should practice analyzing Englishparagraphs.Pick out the verbs in the past and indicate for eachoneifyou would put it in the imparfait or in the passecompose.Some-timesboth tenses are possible, but usually one of the two is more

logical.)))


\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037.\037\037\037\037\037\037\037.\037

Circle the verbs that would be put in the Imparfalt and underline the verbsthat would be put in the passe compose.

Last summer, I went to France with my family. Everyone was very

excited when we arrivedat the airport. While my mother checked the

luggage and my father handled the tickets, my little sister Mary ran

away. My parents droppedeverything and tried to catch her, but she

duckedbehind the counter.Finally, a manager grabbed her and

brought her back to us.Shewas crying because she was sad she was

leavingherdogfor two weeks. Everyone comforted her and, fmally,

she went on to the plane with a smile.)))

WHAT ISTHE PAST PERFECT TENSE? 69)

21. WHAT IS THE PAST PERFECT TENSE?)

The past perfecttenseisusedtoexpressan action completed in the

past before some otherspecificaction or event occurred in the past. Itis usedwhen two actions happened at different times in the past and

you want to indicate which action precededthe other.1)

IN ENGLISH

The past participle is formed with the auxiliary had + the past par-ticipleof the main verb: I had walked, he had seen,etc.

She suddenly remembered that she had forgotten her keys.I I I

I

past tense past perfect1 2

Both actions1 and 2 occurred in the past, but action 2 preceded action1. Therefore,action 2 is in the past perfect.)

Don't forgetthat verb tenses indicate the time that an action occurs.Therefore,when verbs in the same sentence are in the sametense,the

actions took place during the same period of time.In orderto show

that they took place at different periods of time,different tenses must

be used. Look at the followingexamples:Themother was crying because her son was leaving.

II

I

\037past tense past perfect

1 2

Action 1 and action 2 took place at the same time.)

The mother w1s

\037'i

ing because her son h

\037dlleft-

past progressive past perfect1 2

Action 2 took place before action 1.)

IN FRENCH

The past perfect is called Ie plus-que-parfait.Itisformed with the

auxiliary verb avoir or etre in the imparfait+ the past participle of

the main verb: j'avais marche, elleetaitallee.The rules of agree-ment of the past participlearethe same as for the passe compose (seep. 64).)

1You can compare this tense with the future perfect which is used when two actions will happen at dif-ferent times in the future and you want to stress which action will precede the other (see What is theFuture Perfect Tense?, p. 75).)))

70 WHAT IS THE PAST PERFECT TENSE?)

A verb is put in the plus-que-parfait tense in orderto stressthat the

action of that, verb took place beforethe actionof a verb in either the

passe compose or the imparfait.Observethe sequence of events expressed by the past tensesin the fol-lowingtime-line:

VERB TENSE: Past Perfect Present Perfect Present)

-2)

Passecompose

Imparfait

-1)

Present)Plus-que- Parfait)

o)

J() J() J()

o \037 now- 1 \037 before 0

- 2 \037before -1

Same verb tense \037 same 'moment in time)

TIME ACTION TAKES PLACE:)

The mother was crying becauseher son was leaving.

La mere pleurait parce que son fils partait.I I

imparfait imparfait- 1 - 1

Two actions in the imparfait show that they took place at the sametime in the past.)

Different verb tenses \037 different times

The mother was crying becauseherson had left.

La mere pleurait parce que son fils etait partieI I I

I

imparfait plus-que-parfait- 1 - 2

The action in the plus-que-parfait (point - 2) occurredbefore the

action in the imparfait (point- 1).)

CarefulYou cannot always rely on Englishto determinewhen to use the past

perfect in French. In many cases, English usage permits the use of thesimple past to describean action that preceded another, if it is clearwhich actioncamefIrst.)

The teacher wanted to know who sawthe student.I I

simple past simple past)))

WHAT IS THE PAST PERFECT TENSE? 71)

The teacher asked who had seen the student.I

Ysimple past past perfect)

Although the two sentences above meanthe samething and are cor-

rect in English, only the secondsentencewith its sequence of tenseswould be correct in French.)

Leprofesseurvoulait savoir qui avait vu 1'etudiant.I

Yilnparfait plus-que-parfait

-1 - 2)

Le professeur a demande qui avait vu 1 'etudiant.I I \037

I -r-passe cOlnpose plus-que-parfait

-1 - 2

The action in the plus-que-parfait (point -2) stresses that it was com-

pleted before the other action (point -1) which could be in the impar-fait or the passe compose depending on the context of this sentence.)

In French the sequenceof tensesis morerigid than in English.)

\037\037..\037.\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037.\037\037\037\037

In the parentheses, number the verbs accordingto the time-line on p. 70.\302\267On the line below, indicate if the verb would be in the past (P) or past

perfect(PP) in French.

1. This morning Mary read the book shebought yesterday.)

(-) )) (-) ))

2. After lunch, Paul asked who'd calledhim that morning.)

(-) )) (-) ))))

72 WHAT IS THE FUTURE TENSE?)

22. WHAT IS THE FUTURETENSE?)

Thefuture tense indicates that an action will take placesometime in

the future.)

IN ENGLISH

The future tense is formed with the auxiliary will or shall + the dictio-nary form of the main verb. Note that shall is used in formal English(and BritishEnglish),will occurs in everyday language.

Paul and Mary willdo their homework tomorrow.

I will leave tonight.

In conversation, shall and will are often shortened to' II:They'lldoit

tomorrow;I'IIleave tonight.)

IN FRENCH

You do not need an auxiliary to show that the action will takeplacein

the future. Future time is indicated by a simple tense.

Regular verbs use the infinitive as the stem for the future.)

Infinitive

aimer

finir

vendre)

Stemaimer- to love

finir- to finishvendr- to sell(the final \"e\" is dropped))

Irregular verbs have irregular future stems which must be memorized.

Infinitive Stem

aller ir-

venir viendr-avoir aur-ctre ser-)

to go

to cometo haveto be)

You will notice that whatever the stem, regularor irregular, the sound

of the letter \"r\" is always heard before the future ending. Your text-

book will show you how to conjugate regularand irregular verbs in

the future tense.)

CarefulWhileEnglishusesthe present tense after expressions such as soonas, when, and by the time, which introduce an action that will takeplacein the future, French uses the future tense.)))

WHAT IS THE FUTURE TENSE? 73)

As soon as he returns, I will call.

I Ypresent future

Des qu'il reviendra, je telephonerai.I I

future future

\"As soon as he will come. . .\

She will come when she is ready.

Y Ifuture present

Elle viendra quand elle sera prete.I I

future future

\". . . when she will be ready.\

French is more strict than English in its use of tenses.)

Immediate Future

In English and in French the fact that an action will occursometime

in the future can also be expressed withoutusing the future tense

itself, but a construction which impliesthe future.)

IN ENGLISH

You can use the verb to go in the presentprogressive+ the dictionary

form of the main verb: I am goingto walk, she is going to see, etc.)

sitnilar meaningI

I I

I am going to sing. I will sing.I I \037

I -r-present propressive future tense

of to go + infinitive)

IN FRENCH

The same construction exists in French. It is sometimescalledIe

futur immediat or Ie futur proche because the future action is con-

sidered nearer at hand than an action expressed by a verb in the future

tense. The immediate future is formed with the verb aller (to go) in

the present tense + the infinitive of the mainverb:je vais marcher,

elle va voir, etc.)))

74 WHAT IS THE FUTURE TENSE?)

Je vais chanter.I I

I

present of aller + infinitive

immediate future

I am going to sing.I I

I

present of to go + infinitive

immediate future)

Je chanterai.I)

future tense)

I will sing.y

future tense)

In conversational French, the immediate future often replacesthefuture tense.)

\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037.\037\037

Indicate the tense as it is in the English sentence: present (P),future (F), or

future perfect (FP).\302\267Indicate the tense of the verb as it would be in a French sentence.)

1. As soon as we finish our meal, we'll leave.IN ENGUSH:

IN FRENCH:

2. We will speak Frenchwhen we go to France this summer.

IN ENGUSH:

IN FRENCH:)))

WHAT IS THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE? 75)

23. WHAT IS THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE?)

The future perfect tense is used to express an action whichwill have

happened before another action in the future or beforea specifictime

in the future. l)

IN ENGLISH

The future perfect is formed with the auxiliary will have + the pastparticipleof the main verb: I will have walked, she will have gone,etc.In conversation will is shortened to

' II: or, in somecases,droppedaltogether and have is shortened to

\",s\" or

\",ve\" .

I'll see you as soon as I will have finished.I'll seeyou as soon as I'll have finished.I'll seeyou as soon as I've finished.

I'll call you as soon as I'vefound Mary.Y LT-J

future event future perfect2 1Both actions 1 and 2 will occur at some future time, but action 1 will

be completed beforeaction 2 takes place. Therefore, action 1 is in the

future perfect tense.)

I will have left

beforetomorrow.I I I

I I

future perfect future event1 2

Both action 1 and event 2 will occur at some future time, but action 1

will be completed before a specifictime in the future. Therefore,action 1 is in the future perfect tense.)

IN FRENCH

The future perfect is called Ie futur anterieur.It is formed with the

auxiliary avoir or etre in the future tense+ thepastparticipleofthe

main verb (the rules of agreement are thesameas for the passe com-

pose-see p. 64):j'aurai marche,elleseraallee,etc.

As in English, a verb is put in the futur anterieur tensein order to

stress that the action of the verb will takeplacebefore the action of averb in the future, or before a specific future time.)

I You can con1pare this tense to the past perfect which is used when two actions OCCUlTed at differenttilnes in the past and you want to stress which action preceded the other (see What Is the Past PerfectTense?,p.69).)))

76 WHAT ISTHE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE?)

Observe the sequence of events expressed by the future tenses in the

following time-line:

VERB TENSE: Present

Present

o)

Future perfectFutur anterieur

1)

Future

Futur

2)

K) K) K)

TIME ACTION TAKES PLACE:) o \037 now

1 \037 after 0 and before 22 \037 after 0)

Je vous telephonerai des que j'aurai trouve Marie.I I I

I

2 1

[' II call you as soonas ['vefoundMary.)

Je serai parti avant demain.['II have left before tomorrow.

\037\037\037\037.\037\037\037\037..\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

In the parentheses, number the verbs accordingto the time line above.\302\267On the line below, indicate if in a French sentence the verb would be in the

present (P), future (F), or future perfect (FP).

1. When the bell rings at noon, they'll have finished the exam.)

() )) () ))

FRENCH TENSE:

2. As soon as I've written the letter, I'll send it.

( ) ( ))

FRENCH TENSE:)))

WHAT IS THE CONDITIONAL? 77)

24. WHAT IS THE CONDITIONAL?)

The conditional mood does not exist in English, but is an importantmood in French (see What is Meantby Mood?, p. 50). There is anEnglish verb form however, which is similar to the French conditionaland which can help you to understand it. For ourpurposes,we will

call this form the \"conditional.\" The conditionalmoodhas a presentand a past tense.)

Present Conditional)

IN ENGLISH

The \"present conditional\" is a compound tense.It is formed with the

auxiliary would + the dictionary form of the main verb.

I would likesomeketchup, please.

If she had the money, she would call him.

I said that I would come tomorrow.

The \"presentconditional\"is usedin the following ways:

. as a politefonn with like and in polite requestsI wouldliketo eat.This is more polite than \"I want to eat.\

Would you please close thedoor.The command \"please close the door\"is softened by the use of would.)

. in the main clause of a hypotheticalstatementIf I had a lot of money, I would buy a Cadillac.

\"I would buy a Cadillac\" is calledthe main clause, or result clause.It is a clause becauseit is composedof a group of words containinga subject (I) and a verb (wouldbuy) and is used as part of a sen-tence.It is the main clause because it expresses a complete thoughtand can stand by itself without being attached to the first part of thesentence(\"If I had a lot of money... \.")It is calledthe result clause

because it expresses what would happenas the resultof getting a lot

of money.

\"If I had a lot of money\" is called the subordinate clause, or If.clause. It is a subordinate clause because, although it contains asubject (I) and a verb (had), it does not express a completethought

and cannot stand alone. It must be attachedto the main clause.)))

78 WHAT IS THE CoNDITIONAL?)

The entire statement is called hypothetical because it refers to a con-dition that does not exist at the present time (thepersonspeaking

does not have a lot of money), but there is the remote possibility ofits becominga reality (the person speaking could have a lot ofmoney one day).

. in an indirect statementto expressa future-in-the-past

An Indirect statement repeats, or reports, but does not quote,someone'swords, as opposed to a direct statement which is a word-for-wordquotation of what someone said. In written form a directstatementis always between quotation marks.)

indirect statement) Paul said Mary would come.

\037 \0371 2

past present conditional)

direct statement) Paul said: \"Mary will come.\"

\037 \0371 2

past future)

In the indirect statement, action 2 is calleda future-In-the-past

because it takes place after another actionin the past. In the direct

statement, action2 is merelya quotation of what was said.)

IN FRENCH

You do not need an auxiliary to indicatethe presentconditional,Iecondltlonnel present; it is a simple tense. It is formedwith the future

stem (see p. 72) + the imperfectendings:je parlerais (I would speak),il fmirait (he wouldflnish), nous vendrions(wewould sell).

The present conditional is used in the same ways as in English:

. as a politeform or in polite requests

Je voudrais un sandwich.I

present conditional

I would like a sandwich.)

Pourriez-vousfenner la porte?I

present conditional

Could you close the door?)))


. in the main clause of a hypothetical statement

Si j'avais beaucoup d'argent, j'acheterais une Cadillac.I

present conditional

If I had a lot of money, I would buy a Cadillac.

. in an indirect statement to express a future-in-the-past

II a dit qu'il viendrait.I

present conditional

He said (that) he wouldcome.)

Je savais qu'il pleuvrait.I

present conditional

I knew (that) it would rain.)

CarefulThe auxiliary would does notcorrespondto the conditional when it

stands for used to, as in \"Shewould talk while he painted.\" In this sen-tence,it means used to talk and requires the imperfect(seep.65).)

Past Conditional)

IN ENGLISH

The \"past conditional\" is formed with the auxiliary would have + the

past participle of the main verb.I would have come if I had known.

Unlike some statementsin the present conditional where there is apossibility of theirbecominga reality, all statements using the pastconditional are contrary-to-fact:the main action never happenedbecause the conditionexpressedwas never met and it is now over anddone with.

Hewould have spoken if he had known the truth.I I

I

past conditional

Contrary-to-fact: He did not speak because he didn't know the truth.)

If you had called us, we would have come.

Contrary-to-fact: We did not come because you didn't call us.)

I would have eaten if I had been hungry.

Contrary-to-fact: I did not eat becauseI wasn't hungry.)))

80 WHAT IS THE CoNDITIONAL?)

IN FRENCH

The past conditional, called Iecondltlonnelpasse,is formed with the

auxiliary avoir or etre in the presentconditional+ the past participle

of the main verb (the samerulesofagreement apply as for the passecompose - seep.64):j'auraismange, elle serait allee, etc.

As in English, all statementsusing the past conditional are contrary-to- fact.)

II aurait parle, s'il avait su la v\037rit\037.

I I

I

past conditional

He would have spoken, if he had known the truth.I I

I

past conditional)

Sequence of Tenses

Let us study some examples of constructions with conditions and their

results so that you learn to recognizethem and to use the appropriateFrench tense.

Hypotheticaland contrary-to-fact statements are easy to recognizebecause they are always made up of two clauses:

. the \"If\"-clause; that is, the subordinate clause that starts withif (si in French)

. the result clause; that is, the main clause

The sequenceoftensesisthe same in English and in French. If youhave difficulty recognizing tenses just apply these three rules.\"lP\"-CLAUSE -+ present REsULT CLAUSE-+ future

present rutur)

If he comes, I will be happy.I

Ypresent future

S 'i I vient, je serai contente.I I

present futur)))


\"Ip\" -CLA USE -+ simple pastimparfait)

RESULT CLAUSE -+ present conditional

conditionnel present)

If he came,I would be happy.I

\037

past present conditional

S'i1 venait, je serais contente.I I

imparfait conditionnel present)

\"Ip\" -eLA USE -+ past perfectplus-que-parfait)

REsULT CLAUSE -+ past conditionalconditionnel passe)

If he hadcome,I would have been happy.\037 I I-r- I

past perfect past conditional

S'i1 etait venu, j 'aurais etecontente.

I I I II I

plus-que-parfait conditionnel passe)

In English and in French the if-clause cancomeeither at the begin-

ning of the sentence beforethe main clause, or at the end of the sen-tence.The tense of each clause remains the same no matterthe order.

I would have been happy, if he had come.I

I

I

\037

past conditional past perfect

J'aurais ete contente, s'i1 etait venueI

I

I

\037conditionnel passe plus-que-parfait)

\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037.\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

Write the tense you would use in French for each of the italicizedverbsbelow: present (P), future (F) present conditional (C),past conditional (PC),

imperfect (I), past perfect (PP).

1. Studentswoulddo theirhomework if they had time.)

2. If they had had an exam, they would have studied.)

3. When they were separated, he would call her every evening.)

4. We'll be going abroad, if we have the money.)))

82 WHAT IS A REFLEXIVE VERB?)

25. WHAT IS A REFLEXIVE VERB?)

A reflexive verb is a verb that is linked to a special pronoun called areflexivepronoun;this pronoun serves to \"reflect\" the action of theverb back to the performer, that is, to the subjectof the sentence.The

result is that the subject of the sentenceand the object are the same

person.Shecut herselfwith the knife.

