BRITISH GEOLOGICAL SURVEY

TECHNICAL REPORT WC/92/60

Overseas Geology Series

TECHNICAL REPORT WC/92/60

Report on the mineral status of animals in some tropical countries and their relationship to

drainage geochemical maps of minerals in those countries

Ccntre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine Edinburgh Univcrsity

This report was prepared for the Overseas Development Administration

Uiblwgraphic Reference '

Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine (CTVM), Edinburgh University 1992. Report on the mineral status of animals in some tropical countries and their relationship to damage geochemical maps of minerals in those countries. Briirsh Geological Survey Technical Repori WC/92/60

NERC Copyright 1992 British Geological Survey, Keyworth, Nottinghani

CONTENTS

Summary

Acknowledgements

Introduction

Literature reviewed

Correlation with drainage sediment geochcmical maps

Mineral Status in Kenya

Mineral Status in Swaziland

Mineral Status in Sumatra

Mineral Status in Zimbabwe

Mineral Status in Bolivia

Mineral Status in Sicrra Leone

Mineral Status in Uganda

Mineral Status in Solomon Islands

Conclusions

References

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SUMMARY

Mincral deficiencies in soils and foragcs havc long bccn known to bc responsible for low

productivity among grazing livestock in many dcveloping countries. A rcccnt rcvicw by the

BGS (BGS Technical Report WC/92/24) studied the use of regional gcochemical maps for

idcntifying arcas whcrc trace element dcficicncics or CXCCSS~S may affect cattle productivity.

The Centre for Tropical Vcterinary Medicine (CTVM), Edinburgh Univcrsity was

commissioned to carry out a litcraturc search and study of the mineral status of livcstock and

pasturcs in the tropical countries covcred by the BGS report. The objectivc of the review was

to invcstigate the potential for correlating existing documented rcports of mincral status in

these countries with the geochcmical distributions shown on the maps in thc BGS rcport. Thc

work was carried as part of the ODA/E3GS Environmental Geochemistry R & D projcct,

forming part of the British Govcrnmcnt aid programme to dcvefoping countries.

Drainage sediment levels of coppcr, cobalt, manganese, zinc and molybdenum are dcpictcd

on gcochemical maps in the BGS Technical Rcport for sectors of Bolivia, Kenya, Sicrra

Leone, Sumatra, Swaziland and Zimbabwe. A rcvicw of thc mincral (tracc clcmcnt) status o f

livcstock and in forages available to livestock was carricd out for thcsc minerals togcthcr with

calcium, phosphorus, sodium, selenium, iodine, potassium, iron and sulphur.

A considcrablc amount of information exists in the published litcraturc for most of the

countries represented by thc drainage gcochemical maps. Howcvcr, thc maps arc oftcn

rcstrictcd to spccific regions of thcsc countries, making correlation with reported information

difficult in many cases. Information in thc litcrature is often sparse for thc spccific arcas of

thc drainage maps and more accuratc and dctailcd information should bc sought i n cach

country.

The corrclation of the lcvels of niincrals in drainagc scdimcnts with rcportcd dcficiciicics in

grazing livcstock, showcd rcasonable uniformity bctwccn thc countrics studicd although it is

difficult to establish a quantitative corrclation bctwccn mincral lcvcls in drainagc scdinicnt,

soil, pasture, animal fluid and tissuc.

I t is tentatively suggested that dcficicncies in unsupplementcd grazing ruminants might occur

in areas where mineral concentrations (ppm) in drainage sedimcnts arc below thc following

lcvcls :

Kenya Swaziland Sumatra Bolivia

Copper 15 15 15 15

Cobalt 15 15 15 15

200 Manganese 500 500 --

Zinc 55 25 25 35

Zimbabwe -- --

500 --

The potential for predicting deficiencies or toxicities in livestock using drainage sediment data

should be tested in areas where there are accurate and known data about the mineral and tracc

element status of soils. If this data is not readily available, it is recommended that sampling

and analysis of soil, forage, animal fluid and tissue should be carried out in a numbcr of arcas

in order to assess more effectively the validity of using regional geochemical maps to idcntify

areas where trace element deficiencies or excesses might affect cattle productivity

The value of thc tcchnique to livcstock productionists and vcterinarians will lic in its ability

to identify areas where possible deficiency or toxicity problems may exist, so that more

accurate tests on livestock can be carried out.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

This report was prepared by Hameed Nuru (CTVM) for the British Geological Survey.

Assistance was provided by Dr. Richard Matthewman, Dr. Morley Sewell and Mr. Stewart

Macfarlane (CTVM) and by Dr Neville Suttle (Moredun Research Institute) and Professor Lcc

McDowell (Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, Gainesville, Florida) who provided

advice and some of the literature materials.

We also wish to gratefully acknowledge Mrs. Susan Smyth and Eileen Pankton the librarians

at CTVM and The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, Edinburgh University who

provided their tireless assistance to help obtain the literature used for this work.

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INTRODUCTION.

In tropical warm climates, poor nutrition is one of the main factors which affcct and dircctly

hindcr cattle productivity (McDowcll, 1983, 1985; Minson, 1990). An important aspcct o f

nutrition is the effect of mineral imbalanccs within the diet, which play a vital role in thc

overall nutritional status of grazing animals.

Reports on mineral imbalance, be they deficiencies or excesses, and their effect on

productivity are available for many tropical countries, most of them having arisen due to the

common observation of livestock which exhibit a markedly lowered productivity, even in the

presencc of abundant feed (McDowell, 1976, 1978; Fick et al. 1978; Read et al. 1986). Thc

question of determining the actual mineral status of tropical grazing cattle is difficult, as

numerous factors link the animal and environmental mineral levels. Grazing livestock

generally do not receive mineral supplementation and depend mainly on forages for thcir

supply (McDowell, 1982). Only rarely can forages satisfy the requirements of the animal for

high levels of production. Problcms associated with determining mineral imbalanccs rangc

from lack of diagnostic facilities to climate influcnccs on amounts of the mineral. Plant

uptake from soil, variation in maiiifcstation of clinical signs in animals and production

demands of animals also complicate the determination. These problems could bc lcsscncd i f

an accurate and cheap prcdiction of mineral status of livestock could be madc in spccific

geographical areas.

A tcchnical rcport prepared by the British Geological Survey (BGS; Appleton, 1992), which

rcvicwed the use of regional geochemical maps for identifying areas where trace clcmcnt

deficiencies or excesses may affect cattlc productivity in some tropical countries, was scnt to

the Centre for Tropical Vetcrinary Medicine (CTVM), Edinburgh Univcrsity. Thc Cciitrc was

commissioned to carry out a one month literature search and study of the mineral status of

livestock and pastures in the countrics covered by the BGS report (Bolivia, Kenya, Sierra

Leonc, Solomon Islands, Sumatra, Swaziland, Uganda and Zimbabwe). Thc drainagc scdinicnt

levels of copper, cobalt, mangancsc, zinc and molybdenum were depicted on illustrativc

drainage geochemical maps in thc BGS report. A review of thcsc niincrals and a niorc

cxtcnsive review of mineral status in livestock in thcsc countrics was carricd out, including

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the status of calcium, phosphorus, sodium, selenium, iodine, potassium, iron and sulphur. Thc

objcctive of the review was to investigate the potcntial for correlating existing documcntcd

reports of mineral status in thcse countries with the geochcmical distributions given in thc

BGS report (Appleton, 1992).

