1.Frank R. SpellmanHandbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment PlantOperations LEWIS PUBLISHERSA CRC Press CompanyBoca Raton London New York Washington, D.C. 2003 by CRC Press LLC

2. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataSpellman, Frank R. Handbook of water & wastewater treatment plant operations / by Frank R. Spellman. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56670-627-0 (alk. paper)1. Watertreatment plantsHandbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Sewage disposal plantsHandbooks, manuals, etc. 3. WaterPuricationHandbooks, manuals, etc. 4. SewagePuricationHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. Title: Handbook of water and wastewater treatment plant operations. II. Title.TD434.S64 2003628.162dc212003040119This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources areindicated. A wide variety of references are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and thepublisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or for the consequences of their use.Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,microlming, and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale. Specicpermission must be obtained in writing from CRC Press LLC for such copying.Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identication and explanation,without intent to infringe.Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com 2003 by CRC Press LLC Lewis Publishers is an imprint of CRC Press LLCNo claim to original U.S. Government works International Standard Book Number 1-56670-627-0Library of Congress Card Number 2003040119Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Printed on acid-free paper 2003 by CRC Press LLC 3. Preface Water does not divide; it connects. With simplicity it links privatization and the benchmarking process in this text. all aspects of our existence.On the other hand, how many of us thought security wasa big deal prior to September 11? Some of us did, whileDavid Rothenberg and Marta Ulvaenus some of us did not give it any thought at all. Today, thingsare different; we must adjust or fall behind. In the presentIn Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant climate, falling behind on the security of our potable waterOperations, the intent of the author is twofold. The rst supplies is not an option. We must aggressively protectintent is to consolidate the information and experience inour precious water sources and those ancillaries that arewaterworks and wastewater treatment plant operationscritical to maintaining and protecting water quality. Wethat have evolved as a result of technological advances incover plant security concerns in this text.the eld, and as a result of the concepts and policies There are other current issues. For example, arsenicpromulgated by the environmental laws and the subse-in drinking water received a lot of coverage in the pressquent guidelines. The second intent is to discuss step-by-recently. We all know that arsenic is a deadly poison,step procedures for the correct and efcient operation of depending on dose, of course. Headlines stating thatwater and wastewater treatment systems. Tertiary to thisarsenic has been found in certain municipal drinking watertwofold intent is the proper preparation of operators tosupplies are a red ag issue to many people. But is it reallyqualify for state licensure and certication examinations.an issue? We cover arsenic in drinking water in this text. With the impetus given to water quality improvement Another red ag issue that has received some pressthrough the Municipal Construction Grants Program, theand the attention of regulators is the presence of patho-United States has undertaken an unprecedented buildinggenic protozoans, such as Giardia and Cryptosporidium,program for new and improved water and wastewater treat-in drinking water supplies. We cover both of these proto-ment systems. To date, much emphasis has been placed onzoans in this text.training engineers to plan, design, and construct treatmentfacilities. At present, many programs in various engineer- In wastewater treatment (as well as water treatment),ing disciplines at many universities offer courses in water a lot of attention has been focused on disinfection by-and wastewater treatment plant design and operation.products in water efuents outfalled into receiving water This text is not about the planning, designing, or con-bodies. We cover disinfection by-products in this text.struction of water and wastewater treatment facilities.Water and wastewater treatment is about mitigatingWhile these tasks are paramount to conception and con-the problems mentioned above. However, treatment oper-struction of needed facilities and needed infrastructure, ations are about much more. To handle todays problems,many excellent texts are available that cover these impor-water and wastewater treatment system operators must betant areas. This text is not about engineering at all. Instead, generalists. Herein lies the problem. Many of the textsit is about operations and is designed for the operator. We presently available for water and wastewater operator useoften forget the old axiom: someone must build it, butare limited in scope and narrowly focused in content. Mostonce built, someone must operate it. It is the operation of of these texts take a bare bones approach to presentation.it that concerns us here. That is, the basics of each unit process are usually ade- Several excellent texts have been written on water and quately covered, but this is the extent of the coverage.wastewater treatment plant operations. Thus, the logical At present, available texts either ignore, avoid, or payquestion is, why a new text covering a well-trodden road? cursory attention to such important areas as the multiple- The compound answer is a text that is comprehensivebarrier concept, maintaining infrastructure, benchmarking,in scope, current, and deals with real world problems plant security, operator roles, water hydraulics, microbi-involved with plant operations is needed. The simpleology, water ecology, basic electrical principles, pumping,answer is that after September 11, things have changed. conveyance, ow measurement, basic water chemistry, Many of these changes were apparent before Septem- water quality issues, biomonitoring, sampling and