He saw himselfin the mirror.)

IN ENGLISH

Many verbs can take on a reflexivemeaningby adding a reflexive

pronoun.

Peter cuts the paper.I

regular verb

Peter cuts himself when he shaves.I I

Iverb + reflexive pronoun)

Pronouns ending with -self or -selves are used to make verbs reflexive.

Here are the reflexive pronouns.

Subjectpronoun

I

you

he

sheit)

plural) we

you

they)

Reflexivepronounmyselfyourselfhimselfherselfitselfourselves

yourselves

themselves)

singular)

In a sentence a reflexive pronounis always tied to a specific subject,because both the pronoun and the subject refer to the same personorobject.

I cut myself.

Paul and Mary blamed themselves for the accident.

Although the subject pronoun you is the samefor the singular and

plural, there is a difference betweenthe reflexivepronounsused:yourselfisused when you are speaking to one person (singular)and

yourselves is used when you are speakingto morethan one (plural).)))

WHAT ISA REFLEXIVE VERB? 83)

Paul, did you makeyourselfa sandwich?

Children, make sure you wash yourselves properly.)

IN FRENCH

As in English many regular verbs canbe turned into reflexive verbs

by adding a reflexivepronoun.Marielave son enfant.

Mary washes her child.

Mariese lave.Mary washes herself.

The dictionary lists laver as the infinitive of to wash and se laver asthe infinitive of to wash oneself Look up both forms underthe verb

laver and not under see

Here are the Frenchreflexivepronouns:

me myself

te yourse lf (familiar singular)

se himself, herself, itselfnous ourselvesvous yourselves (familiar plural, fonnal singular & plural)se themselves)

Since the reflexivepronoun reflects the action of the verb back to theperfonner,the reflexive pronoun will change as the subject of the verb

changes. You will have to memorize the conjugationof reflexive

verbs with the subject pronoun and the reflexive pronoun.Forexample, let's look at the conjugation of the verb se laver in the pre-

sent tense. Notice that unlike English wherethereflexivepronoun is

placed after the verb, in French the reflexivepronoun is placedimme-diately before the verb.

Subjectpronounjetu

il

}elle)

+)

Reflexive

pronoun

me

te)

+) Verb

lave

laves)

se) lave)

nousvousils

}elles)

nous

vous)

lavons

lavez

lavent)se)))

84 WHAT ISA REFLEXIVE VERB?)

Reflexive verbs can be conjugated in all tenses.Thesubjectpronoun

and the reflexive pronoun remain the same, regardlessof the tense of

the verb: ils se laveront (futur); ilssesontlaves (passe compose).

The perfect tenses of reflexive verbs are always conjugated with the

auxiliary etre; however, the rulesof agreement for the past participleof reflexive verbs are differentfromthe rulesyou apply to the past

participles of non-reflexiveverbs.Besure to consult your French text-book for these rules.)

CarefulReflexiveverbs are more common in French than in English; that is,

there are many verbs that take a reflexivepronoun in Frenchbut not in

English. For example, when you say \"Paulwashed in the morning,\" it

is understood, but not stated, that \"Paul washed himself.\" In Frenchthe \"himself' must bestated:\"Paul s'est lave.\" In addition, other Eng-lish verbs such as to get up have a reflexive meaning:\"Mary got up\"

means that she got herself up. In Frenchyou express to get up byusing the verb se lever, that is lever (to raise) + the reflexivepronoun

se (oneself): \"Marie s'est levee.\" Memorize the many verbs that

require a reflexive pronoun in French. Someof them are idiomatic

expressions for which there is nodirectequivalent in English.)

\037.\037\037.\037\037.\037..\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW ..\037\037..\037...\037\037\037.\037\037\037.

Fill in the proper English reflexive pronoun.\302\267Fill in the equivalent French reflexivepronoun in the French sentences.)

1. The children wash

Les enfants

2. Mary cuts

Marie)

.every evenmg.

lavent tous les soirs.

constantl y.)

coupe constamment.)

3. Mary, you cut

Marie, tu

4. We dress

Nous)

constantly.

coupes constamment.)

habillons.)))

WHAT IS MEANT BY ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE? 85)

26. WHAT IS MEANT BY ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE?)

The voice of the verb refers to a basic relationship between the verband its subject. There are two voices: active and passive.Active voice - A sentence is said to be in the active voice when the

subject is the performerof the verb. In this instance, the verb is calledan active verb.

The teacher prepares the exam.S v DO

Paul ate an apple.S v DO

Lightning has struck the tree.S v DO)

In all these examples the subject (5) performsthe actionofthe verb

(v) and the direct object (DO)is the receiverofthe action (see What

are Objects?, p. 116).Passivevolce-A sentence is said to be in the passive voice when thesubjectis the receiver of the action. In this instance, the verb is calleda passiveverb.

The exaln is prepared by the teacher.S V Agent)

The apple was eaten by Paul.S V Agent

The tree has been struck by lightning.S V Agent)

In all these examples, the subjectis the receiver of the action of theverb. Theperformerof the action, if it is mentioned, is introduced by

the word \"by\" and is called the agent.

IN ENGLISH

The passive voice is expressed by the verb to be conjugatedin the

appropriate tense + the past participle of the main verb. The tense ofthe passive sentenceis indicatedby the tense of the verb to be.

Theexamisprepared by the teacher.I

present)

The exaln was prepared by the teacher.I

past)))

86 WHAT IS MEANT BY ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE?)

The exam will be prepared by the teacher.

yfuture)

IN FRENCH

As in English, a passive verb is expressed by the auxiliary etre (to be)conjugatedin the appropriate tense + the past participle of the main

verb. The tense of the passive sentenceis indicatedby the tense of the

verb etre. 1

L'examenest pr\037par\037 par Ie professeur.I

present

The exam is prepared by the teacher.

L'examena ete prepar\037 par Ie professeur.

ypassecompose

The exam has been prepared by the teacher.

L'examenseraprepare par Ie professeur.I

future

The exam will be prepared by the teacher.

Becausethe auxiliary in the passive voice is always \"etre\"(to be), all

past participles in a passive sentenceagreein gender and number with

the subject.

Les vins fran\037ais sont apprecies dans Ie monde entierI I

subject \037 masc. pI. past participle \037 Inasc. pI.

French wines are appreciated the world over.)

Changing an Active Sentence to a Passive SentenceThestepsto change an active sentence to a passive sentence arethesamein English and in French.

1. The direct objectof theactivesentencebecomes the subject of the

passive sentence.)

1Verbs that take \037treas an auxiliary to Conn compound tenses in the active voice (see p. 64) do not have a

passive voice since they are never followed by a direct object in the activevoice. For example, aller,partir, venir, etc. cannot be made passive.)))


passive)

The teacher preparesthe exam.I

direct object

The exam is prepared by the teacher.I

subject)

active

J,)

2. The tense of the verb of the activesentenceis reflected in the tense

of the verb to be in the passivesentence.)

active

J,

passive)

The teacher prepares the exam.I

present

The exam is prepared by the teacher.I

presen t)

active

J,

passive)

The teacher prepared the exam.I

past

The exam was prepared by the teacher.I

past)

active

J,

passive)

The teacher willpreparethe exam.I

future

The exam will be prepared by the teacher.y

future)

3. The subject of the active sentencebecomesthe agent of the passivesentence introduced with by. The agent is often omitted.)

active

J,

passive)

The teacher prepares the exam.I

subject

The exam is prepared by the teacher.I I

I

agent)

Avoiding the Passive Voice In French

Although French has a passive voice, it does not favor its use as Eng-lish does, and wheneverpossibleFrenchspeakerstry to avoid the pas-sive construction by replacingit with an active one. This is particu-larly true for general statements,that is, when we don't know who isdoingthe action.

English is spoken in many countries.

We don't know who is speaking.)))

88 WHAT IS MEANT BY ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE?)

The New York Times is sold here.We don't know who is selling.)

There are two ways a passivesentencecan be avoided in French.

1. by using the on constructionThe word \"on\" corresponds to the English indefinite pronoun\"one,\"as in the sentence, \"One should eat when one is hungry.\" To

avoid a passive construction, French often makesone the subject of

an active sentence, even in sentenceswhereEnglish speakers would

never use such a construction.

English is spoken in many countries.On parle anglais dans beaucoup de pays.

(word-for-word: \"one speaks English in many countries\

The New York Times is sold here.On vend IeNew York Times ici.

(word-for-word: \"one sells the New York Times here\

2. by using the reflexive verb construction

The main verb of the sentenceis changedfrom the passive voice to

its reflexive form (see What is a Reflexi\\'e Verb?, p. 82). Thisreflexiveconstruction exists only in French and is usually senselessin English.

English is spoken in many countries.

L'anglais se parle dans beaucoupdepays.

\"speaks itself')

The New York Times is sold here.Le New York Times se vend ici.

\"sells itself')

Careful

Make sure you distinguish between the auxiliaryetre + a past par-

ticiple used to form a present tensein the passive voice and the auxil-iary etre + a past participleto form a past tense in the active voice.Forinstance,\"estmange\" (is eaten) is a present tense in the passivevoice,but \"est aile\" (went) is a past tense in the active voice.)))


\037\037\037\037\037\037.\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

Underline the subjects in the sentences below.\302\267Circle the performer of the action.\302\267

Identify each sentence as active (Ac) or passive (Pa).\302\267

Identify the tense of the verb: past (PP),present(P),future (F).

1. The cow jumped over the moon. Ac PA PP P F

2. The bill was paid by Bob's parents. Ac PA PP P F

3. The bank is transferring the money. Ac PA PP P F

4. Everyone will be goingaway during the vacation.

Ac PA PP P F

5. The spring breakwill be enjoyed by all.

Ac PA PP P F)))

90 WHAT IS THE SUBJUNCTIVE?)

27. WHAT IS THE SUBJUNCTIVE?)

The subjunctive is a mood used to express a wish,hope,uncertainty or

other similar attitude toward a fact or an idea. Since it stresses the

speaker's feelings about thefactoridea,it is usually subjective aboutthem.)

IN ENGLISH

The subjunctive is only used in very few constructions. The subjunc-tive verb form is difficult to recognizebecauseit isspelledlikeother

tenses of the verb.)

I am in Paris right now.I

indicative present to be)

I wish I were in Paris right now.I

subjunctive spelled like a past tense form of to be)

He reads a book a week.I

indicative present to read)

The course requires that he read a book a week.I

subjunctive spelled like the dictionary form of to read)

IN FRENCH

The subjunctive is used very frequently, but unfortunately English

usage will rarely help you decide where and how to use it in French.Therefore,we referyou to your French textbook. First, learn how toconjugateregularand irregular verbs in the present tense of the sub-junctive.(Theothertenses of the subjunctive are rarely used, particu-larly in conversation.)Then,learn the verbs and expressions that

require you to put the verb which followsin the subjunctive.1.Example of a verb of desire that is followed by a verb in the sub-

junctive: vouloir (to want)

Je veux que tu sois sage.I I

vouloir subjunctive @tre

J want you to be good.(word-for-word: \"I want that you be good\))

WHAT IS THE SUBJUNCTIVE? 91)

2. Example of an expression that is followed by a verb in the subjunc-tive:il faut que (it is necessary that)

II faut que Paul sache parler fran\037ais.I

subjunctive savoir

Paul must know how to speakFrench.(word-for-word: \"it is necessary that Paul know how to speakFrench \

3. Example of an adjectiveexpressingan emotion which is followed

by a verb in the subjunctive:etre heureux(to be happy)

Je suis heureux que vous veniez ce soir.I

subjunctive venir

I am happy that you are coming this evening.)))

92 WHAT IS AN ADJECTIVE?)

28. WHAT IS AN ADJECTIVE?)

An adjective is a word that describes a noun or a pronoun.)

IN ENGLISH

Adjectives are classified according to the way they describe a noun orpronoun.

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECfIVE - A descriptive adjective indicates a quality, it

tells what kind it is. See p. 93.Shereadan interesting book.

He has brown eyes.POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE - A possessive adjective shows possession,ittellswhose it is. See p. 96.

His book is lost.Our parents are away.

INTERROGATIVEADJECTIVE - An interrogative adjective asks a questionabout someoneor something. See p. 101.

What book is lost?Which parents did you speak to?

DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE - A demonstrative adjective points outsomeoneor something. See p. 103.

This teacher is excellent.That question is very appropriate.

In all these casesthe adjectivedescribes,ormodifies, the noun or pro-noun.)

IN FRENCH

Adjectives are classified in the same way as in English.Theprincipal

difference between English and French adjectives is that in English

adjectives do not change their form,while in French adjectives agreein gender and number with the noun or pronoun they modify.)))

WHAT IS A DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE? 93)

29. WHAT IS A DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE?)

A descriptive adjective is a word that indicates a quality of a noun orpronoun.As the name implies, it describes the noun or pronoun.)

IN ENGLISH

The descriptive adjective does not change form,regardlessofthe

noun or pronoun it modifies.

The studentsare intelligent.

She is an intelligent person.

The adjective intelligentis the same although the persons describedare different in number(studentsis plural and person is singular).

Descriptive adjectives are divided into two groupsdependingon how

they are connected to the noun they modify.1.Predicateadjective

- A predicate adjective is connectedto the noun

it describes (the subject of the sentence) by a linking verb, usually aform of to be.

Thechildren are good.I I I

noun linking predicatesubject verb adjective)

The house looks small.I I I

noun linking predicatesubject verb adjective)

2. Attributive adjective - An attributive adjective is connected directlyto the noun it describes and always precedes it.

The good children werepraised.I I

attributive noun

adjective described)

The family lives in a small house.I I

attributive noun

adjective described)

IN FRENCH

The most important difference between descriptive adjectives in

French and English is that in French they change forms.In French, an

adjective, predicate or attributive, always agreeswith the noun or pro-noun it modifies; that is, it must correspond in gender and numberto)))

94 WHAT ISA DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE?)

its noun. Thus, before writing an adjectiveyou will have to determineif the noun or,pronounit modifiesis masculine or feminine, singularor plural.

Most adjectives add an \"-e\" to the masculine form to make the femi-nine form and an \"-s\" to the feminineormasculineto makeit plural.)

the blue book) Ie livre bienI I

masc. masc.. .sing. sing.)

the blue dress) la robebleneI I

fern. feln.. .sing. sing.)

the blue books) les Iivres biensI I

masc. masc.

pI. pI.)

the blue dresses les robes bleuesI I

fern. fern.

pI. pI.

As you can see in the examplesabove,in English, the adjective \"blue\"comes before the noun it modifies,whereas \"bleu\" goes after the

noun in French. This is not always the case, some French adjectivesalso come before the noun they modify. Refer to your textbook tolearn whethera Frenchadjective is placed before or after the noun itmodifies.)

Nouns Usedas Adjectives)

IN ENGLISH

You should also be able to recognizenouns used as adjectives; that is,a noun usedto modify another noun. When a noun is used to describeanothernoun, the structure is as follows: the describing noun (adjec-tive) + the noun described.)

French is difficult.I

noun)

The French class is interesting.I I

adjective noun described)

Chemistry is difficult.I

noun)

The chemistry books are expensive.I I

adjective noun described)))

WHAT IS A DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVE? 95)

IN FRENCH

When a noun is usedas an adjective, that is, to describe another noun,the structureis as follows: the noun described + de + the describingnoun (adjective) without an article. The describing noun remainsanoun and does not change its fonn.)

the French classI I

I\037fran\037ais I\037classe

sing. sing.)

la classe de fran\037aisI I

fern. masc.)

the chemistry booksI I

la chimie les livres)

les livres de chimieI I

masc. pI. fern. sing.)

\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

Circle the adjectives in the sentences below.\302\267Draw an arrow from the adjective you circled to the noun or pronoun

described.)

1.Theyoung man was reading a French newspaper.

2. Shelookedpretty in her long red dress.

3. It is interesting.4.The old piano could still produce good music.

5. Paul was tired after his long walk.)))

96 WHAT IS A POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE?)

30. WHAT IS A POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE?)

A possessive adjective is a word which describesa noun by showing

who possesses the thing or person beingdiscussed.The owner is

called the \"possessor\" and the noun modifiediscalledthe person or

thing \"possessed.\"

Whose house is that? It's my house.

My is an adjective that tellsus who is the possessor of the noun\"house.\

IN ENGLISH

Here is a list of the possessiveadjectives:Singular possessor

1 st person2nd person)

3rd person){

masculine

feminine

neuter)

my

your

hisherits)

Plural possessor

1st person2nd person3rd person)

our

yourtheir)

Possessive adjectives never changetheirform,regardlessof the thing

possessed; they only refer to the possessor.Is that your house? Yes, it is my house.Are those your keys? Yes, they are my keys.

The same possessive adjective(my) is used, although the objectspossessed are different in number (house is singular, keys is plural).

What color is John's car? His car is blue.What color is Mary's car? Her car is blue.

Although the object possessed is the same (car), thepossessiveadjec-tive is different because the possessor is different (John masculinesingular, Mary feminine singular).)))

WHAT ISA POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE? 97)

IN FRENCH

Like English, a French possessive adjective refersto the possessor,but unlike English, it must agree, like all French adjectives,in gender

and number with the noun it modifies, that is, the personorobjectpossessed.For example, in the phrase mon frere (my brother) the first letterofthe possessive adjective m- refers to the 1stpersonsingular possessor

my, while the ending -on is masculinesingularto agreewith frere,

which is masculine singular. Let us see what happens when we make

my brother plural.