LITERATURE REVIEWED

An extensive literature review was carried out, making use of available books, journals,

reports and databases to determine existing animal related information on the mincral status

in the countries to which the BGS report rcferred. The databases used were CAB Abstracts

from 1984 to date and MEDLINE from 1966 to date. The main journals used werc the East

African Agriculture and Forestry Journal, 1932 to 1988, Tropical Animal Health and

Production, 1970 to date, Tropical Agriculture, 1975 to date, Tropical Animal Production,

1976 to date, Tropical Science, 1965 to date, The Veterinary Record, 1950 to date and

Nutrition Abstracts 1968 to date.

CORRELATION WITH DRAINAGE SEDIMENT GEOCHEMICAL MAPS

The nutrient requirements for various livestock of varying physiological status have been

established by ARC (1984) and NRC (1984) and represent the range of the mineral in ppm

of dry matter feed intake required by the animal to function at an optimal level. Few

conclusive reports of accurate correlations between mincral levcls in soil or drainagc scdimcnt

and the mineral requirements of livestock by means of conversion equations or rcgrcssion

analysis have been found.

Stream sediment geochcmistry however, has been shown to offer a wide scope for sampling

mincrals for agricultural rcconnaissance and is a widcly practised and succcssful mcthod o f

prospecting for concealcd mineral dcposits (Joyce, 1974). Proof that stream scdimcnt

geochemistry can be adaptcd for agricultural and livcstock purposcs is scen in nunicrous

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publications emanating from thc Applicd Gcochemistry Rcsearch Group at Imperial Collcgc,

U.K (Webb et al., 1971; Thornton, 1972).

Copper and Molybdcnurn strcam scdimcnt lcvcls and their correlation to soil, hcrbagc and

animal blood levels havc bccn rcportcd in scvcral studics carricd out in thc U.K. (Wcbb &

Atkinson, 1965; Thornton et al., 1969; Wcbb et al., 1971; Thornton et al., 1972). Thc earlier

studies cstablished a strong corrclation bctwccn anomalously high MO in stream sedimcnts

and high MO in soils and herbage. This was rclatcd to a MO-induced Cu deficiency in cattle

confirmed by blood tcsts. A further example of thc development of suitable techniques is thc

work by Leech and Thornton (1987) who correlated arcas with known bovine hypocupraemia

and soil mincral status.

Thcse studies havc demonstrated sufficient potential for the agricultural application of strcani

sediment geochemistry, but no established quantitative correlation bctwccn strcam scdimcnt

mineral levels and livestock mineral levels were found. The information gained from thc

literature scarch was corrclatcd with the drainage sediment maps given in the BGS report for

coppcr, cobalt, mangancsc, zinc and molybdcnurn (Appleton, 1992). It was difficult to

accuratcly pinpoint locations on thc maps for which information was availablc, but broad

corrclations could be madc.

For cach mineral which was reportcd in thc litcraturc to be dcficicnt in livcstock or pasturcs,

a figure (ppm of the mincral) in drainage sediment corresponding to the reported dcficicncics,

was derived from the maps. Thcse lcvels are shown in Table 1 for comparison bctwccn

countries. The mincral levcls cannot bc takcn as the absolutc levcl of mincral in drainagc

sediment below which deficicncics in livcstock might occur. Dcficicncics might occur at

highcr levcls of drainage scdimcnt mincral, but the present study was not ablc to determinc

whcthcr this is thc casc. For cxamplc, coppcr dcficiency was reportcd in Kcnya in thc arca

of the drainage scdiment map which showed levels of 15 ppm copper. It can bc dcduccd that,

in this region, arcas with less than 15 ppm copper in drainagc sediment niay rcsult i n

dcficiencics in livcstock, but this docs not rule out thc possibility that in arcas with niorc

copper in the drainage scdimcnt, livcstock may also be deficient. Conversely, in arcas

charactcriscd by lowcr Cu concentrations in drainagc scdiments, coppcr niay not bc dcficicnt

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in grazing ruminants because of relatively high plant available concentrations and differential

uptake by different plant species.

MINERAL STATUS IN KENYA

The soils in Kenya, like other East African countries, are deficient in a number of minerals

essential for animal nutrition. The earliest reports of mineral imbalances were in studies

carried out by workers from the Rowett Research Institute (Aberdeen) at Molo in Kenya

between 1927 and 1929.

CALCIUM and PHOSPHORUS

Ca levels in pasture have been found satisfactory (Howard et al. 1962; Howard, 1963; Gittcr

et al. 1975). Recent studies on 35 samples of both soil and herbage from 85 farms in

Bungoma and Trans Nzoia districts showed deficiency in Ca levels (Jumba, 1989). Pastures

at higher altitudes, however, had higher Ca levels. Seasonal variation (with much lower levels

in March to May) have been reported in pastures 011 6 different farms in Kenya (Gitter et al,

1975). No cases of clinical Ca deficiency have been reported in cattle, and deficiencies are

unlikely to occur in free grazing cattle (French, 1952, 1955; Howard, 1963). By serum

mineral analysis, Gitter et al. (1975) found adequate lcvels of Ca. Serum and forage

analyses in small ruminants in Western Kenya showed Ca levels within the normal range

(Musalia et al. 1990).

Low herbage P has becn reported throughout Kenya (French, 1955; Howard et a1 . 1902;

McDowell, 1976; Jumba 1989). Only the NaivashdGigil area had adequate forage P lcvcls

(Howard, 1963).

Serum P values for cattle showed low values, although aphosphorosis was not observed

(Gitter et al. 1975). Clinical cases of P deficiency characterised by "bone chewing" have

been reported (French, 1952, 1955; Howard, 1963). Production loss associated with low P has

been reported in small ruminants (Musalia et al. 1990).

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Generally, the Ca:P ratios in pastures and common feedstuffs were satisfactory, as ruminants

are known to exhibit considerable tolerancc to Ca:P ratio and the absolute intake of Ca and

P is more important in the prcvcntion of disease than the correct Ca:P ratio (Chamberlain,

1955; Gitter et al. 1975). The Ca:P imbalance has also bcen thought to be a cause of

seasonal migration of wildlife across vast areas of the East African plains in search of an

adequate supply of both minerals, espccially for lactating and pregnant females (McNaughton,

1990).

Supplementation of Ca and P has been advocated in Kenya, especially on large dairy farms.

Responses to supplementation have shown improvement in weight gain, fertility and milk

yields (French, 1955; Howard, 1963).