testing,ber 11; at the same time, many of our present needs werewater sources, and watershed protection. All of thesenot so apparent. Consider, for example, the need for plants important topics are thoroughly discussed in Handbook ofto become more efcient in operation and more economicalWater and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations.in practice. This is not new, but it now takes on addedThough directed at water and wastewater operators,importance because of the threat of privatization. We cover this book will serve the needs of students; teachers; con- 2003 by CRC Press LLC 4. sulting engineers; and technical personnel in city, state, the pertinent information for any problems you missed. Ifand federal organizations who must review operations and you miss many items, review the whole chapter.operating procedures. In order to maximize the usefulnessThe indented notes displayed in various locationsof the material contained in the test, it has been presented throughout this text indicate or emphasize importantin plain English in a simplied and concise format. Many points to study carefully.tables have been developed, using a variety of sources.This text is accessible to those who have no experience with water and wastewater operations. If you work To assure correlation to modern practice and design, through the text systematically, you can acquire an under-illustrative problems are presented in terms of commonly standing of and skill in water and wastewater operations.used operational parameters. This will add a critical component to your professional Each chapter ends with a chapter review test to helpknowledge.evaluate mastery of the concepts presented. Before goingon to the next chapter, take the review test, compare yourFrank R. Spellmananswers to the key provided in Appendix A, and reviewNorfolk, VA 2003 by CRC Press LLC 5. ContentsPART I Water and Wastewater Operations: An OverviewChapter 1Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Treatment Operations1.1Introduction1.2The Paradigm Shift 1.2.1 A Change in the Way Things are Understood and Done1.3Multiple-Barrier Concept 1.3.1 Multiple-Barrier Approach: Wastewater Operations1.4Management Problems Facing Water and Wastewater Operations 1.4.1 Compliance with New, Changing, and Existing Regulations 1.4.2 Maintaining Infrastructure 1.4.3 Privatizing and/or Reengineering 1.4.4 Benchmarking 1.4.4.1 Benchmarking: The Process 1.4.5 The Bottom Line on Privatization1.5Upgrading Security 1.5.1 The Bottom Line on Security1.6Technical Management vs. Professional Management1.7Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesChapter 2Water and Wastewater Operators and Their Roles2.1Water and Wastewater Operators2.2Setting the Record Straight 2.2.1 The Computer-Literate Jack 2.2.2 Plant Operators as Emergency Responders 2.2.3 Operator Duties, Numbers, and Working Conditions2.3Operator Certication/Licensure2.4Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesChapter 3Water and Wastewater References, Models, and Terminology3.1Setting the Stage3.2Treatment Process Models3.3Key Terms Used in Waterworks and Wastewater Operations 3.3.1 Terminology and Denitions3.4Chapter Review Question and ProblemsReferences 2003 by CRC Press LLC 6. PART II Water/Wastewater Operations: Math and Technical AspectsChapter 4Water and Wastewater Math Operations4.1Introduction4.2Calculation Steps4.3Table of Equivalents, Formulae, and Symbols4.4Typical Water and Wastewater Math Operations 4.4.1Arithmetic Average (or Arithmetic Mean) and Median 4.4.2Ratio 4.4.3Percent4.4.3.1Practical Percentage Calculations 4.4.4Units and Conversions4.4.4.1Temperature Conversions4.4.4.2Milligrams per Liter (Parts per Million)4.5Measurements: Areas and Volumes 4.5.1Area of a Rectangle 4.5.2Area of a Circle 4.5.3Area of a Circular or Cylindrical Tank 4.5.4Volume Calculations4.5.4.1Volume of Rectangular Tank4.5.4.2Volume of a Circular or Cylindrical Tank4.5.4.3Example Volume Problems4.6Force, Pressure, and Head4.7Flow 4.7.1Flow Calculations4.7.1.1Instantaneous Flow Rates4.7.1.2Flow through a Full Pipeline 4.7.2Velocity Calculations 4.7.3Average Flow Rate Calculations 4.7.4Flow Conversion Calculations4.8Detention Time 4.8.1Hydraulic Detention Time4.8.1.1Detention Time in Days4.8.1.2Detention Time in Hours4.8.1.3Detention Time in Minutes4.9Chemical Dosage Calculations 4.9.1Chlorine Dosage 4.9.2Hypochlorite Dosage4.10 Percent Removal4.11 Population Equivalent or Unit Loading Factor4.12 Specic Gravity4.13 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge4.14 Horsepower 4.14.1 Water Horsepower 4.14.2 Brake Horsepower 4.14.3 Motor Horsepower4.15 Electrical Power4.16 Chemical Coagulation and Sedimentation 4.16.1 Calculating Feed Rate 4.16.2 Calculating Solution Strength4.17 Filtration 4.17.1 Calculating the Rate of Filtration 4.17.2 Filter Backwash 2003 by CRC Press LLC 7. 4.18 Practical Water Distribution System Calculations 4.18.1 Water Flow Velocity 4.18.2 Storage Tank Calculations 4.18.3 Distribution System Disinfection Calculations4.19 Complex Conversions 4.19.1 Concentration to Quantity 4.19.1.1 Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) to Pounds 4.19.1.2 Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) to Pounds/Day 4.19.1.3 Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) to Kilograms per Day 4.19.1.4 Concentration (milligrams/kilogram) to pounds/ton 4.19.2 Quantity to Concentration 4.19.2.1 Pounds to Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) 4.19.2.2 Pounds per Day to Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) 4.19.2.3 Kilograms per Day to Concentration (Milligrams per Liter) 4.19.3 Quantity to Volume or Flow Rate 4.19.3.1 Pounds to Tank Volume (Million Gallons) 4.19.3.2 Pounds per Day to Flow (Million Gallons per Day) 4.19.3.3 Kilograms per Day to Flow (Million Gallons per Day)4.20 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferenceChapter 5Water Hydraulics5.1What is Water Hydraulics?5.2Basic Concepts 5.2.1 Stevins Law5.3Properties of Water 5.3.1 Density and Specic Gravity5.4Force and Pressure 5.4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure 5.4.2 Effects of Water under Pressure5.5Head 5.5.1 Static Head 5.5.2 Friction Head 5.5.3 Velocity Head 5.5.4 Total Dynamic Head (Total System Head) 5.5.5 Pressure/Head 5.5.6 Head/Pressure5.6Flow/Discharge Rate: Water in Motion 5.6.1 Area/Velocity 5.6.2 Pressure/Velocity5.7Piezometric Surface and Bernoullis Theorem 5.7.1 Law of Conservation of Energy 5.7.2 Energy Head 5.7.3 Piezometric Surface 5.7.3.1 Head Loss 5.7.3.2 Hydraulic Grade Line 5.7.4 Bernoullis Theorem 5.7.4.1 Bernoullis Equation5.8Hydraulic Machines (Pumps) 5.8.1 Pumping Hydraulics5.9Well and Wet Well Hydraulics 5.9.1 Well Hydraulics 5.9.2 Wet Well Hydraulics 2003 by CRC Press LLC 8. 