[love my brothers.

J'aime mes freres.

\037asc.pl. endings

1 st pers. sing. possessor)

Let us lookat the Frenchpossessiveadjectives to see how they areformed. Because the rulesfor the selection of possessive adjectivesfor a singularpossessoraredifferent from the rules for the selection ofpossessiveadjectivesfor plural possessors, we have the divided theFrenchpossessiveadjectives into these two groups.)

Singular Possessor: my, your (tu form), his, her, Its

In French, each of thesepossessive adjecti ves has three forms

depending on the gender and number of the noun possessed:

1. the mascul ine singular2. the feminine singular3. the plural (the same for both genders)

Here are the stepsyou should follow in choosing the correct posses-sive adjective.1. Indicatethepossessorwith the first letter of the possessive

adjective.my m-)

your

(tn fonn)

his

}herits)

t-)

s-)))

98 WHA T IS A POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE?)

2. Choose the ending according to the genderand number of the noun

possessed.

. noun possessed is masculine singular or feminine singularbeginningwith a vowel \037 add -on)

Helene lit mon livre.I .

masc. sing.Helene lit ton livre.

Helene lit son livre.)

Helen reads my book.I

noun possessed singularHelen reads your book.Helenreadsher (his) book.)

Paul rencontre mon arnie. Paul meetsmy friend.I I

fern. sing. noun possessed singular

begins with vowel

Paul rencontre ton arnie. Paulmeetsyour friend.

Paul rencontre son arnie. Paul meetshis (her)friend.. noun possessed is feminine singular beginning with a

consonant \037 add -8)

Paul lit ma lettre.I

fern. sing.

Paul lit ta lettre.Paull it sa lettre.)

Paul reads my letter.I

noun possessed singularPaul reads your letter.Paulreadshis (her) letter.)

. noun possessed is plural \037 add -es)

Helene lit mes livres.I

masc. pI.)

Helen reads my books.I

noun possessed plural)

Paul lit tes lettres.I

fern. pI.

Elle lit ses livres.I

masc. pI.)

Paul reads your letters.)

She is readingher (his) books.)

3. Select the proper form accordingto the two steps above.

Let us apply the abovesteps to someexamples:Paul is looking at his mother.

1.Possessor:s-2.Noun possessed: La mere (mother) is feminine singular.3. Selection:sa

Paul regardesa mere.)))

WHAT IS A POSSESSIVEADJECTIVE? 99)

Paul is lookingat hisfather.1.Possessor : s-

2. Noun possessed: Le pere (father) is masculine singular.3. Selection: son

Paul regardeson pere.)

Plural Possessor: our, your (vous form), their

In French,each of these possessive adjectives has only two formsdependingon the number of the noun possessed: 1. the singular(the

same for both genders), and 2. the plural (thesamefor both genders).

. noun possessed is singular\037 notre, votre, or leur

Marie est notre fille. Mary is ourdaufhter.

noun possessed singular

Paul lit votre lettre. Paul reads your letter.lis lisent leur lettre They read their letter.

. noun possessed is plural \037 nos, vos, or leurs)

Pierre et Mariesont nos enfants. Peter and Mary are our children.I

noun possessed pluralHelen reads your books.They read their letters.)

Helene lit vos livres.Elles lisent leurs lettres.)

CarefulIn French and in English, the subjectand the possessive adjective do

not necessarily match. It all dependson what you want to say.)

Avez-vous moo livre?I I

2nd 1st

pers. pers.)

Do you have my book?

2Ad \037st

pers. pers.)

Also, before you write a sentence with the possessiveadjectiveyour,

decide whether it is appropriate to use the tu form or the vous form inFrench. Then makesurethat every word that refers to \"you\" is in the

right form, including the verb. \"You are reading your letter\" would beeither \"1\\1lis18lettre\" or \"Vous lisez votre lettre.\)

100 WHAT IS A POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE?)

Summary

Here is a chart you can useas a reference.)

Possessor

Singular

my) masc.

fern. + vowel

fern.

masc.fern. + vowel

fern.

masc.

fem.+ vowel

fern.)

your

(Iu form))

his, her, its)

Noun possessed

Singular Pluralmon mesmon mesma meston tes

ton tes

ta tesson sesson sessa ses)

Plural

our notre nos

your votre vos(vous form)

the ir leur leurs)

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Circle the possessive adjectives in the sentences below.. Draw an arrow from the possessive adjectiveto the noun it modifies.. Circlethe number of the possessive adjective: singular (8) or plural (P)..

Using the charts in this section, fill in the French possessive adjective in

the French sentences below.

1. I took my books home.

POSSESSIVE ADJECfIVE IN FRENCH: masculine

J'ai pris livres a la maison.

2. Mary borrowed your (familiar) car.

POSSESSIVE ADJECfIVE IN FRENCH: feminine

Marie a emprunte voiture.

3. Paullookslike our mother.)

POSSESSIVE ADJECfIVE IN FRENCH: feminine

Paul ressemble a mere.

4. Your clothes are expensive.

POSSESSIVEADJECfIVE IN FRENCH: masculine

vetements sont chers.)

s) p)

s) p)

s) p)

s) p)))

WHAT IS AN INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE? 101)

31. WHAT IS AN INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE?)

An Interrogative adjective is a word that asksfor moreinformation

about a noun.)

IN ENGLISH

The words which and what are calledinterrogativeadjectiveswhen

they come in front of a noun and areusedto aska questionabout that

noun.

Which teacher is teaching the course?What courses are you taking?)

IN FRENCH

There is only one interrogative adjectivequel which changes to agreein gender and numberwith the noun it modifies. Therefore, in order tosay \"which book\" or \"what dress\" in French, you start by determiningthe genderand number of the word book or dress.Noun modified is masculine singular \037 quel

Quelli vre est sur la table?Livre (book) is masculine singular,so the word for \"what\" must be masculinesingular.

What book is Oil the table?

Noun modified is masculine plural \037 quels

Quels Iivres sont sur la table?Livres (books) is masculine plural,so the word for \"what\" must be masculineplural.

What books are on the table?

Noun modifiedis femininesingular \037 quelle

Quelle robe portez-vous?Robe (dress) is feminine singular,

so the word for \"which\" must be feminine singular.Which dress are you wearing?

Noun modified is feminine plural \037 queUes

Quelles robes voulez-vous?Robes (dresses)is feminine plural,

so the word for \"which\" must be feminine plural.Which dresses do you want?)))

102 WHAT IS AN INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVE?)

In the sentences above, the interrogativeadjectiveimmediately pre-

cedes the noun it modifies. This is not always the case. As you willsee below,the interrogative adjective can be separate from the noun it

modifies. You must learn to find that noun, because the interrogative

adjective agrees with it no matter where it is placed in the sentence.

What is your address?To establish which word the interrogative adjective modifies,the sentence can be restructured to read: \"What address is yours?\"

Quelle est votre adresse?I I

I

fern. sing.)

What are his favorite programs?To establish which word the interrogative adjective modifies,the sentence can be 'restructured to read: \"What programs are his

favorites?\"

Quels soot ses programmespreferes?I I

I

masc. pI.)

CarefulThe word what is not always an interrogative adjective. In the sen-tence \"What is on the table?\" it is an interrogative pronoun. It isimportant that you distinguish one from the other, becausein French

different words are used and they follow different rules. (See What is

an Interrogative Pronoun?, p. 138.))

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Circle the interrogative adjectives in the sentences below.\302\267Draw an arrow from the interrogative adjective to the noun it modifies.

\302\267Indicate if the noun modified is singular (8) or plural (P).\302\267Fill in the French interrogative adjective in the French sentences below.

1. Which courses are you taking?

NOUN MODIFIED IN FRENCH: masculine) s) p)

cours suivez-vous?

2. What is your favorite city?

NOUN MODIFIED IN FRENCH: feminh,e

est ta ville preferee?)

s) p)))

WHAT IS A DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE? 103)

32. WHAT IS A DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE?)

A demonstrative adjective is a word usedto point out a person or an

object.

IN ENGLISH

The demonstrative adjectives are this and that in the singular and

these and those in the plural.They are rare examples of adjectivesagreeing in number with the noun they modify: this changes to theseand that changes to those when they modify a plural noun.)

Singular

this cat

that man)

Plural

these cats

those men)

This and these referto a personorobjectnear the speaker, and that

and those refer to a personorobjectaway from the speaker.)

IN FRENCH

There is only one demonstrative adjective ce which changes to agreein gender and number with the noun it modifies. Therefore, in order tosay \"that book\" or \"this dress\" in French, you start by determining

the gender and number of the word bookordress.Noun modified is masculine singular and starts with a consonant \037 ce

Ce livre est sur la table.Livre (book) is masculine singular,so the word for \"this\" must be masculine singular.

This (or that) bookis on the table.

Noun modified is masculine singular and starts with a vowel \037 cet

Cet appartement est grand.Appartement (apartment) is masculine singular.Since it begins with a vowel, the word for \"this\" must be cet.

This (or that) apartment is large.

Noun modified is feminine singular \037 cette

Cette robe est jolie.Robe (dress)is feminine singular,

so the word for \"this\" must be feminine singular.This (or that) dress is pretty.)))

104 WHAT IS A DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVE?)

Cette Am\037ricaioe \037tudie Ie fran\037ais.Americaine (American girl) is feminine singular,

so the word for \"this\" must be feminine singular.This (or that) American girl is studying French.

Noun modified is plural \037 ces

Ces livres soot sur la table.Livres (books) is plural,so the word for \"those\" must be plural.

These (or those)booksareon the table.

To distinguish between what is closeto the speaker (this, these) from

what is far from the speaker(that, those), -ci and -Ia can be addedafter the noun: -ci indicates that the noun is close to the speaker;-Iathat the noun is far from the speaker.

Ceslivres-cisootchers; ces livres-Ia oe soot pas chers.Thesebooks(here)areexpensive; those books (there) are not

expensive.)

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Circle the demonstrative adjectives in the sentences below.\302\267Draw an arrow from the demonstrative adjectiveto the noun it modifies.\302\267Circle if the noun modified is singular (8) or plural (P).\302\267Fill in the French demonstrative adjective in the French sentences below.)

1. They prefer that restaurant.

NOUN MODIFIED IN FRENCH: masculine

Ils preferent restaurant.

2. This test is toohard.

NOUN MODIFIED IN FRENCH: masculine

examen est trop difficile.

3.Thesehousesare expensive.

NOUN MODIFIED IN FRENCH: feminine)

s) p)

s) p)

s) p)

maisons sont cheres.)))

WHAT IS MEANT BY COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES? 105)

33. WHAT IS MEANT BY COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES?)

We compare adjectives when two or more nouns have the samequality (height, size, color, any characteristic), and we want to indi-

cate that one of these nounshas a greater,lesser,orequaldegreeofthis quality.

I

comparison of adjectivesI

I I

Paul is tall but Mary is taller.I I

adjective adjectivemodifies Paul modifies Mary)

Both in English and in French there are two types of comparison:

comparative and superlative.)

ComparativeThecomparativecompares a quality of one person or thing with the

same quality in another person or thing.Thecomparison can indicate

that one or the otherhas more,less,orthe same amount of the quality.)

IN ENGLISH

Let's go over the three degreesof comparison:Greaterdegree- The comparison of greater degree (more) is formeddifferently depending on the length of the adjectivebeingcompared:. short adjective + -er + than

Paul is tallerthan Mary.

Mary is prettier than her sister.

. more + longer adjective+ than

Paul is more intelligent than Mary.My car is moreexpensivethan your car.

Lesser degree - The comparisonoflesserdegree(less)isformed as

follows: not as + adjective as, or less+ adjective+ than

Paul is not as tall as Mary.My car is less expensive than your car.

Equal degree - The comparisonofequaldegree(same) is formed as

follows: as + adjective+ asPaul is as tall as Mary.My car is as expensiveas your car.)

Iln English and in French, the structure for conlparing adverbs (see What Is an Adverb?, p. 109) is thesame as the structure for comparing adjectives.)))

106 WHAT IS MEANT BY COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES?)

IN FRENCH

There are the same three degrees of comparisonof adjectives as in

English. Remember that, in French, agreementbetweenthe adjectiveand the noun is always required. However, since a comparativeadjec-tive always describes more than one noun, it always agreesin gender

and number with the subject.Greater degree- Thecomparison of greater degree is formed as fol-lows:plus (more) + adjective + que

Paul est plus actif queMarie.I

agrees with Paul

Paul is mOTeactive than Mary.

Lesserdegree- The comparison of lesser degree is formed as follows:moins(less)+ adjective

+ que

Marie est moins active que Paul.I

agrees with Marie

Mary is less active than Paul.

Equal degree- The comparison of equal degreeis formedas follows:

aussi(as)+ adjective+ que

Marie est aussi active que Paul.Mary is as active as Paul.)

Superlative

The superlativeis usedtostressthe highest and lowest degrees of aquality.

IN ENGLISH

Let's go over the two degreesof the superlative.Greatestdegree- The superlative of highest degree is formed differ-ently depending on the length of the adjective:. the + short adjective + -est

Mary is the smartest.

My car is the cheapest on the market.

. the most + long adjective

Mary is the most intelligent.His caris the most expensive of all.)))

WHAT IS MEANT BY COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES? 107)

Lowest degree - Thesuperlativeof lowest degree is formed as fol-lows: the least+ adjective

Paul is the least active.His car is the leastexpensiveof all.)

IN FRENCH

There are the same two degreesof the superlative.Greatestdegree- The superlative of highest degree is formed as fol-lows:Ie,la,or les (depending on the gender and number of the noun

described) + plus (most) + adjective.

Marieest la plus active de la famille.I I

I

feln. sing.

Mary is the most active in the family.)

Paul est Ie plus grand.I I

I

masc. sing.

Paul is the tallest.)

Marieet Paul sont les plus intelligents de la classe.I I

I

Inasc. pI.

Mary and Paul are the most intelligentin the class.

Lowest degree - The superlativeoflowestdegreeis formed as fol-

lows: Ie, la, or les (dependingon the gender and number of the noundescribed)+ moins(less)+ adjective.

Paul est Ie moins actif de la classe.I I

I

Inasc. SlOg.

Paul is the least active in the classe.)

CarefulIn English and in French, a few adjectiveshave irregular forms of

comparison which you will have to memorizeindividually.

adjective Cette pomme est bonne.This apple isgood.

comparative Cette pomme est meilleure.This apple is better.

superlative Cette pomme est la meilleure.This apple is the best.)))

108 WHAT IS MEANT BY COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES?)

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I. Underline the superlative and comparativeadjectives in the sentences

below.\302\267Draw an arrow from the adjective to the noun it modifies.\302\267Circle the various degrees of comparison: superlative(8),comparative of

greater degree (C+), comparative of equal degree(C=),or comparative of

lesser degree (C-).

1. The teacher is olderthan the students.) S c+ c= c-

S c+ c= c-

S c+ c= c-

S c+ c= c-

S c+ c= c-)

2. He is less intelligent than I am.

3. Mary is as tall as Paul.

4. That boy is the worst in the school.

5. Paul is a better student than Mary.)))

WHAT IS AN ADVERB? 109)

34. WHAT IS AN ADVERB?)

An adverb is a word that describes a verb, an adjective, or another

adverb. It indicates quantity, time, place, intensity, or manner. 1

Mary drives well.I I

verb adverb)

The house is very big.I I

adverb adjective)

The girl ran too quickly.I I

adverb adverb)

IN ENGLISH

There are different types of adverbs:. ad verbs of manner answer the question how? They are the most

common adverbs and usually easy to recognize because they endwith -ly.

Mary sings beautifully.Beautifully describes the verb sings-it tells you how Mary sings.)

They parked the car carefully.Carefully describes the verb parked-it tells you how the car was

parked.)

. adverbs of quantity or degree answer the questionhowmuch?Paul does well enough in class.

. adverbs of time answer the question when?

He will come soon.

. adverbs of placeanswerthe question where?

The old were left behind.)

IN FRENCH

You will have to memorize most adverbs as vocabulary. Most adverbsof manner can be recognizedby the ending -ment which correspondsto the Englishending-lYe)

11n English and in French, the structure for con1paring adverbs is the same as the structure for comparingadjectives (see What L4iMeant by Comparison of Adjectives?, p. 105).)))

110 WHAT IS AN ADVERB?)

joliment beautifully

generalement generallyheureusement happily

The most important fact for you to rememberis that adverbs are

invariable: this means that they never becomeplural,nordothey have

gender.)

Adverb or AdJective?

Because adverbs are invariableand adjectives must agree with thenoun they modify, you must be able to distinguish one from the other.

When you write a sentence in French,always make sure that adjec-tives agree with the nounsor pronouns they modify and that adverbsremain unchanged.

Thetall girltalked rapidly.

Tall modifies the noun girl; it is an adjective. Rapidly modifies the

verb talked; it describes how she talked; it is an adverb.

La grande fille parlait rapidement.I I

fern. sing. adverb)

The tall boy talked rapidly.Tall modifies the noun boy; it is an adjective. Rapidly modifies theverb talked; it describes how he talked; it is an adverb.

Le grand gar\037on parlait rapidement.I I

masc. sing. adverb)

Remember that in English good is an adjective; well is an adverb.

The student writesgoodEnglish.

Good modifies the noun English; it is therefore an adjective.)