SODIUM and CHLORIDE (NaCI)

Low salt levels in Kenyan pastures have been reported (French, 1955; Howard et al. 1962;

Howard, 1963) and have bcen associated with low soil levels (Chamberlain, 1955). Similar

low levels have been observed in scrum and forage samples utilised by m a l l ruminants in

Westcrn Kenya (Musalia et al. 1990). No reports of clinical signs associated with salt

deficiency were found although several workers showed a significant improvement in

production when salt was added to cattle diets (French, 1955; Howard, 1963; Schillhorn Van

Veen, 1990). Dughali et al. (1964) suggested that there is a seasonal salt deficiency in

wildlife and linked their migration to the search for salt and other minerals. This was also

reported by McNaughton (1990) and Murray (1990).

COPPER, COBALT and MOLYBDENUM

Soil concentrations of Cu and CO arc reported to be low especially in some sectors of thc

Lake Nakuru national park (Maskall and Thornton, 1989 and 1991). Work on blood, livcr and

pasture samples have established that there is an extensive area of Cu and CO dcficicncy

along the edge of the Rift Valley. There are also marginal areas in the Nakuru, Njoro, Rongai

Naivasha and Solai regions (French, 1955; Howard, 1963). Low liver Cu levels wcrc also

sccn in Katratina (Froslie et al. 1983).

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Clinical signs of both hypocuprosis and CO deficiency have been reported and the discasc

(resulting from deficiencies in both minerpls) is so common amongst livestock that it has been

given the local name "Nakuruitis" after the region in which it is commonly found (French,

1955; Howard, 1963 and 1970; Wandera,1979; Froslie et al. 1983).

CO deficiency alone has been reported to cause Enzootic Marasmus, first seen in Kenya in

1944 by Hudson. A similar condition called Enzootic Ataxia seen in ruminants and caused

by Cu deficiency has also been reported (Faye et al. 1991).

Recent studies in the National Parks in Kenya have revealed low Cu and CO levels in scra

from wild animals, notably in Rhino and Impala, in soil and in pasturc plants (Maskall and

Thornton, 1991). Clinical supplementation with Cu and CO or removal of the animals from

the affected areas has been shown to cure these deficiencies in livestock.

No clinical cases of Molybdenosis were found.

SELENIUM and ZINC

Soil levels of Se around Lake Nakuru have been found to be relatively low (Maskall and

Thornton, 1989 and 1991). Levels in pasture in this locality showed similar low amounts with

grasses having a higher level than browse plants. Forage samples from other areas including

Westcrn Kenya also showed levels below the requirements for cattle (Mbwiria ef al. 1986;

Jumba, 1989; Musalia et al. 1990). Serum analyses on 1,478 small ruminant blood samples

in sclected areas of Kenya showed levels of less than 0.05 ppm, below which threshold Sc

deficiency signs might occur. This shows a borderline to low level of Se, but no clinical

manifestations of disease were reported (Mbwiria et al. 1986). Similarly, Froslic et al.

(1983) analysed both cattle and shecp livers around Katritina region for thcir Se content and

reported marginal levels. This was the same in other parts of the country (Jumba, 1989). Onc

case of Se deficiency with clinical signs of disease was found in a wild ruminant. This was

associated with polymyopathies and was thought to be due to Se deficiency (Mugcra, 1967).

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Zinc levels from forage, soil and animal tissues were observed to be borderline or marginal

(Froslie et al. 1983). Similarly, very low levels were reported in Western Kenya whcre thcy

were shown to limit productivity (Musalia et al. 1990). Forage Zn levels have been shown

to vary bctween sites with most species giving borderline amounts for cattle requiremcnts

(Jumba, 1989). Neither Zn deficiency nor toxicity have bcen reported and grazing cattle arc

unlikely to show signs of Zn imbalances (French, 1955; Jumba, 1989). Zn has been shown

to limit production in small ruminants and supplementation in cattle may be indicated

(Musalia, 1990).

IODINE and MAGNESIUM

Very early reports indicated that iodine was not a problem in Kenya or East Africa (French,

1952; 1955). This later proved to be incorrect, as Follis (1966) showcd that I dcficicncy

characterised by "goitre" occurred all over Africa. No reports of the condition in domcstic

livestock have been found in Kenya.

Pasture lcvels of magnesium have bccn reported as being adequate for cattle (Howard et al.

1962; Howard, 1963; Jumba, 1989). Blood scrum levcls on six farms showcd adcquatc lcvcls

(Gitter et al. 1975). Apart from two possible cases of hypomagnesemic tetany (Howard,

1966; McDowell, 1976), no reports of Mg deficiency were found and from the evidcncc of

levels in pasture and serum, it is unlikely to occur (Gitter et al. 1975).

IRON and SULPHUR

Most Kenyan grazing cattle have adequate lcvels of Fe, derived directly from pasture plants

or by ingesting soil along with grass (French, 1955). Both soil and pasture foragc lcvcls of

Fe are considered adequate (Jumba, 1989). Common feedstuffs were also shown to havc

adequate amounts of Fe (Chamberlain, 1955). No clinical deficiencies or toxicities have bccn

rcportcd in grazing cattle.

Sulphur is normally present in adequate amounts (French, 1955), although varying lcvcls arc

sccn in differing forages (Jumba,1989). In thc arcas bordcring Lake Victoria, S lcvcls in both

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soil and forage are low and this has been associated with poor growth of fish in the lake

(French, 1955). No cases of S deficiency or dict supplementation in cattle or any other

livestock were found.

POTASSIUM and MANGANESE

The levels of K found in Kenyan pastures compare well with those in productive grasses

elsewhere in the world and show adequate amounts to meet livestock requirements (Howard,

1963; Howard et al. 1963; Musalia et af, 1990). Serum analyses supporting adequate K

levels were also reported by Musalia et af (1990). In a study of common feedstuffs,

Chamberlain (1955) showed favourable amounts. No clinical cases of K deficiency were

found.

Analysis of various pasture grasses and forage in Kenya, showed adequate amounts of Mn

to meet grazing cattle requirements (Jumba, 1989). Levels were adequate in analysed serum,

forage and feedstuff samples (Chamberlain, 1955; Musalia et al. 1990). No cases of clinical

deficiency or toxicities were found or are likely to occur (French, 1955). This suggests that

adequate levels of Mn occur in Kenya.

From an overall evaluation of the literature, Ca, Mg, Fe, K and Mn appear to be adequate for

cattle in Kenya, while P, Na (NaCI) and I are deficient. Cu, CO and Se are also deficient. Low

to borderline levels of Se and Zn have been reported. Although the reported levels may

sustain life, they are not capable of meeting optimal productivity levels in cattle.

Comparison with drainage geochemical maps:

The drainage geochemical maps cover the Samburu-Marsabit region of Kenya, in which threc

large wildlife reserves are found. The region covered by the drainage map has a varied

distribution of copper (Appleton, 1992, Figure 4). Low blood copper status was detected in

black rhino from the Soli0 Wildlife Reserve where the mean copper in soil was only 12 ppm

(Maskall and Thornton, 1991). A broad correlation between stream sediment and soil copper

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concentrations noted by Applcton (1992). This suggcsts that arcas with less than 15 ppm Cu

in drainage sedimcnt might result in dcficicncies in free grazing ruminants.