5.10 FrictionHead Loss 5.10.1Flow in Pipelines 5.10.2Pipe and Open Flow Basics 5.10.3Major Head Loss 5.10.3.1 Components of Major Head Loss 5.10.3.2 Calculating Major Head Loss 5.10.4 Minor Head Loss5.11 Basic Piping Hydraulics 5.11.1 Piping Networks 5.11.1.1 Energy Losses in Pipe Networks 5.11.1.2 Pipes in Series 5.11.1.3 Pipes in Parallel5.12 Open-Channel Flow 5.12.1 Characteristics of Open-Channel Flow 5.12.1.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow 5.12.1.2 Uniform and Varied Flow 5.12.1.3 Critical Flow 5.12.1.4 Parameters Used in Open-Channel Flow 5.12.2 Open-Channel Flow Calculations 5.12.3 Open-Channel Flow: The Bottom Line5.13 Flow Measurement 5.13.1 Flow Measurement: The Old-Fashioned Way 5.13.2 Basis of Traditional Flow Measurement 5.13.3 Flow Measuring Devices 5.13.3.1 Differential Pressure Flowmeters 5.13.3.2 Magnetic Flowmeters 5.13.3.3 Ultrasonic Flowmeters 5.13.3.4 Velocity Flowmeters 5.13.3.5 Positive-Displacement Flowmeters 5.13.4 Open-Channel Flow Measurement 5.13.4.1 Weirs 5.13.4.2 Flumes5.14 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesChapter 6Fundamentals of Electricity6.1Electricity: What Is It?6.2Nature of Electricity6.3The Structure of Matter6.4Conductors, Semiconductors, and Insulators6.5Static Electricity6.5.1Charged Bodies6.5.2Coulombs Law6.5.3Electrostatic Fields6.6 Magnetism6.6.1Magnetic Materials6.6.2Magnetic Earth6.7 Difference in Potential6.7.1The Water Analogy6.7.2Principal Methods of Producing Voltage6.8 Current6.9 Resistance6.10 Battery-Supplied Electricity 2003 by CRC Press LLC 9. 6.10.1The Voltaic Cell 6.10.2Primary and Secondary Cells 6.10.3Battery 6.10.3.1 Battery Operation 6.10.3.2 Combining Cells 6.10.4 Types of Batteries 6.10.4.1 Dry Cell 6.10.4.2 Lead-Acid Battery 6.10.4.3 Alkaline Cell 6.10.4.4 Nickel-Cadmium Cell 6.10.4.5 Mercury Cell 6.10.4.6 Battery Characteristics6.11 The Simple Electrical Circuit 6.11.1 Schematic Representation6.12 Ohms law6.13 Electrical Power 6.13.1 Electrical Power Calculations6.14 Electrical Energy6.15 Series DC Circuit Characteristics 6.15.1 Series Circuit Resistance 6.15.2 Series Circuit Current 6.15.3 Series Circuit Voltage 6.15.4 Series Circuit Power 6.15.5 Summary of the Rules for Series DC Circuits 6.15.6 General Series Circuit Analysis 6.15.6.1 Kirchhoffs Voltage Law6.16 Ground6.17 Open and Short Circuits6.18 Parallel DC Circuits 6.18.1 Parallel Circuit Characteristics 6.18.2 Voltage in Parallel Circuits 6.18.3 Current in Parallel Circuits 6.18.4 Parallel Circuits and Kirchhoffs Current Law 6.18.5 Parallel Circuit Resistance 6.18.5.1 Reciprocal Method 6.18.5.2 Product over the Sum Method 6.18.5.3 Reduction to an Equivalent Circuit 6.18.6 Power in Parallel Circuits 6.18.7 Rules for Solving Parallel DC Circuits6.19 Series-Parallel Circuits 6.19.1 Solving a Series-Parallel Circuit6.20 Conductors 6.20.1 Unit Size of Conductors 6.20.1.1 Square Mil 6.20.1.2 Circular Mil 6.20.1.3 Circular-Mil-Foot 6.20.1.4 Resistivity 6.20.1.5 Wire Measurement 6.20.2 Factors Governing the Selection of Wire Size 6.20.2.1 Copper vs. Other Metal Conductors 6.20.2.2 Temperature Coefcient 6.20.3 Conductor Insulation 6.20.4 Conductor Splices and Terminal Connections 6.20.5 Soldering Operations 2003 by CRC Press LLC 10. 6.20.6 Solderless Connections 6.20.7 Insulation Tape6.21 Electromagnetism 6.21.1 Magnetic Field around a Single Conductor 6.21.2 Polarity of a Single Conductor 6.21.3 Field around Two Parallel Conductors 6.21.4 Magnetic Field of a Coil 6.21.4.1 Polarity of an Electromagnetic Coil 6.21.4.2 Strength of an Electromagnetic Field 6.21.5 Magnetic Units 6.21.6 Properties of Magnetic Materials 6.21.6.1 Permeability 6.21.6.2 Hysteresis 6.21.7 Electromagnets6.22 AC Theory 6.22.1 Basic AC Generator 6.22.1.1 Cycle 6.22.1.2 Frequency, Period, and Wavelength 6.22.2 Characteristic Values of AC Voltage and Current 6.22.2.1 Peak Amplitude 6.22.2.2 Peak-to-Peak Amplitude 6.22.2.3 Instantaneous Amplitude 6.22.2.4 Effective or Root-Mean-Square Value 6.22.2.5 Average Value 6.22.3 Resistance in AC Circuits 6.22.4 Phase Relationships6.23 Inductance 6.23.1 Self-Inductance 6.23.2 Mutual Inductance 6.23.3 Calculation of Total Inductance6.24 Practical Electrical Applications 6.24.1 Electrical Power Generation 6.24.2 DC Generators 6.24.3 AC Generators 6.24.4 Motors 6.24.4.1 DC Motors 6.24.4.2 AC Motors 6.24.5 Transformers 6.24.6 Power Distribution System Protection 6.24.6.1 Fuses 6.24.6.2 Circuit Breakers 6.24.6.3 Control Devices6.25 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsChapter 7Hydraulic Machines: Pumps7.1Introduction7.2Archimedes Screw7.3Pumping Hydraulics 7.3.1 Denitions7.4Basic Principles of Water Hydraulics 7.4.1 Weight of Air 7.4.2 Weight of Water 7.4.3 Weight of Water Related to the Weight of Air 7.4.4 Water at Rest 2003 by CRC Press LLC 11. 7.4.5 Gauge Pressure 7.4.6 Water in Motion 7.4.6.1 Discharge 7.4.6.2 The Law of Continuity 7.4.7 Pipe Friction7.5Basic Pumping Calculations 7.5.1 Pumping Rates 7.5.2 Calculating Head Loss 7.5.3 Calculating Head 7.5.4 Calculating Horsepower and Efciency 7.5.4.1 Hydraulic Horsepower 7.5.4.2 Pump Efciency and Brake Horsepower 7.5.5 Specic Speed7.6Pump Characteristic Curves 7.6.1 Head-Capacity Curve 7.6.2 The Power-Capacity Curve 7.6.3 The Efciency-Capacity (E-Q) Curve7.7Pumps in Series and Parallel7.8Considerations for Pumping Wastewater7.9Types of Pumps Used in Water and Wastewater Treatment7.10 Introduction to Centrifugal Pumps 7.10.1 Description 7.10.2 Theory 7.10.3 Types of Centrifugal Pumps 7.10.3.1 Radial Flow Impeller Pumps 7.10.3.2 Mixed Flow Impeller Pumps 7.10.3.3 Axial Flow Impeller Pumps (Propeller Pump) 7.10.4 Characteristics and Performance Curves 7.10.4.1 Head-Capacity Curve 7.10.4.2 Efciency Curve 7.10.4.3 Brake Horsepower Curves 7.10.