The student writeswell.Well modifies the verb writes; it is therefore an adverb.)

Likewise, in French bon is an adjective meaning good; bien is theadverbmeaningwell.

The good students speak French well.I I

adjective adverb)

Les bons etudiants parlent bien Iefran\037ais.I I

masc. pI. adverb)))

WHAT IS AN ADVERB? 111)

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Circle the adverbs in the sentences below.\302\267Draw an arrow from the adverb to the word it modifies.)

1. The students arrived early.

2. Paul learnedthe lesson really quickly.

3. The students were tootiredto study.

4. He has a reasonably secure income.

5. Mary is a good student who speaks French very well.)))

112 WHAT IS A CONJUNCTION?)

35. WHAT IS A CONJUNCTION?)

A conjunction is a word that links words or groups of words.)

IN ENGLISH

There are two kinds of conjunctions:coordinatingand subordinating.

Coordinating conjunctions join words, phrases, and clausesthat are

equal; they coordinate elements of equal rank.Themajorcoordinating

conjunctions are and, but, or, nor,for, and yet.

good or evil

over the river and through the woods

They invited us, but we couldn't go.

Subordinating conjunctions join a dependent clauseto a main clause;

they subordinate one clause to another. A clause introduced by a sub-

ordinating conjunctionis calleda subordinate clause. Typical subordi-

nating conjunctions are before,after,since,although, because, if,

unless, so that, while, that, and when.

Although we were invited, we didn'tgo.I

I I

subordinating m \037in

conjunction clause)

They left because they were bored.

YImain subordinatingclause conjunction)

He said that he was tired.Y I..

main subordinatIngclause conj unction)

Notice that the subordinate clause may come either at the beginning of

the sentence or after the main clause.)

IN FRENCH

Conjunctions must be memorized as vocabulary items.Rememberthat, like adverbs and prepositions, conjunctions are invariable (Le.,they never change their fonn).)))

WHAT IS A CoNJUNCTION? 113)

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Circle the coordinating and subordinating conjunctions in the sentencesbelow.\302\267Underline the words each conjunction serves to coordinateor to

subordinate.)

1. Mary and Paul were goingto study French or Spanish.

2. She did not study becauseshewas too tired.

3. Not only had he forgottenhis ticket,but he had forgotten his

passport as well.)))

114 WHAT ISA PREPOSITION?)

36. WHAT IS A PREPOSITION?)

A preposition is a word that shows the relationship of one word (usu-ally a noun or pronoun) to another word in thesentence.The noun or

pronoun following the preposition is calledtheobjectof the preposi-

tion. The preposition plus its objectiscalleda prepositional phrase.)

IN ENGLISH

Prepositions normally indicate position,direction,ortime.

. prepositions showing positionPaul was in the car.

Mary put the books on the table.

.prepositions showing direction

Mary went to school.The students came directly from class.

. prepositionshowing time

French people go on vacation in August.Beforeclass,they went to eat.

Not all prepositions are singlewords:because of in front of instead ofdue to in spite of on account of)

IN FRENCH

You will have to memorizeprepositionsas vocabulary. Their meaning

and use must be carefully studied.Thereare two important things toremember:

1. Prepositionsareinvariable.Thismeansthat they never change theirform. (They never becomeplural,nordo they have a gender. )

2. Prepositions are tricky. Every language uses prepositions differ-

ently. Do not assume that the same preposition is used in French asin English,or even that a preposition will be used in French whenoneis usedin English (and vice versa).)))

WHAT IS A PREPOSITION? 115)

English French

Change of preposition

to be angry with etre fach\037 contre (against)to be on the plane etredans (in) I 'avion)

Prepos itionto wait/orto look at)

No preposition

attendre

regarder)

No Preposition Prepositionto telephone t\037l\037phoner a

to ask (someone) demander a

A dictionary will usually give you the verb plus theprepositionwhen

one is required.)

CarefulDo not translate an Englishverb + preposition with a word-for-wordFrench equivalent.(Seep. 24.))

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Circle the prepositions in the following sentences.)

1. The students didn't understand what the lesson was about.

2. His family had come from Paris the year beforewe had.

3.The teacher walked around the room as she talked.

4.Contrary to popular opinion he was a good student.

5.The garden between the two houses was very small.)))

116 WHAT ARE OBJECTS?)

37. WHAT ARE OBJECTS?)

Every sentenceconsists,at the very least, of a subject and a verb.Thisis calledthe sentence base.

Children play.Work stopped.

The subjectof the sentence base is usually a noun or pronoun.Many

sentences contain other nouns or pronouns which are relatedto the

action of the verb or to a preposition. These nouns or pronouns are

called objects.

Paul writesa letter.I I I

subject verb object)

He speaks to Mary.I I I

subject verb object)

Paul goes out with Mary.I I I I

subject verb preposition object

We will study the threetypes of objects separately: direct object, indi-rect object,and object of a preposition.)

Direct Object)

IN ENGLISH

A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of theverb directly, without a preposition between the verb and the fol-lowing noun or pronoun object. It answers the question whom?orwhat? or asked after the verb. 1)

Paul writes a letter.Paul writes what? A letter.

A letter is the direct object.)

They see Paul and Mary.They see whom? Paul and Mary.Paul and Mary are the two direct objects.)

1In this section, we will consider active sentencesonly (see What is Meant by Active and PassiveVoice?,p. 85.))))

WHAT ARE OBJECTS? 117)

Paul sees well.Paul sees what? No answer.Paul sees whom? No answer.)

Do not assume that any word which comesright after a verb is auto-

matically the direct object.It must answer the question what? orwhom?

There is nodirectobjectin the sentence. Well is an adverb; it answersthe question:Paul sees how?

Verbs can be classified as to whetheror not they take a direct object.. a transitive verb is a verb which takes a direct object.It is indicated

by the abbreviation V.t. (verb transitive) in dictionaries.

The boy threw the ball.I I

transitive direct object)

\302\267an Intransitive verb is a verb that does not require a direct object. Itis indicatedby the abbreviation v.i. (verb intransitive) in the dictio-nary.

Paul issleerillg.

intransitive)

IN FRENCH

As in English, a direct objectis a noun or pronoun that receives theaction of the verb directly, without a preposition. It answers the ques-tion qui? (wIuJm?) or quoi? (what?) asked after the verb.

lis rencontrent Paul et Marie.No preposition separates\"Paul et Marie\"

from the verb \"rencontrent.\"

They meet Paul and Mary.

Paul prendIelivre.No preposition separates \"Ie livre\"

from the verb \"prend.\"Paul takes the book.

As with English verbs, French verbs can be transitiveor intransitive

depending on whether or not they are followedby a direct object.)))


Indirect Object)

IN ENGLISH

An indirect object is a noun or pronounwhich receives the action of

the verb indirectly, with the preposition to relating it to the verb. Itanswersthe question to whom? or to what? asked after the verb.

She spoke to her friends.Shespoke to whom? Her friends.Her friends is the indirect object.)

He gave the painting to the museum.

He gave a painting to what? The museum.The museum is the indirect object.)

IN FRENCH

As in English, an indirect object is a noun or pronoun which receivesthe action of the verb indirectly, with the preposition a (to) relating itto the verb.It answers the question a qui? (to whom?) or a quoi(towhat?) asked after the verb. Nouns that are indirectobjectsareeasy to

identify in French because they are always preceded by the preposi-. , .tlon a.

PaulparlefA son frere.

Paul speaks to his brother.IIpensefA )'examen.

He is thinking about the exam.)

Sentences With a Direct and Indirect Object

A sentence may contain both a direct object and an indirect object.)

IN ENGLISH

When a sentence has both a direct and an indirect object, the followingtwo word ordersarepossible:1.subject (S) + verb (V) + indirect object(10)+directobject(DO)

Paul gave his sister a gift.S v 10 DO

Who gave a gift? Paul.Paul is the subject.

Paul gave what? A gift.

A gift is the direct object.)))


Paul gave a gift to whom? His sister.His sisteris the indirect object.)

2. subject + verb + directobject+ to+ indirect object

Paul gave a gift to his sisterS V DO 10

The first structure, under 1, is the mostcommon.However, because

there is no \"to\" preceding the indirect object, it is more difficult toidentify its function than in the second structure. Be sure to ask thequestions to establish the function of words in a sentence.)

IN FRENCH

There is only one word orderpossiblewhen a sentence contains both adirect and an indirect object noun (pronoun objects follow a differentword order): subject + verb + direct object+ it + indirect object

Paul a donne un cadeau a sa soeur.S V DO 10

Paul gave his sister a gift.Paulgave a gift to his sister.)

Object of a Preposition)

IN ENGLISH

An object of a preposition is a noun orpronounthat receives the

action of the verb through a preposition otherthan to. (Objects of the

preposition to are discussedunder indirect objects above.) It answersthe questionwhom?or what? asked after the preposition.

Paul worksfor Mary.

Paul works for whom? For Mary.Mary is the object of the preposition for.)

The baby eats with a spoon.The baby eats with what? With a spoon.A spoon is the object of the preposition with.)

IN FRENCH

An object of a preposition is a noun or pronoun that receives theaction of the verb througha prepositionother than a (to). It answersthe question qui? (whom?) or quoi? (what?) asked after the preposi-tion.)))


Paul travaille pour Marie.Paul worksfor Mary.

Le b\037b\037 mange avec une cuillere.The baby eats with a spoon.)

CarefulThe relationship between a verb and its object is often different in

English and French. For example, a verb may take an object of a

preposition in English but a direct object in French, or a direct objectin English but an indirect object in French. For this reason,it is impor-tant that you pay close attention to such differenceswhen you learn

French verbs. Your textbook, as well as dictionaries,will indicate

when a French verb needs a prepositionbeforean object (see p. 24).

Here are some of the differences that you are likely to encounter.1.objectof a preposition in English \037 direct object in French

I am lookingfor thebook.Function in English: Object of a prepositionI am looking/or what? The book.The bookis the object of the preposition for.)

Je chercheIeIivre.Function in French: Direct objectJe cherchequo;?Le livre.

Le livre is a direct object sincechercheris not followed by a

preposition.)

Many common verbs require an indirect objector an object of a

preposition in English but a direct objectin French.

to listen to ecouterto lookat regarderto wait for attendre

to pay for payer

2. directobjectin English \037 indirect object in French

She phones herfriendsevery day.

Function in English: Direct objectShephones whom? Her friends.

Her friends is the direct object.)))


Elle t\037lephone a ses amis tous lesjours.Function in French: Indirect objectElle telephonea qui? A ses amis.

The verb is telephoner a and takes an indirect object.

A few common verbs requirea directobjectin English and an indi-

rect object in French.

to obey obeir a

to resemble ressembler a

3. directobjectin English \037 object of a preposition in French

Mary'sparentsrememberthe war.

Function in English: Direct objectMary'sparents remember what? The war.The war is the direct object.)

Les parents de Marie se souviennent de la guerre.Function in French: Object of prepositionLes parents de Marie se souviennent de quoi? De la guerre.The verb is se souvenir de and it requires an object for the

prepositi on de.)

Here is another common verb whichrequiresa direct object in Eng-lish and an object of a preposition in French.

to enter entrerdans)

Always identify the function of a word within the language in which

you are working;do not mix English patterns into French.)

Summary

The different typesofobjectsin a sentence can be identified bylooking to seeif they are introduced by a preposition and, if so, by

which one.

Direct object - An object which receivesthe actionoftheverb

directly, without a preposition.

Indirect object - An object which receives the action of the verb indi-rectly, through the preposition to.

Object of a preposition - An object which receives the action of theverb through a preposition other than to.)))


Your ability to recognize the three types of objects is essential. With

pronouns, for instance, a different French pronoun is used for the Eng-lish pronoun him depending on whether him is a direct object(Ie)oran indirect object (Iui).)

\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037.\037

Find the objects in the sentences below:\302\267Next to Q, write the question you need to ask to find the object.\302\267Next to A, write the answer to the question you just asked.\302\267Circle the kind of object it is: direct object (DO), indirect object (10)or

objectof a preposition (OP).

1. The children took a shower.)

Q:

A:

2. They ate the meal with their friends.

Q:

A:

Q:

A:)

DO) 10) OP)

DO) 10) OP)

DO) 10) OP)

3. He sent a present to his brother.)

Q:

A:

Q:

A:)

DO) 10) OP)

DO) 10) OP)))

WHAT IS AN OBJECT PRONOUN? 123)

38. WHAT IS AN OBJECT PRONOUN?)

An object pronoun is a pronounusedas an object of a verb or a prepo-sition.)

IN ENGLISH

Pronouns change according to their function in the sentence. Pronounsused as subjects arestudiedin What is a Subject Pronoun?, p. 32.We use subject pronouns when we conjugate verbs (see What is a

Verb Conjugation?, p. 36). Object pronounsareusedwhen a pro-

noun is either a direct object,indirectobject,orobjectof a preposi-tion. (See What are Objects?, p. 116.)The form of the object pronoun is different from theformof the sub-

ject pronoun, but the same form pronoun is usedas a direct object,indirect object, or an object of a preposition.)

Subject) Object)

Singular


I

you

{

he

she

it)

me

youhimherit)

3rd person)

Plural


we

you

they)

us

youthem)

She saw me.I

direct object \037 object pronoun)

I lent Iny car to him.I

indirect object \037 object pronoun)

They went out with her.I

object of a preposition \037 object pronoun)

In English, the object pronounis always placed after the verb.)))

124 WHAT IS AN OBJECT PRONOUN?)

IN FRENCH

As in English, the pronouns usedassubjectsare different from the

ones used as objects. UnlikeEnglish,however, in many cases a dif-ferent object pronounis used for each kind of object: direct, indirect,and objectof a preposition. You will therefore have to learn how toanalyze the function of an object pronoun so that you can choosethe

correct French form.

In French, the object pronounsare usually placed before the verb.

Consult your textbookfor the rules.)

French DirectObjectPronounsFirst, you have to establish that the French verb takesa directobject.Remember that English and French verbs don't always takethesametype of objects and that when working in French you will have to

establish the type of object taken by the French verb (see p. 120).Let us look at the Frenchdirectobjectpronouns to see how they areselected. Since therulesfor the selection of 1st and 2nd persondirectobjectpronouns are different from the rules for the selectionof 3rd

person direct object pronouns, we have divided the Frenchdirectobjectpronouns into these two categories:

1st and 2nd PersonsSingular and Plural (me, you, and us)The direct objectpronoun of the 1st or 2nd person aremerely a ques-

tion of memorization. Select the form you need from the chart belowand place it beforethe verb.)

Si ngular

1st person2nd person

PIural

1 st person

2nd person)

DirectSubject object

je me

tu te)

DOUS

VOUS)

nons

vons)

To simplify our examples, we have chosena verb which takes a direct

object both in English and in French, the verb to see (voir).)))


Paul sees you.1.Identify the verb: to see2. What is the French equivalent: voir3. Doesthe French verb require a preposition before an object: No.

4. Function of pronoun in French: direct object5. Selection:te or vous

Paul te voit.Paul vons voit.

The fact that nous and vous can be either the subject or the object in a

sentence is sometimes confusing, particularly sinceboth subject and

object pronouns are placed before the verb in French. It is importantthat you do not think of nous and vous only as subjects. In caseofdoubt, look at the verb. Remember that verbs agree with their subject.

If nous is the subject, the verb will end in .ons; if it doesn't, nous isan object of somekind.Thesame is true with vous. If it is the subjectof the verb, the ending of regular verbs will be.ez.)

Vous nons voyez tous les jours.Nous cannot be the subject because the verb voir doesn't end in -ODS.

The subject of voyez can only be vous. Therefore, DOUS must be an

object pronoun.You see us everyday.

3rd Person Singular and Plural (him, her, It and them)The Frenchdirectobjectsof the 3rd person have a different formdependingon the genderand number of the pronoun.)

Singularmasculinefeminine)

Direct

Subject object

iI Ie

elle la)

Plural

masculine

feminine)

ils

elles)lesles)

An analysis of the following sentences, in which we have usedeachofthe 3rd person direct object pronouns, will enable us to selectthe

proper French form from the chart above. We have again used theverb to see (voir)becauseboth the English and the French verbs takea directobject.)))


HIM - Always masculine singular.Do you see Paul? Yes, I see him.Voyez-vo'us Paul? Qui, je Ie vois.

HER -Always feminine singular.

Do you see Mary? Yes, I see her.

Voyez-vous Marie? Qui,je la vois.

IT -Always singular, but the gender will dependonthegenderof the

noun it refers to (its antecedent).

Do you see the book? Yes, I see it.Voyez-vous Ie livre? Qui, je Ie vois.

1.Antecedent: Le livre (the book) is masculine.2. Gender: masculine

3. Selection:' Ie)

Do you see the table? Yes,I seeit.Voyez-vous la table? Qui, je la vois.

1.Antecedent: La table (the table) is feminine.2. Gender:feminine

3. Selection: la)

THEM -Always plural and the same form is used for both genders.

Do you see the girls?Yes, I see them.

Voyez-vous les jeunes filles? Qui,je lesvois.Doyou see the boys? Yes, I see them.Voyez-vous les gar\037ons? Qui, je les vois.)

French Indirect ObjectPronounsFirst,you have to establish that the French verb takes an indirect

object. Remember that English and French verbs don't always take the

same type of objects and that when working in French you will haveto establishthe type of object taken by the French verb (seep. 120).InFrench it is easier to distinguish between direct and indirect objects

with nouns rather than with pronouns because nounsthat are indirect

objects are always preceded by the prepositiona whereas indirect

object pronouns are not.)))