Cobalt deficiency in thc location of thc distribution map (Figure 5) was indicated by thc

literature review (Maskall and Thornton, 1991). Correlation bctwecn apparent CO (vitamin

BJ deficiencies in black rhino and low CO Concentrations in soils in the Solio Wildlifc

Reserve suggest that arcas with lcss than 15 ppm CO in drainage sediment might rcsult in

deficiencies in free grazing ruminants.

Adequate levels of Mn were reported in the literature review and RO deficiency nor toxicity

cases were found. These reports came from areas outside the mappcd zone (Figure 6), so i t

is not possible to directly correlate thcm. The central part of the mappcd area has lower lcvcls

than the surrounding area and by dcduction dcficicncies may bc suspcctcd in thcsc areas (ic

with levels in drainage sediment of lcss than 500 ppm).

Varying levels of zinc have becn reported in soil, plants and animal tissues in Kenya (Froslie

et al., 1983; Musalia ef al., 1990 ; Jumba, 1989). The arc covcrcd by thc drainagc map (Fig.

7) shows a similar distribution of this niincral. It is suggcstcd from thc corrclation of litcraturc

data and thc gcochcmical map, that areas with lcss than 55 ppm Zn in drainage scdinicnt

might rcsult in deficiencies in pasturc.

MINERAL STATUS IN SWAZILAND.

FCW reports on thc mineral status of cattle in Swaziland were found and somc contrary rcports

have bccn found for somc minerals. An analysis of common pasture forages showcd a low

lcvcl of potassium, with lower amounts in thc dry season, when it is most rcquircd by thc

animal (McDowell, 1985; Ogwang, 1988). Whcn various pasture plants and liver/serum

samplcs from 9 sitcs within the Middlcveld rcgion werc analyscd for their mincral contcnt,

all showcd dcficiencics bclow the rccommcnded requircmcnts for zinc, magnesium,

phosphorus, sodium, mangancsc and coppcr. Supplcmcntation with potassium, mangancsc,

coppcr, zinc and sodium was suggcstcd (Buttcrworth and Presswood, 1978; Ogwang, 1988).

12

Contrary to this, both common salt (NaCI) and Mg have been reported as unlikely to bc

deficient in cattle in Swaziland (Buttcrworth and Prcsswood, 1978). A further analysis of soil,

forage and animal tissue, showed calcium, magnesium and iron levels to be adcquatc for

cattle (Ogwang, 1988). McDowell (1983) suggested that Se may be deficient in Swaziland,

but no confirmatory reports of this were found.

In conclusion, Zn, P, Cu, Na, K and Mg have bccn found to be dcficicnt, while Ca, Fe and

Mg can be considered as adequate for cattle requirements.

Comparison with drainage geochemical maps:

Most of the reports in the text wcre from the Middleveld rcgion of Swaziland whcrc a

deficiency of copper was observed. This is supported by the drainage map (Figure lO), in

which much of the area shows a low level of Cu compared to the castern boundary. Hcncc

it can be concluded that areas with less than 15 ppm Cu in drainage sediment may rcsult in

deficiencies in free grazing ruminants.

The litcrature review indicated that zinc levels were deficient in the area which corresponds

to the central part of thc Middlcveld rcgion of the map (Figurc 11), which have lower lcvcls

of Zn than in othcr areas. Areas with lcss than 25 ppm Zn in drainage sediment might result

in deficiencies in free grazing ruminants.

No cobalt deficiencies have bccn reported and "high normal" values for CO in livers from 12

animals sampled from various parts of Swaziland were rccorded by Boyazoglu (1970).

Butterworth and Presswood (1978) reported that there is gcological cvidcnce to suggest that

CO dcficicncies might be expected in certain parts of Swaziland. The drainage map (Figurc

12) shows that the Middlcvcld rcgion has much lowcr CO than in othcr parts of thc country

and it is suggested that areas with lcss than 15 ppni CO in drainagc sediment might rcsult in

dcficiencies in frcc grazing ruminants.

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Manganese levcls were reported to be deficient in livcstock in the mappcd region (Figurc 13).

The drainage map shows a wide arca of lowcr Mn compared to the castcrn part o f thc

country, for which no reports in the literature were found. Areas with lcss than 500 ppm Mn

in drainage sediment may result in dcficiencies in free grazing ruminants.

No reports on molybdenum lcvcls were found in the litcrature, and as a result no comparisons

could be made.

MINERAL STATUS IN SUMATRA.

Few reports which indicate the animal mineral status in Sumatra wcre found although

information is available on the macro- and micromineral status of grazing cattlc in south

Sulawesi, Indonesia (Prabowo et al. 1991). Little et al. (1988) in a study of forages fed to

cattle in North Sumatra reported low to deficicnt levels of sodium and copper, marginal lcvcls

of phosphorus and zinc and potcntial deficiencies of cobalt, selenium and molybdenum.

Deficiencies of calcium, magncsiurn, potassium and iron wcre considered unlikcly.

Phosphorus and iodine dcficicncics wcrc also rcportcd in fccdstuffs (Tillman, 1981). Soil

analyses along the east coast showed Zn, Cu and MO deficiencics. Response to crop

supplementation with thcse minerals improved crop yields considerably (Socpardi, 1982). Soil

aluminium and iron toxicities were reported in West Sumatra (Setijono and Socpardi, 1985;

Tahcr et al. 1987). Potassium, calcium and magnesium were adequatc for animal production

in South Sumatra and phosphorus was deficient (Blair et al. 1988). No clinical C ~ S C S of

deficiency diseases were found.

To summarise, the amounts of minerals varied with location within Sumatra. Ca, Mg, K and

Fe were adequate to meet animal requirements, although Fe (and Aluminium) toxicities wcrc

rcportcd in soil. Marginal to low levcls of Na, I, P, and Zn were reported, while dcficicncics

of CO, Se, MO, and Cu were also observed in forage, fccdstuffs and soil.

14

Comparison with drainage geochemical maps:

Deficiencies of copper and cobalt were reported in northern Sumatra from the literature. The

drainage geochemical maps of this region (Figures 17 & 18) show varied levels of both

minerals, with higher levels in the north-western parts of the country and much lower levels

toward the central and east coast where dcficiencics were also reported in soil. This suggests

that areas with less than 15 ppm Cu and CO in drainage sediment might result in deficiencies

in free grazing ruminants.

Zinc levels were reported in the literature as borderline or marginal in soil along thc cast

coast. The map (Figure 20) showed low levels in the area, with higher levels in thc north.

Deficiencies may occur in livestock in areas with lcss than 25 ppm Zn in drainage scdimcnt.

Potassium levels in the literature review were found to be unlikely to indicate deficiencies in

northern Sumatra. The map (Figure 21) shows higher levels in thc north and central part of

the country compared to areas like the east coast which show lower Icvels. Areas with ovcr

2-3% potassium oxide in drainage scdimcnt arc highly unlikely to rcsult in dcficicncics in

free grazing ruminants.