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of a Centrifugal Pump 7.10.5.1 Advantages 7.10.5.2 Disadvantages 7.10.6 Water and Wastewater Applications7.11 Centrifugal Pump Components 7.11.1 Casing 7.11.1.1 Solid Casing 7.11.1.2 Split Casings 7.11.2 Impeller 7.11.2.1 Semiopen Impeller 7.11.2.2 Open Impeller 7.11.2.3 Closed Impeller 7.11.3 Wear Rings 7.11.4 Shafts, Sleeves, and Couplings 7.11.4.1 Shafting 7.11.4.2 Sleeves 7.11.4.3 Couplings 7.11.5 Stufng Box and Seals 7.11.5.1 Stufng Box or Packing Assembly 7.11.5.2 Mechanical Seals 7.11.6 Bearings 7.11.6.1 Self-Aligning Double-Row Ball Bearing 7.11.6.2 Single- or Double-Row Antifriction Ball Bearing 7.11.6.3 Angular Contact Bearings 2003 by CRC Press LLC 12. 7.11.6.4 Self-Aligning Spherical Roller Bearings7.11.6.5 Single-Row Tapered Roller Bearings7.11.6.6 Bearing Installation, Maintenance and Lubrication7.12 Centrifugal Pump: Operational Procedures 7.12.1 Installation 7.12.2 Start-Up7.12.2.1 Start-Up Procedure 7.12.3 Normal Operation 7.12.4 Shutdown 7.12.5 Priming7.12.5.1 Priming Procedure 7.12.6 Backushing7.12.6.1 Backush Procedure 7.12.7 Manual Removal Procedure7.13 Centrifugal Pump: Maintenance Procedures 7.13.1 Pump and Motor Lubrication 7.13.2 Packing and Seal Replacement7.13.2.1 Packing Procedure7.13.2.2 Mechanical Seal Installation Procedure 7.13.3 Pump and Motor Bearing Inspection 7.13.4 Shaft and Coupling Alignment7.13.4.1 Alignment Procedure7.13.4.2 Removal of Obstructions7.14 Centrifugal Pumps Preventive Maintenance 7.14.1 Daily Maintenance 7.14.2 Weekly Maintenance 7.14.3 Monthly Maintenance 7.14.4 Quarterly Maintenance 7.14.5 Semiannual Maintenance7.15 Centrifugal Pump Lubrication 7.15.1 Purpose of Lubrication7.15.1.1 Separates Surfaces7.15.1.2 Prevents Wear7.15.1.3 Cushions Shock7.15.1.4 Transfers Heat7.15.1.5 Corrosion Protection7.15.1.6 Protective Seal 7.15.2 Lubrication Requirements 7.15.3 Lubrication Procedures7.15.3.1 Motor Bearing Lubrication7.15.3.2 Pump Bearing Lubrication7.16 Centrifugal Pump: Troubleshooting 7.16.1 The Troubleshooter 7.16.2 Troubleshooting: What Is It? 7.16.3 Goals of Troubleshooting 7.16.4 The Troubleshooting Process 7.16.5 Troubleshooting the Centrifugal Pump7.16.5.1 Pump Fails to Prime or Loses its Prime7.16.5.2 Pump Does Not Discharge7.16.5.3 Pump Does Not Deliver Rated Capacity7.16.5.4 Pump Does Not Deliver Sufcient Pressure7.16.5.5 Pump Starts and Stops Pumping7.16.5.6 Pump Overloads Driver or Consumes Excessive Power7.16.5.7 Pump Is Noisy or Has Extensive Vibration7.16.5.8 Packing Has a Short Life 2003 by CRC Press LLC 13. 7.16.5.9 Mechanical Seal Has a Short Life 7.16.5.10 Mechanical Seal Leaks Excessively 7.16.5.11 Bearings Have a Short Life 7.16.5.12 Pump Overheats or Seizes7.17 Centrifugal Pump Modications 7.17.1 Submersible Pumps 7.17.1.1 Applications 7.17.1.2 Advantages 7.17.1.3 Disadvantages 7.17.2 Recessed Impeller or Vortex Pumps 7.17.2.1 Applications 7.17.2.2 Advantages 7.17.2.3 Disadvantages 7.17.3 Turbine Pumps 7.17.3.1 Application 7.17.3.2 Advantages 7.17.3.3 Disadvantages7.18 Positive-Displacement Pumps 7.18.1 Reciprocating Pumps 7.18.1.1 Diaphragm Pumps 7.18.1.2 Metering Pumps 7.18.1.3 Rotary Pumps 7.18.1.4 Progressive-Cavity Pump 7.18.1.5 Special Purpose Pumps7.19 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesChapter 8Water and Wastewater Conveyance8.1Delivering the Lifeblood of Civilization8.2Conveyance Systems 8.2.1Denitions 8.2.2Fluids vs. Liquids 8.2.3Maintaining Fluid Flow in Piping Systems8.2.3.1 Scaling 8.2.4Piping System Maintenance 8.2.5Valves 8.2.6Piping System Accessories 8.2.7Piping Systems: Temperature Effects 8.2.8Piping Systems: Insulation8.3Metallic Piping 8.3.1Piping Materials 8.3.2Piping: The Basics8.3.2.1 Pipe Sizes8.3.2.2 Pipe Wall Thickness8.3.2.3 Piping Classication 8.3.3Types of Piping Systems8.3.3.1 Code for Identication of Pipelines 8.3.4Metallic Piping Materials8.3.4.1 Characteristics of Metallic Materials 8.3.5Maintenance Characteristics of Metallic Piping8.3.5.1 Expansion and Flexibility8.3.5.2 Pipe Support Systems8.3.5.3 Valve Selection8.3.5.4 Isolation 2003 by CRC Press LLC 14. 8.3.5.5 Preventing Backow 8.3.5.6 Water Hammer 8.3.5.7 Air Binding 8.3.5.8 Corrosion Effects 8.3.6 Joining Metallic Pipe 8.3.6.1 Bell-and-Spigot Joints 8.3.6.2 Screwed or Threaded Joints 8.3.6.3 Flanged Joints 8.3.6.4 Welded Joints 8.3.6.5 Soldered and Brazed Joints8.4Nonmetallic Piping 8.4.1 Nonmetallic Piping Materials 8.4.1.1 Clay Pipe 8.4.1.2 Concrete Pipe 8.4.1.3 Plastic Pipe8.5Tubing 8.5.1 Tubing vs. Piping: The Difference 8.5.1.1 Tubing 8.5.2 Advantages of Tubing 8.5.2.1 Tubing: Mechanical Advantages 8.5.2.2 Chemical Advantages 8.5.3 Connecting Tubing 8.5.3.1 Cutting Tubing 8.5.3.2 Soldering Tubing 8.5.3.3 Connecting Flared/Nonared Joints 8.5.4 Bending Tubing 8.5.5 Types of Tubing 8.5.5.1 Typical Tubing Applications8.6Industrial Hoses 8.6.1 Hose Nomenclature 8.6.2 Factors Governing Hose Selection 8.6.3 Standards, Codes, and Sizes 8.6.3.1 Hose Size 8.6.4 Hose Classications 8.6.4.1 Nonmetallic Hoses 8.6.4.2 Metallic Hoses 8.6.5 Hose Couplings 8.6.6 Hose Maintenance8.7Pipe and Tube Fittings 8.7.1 Fittings 8.7.2 Functions of Fittings 8.7.2.1 Changing the Direction of Flow 8.7.2.2 Providing Branch Connections 8.7.2.3 Changing the Sizes of Lines 8.7.2.4 Sealing Lines 8.7.2.5 Connecting Lines 8.7.3 Types of Connections 8.7.3.1 Screwed Fittings 8.7.3.2 Flanged Connections 8.7.3.3 Connections 8.7.4 Tubing Fittings and Connections8.8Valves 8.8.1 Valve Construction 8.8.2 Types of Valves 2003 by CRC Press LLC 15. 8.8.2.1Ball Valves8.8.2.2Gate Valves8.8.2.3Globe Valves8.8.2.4Needle Valves8.8.2.5Buttery Valves8.8.2.6Plug Valves8.8.2.7Check Valves8.8.2.8Quick-Opening Valves8.8.2.9Diaphragm Valves8.8.2.10 Regulating Valves8.8.2.11 Relief Valves8.8.2.12 Reducing Valves 8.8.3Valve Operators8.8.3.1Pneumatic and Hydraulic Valve Operators8.8.3.2Magnetic Valve Operators 8.8.4Valve Maintenance8.9Piping System: Protective Devices 8.9.1Applications 8.9.2Strainers 8.9.3Filters 8.9.4Traps8.9.4.1Trap Maintenance and Testing8.10 Piping Ancillaries 8.10.1 Gauges8.10.1.1 Pressure Gauges 8.10.2 Vacuum Breakers 8.10.3 Accumulators 8.10.4 Air Receivers 8.10.5 Heat Exchangers8.11 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesChapter 9Flow Measurement9.1Introduction9.2Methods of Measuring Flow 9.2.1 Weirs 9.2.2 The Oscillating Disk Water Meter 9.2.3 Flumes 9.2.4 Venturi Meter 9.2.5 Magnetic Flowmeter9.3Flow Measurement Calculations 9.3.1 Calculation Method Used for Fill and Draw Technique 9.3.2 Calculation Method