Let us look at the French indirectobjectpronouns to see how they areselected. Since therulesfortheselectionof1stand 2nd persons indi-

rect object pronouns are differentfromthe rulesfor the selection of

3rd person indirect object pronouns,we have divided the French indi-

rect object pronounsinto thesetwo categories:

1 st and 2nd Persons Singularand Plural (me, you, and us)The indirect objectpronounof the 1stand 2nd persons is the same asthe direct objectpronoun. Select the form you need from the chartbelow.)

Subject)

Direct andindirectobjects)

Singular1st person2nd person

Plural

1st perso n

2 nd person)

jetu)

me

te)

nous

vous)

noDsvons)

To simplify our examples, we have chosen a verb which takes an indi-

rect object both in English and in French, the verb to speak to (parlerit).)

Paul speaks to us.1. Identify the verb: to speak2. What is the French equivalent: parler3. Is the French verb followed by a: Yes.4. Function of the pronoun in French: indirect object

Paul nons parle.I

indirect object pronoun)

3rd Person Singular and Plural (him, her, It and them)

Since the rules for the selectionof 3rdpersonindirectobjectpronouns

are different for pronouns referring to a \"person\"(this categoryincludeshuman beings and live animals) and pronouns referringto a\"thing\" (this category includes objects and ideas), we have divided3rd personpronouns into these two categories.)))


\"Person\" - antecedent is a person(him, her, and them)There are two forms of the indirectobjectpronoun, a singular and a

plural form.)

Singularmasculine

feminine)

Direct Indirect

object object

Ie luila lui)

Plural

masculine

feminine)

les

les)leurleur)

HIM OR HER - Always singular.

Are you speaking to Paul? Yes, I am speaking to him.1. Identify the verb: to speak2. What is the French equivalent: parler3. Doesthe French verb require a preposition before an object? Yes.

4. What preposition? a5. Function of the pronoun in French: indirect object6. Selection:lui

Parlez-vous fa Paul? Qui, je lui parle.

Are you speakingto Mary? Yes, J am speaking to her.1 - 6.Seeabove.

Parlez-vous a Marie? Qui, je lui parle.The only way you can tell if lui refers to a maleor female is from

what has been said before.)

THEM -Always plural. You will have to determinewhetherthe noun it

refers to (its antecedent) is a personor a thing. If it refers to a person,always use the indirect object pronoun leur.

Are you speaking to Paul and Mary? Yes,I am speaking to them.1 - 5. See above.6. Type of antecedent: person (Paul and Mary)

7. Selection: leurParlez-vous fa Paul et a Marie? Qui, je leur parle.)))


\"Thing\" - antecedentis a thing (it and them)There is only one form of the indirect object pronoun y.

Direct Object Indirect ObjectPerson Thing)Antecedent:

Singular

masculine

feminine)

Ie

la)

lui

lui)

y

y)

Plural

masculine

feminine)

les

les)

leur

leur)y

y)

Are you answering the letter? Yes,I am answering it.

1. Identify the verb: to answer

2. What is the French equivalent: repondre3. Doesthe French verb require a preposition before an object? Yes

4. What preposition? a5. Function of pronoun in French: indirect object6. Type of antecedent: thing (the letter)7. Selection:y

Repondez-vous a la lettre? Qui, j'y reponds.

Doyou obey the laws? Yes, I obey them.1.Identify the verb: to obey2. What is the French equivalent: obeir3. Doesthe French verb require a preposition before an object: Yes

4. What preposition: a5. Function of pronoun in French: indirect object6.Type of antecedent: thing (the laws)7. Selection:y

Qbeissez-vous aux lois? Qui, j 'y obeis.I

a + les)

French Pronouns as Objects of a Preposition

First, you have to establish that the French verb takes an object of a

preposition. Remember that English and Frenchverbsdon't always

take the same type of objects and that when workingin French you

will have to establish the type of objecttaken by the French verb (seep. 120).Pronounsthat are objects of prepositions other than to (a in French)have certain forms which are different from the formsusedas direct)))

130 WHAT ISAN OBJECT PRONOUN?)

objects and indirect objects. Unlike otherobjectpronouns which are

usually placed before the verb, pronounsasobjectsofprepositions are

usually placed, with the preposition, after the verb. In this they are likenounsusedasobjectsofprepositions.(The pronoun en is an exceptionto this rule,seebelow under 2.)

Let us look at the Frenchpronouns objects of a preposition to see howthey are selected. Because the rules for the selectionofobjectsofa

preposition pronouns of the 1st and 2nd personsaredifferent from the

rules for the selection of the objectof aprepositionpronoun of the 3rd

person, we have divided theFrenchobjectofa preposition pronouns

into these two categories:1st and 2nd Person Singular and Plural (me, you, and us)

The 1st and 2nd person object of a prepositionpronouns are merely a

question of memorization. Select the form you need from the chartbelow and place it, with the preposition, after the verb.

Direct&

ind irect Object ofobject preposition)Subject)

Singular1st person2nd person

Plural

1st person2nd person)

jetu)

me

te)

prep. + moi

prep. + toi)

nous

vous)

nous

vous)prep. + nonsprep.+ vons)

Here is an example.

Is the bookfor Paul? No,it'sfor me.

No, it's for you.No, it's for us.

1.Identify the verb: to be2. What is the French equivalent: etre3. Is the French verb followed by a preposition? Yes.4. What preposition? pour (for)5. Function of pronoun in French: object of preposition6. Selectit>n: moi, toi (vous), nous

Est-ce que Ie livreest pour Paul? Non, il est pour moi.Non, il est pour toi (or vous).

Non, il est pour nons.)))


3rd Person Singular and Plural (him, her, It and them)Since the rules for the selectionof 3rdpersonobjectofa preposition

pronouns are different for pronouns referringto a \"person\"(this cate-gory includes human beings and live animals) and pronounsreferringto a \"thing\" (this category includes objects and ideas), we havedivided 3rd person pronouns into these two categories.)

\"Person\"- antecedent is a person (him, her and them)

There are four forms of the objectof prepositionpronouns referring to

a person depending on the gender and number of the pronoun.

Direct Indirect Objectof

Subject object object prepositionAntecedent Person & Thing Person Person

Singularmasculinefeminine

PI ural

masculine

feminine)

il Ie lui prep. + luielle la lui prep. + elle

ils les leur prep.+ eux

elles les leur prep. + eux)

An analysis of the following sentences, in which we have usedeachofthe 3rd person pronouns object of a preposition referringto persons,will enable us to select the proper Frenchform from the chart above.HIM -

Always masculine singular.

Is the book for Paul? Yes, it is for him.1. Identify the verb: to be2. What is the French equivalent: etre3. Is the French verb followed by a preposition? Yes.4. What preposition? pour (for)5. Function of pronoun in French: object of preposition

6. Gender of antecedent: masculine (Paul)7. Selection:lui

Est-ce que Ie livre est pour Paul? \037ui, il est pour lui.

HER -Always feminine singular.

Is the book for Mary? Yes, it is for her.1 - 5. See above.

6. Gender of antecedent: feminine (Mary)

7. Selection: elle

Est-ce que Ie livre est pour Marie? Qui, il est pour elle.)))


THEM - Always plural. You will have to determine whether the noun itrefers to is a personor a thing. A different object pronoun is used if theantecedentis a person or thing. If the antecedent is a person,you will

have to determine the gender of the antecedent.

Is the bookfor the girls? Yes it is for them.1 - 5. See above.6. Gender of antecedent: feminine (the girls)7. Selection:elles

Est-ceque Ie livre est pour les filles? Qui, il est pour elles.

Is the bookfor the boys? Yes it is for them.1 - 5. Seeabove.

6. Gender of antecedent: masculine (the boys)7. Selection:eux

Est-ce que Ie livre est pour les gar\037ons? Qui, il est pour eux.)

\"Thing\"- antecedent is a thing (it and them)

In French, a noun referringto a thing is only replaced by a pronounwhen it is the objectof the preposition de. (A noun referring to a thingpreceded by any other preposition is not replaced. For instance, in

French you cannot say \"The book is on it\" referring to the table;instead one says \"Thebookisonthe table.\") When it or them is theobjectof theprepositionde,both the preposition and the pronoun arereplaced by en which is placed before the verb.l)

Direct Ind irect Object ofSubject objects object preposition

Antecedent Person & Thing Person Thing Person Thing (after dt)

Singular

masculine il Ie lui y lui en

feminine elle la lui y elle en

Pluralmasculine ils les leur y eux en

feminine elles les leur y elles en)

1Your textbook may cover the few cases in which the pronoun en can be used to refer to persons.)))


Here are some examples:

[liked the book so I am going to speak about it.1.Identify the verb: to speak2. What is the French equivalent: parler3. Is the French verb followed by de: Yes4. Function of pronoun in French: object of preposition de

5. Type of antecedent: thing (book)

6. Selection: enJ'ai aim\037 Ie livre alors je vais en parler.

[likedthesebookssoI am going to speak about them.1 - 6.Seeabove.

]'ai aim\037 ces Iivres alors je vais en parler.)

Disjunctive (Stressed) Pronouns

The set of pronouns usedasobjectsofprepositionshas another func-

tion. These pronouns, without the preposition, are alsousedfor

emphasis or contrast. In this function, they arecalleddisjunctive or

stressed pronouns. Disjunctive pronouns often stand alone.

Who is there? Him.

Her.I

personal pronoun standing alone)

Qui est lh? Lui.Elle.

I

disjunctive pronoun)

Who called? Me.I

personal pronoun standing alone)

Qui a tel\037phone? Moi.I

disjunctive pronoun)))


Summary

Below is ,a flow chart of the steps you have to follow to find theFrenchequivalent of each English object pronoun. It is important that

you do the steps in sequence, because each stepdependsonthe pre-.VIOUS one.

DO \037 Direct object in the French sentence

10 \037 Indirect object in the French sentence

OP \037 Object of a preposition or disjunctive pronounin the Frenchsentence)

me).

mOl)

toi) vous)

Ie) lui)

la) lui) elle)))


What is the

gender of itsantecedent?)

If masculine

+Ie)

If feminine

+la) y)

If yes Ifno

1

\037

noun is not

replaced by

en pronoun)

\037nous)

Is the antecedent

a person or a thing?)

Is the preposition de?)

les)

If a person

\037

leur)

If a thing

\037

y)

I f yes) Ifno)

Is the

antecedent

a person ora thing?)

I s the

antecedenta personora thing?)

If a thing) If a person) If a thing)

What is the genderof its antecedent?)

en)

If masculine

+eux)

If feminine

+

elles)

noun is not

replaced

by pronoun)))

136 WHAT ISAN OBJECT PRONOUN?)

\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

Underline the object pronoun in the sentences below.\302\267

Using the chart on pp. 134-35,circlethe correct French equivalent: direct

object (DO),indirect object (10) or object of a preposition(OP),person(P),or thing (T)

1. Mary likes the book and she takes it.

to take\037 prendre)

FUNCfION OF PRONOUN IN ENGLISH:

FUNCfION OF PRONOUN IN FRENCH:

ANTECEDENT IN ENGLISH:

GENDER OF ANTECEDENTIN FRENCH: masculine)

00

00)

Marie aime Ie livre et elle) prend.)

10

10)

OP

OP)

2. The teacher spoke to them aboutthe examyesterday.

to speak to \037 parler a)



TYPE OF ANTECEDENT:)

00

00

p)

10

10

T)

OP

OP)

a parle de I'examen hier.)Le professeur

3. Go with her.

to go with \037 aller avec)



Va avec)

00

00)

10

10)

OP

OP)

4. Is the present for your parents?Yes,it's forthem.

to be for \037 etre pour)


FUNCfION OF PRONOUN IN FRENCH:)

00

00)

10

10)

OP

OP)))


Is IT THE OBJECT OF PREPOSITION DE: YES No

ANTECEDENTIN ENGLISH:

TYPE OF ANTECEDENT: P T

GENDER ANTECEDENT IN FRENCH: masculine

Le cadeau est-il pourtesparents? Oui, il est pour

5. Did you answerhis letters?No,we will answer them today.

to answer \037 repondre a)

FUNCflON OF PRONOUN IN ENGLISH: DO 10 OP

FUNCTION OF PRONOUN IN FRENCH: DO 10 OP

ANTECEDENT IN ENGUSH:


Avez-vous repondu a ses lettres?Non,nous repondrons

aujourd 'hui.

6. Paul doesn't like exams.Heis afraid of them.

to be afraid of \037 avoir peur de

FUNCTION OF PRONOUN IN ENGLISH: DO 10 OP

FUNCTION OF PRONOUN IN FRENCH: DO 10 OP

Is IT THE OBJECT OF PREPOSITION DE: YES No

ANTECEDENTIN ENGLISH:


Paul n'aimepaslesexamens. II a peur.)))

138 WHAT IS AN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN?)

39. WHAT IS AN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN?)

An Interrogative pronoun is a word that replacesa noun and intro-

duces a question. Interrogative comes from interrogate,to question.)

IN ENGLISH

Different interrogative pronouns are used dependingon whether you

are referring to a \"person\"(thiscategoryincludes human beings and

live animals) or a \"thing\"(this categoryincludesobjectsand ideas).

Also, the form of the interrogative pronoun referringto personschanges according to its function in the sentence.)

IN FRENCH

A different interrogative pronoun is used dependingon whether the

pronoun replaces a person or a thing. Also,the interrogative pronoun

changes according to its function in the sentence.In English and in French, an interrogative pronoun can be a subject,adirect object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition. We shallstudy eachtype separately.)

Subject)

IN ENGLISH

An interrogative subject pronoun is always followed directly by the

verb. A different interrogative pronoun is used depending on whetherthe subjectinterrogative pronoun refers to a person or a thing.)

\"Person\"

Who is used for the subject of the sentence.

Who speaks French?I I

subject verb)

\"Thing\"What is used for the subject of the sentence.

What is on the table?I I

subject verb)))

WHAT IS AN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN? 139)

IN FRENCH

As in English, an interrogative subject pronounis always followed

directly by a verb. Also, a different interrogativepronoun is useddepending on whether the subject interrogative pronoun refers to apersonor a thing.

\"Person\"

Qui + verb or Qui est.cequi + verb are interchangeable.

Qui parle fran\037ais?

Qui est-ce qui parle fran\037ais?I I I

I

subject verb

Who speaks French?I

su bject of speaks)

\"Th Ing\"

Qu'est-ce qui + verb is the only form.

Qu'est-ce qui est sur la table?I I I

I

subject verb

What is on the table?I

subject of is)

Direct Object)

IN ENGLISH

A different interrogative pronoun is useddepending on whether the

direct object interrogative pronounrefersto apersonora thing.

\"Person\"

Whom is used for the objectof the sentence.

Whom do you know here?I

direct object(You is the subject.))

Because in conversational English who is often usedinsteadof whom

(ex: \"Who do you know here?\,") it is difficult to recognizethe inter-rogative adjective as a direct object. Make sure that you analyze the

sentence to establish the function of the interrogative pronoun.)))


\"Thing\"

What is used for the objectof the sentence.

What do you want?I

direct object)

IN FRENCH

As in English, a different interrogativepronoun is used depending onwhether the direct objectinterrogative pronoun refers to a person or athing.)

\"Person\"

Qui est-ce que + subject + verb or Qui + verb + subject are inter-

changeable. Notice that the form with \"est-ce que\" takes the normalword order,subject+ verb, whereas the other form takes an inversion,namely, verb + subject.(SeeWhat are Declarative and Interroga-tive Sentences?, p. 46.)

Quiest-ceque v9us

\037o(

ez?

subject + verb)

Qui v0

1ez;v\037

us?

verb + subject

Who(m) do you see?I

direct object of see(You is the subject.))

\"Thing\"

Qu'est-ce que + subject + verb or Que+ verb + subject are inter-

changeable. Notice that the form with \"est-ce que\" takes the normalword order,subject+ verb, whereas the other form takes an inversion,namely, verb + subject. )

Qu'est-ce que vous voulez?I I

I

subject + verb)

Que voulez-vous?I I

I

verb + subjectWhat do you want?

I

direct object of want(You is the subject.))))


Indirect Object and Object of a Preposition

IN ENGLISH

There is no difference between the form of the interrogative pronoun

as an indirect object or as an objectof apreposition.However, a dif-

ferent interrogative pronoun is used dependingon whether it refers to

a person or a thing.When it serves as an indirect object, it is precededby the preposition to; if it is preceded by any other preposition,it isconsidered an object of a preposition.

It is often difficult to identify the function of a pronoun because, inEnglish, a prepositionis often placed at the end of the sentence, sepa-ratedfrom the interrogative pronoun to which it is linked.Thissepara-tion of a preposition from its object is calleda dangling preposition.

Who did you speak to?I I

interr. pronoun preposition)

Who did you get the bookfrom?I I

interr. pronoun preposition)

To make it easier for you to identify indirect object pronouns andobjectof a prepositionpronouns, you will have to change the structureof the sentencesothat the preposition is placed before the pronoun.This restructuring will not only make it easier for you to identify thefunction of the pronoun, but it will also establish the word order for

the French sentence.

The following sentenceshave been restructured to avoid a danglingpreposition.