The drainage map (Figure 22) shows low levels of molybdenum in all parts of the country,

with scattered pockets of areas with higher levels. Areas with lcss than 2-3 ppm MO in

drainage sedimcnt might result in deficiencies in crops but are unlikely to be associatcd with

deficiencies in free grazing ruminants. Coincidence of high MO with low Cu in thc ccntrc

of northern Sumatra (Figs. 17 and 22) indicates a potential for Mo-induced Cu dcficicncy in

grazing livestock (Appleton, 1992).

No comparisons could be made for manganese, as therc were no reports on this mincral i n

thc literature review.

15

MINERAL STATUS IN ZIMBABWE.

Clinical signs of phosphorus deficiency in cattle were reported in Zimbabwe (Hurrell, 1958).

This suggests low or marginal levels within the country. Although no other clinical cases were

found,increased productivity with higher fertility rates were reported in livcstock by Ward,

(1968).

Iodine deficiency was found in all parts of Zimbabwe (Kelley and Snedden, 1960) and reports

of clinical deficiency in grazing cattle have bccn reported (Rudcrt and Oliver, 1978). This was

associated with high cyanogenic glycosides which increase goitrogenic activity in pasture

plants. Similarly, in a sheep flock, 30 lambs showed classical signs of goitre, which is

associated with I deficiency. They were all cured with dietary I supplementation (Kock and

Ndikuwera, 1989). Highly fertilised pastures were implicated as a potential sourcc of I

deficiency, as clinical signs of I deficiency were reported in livestock grazing on highly

fertilised pastures (Ushewokunze-Obatolu,1983).

Analysed liver samples taken from grazing cattle indicated low levels of copper, molybdcnum

(Boyazoglu et a1 . 1972) and manganese (Ushcwokunzc-Obatolu, 1983).

Forage analyses on dominant pasture grasscs showed very low salt (NaCI) levcls (Joncs,

1963). Supplementation trials where salt licks wcrc fed to grazing cattle resulted in increased

weight gains (Walker, 1953).

Selenium deficiency accompanied by clinical signs of disease have been reported in lambs

(Rudert, 1978). It has also been associated with Bovine Ephemeral Fcvcr (BEF) which was

diagnosed in Hararc and possibly linked to Se deficiency, as low serum Se occurrcd in

affected cattle (Odiawo, 1989). Se deficiency associatcd with dcgencrativc polymyopathics

in wild ruminants have also been rcportcd (Mugcra and Wandera, 1967).

No othcr reports of mineral inibalanccs in cattlc wcrc found.

16

In summary it was found that deficiencies of P, I, Cu, MO, Mn, and Se exist in Zimbabwean

cattle. Marginal salt levels for optimal productivity can also be found there may also be Zn

deficiency in livestock.

Comparison with drainage geochemical maps:

None of the reports in the literature review were from the north-eastern part of Zimbabwe,

therefore no correlations could be made. A deficiency of manganese was however reported

on eight farms in the Harare region. The drainage map (Figure 31) of the area shows varied

levels of this element. Areas with less than 500 ppm Mn in drainage sediment might causc

deficiencies.

MINERAL STATUS IN BOLIVIA.

There are several reports on the mineral status of cattle in Bolivia and in Latin America as

a whole (Fick, McDowell and Houser, 1978; Pcducassd et al., 1983). Due to the large area

of the country and the importance of minerals in livestock nutrition, extensive research has

been done into the establishment of Latin American Tables of feed composition (McDowell,

Conrad and Thomas, 1974). The reports referred to below contain information for the area

covered by the geochemical survey and also for two areas in Beni province, 100 km SE and

220 km W of Trinidad.

No reports which directly link clinical signs of disease to a specific mineral deficicncy or

toxicity were found, but several workers have shown increased production due to

supplementation of the diet with specific minerals and elements.

17

CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS.

Analysis of foragc and common animal fcedstuffs uscd in castcrn Bolivia indicate low lcvcls

of calcium and phosphorus (McDowcll et al. 1974, 1984; PeducassC et al. 1983). Soil

studies also indicate low or deficient phosphorus lcvcls (McDowcll et al. 1977, 1983, 1984;

Fick et al. 1978; PcducassC et al. 1983; McDowcll, 1984).

Reports of serum and livcr analyses support the studies in forage and soil and confirm

bcrderline to deficient levels of both minerals (PeducassC, 1982; McDowcll et al. 1982;

PcducassC et al. 1983).

Although cases of disease accompanied by clinical signs arc rarc (McDowell et al. 1985),

the levels of both elements are considcrcd bclow optimum for grazing cattle.

The most convincing evidence on the deficiency lcvcls of calcium and phosphorus are thc

rcports which show marked responscs in productivity duc to supplcmcntation with both

minerals. Baucr (1979) showcd a 13.3% increase in pregnancy rates whcn cows in Bolivia

wcre supplcmcntcd with bone meal, which contains high amounts of both Ca and P. Similarly,

Fick et al. (1978) and McDoweII er al. (1982, 1984) showcd favourable responscs in

weight gains and pregnancy rates in cattle supplcmented with both minerals in the form of

bone meal.

SODIUM.

Forage and fccdstuff analyses indicate low/dcficicnt lcvels of Na (McDowcll et al . 1974,

1977, 1984; PcducassC et al. 1983). McDowcll et al. (1982) found soil cxtractablc lcvcls

of Na and mean foragc contents to be half of thc cattlc rcquircmcnts. Generally foragc Na

lcvcls in lowland regions fluctuatc bctwcen 0.002 and 0.2%, which is considcrably bclow thc

needs of grazing cattlc (PcducassC et al. 1983).

18

COPPER.

In a study of the mineral status in cattle, samples of liver spccimcns from 1,766 cattle in

Bolivia indicated over 75% to be deficient in copper, yet no animal manifested clinical signs

of hypocuprosis. The deficiency was observed throughout the year and showed no pattern of

seasonal variation (McDowell et al. 1982). In a similar study, 64.7% of the total liver and

12.1% of serum samples were below the critical lcvcls (McDowell et al. 1984). It should be

noted that liver Cu levels arc more rcliablc than blood lcvcls in assessing the Cu status of

animals (Doyle & Spaulding, 1978).

In a study done in the Bolivian lowlands, deficient liver/serum copper levels were also noted,

with levels being far below the requirements for grazing cattle (PeducassC et a1 . 1983).

Variations in the ranges between differing locations were also observed and this was

attributed to the relationship between Cu and Molybdenum.

The work done on feedstuff and forages also indicates low levels of Cu although no clinical

cases have been reported (McDowell et al. 1974, 1984). There was a marked difference in

the Cu levels in forage and plant tissues, which tcndcd to be higher, and levels in animal

tissues, which werc lowcr.

Although no direct Cu supplementation trials have been reported in Bolivia, Cu

supplementation along with other mincrals has been shown to give marked increases in

productivity in cattle (McDowell et al. 1982, 1984).

COBALT.

In the Latin American Table of Feed Composition, 43% of the samples contained less than

the recommended rcquiremcnts of CO for cattle. This suggests a borderline lcvcl of Co.

Further studies on soil and forage analysis showed bordcrlinc to adequate levels o f CO, but

marked variation in the CO lcvcls in differing forage species was observed (McDowcll et al.