Used for Velocity/Area Technique 9.3.3 Calculation Method Used for V-Notch Weirs 9.3.4 Weir Overow (Weir Loading Rate) 9.3.5 Calculation Method for Parshall Flume 9.3.6 Typical Flow Measurement Practice Calculations9.4Flow Measurement Operational Problems9.5Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferences 2003 by CRC Press LLC 16. Part IIICharacteristics of WaterChapter 10 Basic Water Chemistry10.1 Introduction10.2 Chemistry Concepts and Denitions 10.2.1 Concepts 10.2.2 Denitions10.3 Water Chemistry Fundamentals 10.3.1 Matter 10.3.1.1 The Content of Matter: The Elements 10.3.2 Compound Substances10.4 The Water Molecule10.5 Water Solutions10.6 Water Constituents 10.6.1 Solids 10.6.2 Turbidity 10.6.3 Color 10.6.4 Dissolved Oxygen 10.6.5 Metals 10.6.6 Organic Matter 10.6.7 Inorganic Matter 10.6.7.1 Acids 10.6.7.2 Bases 10.6.7.3 Salts10.7 pH10.8 Alkalinity10.9 Hardness10.10 Water and Wastewater Chemicals and Chemical Processes 10.10.1Odor Control (Wastewater Treatment) 10.10.2Disinfection 10.10.3Chemical Precipitation 10.10.4Adsorption 10.10.5Coagulation 10.10.6Taste and Odor Removal 10.10.7Water Softening 10.10.8Recarbonation 10.10.9Ion Exchange Softening 10.10.10 Scaling and Corrosion Control10.11 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesChapter 11 Water Microbiology11.1 Introduction11.2 Microbiology: What Is It?11.3 Water and Wastewater Microorganisms 11.3.1 Key Terms 11.3.2 Microorganisms (in General) 11.3.3 Classication 11.3.4 Differentiation 11.3.5 The Cell11.3.5.1 Structure of the Bacterial Cell 2003 by CRC Press LLC 17. 11.4 Bacteria 11.4.1Bacterial Growth Factors 11.4.2Destruction of Bacteria 11.4.3Waterborne Bacteria11.5 Protozoa11.6 Microscopic Crustaceans11.7 Viruses11.8 Algae11.9 Fungi11.10 Nematodes and Flatworms (Worms)11.11 Pathogenic Protozoa and Helminths (Water) 11.11.1 Pathogenic Protozoa 11.11.1.1 Giardia 11.11.1.2 Cryptosporidium 11.11.1.3 Cyclospora 11.11.2 Helminths11.12 Biological Aspects and Processes (Wastewater) 11.12.1 Aerobic Process 11.12.2 Anaerobic Process 11.12.3 Anoxic Process 11.12.4 Photosynthesis 11.12.5 Growth Cycles 11.12.6 Biogeochemical Cycles 11.12.6.1 Carbon Cycle 11.12.6.2 Nitrogen Cycle 11.12.6.3 Sulfur Cycle 11.12.6.4 Phosphorus Cycle11.13 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesChapter 12 Water Ecology12.1Introduction12.2Setting the Stage12.3Ecology Terms12.3.1 Denition of Terms12.4 Levels of Organization12.5 Ecosystem12.6 Energy Flow in the Ecosystem12.7 Food Chain Efciency12.8 Ecological Pyramids12.9 Productivity12.10 Population Ecology12.11 Stream Genesis and Structure12.11.1 Water Flow in a Stream12.11.2 Stream Water Discharge12.11.3 Transport of Material12.11.4 Characteristics of Stream Channels12.11.5 Stream Proles12.11.6 Sinuosity12.11.7 Bars, Rifes, and Pools12.11.8The Floodplain12.11.9 Adaptations to Stream Current 2003 by CRC Press LLC 18. 12.11.10 Types of Adaptive Changes 12.11.11 Specic Adaptations12.12 Benthic Life: An Overview 12.12.1 Benthic Plants and Animals12.13 Benthic Macroinvertebrates 12.13.1 Identication of Benthic Macroinvertebrates 12.13.2 Macroinvertebrates and the Food Web 12.13.3 Units of Organization 12.13.4 Typical Running Water Benthic Macroinvertebrates12.14 Insect Macroinvertebrates 12.14.1 Mayies (Order: Ephemeroptera) 12.14.2 Stoneies (Order: Plecoptera) 12.14.3 Caddisies (Order: Trichoptera) 12.14.4 True Flies (Order: Diptera) 12.14.5 Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) 12.14.6 Water Strider (Jesus bugs; Order: Hemiptera) 12.14.7 Alderies and Dobsonies (Order: Megaloptera) 12.14.8 Dragonies and Damselies (Order: Odonata)12.15 Noninsect Macroinvertebrates 12.15.1 Oligochaeta (Family: Tuicidae; Genus: Tubifex) 12.15.2 Hirudinea (Leeches) 12.14.3 Gastropoda (Lung-Breathing Snail)12.16 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesChapter 13 Water Quality13.1 Introduction13.2 The Water Cycle13.3 Water Quality Standards 13.3.1 Clean Water Act (1972) 13.3.2 Safe Drinking Water Act (1974)13.4 Water Quality Characteristics of Water and Wastewater 13.4.1 Physical Characteristics of Water and Wastewater13.4.1.1 Solids13.4.1.2 Turbidity13.4.1.3 Color13.4.1.4 Taste and Odor13.4.1.5 Temperature 13.4.2 Chemical Characteristics of Water13.4.2.1 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)13.4.2.2 Alkalinity13.4.2.3 Hardness13.4.2.4 Fluoride13.4.2.5 Metals13.4.2.6 Organics13.4.2.7 Nutrients 13.4.3 Chemical Characteristics of Wastewater13.4.3.1 Organic Substances13.4.3.2 Inorganic Substances 13.4.4 Biological Characteristics of Water and Wastewater13.4.4.1 Bacteria13.4.4.2 Viruses13.4.4.3 Protozoa13.4.4.4 Worms (Helminths) 2003 by CRC Press LLC 19. 13.5 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesChapter 14 Biomonitoring, Monitoring, Sampling, and Testing14.1 What Is Biomonitoring? 14.1.1 Biotic Indices (Streams)14.1.1.1Benthic Macroinvertebrate Biotic Index14.2 Biological Sampling (Streams) 14.2.1 Biological Sampling: Planning 14.2.2 Sampling Stations 14.2.3 Sample Collection14.2.3.1Macroinvertebrate Sampling Equipment14.2.3.2Macroinvertebrate Sampling: Rocky-Bottom Streams14.2.3.3Macroinvertebrate Sampling: Muddy-Bottom Streams 14.2.4 Postsampling Routine14.2.4.1 Sampling Devices 14.2.5 The Bottom Line on Biological Sampling14.3 Water Quality Monitoring (Drinking Water) 14.3.1 Is the Water Good or Bad? 14.3.2 State Water Quality Standards Programs 14.3.3 Designing a Water Quality Monitoring Program 14.3.4 General Preparation and Sampling Considerations14.3.4.1 Method A: General Preparation of Sampling Containers14.3.4.2 Method B: Acid Wash Procedures 14.3.5 Sample Types 14.3.6 Collecting Samples from a Stream14.3.6.1 Whirl-pak Bags14.3.6.2 Screw-Cap Bottles 14.3.7 Sample Preservation and Storage 14.3.8 Standardization of Methods14.4 Test Methods (Drinking Water and Wastewater) 14.4.1 Titrimetric Methods 14.4.2 Colorimetric Methods 14.4.3 Visual Methods 14.4.4 Electronic Methods 14.4.5 Dissolved Oxygen Testing14.4.5.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations14.4.5.2 Dissolved Oxygen Test Methods 14.4.6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Testing14.4.6.1 Sampling Considerations14.4.6.2 BOD Sampling, Analysis, and Testing 14.4.7 Temperature Measurement14.4.7.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 14.4.8 Hardness Measurement14.4.8.1 Measuring Hardness 14.4.9 pH Measurement14.4.9.