Who are you giving the book to?I I

pronoun preposition

To whom are you giving the book?I

indirect object)

What are you contributing to?I I

pronoun preposi tion

To what are you contributing?I

indirect object)))


Who are you going out with?I I

pronoun preposition

Withwh,ot;n

are you goingout?object of the preposition with)

What are you writing with?I I

pronoun preposition

With what are you writing?I

object of the preposition with)

\"Person\"

Who (whom) is used for indirectobjectsand objects of a preposition.

Who did you speakto? (To whom did you speak?)I

indirect object)

Who did you get the bookfrom? (From whom did you get the book?)I

object of preposition from)

\"Thing\"What is used for indirectobjectsand objects of a preposition.

What do you cook with? (With what do you cook?)I

object of preposition with)

IN FRENCH

As in English, there is nodifferencebetween the form of the interroga-tive pronoun as an indirect object or as an object of a preposition.Also, as in English,a different interrogative pronoun is used

depending on whether it refersto a personor a thing. When the inter-

rogative pronoun serves as an indirect object, it is preceded by thepreposition a (to);if it ispreceded by any other preposition, it is con-sidered an object of a preposition.)))


\"Person\"

The preposition + qui + est-ceque+subject+ verb or preposition +

qui + verb + subjectareinterchangeable.

A qui est-ce que vous donnez Ie livre?I I

I

subject + verb

A qui donnez-vous Ie livre?I I

I

verb + subject

To whom are you giving the book?I

indirect object(Book is the direct object.))

Avec qui est-ce que vous sortez?I I

I

subject + verb

Avec qui sortez-vous?I I

I

verb + subject

With whom are you goingout?I

object of preposition with)

\"Thing\"

The preposition + quoi + est-ce que + subject+ verb or preposition +

quoi + verb + subjectareinterchangeable.

A quoi est-ce que vous contribuez?I I

I

subject + verb

A quoi contribuez-vous?I I

I

verb + subject

To what are you contributing?I

indirect object)

Avec quoi est-ce que vous ecrivez?I I

I

subject + verb

Avec quoi ecrivez-vous?I I

I

verb + subject

With what are you writing?I

object of the preposition with)))

144 WHAT ISAN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN?)

Careful

Once again we remind you that some French verbs take direct objects,while the equivalentEnglishverbstakean indirect object and vice-versa (see p. 120).Makesure that you determine the function of thepronounin French.)

Summary

To choose the correct form, proceed with the following three steps:

1. Determine the functionof the interrogative pronoun in the Frenchsentence (subject,directobject,indirect object, or object of a prepo-sition).

2.Establishwhether the pronoun refers to a person or a thing.3. Refer to the chart below.)

Direct Indirectobjectand

Subject object object of a prepositonwho who(m) preposition + who(m)

person qui est-ce qui qui est-ce que prep.+ qui est-ce que

qUI qui (+ inversion) prep. + qui (+ inversion)

what what preposition + what

thing qu' est-ce qui qu' est-ce que prep.+ quoi est-ce-que

que (+ inversion) prep.+ quoi (+ inversion))))

WHAT ISAN INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN? 145)

\"Which one, which ones\"

Thereis another interrogative pronoun which we will now examineseparatelybecauseit doesnotfollow the same pattern as the onesabove.)

IN ENGLISH

Which one, which ones can referto both persons and things; they areused in questions that requestthe selectionofone(which one, sin-

gular) or more than one (whichones,plural) from a group that has

already been mentioned.Thewords one and ones are often omitted.These interrogativepronouns may be used as a subject, direct object,indirectobject,and object of a preposition.

All the teachers are here.Which one teaches French?I I

group mentioned singular subject)

I have two cars. Which one do you want to take?I I

group mentioned singular direct object)

The library has many books. Which ones do you want to read?I I

group mentioned plural direct object)

IN FRENCH

These interrogative pronouns do not change accordingto theirfunc-

tion. They change according to the gender of theirantecedent,and

their number depends on whether you want to say which one (sin-

gular) or which ones (plural).Singular Plural

masculine lequel lesquelsfeminine laquelle lesquelles

Tochoosethe proper form, follow these steps:1. Determinethe antecedent.2.Determine the gender of the antecedent.3. Do you wish to say which one \037 singular or which

ones \037 plural?

4. Select the correct French form from the above chart.)))


Let US apply these steps to someexamples.All the teachers are here. Which one teachesFrench?Tous les professeurs soot ici. Lequel enseigne Ie fran\037ais?

1. Antecedent: the teachers2. Gender:Un professeur(aprofessor) is masculine.

3. Number: One is singular.

4. Selection: lequel)

I have two cars. Which one do you want to take?J'ai deuxvoitures.Laquelleveux-tu prendre?

1. Antecedent: the cars2. Gender:Unevoiture (a car) is feminine.3. Number: Oneis singular.

4. Selection: laquelle)

The library has many books. Which ones do you want to read?La bibliothequea beaucoup de livres. Lesquels veux-tu lire?

1. Antecedent: books

2. Gender: Les livres (the books)is masculine.

3. Number: Ones is plural.4. Selection:lesquels)

Here arefourgirls;which ones do you want to speak to?RESTRUCTURE: Place the preposition before the interrogative pronoun.

Here are four girls; to which ones do you want to speak?Voici quatre filles;

aux\037uelles

voulez-vous parler?

a + lesquelles \037 auxquelles

1. Antecedent: girls2. Gender:Unefille (a girl) is feminine.3. Number: Onesis plural.

4. Selection: lesquelles)

There are two books. Which one are you speaking about?RESTRUCTURE: Place the preposition before the interrogative pronoun.

There are two books. About which one are you speaking?

II y a deux Iivres.DU1ueiparlez-vous?

de + lequel \037 duquel

1. Antecedent: books2. Gender:Un livre (a book) is masculine.3. Number: Oneis singular.

4. Selection: lequel)))


.\037...\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037.\037

Underline the interrogative pronouns in the questions below.\302\267

Using the chart on p. 144,circlethe correct French equivalent: subject (8)directobject(DO),indirect object (10) or object of a preposition(OP).

1.Who came into the room?

FUNCTION OF PRONOUN IN ENGLISH: S DO 10 OP

FUNCTION OF PRONOUN IN FRENCH: S DO 10 OP

est entre dans la piece?

2.Who did you speak to?

RESTRUCTURE:

to speak to \037 parler a



est-ce que vous avez parle?

3. What is she doingtonight?to do \037 faire



fait-elle ce soir?

4.Who are you calling?

RESTRUCTURE:

to call \037 telephoner a



telephonez-vous?)))

148 WHAT IS A POSSESSIVE PRONOUN?)

40. WHAT IS A POSSESSIVE PRONOUN?)

A possessive pronoun is a word that replaces a noun and indicates thepossessor of that noun. Possessive comes from possess, to own.

Whose house is that? It's mine.

Mine is a pronounthat replaces the words my house and shows whopossessesthe house.)

IN ENGLISH

Here is a list of the possessivepronouns:

Singular possessor


3rd person){

masculine

feminine

neuter)

mine

yourshishersits)

Plural possessor


oursyourstheirs)

Possessive pronouns never change their form, regardless of the thingpossessed;they only refer to the possessor.

Is that your house? Yes, it is mine.Are those your keys? Yes, they are mine.

The same possessivepronoun (mine) is used, although the objects pos-sessedaredifferent in number (house is singular, keys is plural).

John'scar is blue. His is blue.Mary's car is blue.Hersisblue.

Although the object possessed is the same (car), thepossessivepro-noun is different because the possessor is different (Johnmasculinesingular, Mary feminine singular).

IN FRENCH

Like English, a French possessive pronoun refersto thepossessor,but

unlike English, it must agree, like all French pronouns,in gender and

number with its antecedent, that is, with the personorobjectpos-sessed.In addition, the possessive pronoun is preceded by a definitearticlewhich also agrees in gender and number with the objectpos-)))

WHAT IS A POSSESSIVE PRONOUN? 149)

sessed. Therefore, there are masculine and feminine forms in both thesingular and the plural.

In the example below,in the phraselesmiens (mine), the fIrst letter ofthe possessive pronounm-refersto the 1st person singular possessor(mine), while the ending-iensand the definite article les agree withthe noun possessedlivres(books) which is masculine plural.

Where are your books?Mineare in the living room.masc. pi endings

\037Ou sont vos livres?Lesmienssont dans Ie salon.

I

1 st pers. sing.possessor)

Let us look at the Frenchpossessivepronounstoseehow they are

formed. Since the rules for the selectionof a singular possessor are

different from the rules for the selectionof a plural possessor, we have

divided the French possessivepronounsinto these two groups:)

Singular Possessor: mine, yours (tu form), his, hers, its

In French, each of these possessivepronounshasfour forms

depending on the gender and number of the noun possessed:the mas-

culine singular form, the feminine singular form, the masculineplural

form, and the feminine plural form. To choose the properformfollow

these steps.

1. Indicate the possessor. This will be shown by the first letter of the

possessivepronoun.(They are the same initial letters as the posses-siveadjectives,seeWhat is a Possessive Adjective?, p. 96).)

mine

yours(tu fonn)

his

}hersits

2. Establish thegenderand number of the object possessed. Choosethe definite articleand the ending according to the gender andnumberof that noun.)

m-

t-)

s-)))


Noun possessed is masculine singular \037 Ie + first letter of the pos-.sessor+-IenWhose book is that?)

A qui est ce livre?I

noun p\037ssessedmasc. sing.)

It is mine.It is yoursIt is his/hers.C'estIemien.

C' est Ie tien.C'est Ie sien.)

Nounpossessedis feminine singular \037 la + first letter of the pos-.sessor+ -Jenne

Whose house is that?)

A qui est cette mai,son\037I

noun I?ossessedfern. sing.)

It is mine.It is yours.It is his/hers.C'estla mienne.

C' est la tienne.C'est la sienne.)

Noun possessedis masculineplural \037 les + fIrst letter of the posessor.+ -lensWhose books are those?)

A qui sootceslivres?I

noun p<?ssessedmasc. sing.)

They are mine.They are yours.

They are his/hers.

Ce soot lesmiens.Cesootlestiens.Ce soot les siens.)

Noun possessed is feminineplural \037 les + first letter of the possessor.+ -Jennes

Whose letters are those?)

A qui soot ces lettres?I

noun possessed)

They are mine.They are yours.They are his/hers.

Ce soot les miennes.Ce sootlestiennes.Cesootlessiennes.)))


3. Select the proper fonn accordingto the two steps above.

Let us apply these steps to someexamples.

Mary is looking at her photos. He is lookingat yours.Marieregardesesphotos.IIregarde les tiennes.

1. Possessor: t.2. Noun possessed: Les photos (the photos) is feminine plural.

3. Selection: les + .iennes)

Lend me yourbook.No,I'11lend you hers.

Pr@tez-moi votre livre. Non, je vous pr@terai Ie sien.1. Possessor: s.2. Noun possessed: Le livre (the book) is masculine singular.

3. Selection: Ie + .ien)

Plural Possessor: ours, yours (vous form), theirs

In French, each of these possessive pronounshas threeformsdepending on the number of the noun possessed: the masculinesin-gular form, the feminine singular form, and the plural form (thesamefor both genders). To choose the proper form, follow thesesteps:1.Indicate the possessor.

ours notre

yours votretheirs leur

2. Establish the gender and number of the noun possessed.Choosethedefmitearticleaccording to the gender and number of the noun pos-sessed.

noun possessed is masculine singular \037 Ie

noun possessed is feminine singular \037 la

noun possessed is plural \037 les and add an \"-s\" to the possessor

3.Selectthe proper fonn according to the two steps above.Letus apply these steps to some examples.

Whose house is it? It is ours.A qui est cette maison? C'est la notre.

1.Possessor:n6tre

2. Noun possessed: La maison (the house)is feminine singular.

3. Selection: la)))


J will not lend you my cards. [' 11 lend you theirs.Je ne vous pr@terai pas mes cartes. Je vous pr@terai les leurs.

1. Possessor: leur2. Noun possessed: Les cartes (cards) is plural.3. Selection:les + \302\267s)

Summary

Here is a chart you can useas a reference.Possessor Noun possessed

Singular Singular Plural

mine rnasc. Iemien lesmiens

fern. la mienne les miennes

yours rnasc. Ie tien les tiens

(\"tu\" form) fern. la tienne les tiennes

his,hers,its masc. Ie sien les siensfern. la sienne lessiennes

ours rnasc. Ie n6tre les n6tresfern. la n6tre

yours rnasc. Ie v6tre les v6tres

(It vous\" form) fern. la v6tre

theirs rnasc. Ie leur les leurs

fern. la leur)))


\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

Underline the possessive pronouns in the sentences below.\302\267Draw an arrow from the possessive pronoun to its antecedent.

\302\267Circle whether the antecedent is singular (8) or plural (P).\302\267

Using the charts in this section, fill in the French possessive pronoun.)

1. I won't take his car.I'll take mine.)

ANTECEDENT IN FRENCH: feminine) s) P)

Ie ne prendrai pas sa voiture.Ie prendrai)

2. I'm not going with his parents. I'm going with hers.)

ANTECEDENT IN FRENCH: masculine) s) P.)

Ie ne vais pas avec ses parents.Ie vais avec)

3. Are you taking my book? No, I'm taking yours (familiar).)

ANTECEDENT IN FRENCH: masculine) s) P)

Prends-tu mon livre? Non, je prends)))

154 WHAT IS A RELATIVE PRONOUN?)

41. WHAT IS A RELATIVE PRONOUN?)

A relative pronoun is a word that serves two purposes:

1. As a pronoun it standsfor a noun or another pronoun previouslymentioned. The noun or pronounreferredto is called the

antecedent.

This is the boy who brokethe window.

I

an teceden t)

2. It introduces a subordinate clause, that is, a group of words havinga subject and verb,separatefrom the subject and verb of the mainsentence, which doesnotexpressa complete thought. A main

clause can stand aloneas a completesentence, a subordinate clause

cannot.)

main clause subordinate clauseI I

I I I I

This is the boy who broke the window.I I

subject verb

Who broke the window is not a complete sentence.)

The above subordinateclauseis alsocalleda relative clause because

it starts with a relative pronounwho.Therelative clause gives us

additional information about the antecedentboy.

Relative clauses are very common. We use them in our everyday

speech without giving much thought to why and howweconstructthem. The relative pronoun allows us to combine in a singlesentencetwo thoughts which have a common element.

sentencea I metthe teacher.sentenceb He teaches French in my school.combined I met the teacherwho teaches French in my school.

When sentences are combinedwith a relative pronoun, the relative

pronoun can havedifferentfunctions in the relative clause. It can bethe subject,the direct object, the indirect object or the object of a

preposition. Since your selection of the relative pronounwill depend

on its function in the relative clause, weshallstudy each function sep-

arately.)))

WHAT IS A RELATIVE PRONOUN? 155)

IN ENGLISH

In an English sentence, the relativepronounis often omitted.

Thebookthat I'm reading is interesting.I

relative pronoun)

The book I'm reading is interesting.I I

I

relative pronoun omitted)

The selection of mostrelativepronouns depends on the function of therelative pronounin the relative clause, and on whether the antecedentis a \"Person\" (this category includes human beings and animals) or a\"Thing\" (this category includes objects and ideas).

IN FRENCH

Relative pronouns are used just as they are in English. The main dif-ference is that, unlike English where the relative pronoun can some-timesbeomitted at the beginning of a relative clause, the relativepro-noun must always be expressed.)

Subject of the RelativeClause)

IN ENGLISH

There are three relative pronouns that can be used as subjects of a rel-ative clause, depending on whether the relative pronoun referstoper-sonsorthings.

\"Pers on\"

Who or that is used for the subjectof the sentence.

She is the only student who answered all the time.I

antecedent

Who is the subject of answered.)

She is the only student that answered all the time.I

antecedent

That is the subject of answered.)))


\"Thing\"Which or that is usedfor the subject of the sentence.

The movie which is playing is in French.I

an teceden t

Which is the subjectof is playing.)

This is the book that is so popular.I

antecedent

That is the subject of is.)

IN FRENCH

There is one relative pronoun that can be used as subject of a relativeclause.

Qui isusedas the subject of a relative clause, regardless of whetherthe antecedentis a person or a thing.

This is the student who answered.I

antecedent

Who is the subject of answered.Voici I '\037tudiant qui a r\037pondu.

This is the book which is so interesting.I

an teceden t

Which is the subjectof is.

Voici Ie livre qui est si int\037ressant.

Notice that qui is always followed by a verb.)

Combining Sentences With a Relative Pronoun Subject)

IN ENGLISH

sentence a The students passed the exam.

sentence b They studied.

1. Identify the element the two sentences have in common.

The students and they; both words refer to the same persons.)))


2. The relative pronounalways replaces the common element in thesecond sentence. (Don'tforgetthat a pronoun must refer to some-thing or someonethat has already been mentioned.)

They will be replacedby a relative pronoun.

(The students is the antecedent.)

3.Therelativepronoun in the relative clause will have the same func-tion as the word it replaces.

They is the subject of studied.

The relative pronoun will be the subjectofstudied.

4.Choosethe relative pronoun according to whether its antecedent isapersonor a thing.

They refers to students. Therefore, its antecedentis a person.5.Selectthe relative pronoun.

Who or that is the subject relative pronoun referring to a person.6.Placethe relative pronoun right after its antecedent.

The students who studied passed the exam.The studentsthat studied passed the exam.

I

I

I

I

antecedent relative clause)

IN FRENCH

sentence asentenceb)

Les \037tudiants ont reussi a I'examen.lis ont \037tudi\037.)

Follow the same steps as under In Englishabove,skipping step 4.