1984). The same study and another donc by Pcducassk et al. (1983), reported normal rangc

levels of CO in both serum and liver samples. Seasonal variation in amounts were noted with

higher levels in the month of Junc (McDowcll et al. 1982).

19

No rcports of CO dcficicncy accompanicd by clinical signs wcrc found. Supplcmcntation trials

suggcst that CO lcvcls wcrc low, sincc thcrc was a markcd incrcasc in wcight gains whcn CO

bullets wcrc administered to cattle. On thc wholc, CO lcvcls appear to be just adcquatc for

grazing cattlc requirements, but rathcr low for optimal productivity.

POTASSIUM.

Potassium levcls in common fecdstufWf0ragc.s are adequate for cattle, as only 15% of samplcs

analysed fcll below the requircrncnt lcvcls (McDowcll, 1974; McDowcll et al. 1977). Thc

forage mineral content of K is also adequate as shown in other rcports (PcducassC et al .

1983). The lattcr obscrvcd low lcvcls in soil samplcs from lowland Bolivia, but no clinical

signs of K dcficicncy havc bccn rcportcd in livcstock. Foragc lcvcls werc obscrvcd to increasc

significantly during the month of November, which coincidcs with the peak of the wct season

(McDowell et al. 1984).

IODINE.

Thcrc arc no spccific rcports indicating I status i n soil, foragc fccdstuffs or animal tissucs i n

Bolivia. Gcncral rcports on I dcficicncy world wide haw bccn niadc by Kclly and Sncddcn

(1960). In this rcport Bolivia is indicatcd as being within a geographical area cndcmic for

goitre, caused by I dcficicncy.

Early work by Follis in 1966 also rcportcd a gcographical distribution of I dcficicncy in Latin

America and indicatcd Bolivia as bcing dcficicnt. Howcvcr, no cxaniplcs of clinical C ~ S C S

charactcriscd by the classical goitre Icsions in cattlc wcrc found. Supplcmcntation trials

involving the administration of I in thc form of injcctablc iodizcd poppy sccd oil, along with

othcr minerals, has shown cnhanccd wcight gain and fcrtility (McDowcll et al. 1982, 1984).

MAGNESIUM.

Bordcrlinc lcvels of

which Mg lcvcls in

Mg wcrc rcportcd in the h t i n Amcrican Table of Fccd Composition in

foragc and common fccdstuffs wcrc obscrvcd t o bc adequatc for cattlc

20

requirements (McDowell et al. 1974). Low forage Mg concentrations were reported during

both wet and dry seasons during the first year of a study in the Beni region of Bolivia

(McDowell et al. 1982). The same study two years later showed highcr concentrations of

soil and forage Mg with marked forage species differences. Forage mineral concentrations of

Mg were then observed to be adequate, as was serum Mg. This showed that seasonal and

yearly differences could occur (McDowell et al. 1984). Work reported by PeducassC ct al.

(1983) on their studies of two farms in lowland Bolivia showed the mean forage and serum

Mg to be adequate for grazing cattle. No reports on deficiencies or clinical manifestations of

Mg deficiency or toxicity were found.

MANGANESE.

Some of the soils in the Santa Cruz area in Bolivia have been reported to be deficient in Mn

(Cochrane, 1979). This was not found to be the case in Beni state, nor on the Bolivian

lowlands where mineral concentrations of Mn were found to be adequate (Peducassk et al.

1983; McDoweli et al. 1984). Forage Mn levels were found to be higher than thc

requircmcnt in two othcr regions. Forage and fccdstuff analysis also showed optimal amounts

for cattlc productivity while a livcr sample analysis showcd similar optimal levcls of Mn

(PeducassC et al. 1983; McDowell et a1 . 1984;). No cases of deficiency, toxicity or

supplementation trial were found and Mn can be considered to be present in optimal amounts

for grazing cattle.

IRON.

Fe levels in Bolivia can be considered above the requirements for grazing cattle and thercforc

adequate, based on analyses of forage and other feedstuffs available to grazing animals

(McDowell et al. 1982). Foragc differences in Fe between species havc bccn rcportcd and

there is variation in the soil Fe concentration, which tends to be much lowcr during thc wct

season (McDowell et al. 1984). Thcrc is a correlation between soil and forage Fe levels and

it was suggested that Fe dcficicncy due to Mn interference in zoncs whcrc Fe is lower than

150 ppm and Mn over 400 ppm could occur (Peducassk et al. 1983). On thc basis of livcr

21

and serum analyses, deficiencies of Fe arc very unlikely. All reports found adequate levels

for grazing cattle.

ZINC.

75% of all the forages and fcedstuffs analysed in Latin America are deficient in Zinc and fall

far below the normal cattle requirements (McDowcll et al. 1974, 1977). In a similar study,

mean soil and forage Zn concentrations in Bolivia were found to be low and less than the

critical level required by cattle (McDowell et al. 1984). In grazing beef cattle in the Beni

region of Bolivia, a forage analysis was observed to have low Zn content, which indicated

a Zn deficiency. This was observed in both the wet and dry seasons (McDowell et al. 1982).

Similarly, soil Zn levels in Santa Cruz were noted to have a low Zn content (Cochrane 1979).

In close agreement with the forage and soil concentrations, liver Zn was shown to be low in

the Beni region and within eight farms in lowland Bolivia (PeducassC et el. 1983; McDowcll

et al. 1984). Serum samples had relatively higher Zn concentration than forage and soil, but

were also lower than the norm for healthy cattle.

SELENIUM.

In a general review of reports from Bolivia, the Se levels were considered to be borderline

to low (McDowell et al. 1984). Liver analysis however showed the Se means as generally

low, but higher than the critical level.

Although there is a variation in Se levels in diffcrent studies, levels appear borderline and

may be deficient, depending on the time of sample collection (McDowell et al. 1984).

Perhaps the most convincing conclusions on Se levels in Bolivia arc based on the response

to supplementation as shown by McDowell et al. (1982, 1984), in which cattle given a Se

supplement in their diets (in combination with other minerals) showed increased weight gains

and higher pregnancy rates. Although the trials wcrc not specific for Se alone, i t was

22

suggested that Se had an important influcnce in the incrcascd productivity, which was not

sccn in control animals.

Based on thc mineral analyses of forage, soil and animal tissucs, the minerals considercd as

adequate for grazing cattle in Bolivia arc K, Mg, CO, Fe, Mn, while thosc which may bc

deficient include I, Se, Zn, Ca, P and Na.

Comparison with drainage geochemical maps:

Most of the areas in which thc mineral status of cattlc in Bolivia wcrc rcportcd in thc

litcrature review, wcrc in Bcni State which is in the lowland rcgion of north cast Bolivia. Two

reports (Peducassk, 1982; PcducassC et al., 1983) contain information on cattlc for the arca

covered by the drainage geochcmical map. Five Univcrsity of Santa Cruz theses containing

macro- and micro- mineral data for the San Josk de Chiquitos, San Ignacio de Vclasco and

RoborC areas are being assesscd by Dr Armando PcducassC and will bc rcportcd clscwhcrc.