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations14.4.9.2 pH Meters14.4.9.3 pH Pocket Pals and Color Comparators 2003 by CRC Press LLC 20. 14.4.10 Turbidity Measurement 14.4.10.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 14.4.10.2 Using a Secchi Disk 14.4.10.3 Transparency Tube 14.4.11 Orthophosphate Measurement 14.4.11.1 Forms of Phosphorus 14.4.11.2 The Phosphorus Cycle 14.4.11.3 Testing Phosphorus 14.4.11.4 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 14.4.11.5 Ascorbic Acid Method for Determining Orthophosphate 14.4.12 Nitrates Measurement 14.4.12.1 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 14.4.12.2 Cadmium Reduction Method 14.4.12.3 Nitrate Electrode Method 14.4.13 Solids Measurement 14.4.13.1 Solids Sampling and Equipment Considerations 14.4.13.2 Total Suspended Solids 14.4.13.3 Volatile Suspended Solids Testing 14.4.14 Conductivity Testing 14.4.14.1 Sampling, Testing, and Equipment Considerations 14.4.15 Total Alkalinity 14.4.15.1 Analytical and Equipment Considerations 14.4.15.2 Burets, Titrators, and Digital Titrators for Measuring Alkalinity 14.4.16 Fecal Coliform Bacteria Testing 14.4.16.1 Fecal Coliforms: General Information 14.4.16.2 Fecal Coliforms 14.4.16.3 Sampling Requirements 14.4.16.4 Sampling and Equipment Considerations 14.4.16.5 Fecal Coliform Testing 14.4.17 Apparent Color Testing/Analysis 14.4.18 Odor Analysis of Water 14.4.19 Chlorine Residual Testing/Analysis 14.4.19.1 DPD-Spectrophotometric 14.4.19.2 DPD-FAS Titration 14.4.19.3 TitrimetricAmperometric Direct Titration 14.4.20 Fluorides14.5 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesPart IV Water and Water TreatmentChapter 15 Potable Water Sources15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 Key Terms and Denitions 15.1.2 Hydrologic Cycle15.2 Sources of Water15.3 Surface Water 15.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Surface Water 15.3.2 Surface Water Hydrology 15.3.3 Raw Water Storage 15.3.4 Surface Water Intakes 15.3.5 Surface Water Screens 15.3.6 Surface Water Quality 2003 by CRC Press LLC 21. 15.4 Groundwater 15.4.1 Groundwater Quality15.5 GUDISW15.6 Surface Water Quality and Treatment Requirements15.7 Public Water System Use Requirements15.8 Well Systems 15.8.1 Well Site Requirements 15.8.2 Types of Wells15.8.2.1 Shallow Wells15.8.2.2 Deep Wells 15.8.3 Components of a Well15.8.3.1 Well Casing15.8.3.2 Grout15.8.3.3 Well Pad15.8.3.4 Sanitary Seal15.8.3.5 Well Screen15.8.3.6 Casing Vent15.8.3.7 Drop Pipe15.8.3.8 Miscellaneous Well Components 15.8.4 Well Evaluation 15.8.5 Well Pumps 15.8.6 Routine Operation and Record Keeping Requirements15.8.6.1 Well Log 15.8.7 Well Maintenance15.8.7.1 Troubleshooting Well Problems 15.8.8 Well Abandonment15.9 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferenceChapter 16 Watershed Protection16.1 Introduction16.2 Current Issues in Water Management16.3 What is a Watershed?16.4 Water Quality Impact16.5 Watershed Protection and Regulations16.6 A Watershed Protection Plan16.7 Reservoir Management Practices16.8 Watershed Management Practices16.9 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferenceChapter 17 Water Treatment Operations and Unit Processes17.1 Introduction17.2 Waterworks Operators17.3 Purpose of Water Treatment17.4 Stages of Water Treatment17.5 Pretreatment 17.5.1 Aeration 17.5.2 Screening 17.5.3 Chemical Addition 17.5.3.1 Chemical Solutions 17.5.3.2 Chemical Feeders 17.5.3.3 Chemical Feeder Calibration 2003 by CRC Press LLC 22. 17.5.3.4Iron and Manganese Removal17.5.3.5Hardness Treatment17.5.3.6Corrosion Control17.6 Coagulation17.6.1 Jar Testing Procedure17.7 Flocculation17.8 Sedimentation17.9 Filtration17.9.1 Types of Filter Technologies17.9.1.1Slow Sand Filters17.9.1.2Rapid Sand Filters17.9.1.3Pressure Filter Systems17.9.1.4Diatomaceous Earth Filters17.9.1.5Direct Filtration17.9.1.6Alternate Filters17.9.2 Common Filter Problems17.9.3 Filtration and Compliance with Turbidity Requirements (IESWTR)17.9.3.1Regulatory Requirements17.9.3.2Individual Filter Monitoring17.9.3.3Reporting and Record Keeping17.9.3.4Additional Compliance Issues17.10 Disinfection17.10.1 Need for Disinfection in Water Treatment.17.10.2 Pathogens of Primary Concern17.10.2.1 Bacteria17.10.2.2 Viruses17.10.2.3 Protozoa17.10.3 Recent Waterborne Outbreaks17.10.3.1 E. coli17.10.3.2 Giardia lamblia17.10.3.3 Cryptosporidium17.10.3.4 Legionella pneumophila17.10.4 Mechanism of Pathogen Inactivation17.10.5 Other Uses of Disinfectants in Water Treatment17.10.5.1 Minimization of DBP Formation17.10.5.2 Control of Nuisance Asiatic Clams and Zebra Mussels17.10.5.3 Oxidation of Iron and Manganese17.10.5.4 Prevention of Regrowth in the Distribution System and Maintenance ofBiological Stability17.10.5.5 Removal of Taste and Odors through Chemical Oxidation17.10.5.6 Improvement of Coagulation and Filtration Efciency17.10.5.7 Prevention of Algal Growth in Sedimentation Basins and Filters17.10.5.8 Removal of Color17.10.6 Types of DBPs and Disinfection Residuals17.10.6.1 Disinfection By-Product Formation17.10.6.2 DBP Control Strategies17.10.6.3 CT Factor17.10.7 Pathogen Inactivation vs. DBP Formation17.10.8 Disinfectant Residual Regulatory Requirements17.10.9 Summary of Current National Disinfection Practices17.10.10 Summary of Methods of Disinfection17.10.11 Chlorination17.10.11.1 Chlorine Terms17.10.11.2 Chlorine Chemistry17.10.11.3 Breakpoint Chlorination 2003 by CRC Press LLC 23. 