Les \037tudiants qui ont \037tudi\037 ont r\037ussi a I 'examen.

I

I

I

I


Direct Object of the RelativeClause)

IN ENGLISH

There are three relative pronouns that can be used as direct objects ofa relative clause,dependingon whether the relative pronoun refers topersons or things.We have indicated relative pronouns in parenthesesbecause they are often omitted.)))


\"Person\"

Whom or that is used as a directobjectofa sentence.

This is the student (whom) I saw yesterday.I

antecedent

Whom is the direct objectof saw.

(I is the subject of the relative clause.))

This is the student (that) I saw yesterday.I

an teceden t

That is the directobjectof saw.

(I is the subject of the relative clause.)

\"Thing\"Which or that is usedasa directobjectof a sentence.

This is the book (which) Paul bought.I

antecedent

Which is the direct objectof bought.

(Paul is the subject of the relative clause.))

This is the book (that) Paul bought.I

antecedent

That is the direct objectof bought.

(Paul is the subject of the relative clause.))

IN FRENCH

There is only one relativepronoun that can be used as direct object ofa relativeclause.Que(orqu' before a vowel) is used as the direct objectof a relativeclause,regardless of whether the antecedent is a personora thing.

We have included the relative pronouns in the English sentencesbelow to show you what the French relative pronounrelatesto;how-

ever, since the relative pronoun is often omitted in an English sen-

tence, we have put them betweenparentheses.This is the book (which) I bought.

I

antecedent

Which is the direct objectof bought.

I is the subject of the relative clause.

Voici Ie livre que j'ai achet\037.)))


This is the student (whom)he saw.I

antecedent

Whom is the direct objectof saw.

He is the subject of the relative clause.

Voici 1'\037tudiant qu'il a VUe

Notice that que is alwaysfollowedby a noun or pronoun.)

Combining Sentences With a Relative Pronoun Direct Object)

IN ENGLISH

sentence a The French teacher is nice.sentenceb I met him today.

1. Common element:French teacher and him

2. Element to be replaced:him

3. Function of him: direct object4. Antecedent: the French teacher is a person.S. Selection:whom or that

6. Placement: whom or that after the French teacherThe Frenchteacher,whom I met today, is nice.The Frenchteacher,that I met today, is nice.

I

II

I


In spoken English, you would say: \"TheFrenchteacherI met today is

nice.\" Notice that the relative pronoun whom or that is left out,making it more difficult to identify the two clauses.

IN FRENCH

sentence a Le professeur de fran\037ais est gentil.

sentence b Je l'ai rencontr\037 aujourd'hui.

Follow the same steps as under In Englishabove,skipping step 4.

Le professeur de fran\037ais que j 'ai rencontr\037 aujourd'hui est gentil.I I I I

I I


Indirect Object and Object of a PrepositionIn a Relative Clause

Both the relative pronoun as an indirectobjectand the relative pro-noun as an object of a preposition involve prepositions.)))

160 WHAT ISA RELATIVE PRONOUN?)

It is often difficult to identify the function of a relative pronounbecause in English a preposition is often placed at the end of the sen-tence,separatedfrom the relative pronoun to which it is linked. Thisseparationof a preposition from its object is called a danglingpreposi-tion (see p. 141).

To make it easier for you to identify a relative pronounas an indirect

object or as an object of a preposition,you will have to change thestructure of the sentencesothat the preposition is placed before thepronoun. This restructuringwill not only make it easier for you toidentify the function of the pronoun, but it will also establish the wordorder for the Frenchsentence.)

IN ENGLISH

There are two relative pronounsusedas indirectobjects,depending on

whether you are referring to a person ora thing.

\"Person\"

Whom is used as an indirect object or as an object of a preposition.

Hereis the student I was speaking to.I

an teceden t)

This English structure cannot be translated word-for-wordinto Frenchfor two reasons:

1. The French language does not permitdanglingprepositions,and

2. The relative pronoun omitted in English mustbeexpressedinFrench. To establish the French structure, you mustrestructurethe English sentence, placing the preposition within the sen-

tence and adding a relativepronoun.If you are not sure whereto place the preposition and the relative pronoun, rememberthat they follow immediatelyafter the antecedent.

Spoken English --+ RestructuredHere is the student Here is the student

I was speaking to. to whom I was speaking.W horn is the indirect object of was speaking.)))


Here is the student I was talking about.I

antecedent)

As in the case of the indirectobject,spokenEnglish often omits the

relative pronoun and places the prepositionat the end of the sentence.

Again, you will have to restructurethe sentence.

Spoken English \037 Restructured

Here is the student Here is the student

I was speaking about. about whom I was speaking.

Whom is the object of the preposition about.

\"Thing\"

Which is used as an indirect object or as an object of a preposition.

Here is the museum he gave the painting to.I

antecedent)


Here is the museum Here is the museum

he gave the painting to. to which he gave the painting.Which is the indirect object of gave.)

Here is the museum to which he gave the painting.I I I

I


IN FRENCH

Relative pronouns used as indirect objects and as objects of a preposi-tion are dividedinto two main groups discussed separately below:relative pronouns objectsof a prepositionother than de (of), and rela-tive pronouns objectsof the preposition de. Moreover, the first ofthese groupsis subdivided as to whether the relative pronoun refers toa personor a thing.

Relative pronouns objects of a prepositionotherthan de

This group also covers indirect objectsbecauserelativepronouns are

objects of the preposition it (see p. 118).

Sometimes there is more than one way to express the relative pronounin French.We have only given you the most common form and referyou to your French textbook for the others.)))


\"Person\"

Preposition + qui

This is the man (that) J am thinking about.I

antecedent)


This is the man This is the man

I am thinking about. about whom I am thinking.

Voici I 'homme a qui je pense.Remember that to think about is penser a.)

\"Thing\"

Preposition + lequel

Lequel must agree with the antecedent in gender and number. Also,followingthe prepositionit (to) the initial Ie- and les- become au-and aux-.

These are the pens (that) I write with.I

antecedent)

Spoken English \037

These are the pensI write with.)

Restructured

These are the penswith which I write.)

Void lesst\037los

avecles\037uels

j'eeriS.

antecedent masc.pI.)

Relative pronouns objects of the preposition deThereisonerelative pronoun which is most commonly used after the

preposition de. We refer you to your French textbookforotherlesscommon forms.

\"Person or thing\"Dont stands for the prepositionde and the relative pronoun. It is themost commonform.

This is the man (that) I am speaking about.I

antecedent)


This is the man This is the man

I am speaking about. about whom I am speaking.

Voici I 'homme dont je parle.)))


Combining Sentences With a Relative Pronoun

Object of a Preposition)

IN ENGLISH

sentence a Mary read the book.sentenceb I was speaking about it.

1. Common element: the book and it

2. Element to be replaced: it

3. Function of it: object of the preposition about

4. Antecedent: The bookis a thing.

5. Selection: which

6. Placement: about which after the book

Mary read the bookabout which I was speaking.I I I

I


In spoken English, you would say: \"Mary read the book I was

speaking about.\" Notice that the preposition is at the end and that

there is no relativepronoun.)

IN FRENCH

sentence a Marie a lu Ie livre.sentenceb Je parlais du livre.

Marie a lu Ie livre dont je parlais.)

Possessive Modifier \"whose\

IN ENGLISH

The possessive modifier whose is a relative pronounwhich does not

change its form regardless of its function or antecedent.

Find the woman whose car was stolen.I

antecedent

Whose is a possessive modifying car.)

Look at the house whose roof burned.I

antecedent

Whose is a possessive modifying roof.)

IN FRENCH

The French equivalent of the possessivemodifierwhoseis dont.This is the student whose mother came.Voici I 'etudiant dont la mere est venue.)))


Summary

Here is a chart you can useasreference:Function in

relative clause:

subject

direct object

objectof de

object of preposition

(other than de))

Antecedent)

Person Thing)

qui

quedont)

pr\037p. + qui pr\037p. + lequel)

To find the correct relative pronoun you must go through the fol-

lowing steps.1.Findthe relativeclause.Restructure the English clause if there is a

dangling preposition and add the relative pronoun if it has beenomitted.

2.Establishthe function of the relative pronoun in the French sen-tence:SUBJECT: If the relative pronoun is the subject of the Englishsen-tence,it will be the subject of the French sentence \037 qui

DIRECT OBJEer: If the French verb takes a directobject\037 que or qu'

OBJECT OFTHE PREPOSITION DE: If the French verb is followedby the

preposition de \037 dont

OBJECT OF A PREPOSmONOTHER THAN DE: If the French verb is fol-lowedby a preposition other than de?

\302\267if a person \037 preposition + qui\302\267if a thing \037 preposition + appropriate form of lequel

3. SelecttheFrenchform from the chart above.)

Let us apply thestepsoutlined above to the following sentences:

The plane that comesfrom Paris is late.1. Relative clause: that comes from Paris

2. Function of relative pronoun in French: subject of relative clause

3. Selection: quiL' avion qui arrive de Paris est en retard.)))


Here are the books(that) I bought yesterday.

1. Relative clause: that I bought yesterday2. Function of relative pronoun in French: Direct object of acheter

(to buy)3. Selection: que(Notice the agreement of past participle achetes with the direct object

que referring to livres - seep.64).

Voici les livres que j 'ai achet\037s hier.

Where is the book (that) you need?1.Relative clause: that you need2. Function of relative pronoun in French: Object of prepositon de

(to need \037 avoir besoin de) + thing (book \037

Ie livre) masculine singular

3. Selection: dont

Ou est Ie livre dont vous avez besoin?

Where is the university (that) she is thinking about?


Where is the university Where is the university

she is thinking about? about which she is thinking?

1. Relative clause: about which she is thinking2. Function of relative pronoun in French: Object of preposition a

(to think about \037 penser it) + thing (university \037

une universite) feminine singular3. Selection:a laquelle

Ou est I 'universit\037 fA laquelle elle pense?

That is the boy (that) she is playing with.


That is the boy That is the boy

she is playing with. with whom she is playing.

1. Relativeclause:with whom she is playing2. Function of relative pronoun in French: object of preposition avec

(to play with \037 jouer avec) + person (boy \037

un gar\037on) masculine singular3. Selection:qui

Voici Ie gar\037on avec qui elle joue.

Relative pronounsare tricky to handle and this handbook providesonly a simpleoutline.Refer to your French textbook for additionalrules.)))


Relative Pronouns Without Antecedents

There are relativepronouns that do not refer to a specificnoun orpro-noun.Insteadthey refer to an antecedent which has not beenexpressedorto a whole idea.)

IN ENGLISH

There are two relative pronouns that can beusedwithout an

antecedent: what and which.

What - not referringto any specific noun or pronoun.1

I don't know what happened.I

no antecedent

subject)

Here is what I read.I

no antecedentdirect object)

Which - referringbackto a whole idea, not to a specific noun or pro-noun.)

You speak many languages, which is an asset.

Antecedent of which: the fact that you speak many languages)

She didn't do well, which is a pity.

Antecedent of which: the fact that she didn't do well)

IN FRENCH

When a relative pronoun does not have a specificantecedent,the pro-

noun ce is added to function as theantecedent.It is followed by what-

ever relative pronoun would have been usedif therehad been a noun

antecedent.)

IThe relative pronoun what (O'1eaning that which) should not be confused with other uses of what; as an

interrogative pronoun (What do you want? Qu'est-ceque vous voulez?, see p. 138),and as an interroga-tive adjective (What book do you want? Quellivre voulez-vous?, see p. 101).)))


Let us applytheserulesto the following examples:

Here is what happened.Voici ce qui est arriv\037.

1. Relative clause: what happened2. Function of relative pronoun in French: subject of relative clause

3. Selection: qui4. No antecedent:add ce)

Show me what you bought.Montrez-moiceque vous avez achet\037.

1. Relative clause: what you bought2. Function of relativepronoun in French: direct object of acheter (to

buy)

3. Selection: que4. No antecedent:add ce)

I don't know what he is talking about.Je ne sais pas ce don t il parle.

1. Relative clause: what he is talking about - Restructured: about

what he is talking

2. Function of relative pronoun in French: object of preposition de (to

speak about \037 parler de)

3. Selection: dont4. No antecedent: add ce)

He doesn't speak French, which will be aproblem.IIne parle pas fran\037ais, ce qui sera un probleme.

1.Relative clause: which will be a problem2. Function of relative pronoun in French: subject3. Selection:qui

4. No antecedent: add ce(Which refers to the whole phrase \"he doesn't speak French.\

To speak French well,that's what I want.

Bien parler fran\037ais, voila ce que je veux.1. Relative clause: what I want

2. Function of relative pronoun in French: direct objectof vouloir

(to want)3. Selection: que4. No antecedent: add ce

(What refers to the whole phrase \"to speak French well.\))


\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037REVIEW \037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037\037

Underline the relative pronoun in the sentences below.\302\267Circle the antecedent.\302\267Circle the function of the relative pronoun:subject(5),direct object (DO),

object of a preposition(OP),objectof preposition de ( OPde), or posses-sive modifier (PM).

\302\267Using the chart on p. 164, fill the French relative pronoun in the French

sentences below.)

1. I received the letterthat you sent me.

to send \037 envoyer

FUNCfION IN ENGLISH: S DO OP OPDE PM

FUNCfION IN FRENCH: S DO OP OPDE PM

J'ai re\037u la lettre vous m'avez envoyee.

2. That is the young woman who speaks French.



Voici la jeunefule parlefran\037ais.

3. Here is the man with whom I travelled.

travel with \037 voyager avec



Voici l'homme avec j'ai voyage.

4. This is the book whose title I had forgotten.FUNCfION IN ENGLISH: S DO OP OPDE PM

Voici Ie livre j'ai oublieIetitre.

5. Paul is the student I spoke of.

Restructure:

to speakof \037 parler de



Paul est I'etudiant je parlais.)))

WHAT IS A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN? 169)

42. WHAT IS A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN?)

A demonstrative pronoun is a word that replacesa noun previously

mentioned, the antecedent, as if pointing to it. Theword demonstra-

tive comes from demonstrate, to show.)

\"Thisone, that one\"and \"these,those\

IN ENGLISH

The singular demonstrative pronouns are this (one) and that (one);

the plural forms are these and those.

Here are two suitcases. This one is big and that one is small.Choose a book.Thesearein French, those in English.

As with the demonstrative adjectives,this(one),theserefer to a

person or an object near the speaker,and that (one), those refer to a

person or an object away from the speaker.

IN FRENCH

Demonstrative pronouns do not change regardless of theirfunction,

but they agree in gender and number with their antecedent. Also, -ci

is added to indicateobjectscloserto the speaker and -Ia to indicate

objects farther away.)

masculine

feminine)

Sing u lar

celui

celie)

Plural

ceuxcelles)

To choosethe correctform,follow these steps:

1. Determine the antecedent.2. Determine the gender and number of the antecedent.

3. Based on steps 1 and 2 choose the correct form from the chart.

4. Add -ci for this or these and -18 for that and those.)

Look at the following examples.Give me the book.This one.Donne-moi Ie livre. Celui-ci.

1. Antecedent: book2. Gender & number: Le livre (the book)is masculine singular.

3. Selection: celui4. This \037 -ci)))

170 WHAT IS A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN?)

Give me the letter. That one.Donne-moila lettre.Celle-Ia.

1.Antecedent: letter

2. Gender & number: La lettre (the letter) is feminine singular.3. Selection:celIe4. That \037 -18

Give me the books. These.Donne-moileslivres.Ceux-ci.

1.Antecedent: books

2. Gender & number: Les Iivres (the books) is masculine plural.3. Selection:ceux4. These \037 -ci)

Give me the letters. Those.Donne-moileslettres.Celles-Ia.

1.Antecedent: letters

2. Gender & number: Les lettres (the letters) is feminine plural.3. Selection:celles4. Those \037 -18)

\"The one, the ones\" \037 celui qui, celui que

The same French demonstrativepronouns (without -ci or -lit) followed

by the relativepronoun qui or que can be used at the beginningof arelativeclause.(SeeWhat is a Relative Pronoun?, p. 154).

IN ENGLISH

The demonstrative pronouns the one and the ones, unlikethis one and

that one, do not point out a specificobject,but instead introduce a

clause that helps us identify an object by giving additional informationabout it. Thereis a singular form the one and a plural form theones.They can be followed by the relative pronoun that or which, but the

relative pronoun is often omitted.What book are you reading?I am reading the one (that) I bought yesterday.

Clause: the one that J bought yesterday

gives us additional information about the book.

Number: The one is singular.)

Which dresses do you prefer?I prefer the ones (that) are in front.

Clause: the ones that are in frontgives us additional information about the dresses.

Number: The ones is plural.)))


IN FRENCH

The demonstrati ve pronouns correspondingto the one and the ones

agree in gender and number with the antecedent. The relative pronounthat or which is selectedaccordingtoitsfunction in the relative clause

(see pp. 164) and must be stated in French.

To choosethe correctform,follow these steps:

Demonstrative pronoun (the one, the ones)1.Find the antecedent.

2. Determine the gender and number of the antecedent.

3. Select the correct French form from the chart on p. 169.

Relativepronoun (that, which-add it to the English sentence if it has

been omitted)1.Determinethe function of the relative pronoun in the relative

clause.

2. Select the correct Frenchform:. the subject of the relative clause \037 qui

. the object of the relative clause \037 que

Let us apply these rules to the followingexamples:What book are you reading?[' m reading the one (that) [ bought yesterday.QuellivreIisez-vous? Celui que j'ai achet\037 hier.