In the San Ignacio arca (Pcducasse et al., 1983), all foragc and livcr samplcs containcd CO

concentrations above critical Icvels. The San Ignacio arca is characterised by considcrablc

gcochemical variation (< 5 to > 25 ppm CO; Fig. 36) which is linked to thc complex gcology

of the region. In the absence of information on the detailcd locations of the ranches samplcd

by Peducassk et al. (1983), it is impossible to link this forage and liver data to thc

gcochcmical maps. Howcvcr, the cxtcnsivc arcas with lcss than 15 ppm CO in drainagc

scdimcnt might result in dcficicncics in frcc grazing ruminants.

Copper deficicncy in Bolivia was rcportcd in animal tissucs and forage in Bcni and thc

lowland regions. 7% of livcr, 27% of blood, 85% of foragc and 100% of soil samples from

thc San Ignacio arca containcd Cu Concentrations bclow critical lcvcls (Pcducassk et al.,

1983). Although it is impossiblc to link this information dircctly to thc Cu gcochcmical map

(Fig. 37), it is suggested that arcas with lcss than 15 pprn Cu in drainagc scdimcnt might

rcsult in dcficicncics in frcc grazing ruminants.

23

Only 7% of soils, 0% of forage and 3% of liver samples from the SAn lgnacio were bclow

critical levels for managancsc (PeducassC et al., 1983). Manganese is quite variable in the San

lgnacio area (Fig. 38) but tends to be quite high (> 200 to > 500 ppm). The extensive areas

with less than 200 ppm Mn in drainage sediment might result in deficiencies in free grazing

ruminants.

Zinc levels as indicated in the literature review, were found to be low in Beni and Santa Cruz

provinces. 15% of serum, 30% of forage, 57% of liver and 100% of soil Zn concentrations

measured in the San Ignacio area were below critical levels. As with Cu, CO and Mn, there

are considerable variations in drainage sediment Zn concentrations in thc San Ignacio area

(Fig. 39). It is tentatively suggested that areas with less than 35 ppm Zn in drainage scdimcnt

might result in deficiencies in free grazing ruminants.

No reports on molybdenum levcls were found and as such a corrclation to the drainage map

could not be made.

MINERAL STATUS IN SIERRA LEONE.

Aftcr a thorough scarch in the literature for data rclating to thc status of niincrals in cattle i n

Sicrra h o n e , no rcports dealing directly with animals were found. It is therefore not possible

to report on the mineral status of cattle in this country. A few reports on soil rock typc and

human medicine wcrc found, but these can only be suggestive as to the mineral status in

animals.

Phosphorus lcvcls have been indicated as being dcficicnt in soil by Rhodes (1977). This was

reported in a paper in which the rcsults of soil analyses wcrc described. It was suggested that

one of the factors rcsponsiblc for poor infcrtile soils in Sierra h o n e was the small amount

of phosphorus that was cxtractablc from thc soil. Bationo et al. (1986), in their work on soil,

also showed low levels of phosphorus.

Two independent reports indicate aluminium and iron toxicity to rice plants in paddy ficlds

(Mansaray, 1983; Dijkcrman, 1988).

24

In a survey of browse plants fed on by ruminants in West Africa, Le Houerou (1980)

indicated adequate levels of magnesium to supply cattle rcquircments.

Although no reports were found on the Iodine status of Sierra Leone, Kelly and Snedden

(1960), showed large areas of West Africa Sierra Leone inclusive, as being endemic for goitre

(Iodine deficiency).

The above reports suggest that there is a phosphorus and iodine deficiency which may affect

cattle. Toxicity of Iron and Aluminium occur in plants while Magnesium is of adequate levels

for grazing animals.

Comparison with drainage geochemical maps:

No reports on copper and manganese levels in livestock were reported for Sierra Leone and

as such no comparisons could be made.

MINERAL STATUS IN UGANDA.

CALCIUM and PHOSPHORUS.

Several workers have reported thc levels of both Ca and P in pasturc plants in most parts of

Uganda. In a classical early survey on mincral rcquircments of cattle in East Africa with

particular rcfercnce to Uganda, Bredon (1964) showed 36% of pastures contained low P and

a large number had very low levels of Ca. Long et al. (1969, 1970) also showed dcficicnt

to low levels of both minerals. In a follow-up study on dairy farms in Eastern Uganda, Long

et al. (1972) showed slightly higher levels of Ca and P in pasture plants due to thc

introduction of Icgunies, but observed that overall amounts were still deficient for optimal

cattle productivity .

An analysis of bovinc plasma lcvcls of Ca and P showcd similar dcficicnt/low lcvcls (Long

et al. 1972; Marshall et al. 1973). Clinical cases of P dcficicncy symptoms in cattlc wcrc

rcportcd by Fiennes (1939). Similarly, French (1955) rcportcd "bonc chcwing" in cattlc, a

clinical sign of P deficiency. He also rcportcd cascs of botulism, thought to be dcrivcd from

bonc chcwing and thcrcfore indicativc of P deficiency. Though not accornpanicd by clinical

signs, P deficiency was also rcported to occur in grazing cattlc by Rollinson and Brcdon

(1 964).

No supplementation trials were reported, although Bredon (1964) and Long et al (1972)

recommended supplementation of both mincrals, especially in dairy cattlc.

POTASSIUM

Forage levels of K have bccn rcportcd to bc low (Brcdon 1964; McDowcll et al. 1985). I n

a forage analysis of pastures on 13 different farms, Long et al. (1972) also showcd low

levels of K. Pastures in the western region showed much lower lcvels than in the cast (Long

et al. 1969). Howcvcr, though pasturc K is low, i t was still considcrcd adcquatc for grazing

cattlc.

Supplemcntation trials on pasturcs showed that application of K considerably improvcd

herbagc growth, which is usually associatcd with a rise in animal tissuc K levels (Long et

al., 1972).

SODIUM and IODINE.

There is considcrable variation in the lcvcl of Na in foragc, but on thc wholc the levcls tcnd

to bc low, especially in clcphant grass ( Pcnnisctum purpurcum ) (Brcdon, 1964). Low Na

was also rcportcd in foragc by Long et al (1969, 1970 and 1972). Seasonal variations wcrc

observcd with much lowcr lcvcls in foragc in thc dry scason (Frcnch 1955).

Clinical signs of Na dcficicncy havc bccn rcportcd in grazing cattlc and havc bccn

charactcriscd by licking of soil, wood, othcr animals and objccts (Frcnch, 1955). Although

26

no direct supplementation trials using Na wcrc rcportcd. Farmers that fcd their cattle with salt

licks did not encounter Na dcficicncics (French, 1955). Na supplementation has becq strongly

recommended for cattle (Long et al. 1972; Van Vecn, 1990). French (1955) regarded sodium

chloride as "the most needed nutrient for livestock throughout East Africa".

Iodine deficiency in cattlc has been reported in Uganda (Long and Kagurusi, 1972). This was

associated with the distance of the country from the sca. Follis (1966) also suggested that 1

deficiency may exist in Uganda. No clinical cases of goitre in cattle were found, but the use

of supplementary mineral licks containinz high lcvels of iodine was encouraged (Long and

Kagarusi, 1972).