17.10.11.4 Gas Chlorination 17.10.11.5 Hypochlorination 17.10.11.6 Determining Chlorine Dosage 17.10.11.7 Chlorine Generation 17.10.11.8 Primary Uses and Points of Application of Chlorine 17.10.11.9 Factors Affecting Chlorination 17.10.11.10 Measuring Chlorine Residual 17.10.11.11 Pathogen Inactivation and Disinfection Efcacy 17.10.11.12 Disinfection By-Products 17.10.11.13 Operational Considerations 17.10.11.14 Advantages and Disadvantagesof Chlorine Use 17.10.11.15 Chlorine Summary Table17.11 Arsenic Removal from Drinking Water 17.11.1 Arsenic and Water 17.11.2 Arsenic Removal Technologies 17.11.2.1Prescriptive Processes 17.11.2.2Adsorptive Processes 17.11.2.3Membrane Processes 17.11.2.4Alternative Technologies17.12 Who is Ultimately Responsible for Drinking Water Quality?17.13 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesChapter 18 Wastewater Treatment18.1 Wastewater Operators 18.1.1 The Wastewater Treatment Process: The Model18.2 Wastewater Terminology and Denitions 18.2.1 Terminology and Denitions18.3 Measuring Plant Performance 18.3.1 Plant Performance and Efciency 18.3.2 Unit Process Performance and Efciency 18.3.3 Percent Volatile Matter Reduction in Sludge18.4 Hydraulic Detention Time 18.4.1 Detention Time in Days 18.4.2 Detention Time in Hours 18.4.3 Detention Time in Minutes18.5 Wastewater Sources and Characteristics 18.5.1 Wastewater Sources18.5.1.1 Generation of Wastewater 18.5.2 Classication of Wastewater 18.5.3 Wastewater Characteristics18.5.3.1 Physical Characteristics18.5.3.2 Chemical Characteristics18.5.3.3 Biological Characteristics and Processes18.6 Wastewater Collection Systems 18.6.1 Gravity Collection System 18.6.2 Force Main Collection System 18.6.3 Vacuum System 18.6.4 Pumping Stations18.6.4.1 Wet WellDry Well Pumping Stations18.6.4.2 Wet Well Pumping Stations18.6.4.3 Pneumatic Pumping Stations18.6.4.4 Pumping Station Wet Well Calculations 2003 by CRC Press LLC 24. 18.7 Preliminary Treatment 18.7.1 Screening18.7.1.1 Manually Cleaned Screens18.7.1.2 Mechanically Cleaned Screens18.7.1.3 Safety18.7.1.4 Screenings Removal Computations 18.7.2 Shredding18.7.2.1 Comminution18.7.2.2 Barminution 18.7.3 Grit Removal18.7.3.1 Gravity and Velocity Controlled Grit Removal18.7.3.2 Grit Removal Calculations 18.7.4 Preaeration18.7.4.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 18.7.5 Chemical Addition18.7.5.1 Operational Observations, Problems, and Troubleshooting 18.7.6 Equalization18.7.6.1 Operational Observations, Problems, andTroubleshooting 18.7.7 Aerated Systems 18.7.8 Cyclone Degritter 18.7.9 Preliminary Treatment Sampling and Testing 18.7.10 Other Preliminary Treatment Process Control Calculations18.8 Primary Treatment (Sedimentation) 18.8.1 Process Description18.8.1.1 Overview of Primary Treatment 18.8.2 Types of Sedimentation Tanks18.8.2.1 Septic Tanks18.8.2.2 Two-Story (Imhoff) Tank18.8.2.3 Plain Settling Tanks (Clariers) 18.8.3 Operator Observations, Process Problems, and Troubleshooting18.8.3.1 Primary Clarication: Normal Operation18.8.3.2 Primary Clarication: Operational Parameters (Normal Observations) 18.8.4 Process Control Calculations18.8.4.1 Percent Removal18.8.4.2 Detention Time18.8.4.3 Surface Loading Rate (Surface Settling Rate and Surface Overow Rate)18.8.4.4 Weir Overow Rate (Weir Loading Rate)18.8.4.5 Sludge Pumping18.8.4.6 BOD and Suspended Solids Removal 18.8.5 Problem Analysis 18.8.6 Efuent from Settling Tanks18.9 Secondary Treatment 18.9.1 Treatment Ponds18.9.1.1 Types of Ponds18.9.1.2 Process Control Calculations (Stabilization Ponds) 18.9.2 Trickling Filters18.9.2.1 Trickling Filter Denitions18.9.2.2 Trickling Filter Equipment18.9.2.3 Filter Classications18.9.2.4 Standard Operating Procedures18.9.2.5 General Process Description18.9.2.6 Operator Observations, Process Problems, and Troubleshooting18.9.2.7 Process Calculations 2003 by CRC Press LLC 25. 18.9.3Rotating Biological Contactors 18.9.3.1 RBC Equipment 18.9.3.2 RBC Operation 18.9.3.3 RBC: Expected Performance 18.9.3.4 Operator Observations, Process Problems, and Troubleshooting 18.9.3.5 RBC: Process Control Calculations18.10 Activated Sludge18.10.1Activated Sludge Terminology18.10.2Activated Sludge Process: Equipment 18.10.2.1Aeration Tank 18.10.2.2Aeration 18.10.2.3Settling Tank 18.10.2.4Return Sludge 18.10.2.5Waste Sludge18.10.3Overview of Activated Sludge Process18.10.4Activated Sludge Process: Factors Affecting Operation 18.10.4.1Growth Curve18.10.5Activated Sludge Formation18.10.6Activated Sludge: Performance-Controlling Factors 18.10.6.1Aeration 18.10.6.2Alkalinity 18.10.6.3Nutrients 18.10.6.4pH 18.10.6.5Temperature 18.10.6.6Toxicity 18.10.6.7Hydraulic Loading 18.10.6.8Organic Loading18.10.7Activated Sludge Modications 18.10.7.1Conventional Activated Sludge 18.10.7.2Step Aeration 18.10.7.3Complete Mix 18.10.7.4Pure Oxygen 18.10.7.5Contact Stabilization 18.10.7.6Extended Aeration 18.10.7.7Oxidation Ditch18.10.8Activated Sludge: Process Control Parameters 18.10.8.1Alkalinity 18.10.8.2Dissolved Oxygen 18.10.8.3pH 18.10.8.4Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids, Mixed Liquor Volatile Suspended Solids,and Mixed Liquor Total Suspended Solids 18.10.8.5Return Activated Sludge Rate and Concentration 18.10.8.6Waste Activated Sludge Flow Rate 18.10.8.7Temperature 18.10.8.8Sludge Blanket Depth18.10.9Operational Control Levels 18.10.9.1Inuent Characteristics 18.10.9.2Industrial Contributions 18.10.9.3Process Sidestreams 18.10.9.4Seasonal Variations 18.10.9.5Control Levels at Start-Up18.10.10 Operator Observations: Inuent and Aeration Tank 18.10.10.1 Visual Indicators: Inuent and Aeration Tank 18.10.10.2 Final Settling Tank (Clarier) Observations 2003 by CRC Press LLC 26. 18.10.11Process Control Testing and Sampling 18.10.11.1 Aeration Inuent Sampling 18.10.11.2 Aeration Tank 18.10.11.3 Settling Tank Inuent 18.10.11.4 Settling Tank 18.10.11.5 Settling Tank Efuent 18.10.11.6 Return Activated Sludge and Waste Activated Sludge18.10.12 Process Control Adjustments18.10.13 Troubleshooting Operational Problems18.10.14 Process Control Calculations 18.10.14.1 Settled Sludge Volume 18.10.14.2 Estimated Return Rate 18.10.14.3 Sludge Volume Index 18.10.14.4 Waste Activated Sludge 18.10.14.5 Food to Microorganism Ratio (F:M Ratio) 18.10.14.6 Mean Cell Residence Time (MCRT) 18.10.14.7 Mass Balance18.10.15 Solids Concentration: Secondary Clarier18.10.16 Activated Sludge Process Record Keeping Requirements18.11 Disinfection of Wastewater18.11.1 Chlorine Disinfection 18.11.1.1 Chlorination Terminology 18.11.1.2 Wastewater Chlorination: Facts and Process Description 18.11.1.3 Chlorination Equipment 18.11.1.4 Chlorination: Operation 18.11.1.5 Troubleshooting Operational Problems 18.11.1.6 Dechlorination 18.11.1.7 Chlorination Environmental Hazards and Safety 18.11.1.8 Chlorine: Safe Work Practice 18.11.1.9 Chlorination Process Calculations18.11.2 UV Irradiation18.11.3 Ozonation18.11.4 Bromine Chloride18.11.5 No Disinfection18.12 Advanced Wastewater Treatment18.12.1 Chemical Treatment 18.12.1.1 Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures18.12.2 Microscreening 18.12.2.1 Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures18.12.3 Filtration 18.12.3.1 Filtration Process Description 18.12.3.2 Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures18.12.4 Biological Nitrication 18.12.4.1 Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures18.12.5Biological Denitrifcation 18.12.5.1 Observation, Operation, and Troubleshooting Procedures18.12.6Carbon Adsorption 18.12.6.1 Operation, Observation, and Troubleshooting Procedures18.12.7Land Application 18.12.7.1 Types or Modes of Land Application18.12.8Biological Nutrient Removal18.13 Solids (Sludge or Biosolids) Handling18.13.1Sludge: Background Information 18.13.1.1 Sources of Sludge 18.13.1.2 Sludge Characteristics 2003 by CRC Press LLC 27. 