I I

masc. sing. object

Demonstrative pronoun

1. Antecedent: book

2. Gender & number: Le livre (the book) is masculinesingular.

3. Selection: celuiRelative pronoun

1. Function: that is the object of the relative clause. (Answers thequestion:\"I bought what yesterday?\" I is the subject.)

2. Selection: que)

Which dresses do you prefer?

[ prefer the ones (that) are in front.

QueUes robes pr\037ferez-vous? Celles qui sont devant.

I I

fern. pI. subject)))

172 WHAT IS A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN?)

Demonstrative pronoun1. Antecedent: dresses2. Gender & number: Les robes (the dresses)is feminine plural.

3. Selection: cellesRelative pronoun

1. Function: that is the subject of the relative clause. (Answers the

question: \"W hat is in front?)

2. Selection: qui)

Celui de to Show Possession

Thesame French demonstrative pronouns (without -ci or lit), followedby the preposition de can be used to showpossession(seeWhat is the

Possessive?, p. 18).

For the samereasonthat \"my father's house\" can only be expressedinFrench by the structure \"the house of my father,\" a similar Frenchstructuremust be used to say the equivalent form \"my father's.\" In

this case, the word-for-word English translationof the French struc-

ture is \"the one of my father.\" In French, the one agrees in gender and

number with its antecedent, here \"the house.\"

To choose the correct form, follow thesesteps:1.Find the antecedent of the one or the ones.

2. Determine the gender and number of the antecedent.

3. Select the form of the demonstrative pronoun (see chart p. 169).4. Add the preposition de (of).

Let us apply theserulesto the following examples:

Which house are you selling? Myfather's.I I

I\"

the one of my father\"

QueUe maison vendez-vous? Celie de moo pere.I

feln. sing.)

1. Antecedent: house2. Gender& number: La maison (the house) is feminine singular.

3. Selection: celie4. Add de)

Which books are you reading? The young man's.I I

I

\"the ones of the young man\"

Quels Iivres Iisez-vous? Ceux du jeuDe homme.I

masc. pI.)))


1. Antecedent:books2.Gender & number: Les Iivres (the books)is masculine plural.

3. Selection: ce4. Add de)

\037...\037.\037..\037..\037\037..REVIEW \037\037........\037\037..\037.\037.

Circle the the demonstrative pronouns in the sentences below.\302\267Draw an arrow from the demonstrative pronoun to its antecedent.

\302\267Circle if the antecedent is singular (8) or plural (P).\302\267Fill in the French demonstrative pronoun in the French sentences.)

1. She did not buy my house, because she wants this one.)

ANTECEDENT IN FRENCH: feminine) s) p)

Elle n'a pas achete ma maison, parce qu' elleveut)

2. My courses are more interesting than those.)

ANTECEDENT IN FRENCH: masculine) s) p)

Mes cours sont plus interessants que)

3. What book are you reading? The one I bought today.)

ANTECEDENT IN FRENCH: masculine) s) p)

Quellivre lis-tu?) que j'ai achete aujourd'hui.)))

ANSWER KEY 175)

ANSWER KEY)

1. What is a Noun? 1. boy, classroom, teacher 2. textbook, painting,

cover 3. Mary, Evans, Paris, class 4. lion, children 5. truth, fiction

6. kindness, understanding, world

2. What is Meant by Gender? 1.M 2.? 3. F 4.? 5.? 6. F 7.?3.What is Meant by Number? The first letter correspondsto Column A,

the second to Column B. 1.P P 2.P? 3.SS 4. S S 5. P P 6.P?4.What are Articles? 1. C, les 2. C, I' 3.C,des 4. C, une 5. N, de I'

6. N, Ie 7. C, un 8. N, de la 9. C,Ie 10.N, de la

S. What is the Possessive?1.the parents of some children 2. the color ofthe dress 3. the entrance of the school 4. the speed of a car 5. thecovers of the books

6. What is a Verb? 1.purchase 2. were 3. enjoyed, preferred 4. ate, fin-

ished, went 5. was, see, struggle,get out 6. attended, celebrate

7. What is an Infinitive? 1. to do 2. study 3. to learn 4. leave5. to travel

8. What are Auxiliary Verbs? 1.did 2. will 3. do 4. - (to have, avoir,

is an auxiliary verb in French)

9. What is a Subject? 1.Q:\"What rang?\" the bell \037 sing. Q: \"Who ran

out?\" the children \037 pI. 2. Q: \"Who took the order?\"onewaiter \037

sing. Q: \"Who brought the food?\" another \037 sing. 3. Q: \"Whovoted?\" the first-year students (or the students) \037 pI. 4. Q: \"What isa beautiful language?\" French \037 sing. Q: \"What is difficult?\" it \037

sing

10. What is a Pronoun? The antecedent is in parentheses. 1. she (Mary),him (Peter) 2. they (coat, dress) 3. herself (Mary) 4. we(Paul,I)5.it (bed)

11. What is a Subject Pronoun? 1.je \037 1st, sing. 2. vous \037 2nd, pI.

3. nous \037 1st, pI. 4. tu \037 2nd, sing. 5. elles \037 3rd, pI. 6. vous \037

2nd, pI. 7. Us \037 3rd, pI.

12. What is a Verb Conjugation? STEM: port-. CONJUGATION: je porte, tu

portes, iI (ell e) porte, nous portons,vous portez, i1s (or elles) portent.13. What a\037e Affirmative and Negative Sentences? Words that indicate

the negative are in italics. Words around which to place ne...pas areunderlined.1.We do not (don't) \037 to speak English in class. 2. He

does not (doesn't)!J.Qhis homework.3.Helenwas n ot (wasn't) homethis morning. 4. Paul cann ot (can't) go to the restaurant with us.

14. What are Declarative and Interrogative Sentences? Words that indi-

cate the interrogative are in italics I. 1. Did Paul and Mary study all

evening? 2. Does his brother eat a lot? 3.Do the girl's parents speakFrench? II. 1.Est-ceque would precede: my mother and father went)))

176 ANSWER KEY)

to the movies. 2. N' est-cepas would follow: my mother and fatherwent to the movies. 3. noun subject \037 mother and father; verb \037

went; pronoun that corresponds to the subject \037 they \037 ils

17. What is the Present Tense?1.reads 2.isreading \037 lit 3. does read

--+Iit

18. What is the Imperative? I. 1.Study every evening. 2. Let's go to the

movies once a week. ll. 1. Don'tsleepin class. 2. Let's not speak in

class. Ill. 1. P 2. I 3.P 4.I19.What is a Participle? 1. am speaking 2. werestudying 3. are

bringing 4. will be trying

20. What is the Past Tense?IMPARFAIT: checked, handled, was crying,was, was leaving PASSE COMPOSE: went, arrived, ran, dropped, tried,ducked,grabbed,brought, comforted, went

21. What is the Past PerfectTense?1.(-1)\037 P; (-2) \037 PP 2. (-1) \037 P;

(-2) \037 PP.

22. What is the Future Tense?1.ENGLISH: present, future FRENCH:

future, future 2. ENGUSH: future, present FRENCH: future, future

23. What is the Future PerfectTense?1.(2),(1) 2.(1),(2). In French,

the verbs marked (I) take the.future perfect; the verbs marked (2) takethe future.

24. What is the Conditional? 1.C,I 2.PP, PC 3. I, I 4. F, P25. What is a Reflexive Verb? 1. themselves \037 se 2. herself \037 se

3. yourself \037 te 4. ourselves \037 nous

26. What is Meant by Active and PassiveVoice?1.cow, cow \037 Ac, PP

2. bill, parents \037 Pa, PP 3. bank, bank \037 Ac, P 4. everyone,

everyone \037 Ac, F 5. spring break, all \037 Pa, F

29. What is a DescriptiveAdjective?The noun or pronoun described is

between parentheses. 1.young (man), French (newspaper) 2. pretty

(she), long (dress), red (dress) 3. interesting (it) 4. old (piano), good(music) 5. tired (Paul), long (walk)

30. What is a PossessiveAdjective? The noun described is between

parentheses. 1. my (books), pI. \037 mes 2. your (car), sing. \037 ta 3. our

(mother), sing. \037 notre 4. your (clothes), pI. \037vos

31. What is an Interrogative Adjective? The noun modified is between

parentheses. 1. which (courses),pl. --+ quels 2. what (city), sing. \037

que lie

32. What is a DemonstrativeAdjective? I. The noun modified is betweenparentheses.1.that (restaurant), sing. \037 ee 2. this (test), sing. \037 eet

3. these (houses), pl.\037 ces

33. What is Meant by Comparison of Adjectives?I.The noun modified

is between parentheses. 1.older(teacher)\037 C+ 2. less intelligent (he))))

ANSWER KEY 177)

\037 C- 3. as tall as (Mary) \037 C= 4. the worst (boy) \037 S 5. better

(student) \037 C

34. What is an Adverb? The word modified is between parentheses.

1. early (arrived) 2. really (quickly),quickly (learned) 3. too (tired)4. reasonably (secure)5.well (speaks), very (well)

35. What is a Conjunction?(Thewords to be circled are in italics; thewords to be underlined are plain.) 1. Mary and Paul, French orSpanish.2. She did not study because she was too tired. 3.Not only

had he forgotten his ticket, but he had forgotten his passport as well.36.What is a Preposition? 1. about 2. from 3. around 4. contrary to

5. between37.What are Objects? 1. Q: \"The children took what?\" a shower --+ DO.

2. Q: \"They ate what?\" the meal \037 DO. Q: \"They ate with whom?\"

their friends \037 OPt 3. Q: \"He sent what?\" a present \037 DO. Q: \"He

sent a present to whom?\" his brother \037 10.

38. What is an Object Pronoun? 1.it, DO, DO, book \037 Ie 2. them, 10,10, P \037 leur 3. her, OP, OP \037 elle 4. them, OP, OP, no, parents,P\037 eux 5. them, DO, 10, letters, T \037 Y 6. them, OP, OP, yes, exams,T\037en

39. What is an Interrogative Pronoun? 1.who, S, S \037 qui or qui est-ce

qui 2. who, to whom did you speak, 10, 10 \037 a qui 3. what, DO, DO\037 que 4. who, whom are you calling, DO,10 --+ a qui

40. What is a PossessivePronoun?1.mine (car), sing. \037 la mienne

2. hers (parents), pI. \037 les siens 3. yours, (book) sing. \037 Ie tien

41. What is a Relative Pronoun? The antecedent is between parentheses.1. that (letter), DO \037 que 2. who (woman), S \037 qui 3. whom (man),OP \037 qui 4. whose (book), PM \037 dont 5. Paul is the student ofwhom I spoke.Paul (student), OPde \037 dont

42. What is a Demonstrative Pronoun? 1.this one (house), sing. \037

eelle-ci 2. those (courses), pI. \037 eeux-/d 3. the one (book),sing. \037 eelui)))

INDEX 179)

a, an 14active voice 85-8adjective 92

attributive 93-4

comparison of 105-7demonstrative 103-4

descriptive 93-5

interrogative 101-2noun used as 94-5

possessive 96-100predicate 93adverb or adjective 110

affirmative, 43-4

agent 85

agreement 12seeall headings under adjectivenoun and article 13past participle 64-5

pronoun and antecedent see allheadings under pronoun

verb with subject 28, 36,41-2-al words 10

antecedent 30, 154, 169-70seeall headings under pronoun

article 12-6definite 12-3

indefinite 14-5

partitive 15-6

auxiliary verb (helping verb) 25-7, 64seealsoavolr and \037tre

avolr (to have) 26, 63-5)

be(to) 26, 64)

ce 103-4celul de 172-3celul que 170-71

clause 77if-clause 77,80-1main clause 77

relative 154-8resul t 77, 80-1

subordinate 77,154)

INDEX)

cognate 1

command fonn 56-7commonnoun 4

comparative 105-6

compound tense 26,52,63conditional (Ie condJtlonnel) 77-81

as polite form 78-9

contrary-to-fact statement 79-80future-in-the-past 78

hypothetical statement 78

past (Ie condJtJonnel passe) 79-80

present (Ie condltlonnel present)78-9

conjugation 36-42

conjunction 112

coordinating 112subordinating 112

contraction 43

contrary-to-fact statement 79-80)

de 19declarative 46dictionary fonn of verb 23direct object 116-9, 121, 139-40, 157-9direct statement 78

do/does/did 46-7, 54-5,63in intelTogati ve sentence 46in negative sentence 43-4

dont 162, 163)

elision 13

en 132-3

ending (Ia term InaJson) 41est-ceque 47

\037tre (to be) 26, 64)

familiar fonn tu 33, 37feminine 6-7

fonnal form vous 33, 39function 2

future-in-the-past 78

future perfect (Ie futur anterJeur) 75-6future tense (Ie rutur) 72-3)))

180 INDEX)

immediate future (Ie futur Immedat) 73-4

with 10 go (aller) 73-4)

gender (masculine/feminine) 6-8

biological 7

grammatical 7)

\"h\" (aspirate/mute) 13

have (to) 26,63-5

had 69

have 63he 32helping verb 25-7, 64

her, him 125-8,131-3

hers, his 96-9, 148-51herself,himself 82-3

hypothetical statement 78)

I 32id iom 1

if-clause 77, 80-11mparfait (I') 65-6

vs. Ie passe com pose 66-7imperative (I'lmperatif) 56-7

indicative (I'lndlcatlf) 50-1indirect object 118-9, 121, 141-4,

159-62indirect statement 78

infInitive (l'lnftnltif) 23-4-ing verb ending 59

interrogative 46-9invariable 110, 112, 114

adverb 110conjunction 112

preposition 114

inversion 46-7it 33-4, 129,131-3

its 96-9, 148-51itself 82-3)

lequel 145-6

relative pronoun 162

let's 56-7

-ly ending of adverb 109-10)

masculine 6-7me 124,127,130meaning 1

mine 148-51mood 50-1

conditional 51,77-81

imperative 50-1, 56-7indicative 50-1, 54, 63, 72

subjunctive 51,90

my 96-9

myself 82-3)

ne...pas44negative 43-4

neuter 6

noun(conuno\037oper) 4-5agreement with article 12-7

collective 9conunon 4

compound 4

used as adjective 94-5number (singular/plural) 9-10)

object 116-22direct 116-9,121,139-40,157-9

indirect 118-9,121,141-4,159-62

object of a preposition 119-21,

129,33,141-4,159-65

English vs. French 120-1

on construction 88the one, the ones 170-1our 96, 99-100

ours 148, 151-2ourselves 82-3)

parts of speech 1-2

participle (Iepartlclpe) 59-62

past (Ie particlpe passe) 60-2present (Ie partlclpe present) 59-60

Iepassecompose (past indefmite) 63

vs.I'lmparfalt 66-7passivevoice 85-8

avoiding in French 87-8

present passive vs. passe compose86,88

past tense (Ie passe) 63-7)))

INDEX 181)

see l'lmparfalt and Iepassecompose

past emphatic 63

past perfect (Ieplus-queparfait)

69-71

past progressive 63

present perfect 63-4

simple past 63used to 63

person (grammatical) 32

personal pronoun 32-5

as direct object 124-6asdisjunctive 133

as indirect object 126-9asobject of a preposition 129-33as subject 32-5

plural 9-10

Ie plus-que-parfalt (past perfect)

69 -71

polite fonn 33, 39

possessive 18-9

preposition 114-5

to change meaning of verb 115

dangling 141

object of a preposition 114, 119-21,

129-33,141-4,159-65

prepositional phrase 114

present tense (Ie present) 54-5present emphatic 54-5

present progressive 54-5pronoun 30-1

see also personal pronoun

demonstrative 169-73

disjunctive (Ie pronoun personnel

tonlque) 133

indefinite 31

interrogative 138-46

object 123-37objectof preposition 129-33

possessive 148-52reflexive 82-4relative with antecedent 154-65

relative without antecedent 166-7

subject 32-5, 37-40propernoun 4)

qu\037 que (interrogative pronoun) 139relative pronoun 154, 156)

reflexive verb 82-4to avoid passive 87-8)

sentence 21

affumative 43-4base 116com plete 21

declarative 46

interrogative 46-9

negative 43-4

sequence of tenses80-1shall 72

she 32

simple tense 26, 52singular 9

some 15-6

stem (Ia raclne) 40-1subject 28, 37-40, 138-9, 155-7

subjunctive 90-1

superlative 106-7)

tag question 48-9tense 52-3

future 72-4

future perfect 75-6

past 63-7

see all headings under past tense

present 54-5seeall headings under present tense

that 103-4, 155-6, 158

that one 169-70

the 12-3their 96, 99-100

theirs 148, 151-2them 125-9, 131-3

themselves 82-3these 103-4,169-70they 34-5

this 103-4

this one 169-70those 103-4,169-70tu familiar fonn 33, 37)))

182 INDEX)

us 130

used to 66-7verb 21-2

auxiliary 25-7, 64see alsoavoir and \037tre

compound tense 52

dictionary fonn 23

groups 23-4intransitive 117

irregular 37

main 25

reflexive 82-4regular 36

transitive 117

voice (active/passive)22,85-7

vous formal form 33, 39)

we 56, 123-5

what 101-2

what (that which) 166-7which 101-2,156,158,161,166-7

which one (ones) 145-6who 155

whom 158-60

whose 163will 72

will have 75would 77

see also conditional present

would have 79)

y 129, 132

you 33,56,124-5,130your 96-100

yours 148-52

yourself 82-3)))

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