COBALT, COPPER and MOLYBDENUM

Seasonal cobalt deficiency has becn rcportcd in pastures in Ankolc and Buganda regions

(Bredon, 1964). Another study on 15 different pasture plants in eastern Uganda showcd that

there was sufficient cobalt for cattle for most of the year. The MO contents of thc hcrbagc

also had a scasonal variation, but wcrc not likely to affcct Cu availability (Ssckaalo, 1972).

Copper lcvcls are gcncrally considcrcd to bc adcquatc for cattlc and no signs of Cu deficiency

have been reported (Long et al. 1970, 1972).

ZINC, SELENIUM and MANGANESE

Zinc levels are low in pastures in Eastern Uganda and in arcas around the lake shore (Long

er al. 1970,1972). This is also the case for Mn and early rcports described Mn dcficicncics

in areas around Karamoja (Bredon, 1964). In later work, Marshal1 er al. (1973) rcportcd

adcquate levels in dairy farms in Buganda and Busoga, both bordcring Lake Victoria.

In arcas where leguminous plants wcre plcntiful, adcquate Mn and Zn lcvels wcrc obscrvcd

(Long er al. 1972). Howcvcr levcls of Zn wcrc rcportcd to bc low in some soils and pasturcs

(Mandiki et al. 1986). Zn and Mn supplcmcnts wcrc recomrncndcd for cattlc, as naturally

occurring sources may not sustain optimal productivity.

27

No occurrences of white musclc discasc havc becn rcportcd in Uganda and thcrcforc Sc

dcficicncy may not cxist. In vicw of thc gcology and rainfall, a dcficicncy might bc cxpcctcd

(Long and Marshall, 1973). In a study of pasturc plants in the country, bordcrlinc to low

levcls of Se wcrc found. Surprisingly, cvcn in arcas with thc lowcst foragc Se lcvels, no whitc

musclc discasc has bccn rcportcd. Infcrtility in shccp was howcvcr rcportcd. This may havc

becn attributablc to the low Sc Icvels, but therc is no conclusive evidence of this (Long and

Marhall, 1973).

SULPHUR and IRON

Sulphur dcficiencics were only seen in pasturc plants in Uganda. Scvcral rcports of S lcvcls

in pasture show low amounts with a considcrablc degree of differing levels betwccn diffcrcnt

plants (Long et al. 1972). An earlier report showcd S as adcquatc for cattlc although

dcficiencics in livestock are known to have occurred in areas surrounding Lake Victoria whcrc

fish growth has been retarded due to lack of S (French, 1955; Bredon, 1964). Buttcrs and

Chenery (1950) reportcd low levcls of S in Ugandan crops and this has also bccn obscrvcd

by Long et al. (1970). It has not bccn shown to have had any cffcct on cattlc as S

dcficicncy accornpanicd by clinical signs havc not bccn rcportcd.

Most East African grazing ruminants havc adcquatc lcvcls of Fe and Fe dcficicncy is unlikcly

(French, 1955; Brcdon, 1964). No cascs of dcficicncy or toxicity in cattle wcrc found.

MAGNESIUM

Generally, the Mg lcvcls in pasture were found to bc in adcquatc amounts for grazing cattlc

(Long et al. 1969; 1972). Levcls found in thc castcrn part of thc country wcrc similar to

thosc on thc lakcshorc arca and highcr than in wcstcrn region. Bovinc plasma Mg lcvcls takcn

on 13 diffcrcnt dairy farms i n castcrn Uganda showcd lcvcls considcrcd adcquatc fo r cattlc

(Long et al. 1972).

28

To summarise, levels of Cu, CO, MO, S, Fc, Mn and Mg wcrc gcncrally rcportcd to bc

adequate, while Se and K are adcquatc depending on location. They arc considcrcd, along

with NaCl as being at borderline levcls. P, Ca and I are deficient.

Comparison with drainage geochemical maps:

No drainage geochemical maps of Uganda were illustratcd in the BGS technical report and

therefore no corrclation of livestock mineral levels with this report could be made.

MINERAL STATUS IN SOLOMON ISLANDS

No reports on the mineral status of cattle in the Solomon Islands were found.

29

CONCLUSIONS.

This study has achievcd a number of objcctivcs. I t has dctcrmincd the availability of

published literature (in the sources dctailcd) on the mineral and tracc element status of

livestock and forages available to livestock in Kenya, Swaziland, Sumatra, Sierra Leonc,

Zimbabwc, the Solomon Islands, Uganda and Bolivia. This information has been presented

in the rcport and correlated with the drainage sediment maps providcd by the BGS report

(Appleton, 1992). A considerable amount of information exists in the published literature for

most of the countries represented by the mineral drainage maps. The maps however, are often

rcstricted to specific regions of thc countrics, making correlation with rcportcd information

difficult in some cases. It was found that the information in the litcrature, is often sparse for

thc specific arcas of the drainage maps and more accuratc and detailed information should bc

sought in each country.

The study has shown that correlations can be made bctwccn information providcd in publishcd

literature on the mineral status of livcstock and information providcd by drainagc scdimcnt

maps.

Thc correlation of the lcvels of minerals and trace elements in drainagc scdimcnt with

reportcd deficiencies, showcd rcasonablc uniformity between the countrics studied (Table 1).

It was difficult to establish a quantitative correlation bctwecn mineral levels in drainagc

sediment (in ppm of drainage scdirncnt) and thc requircmcnt of thc animal (in pprn of dry

matt c r intake) .

It is suggcstcd that the potcntial for prcdicting dcficicncics or toxicities in livcstock using

drainage sediment data should bc tcstcd in areas whcrc thcrc arc accuratc and known data

about the mincral and trace clemcnt status of soils. Thc theory could be tcstcd in Britain o r

in othcr countrics where accuratc animal data can be locatcd.

The valuc of thc technique to Iivcstock productionists and vctcrinarians will lic in its ability

to provide information to indicate possible problcms, so that morc accuratc tcsts on Iivcstock

can be carried out.

30

Table 1. Levels of minerals (ppm) in drainage sediment in

different countries, below which deficiencies in

unsupplemented grazing ruminants might occur.'

Kenya Swaziland Sumatra Bolivia Zimbabwe -- Copper 15 15 15 15

Manganese 500 500 -- 200 500

-- Cobalt 15 15 15 15

-- Zinc 55 25 25 35

These figures are derived from correlations made between reported deficiencies in livestock

and the reported mineral levels in drainage sediments in Appleton (1992).

31

REFERENCES

Appleton, J . D. (1992). Rcvicw of thc usc of regional gcochcmical maps for idcntifying arcas where tracc clcmcnt dcficicncics or cxccsscs may affcct cattlc productivity in tropical countrics. British Geological Survey Technical Report WCl92124.

ARC (1984) Thc Nutricnt Rcquircmcnts of ruminant livcstock, Supplcmcnt No. 1. Commonw. Agric. Bur., Farnham Royal, England.

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