18.13.1.3 Sludge Pumping Calculations18.13.1.4 Sludge Treatment: An Overview 18.13.2Sludge Thickening18.13.2.1 Gravity Thickening18.13.2.2 Flotation Thickening18.13.2.3 Solids Concentrators 18.13.3Sludge Stabilization18.13.3.1 Aerobic Digestion18.13.3.2 Anaerobic Digestion18.13.3.3 Other Sludge Stabilization Processes 18.13.4Sludge Dewatering18.13.4.1 Sand Drying Beds18.13.4.2 Rotary Vacuum Filtration18.13.4.3 Pressure Filtration18.13.4.4 Centrifugation18.13.4.5 Sludge Incineration18.13.4.6 Land Application of Biosolids18.14 Permits, Records, and Reports 18.14.1Denitions 18.14.2NPDES Permits18.14.2.1 Reporting18.14.2.2 Sampling and Testing18.14.2.3 Efuent Limitations18.14.2.4 Compliance Schedules18.14.2.5 Special Conditions18.14.2.6 Licensed Operator Requirements18.14.2.7 Chlorination or Dechlorination Reporting18.14.2.8 Reporting Calculations18.15 Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsReferencesAppendix A Answers to Chapter Review Questions and ProblemsAppendix B Formulae 2003 by CRC Press LLC 28. PART IWater and Wastewater Operations:An Overview 2003 by CRC Press LLC 29. Problems Facing Water and1 Wastewater Treatment Operations What is of all things most yielding, 1. Protection against protozoan and virus contam- Can overcome that which is most hard, ination Being substanceless, it can enter in 2. Implementation of the multiple barrier approach even where there is no crevice. to microbial control3. New requirements of the Ground Water Disin- That is how I know the value fection Rule, the Total Coliform Rule and of action which is actionless.Distribution System, and the Lead and Copper Rule Lao Tzu, 5th Century B.C.4. Regulations for trihalomethanes and disinfec- tion by-products (DBPs)1.1 INTRODUCTION We discuss this important shift momentarily but rstAlthough not often thought of as a commodity (or, for thatit is important to abide by Voltaires advice: that is, Ifmatter, not thought about at all), water is a commodity you wish to converse with me, please dene your terms.a very valuable commodity. In this text, it is our positionFor those not familiar with the term paradigm, it canthat with the passage of time, potable water will becomebe dened in the following ways. A paradigm is the con-even more valuable. Moreover, with the passage of evensensus of the scientic community concrete problemmore time, potable water will be even more valuable thansolutions that the profession has come to accept.1 Thomaswe might imagine. It may be possibly comparable in pric-Kuhn coined the term paradigm. He outlined it in termsing, gallon for gallon, to what we pay for gasoline, or evenof the scientic process. He felt that one sense of para-more. digm, is global, embracing all the shared commitments ofEarth was originally allotted a nite amount of water a scientic group; the other isolates a particularly impor-we have no more or no less than that original allotment tant sort of commitment and is thus a subset of the rst.1today. It logically follows that, in order to sustain life as The concept of paradigm has two general levels. The rstwe know it, we must do everything we can to preserveis the encompassing whole, the summation of parts. Itand protect our water supply. We also must purify and consists of the theories, laws, rules, models, concepts, andreuse the water we presently waste (i.e., wastewater).denitions that go into a generally accepted fundamentaltheory of science. Such a paradigm is global in character.The other level of paradigm is that it can also be just one1.2 THE PARADIGM SHIFTof these laws, theories, models, etc. that combine to for-mulate a global paradigm. These have the property ofHistorically, the purpose of water supply systems has beenbeing local. For instance, Galileos theory that the earthto provide pleasant drinking water that is free of diseaserotated around the sun became a paradigm in itself, namelyorganisms and toxic substances. In addition, the purposea generally accepted law in astronomy. Yet, on the otherof wastewater treatment has been to protect the health andhand, his theory combined with other local paradigms inwell being of our communities. Water and wastewater areas such as religion and politics to transform culture. Atreatment operations have accomplished this goal by paradigm can also be dened as a pattern or point of view(1) prevention of disease and nuisance conditions;that determines what is seen as reality.(2) avoidance of contamination of water supplies and nav-We use the latter denition in this text.igable waters; (3) maintenance of clean water for survival A paradigm shift is dened as a major change in theof sh, bathing, and recreation; and (4) generally conser-way things are thought about, especially scientically. Oncevation of water quality for future use. a problem can no longer be solved in the existing paradigm,The purpose of water supply systems and wastewaternew laws and theories emerge and form a new paradigm,treatment processes has not changed. However, primarily overthrowing the old if it is accepted. Paradigm shifts arebecause of new regulations the paradigm has shifted.the occasional, discontinuous, revolutionary changes inThese include:tacitly shared points of view and preconceptions.2 Simply, 2003 by CRC Press LLC 30. a paradigm shift represents a profound change in the Source Protectionthoughts, perceptions, and values that form a particularvision of reality.3 For our purposes, we use the termparadigm shift to mean a change in the way things areOptimization of Treatment Processunderstood and done. Trained & Certified Plant Operators1.2.1 A CHANGE IN THE WAY THINGSARESound Distribution System ManagementUNDERSTOOD AND DONE A Second Dose of DisinfectantIn water supply systems, the historical focus, or traditional approach, has been to control turbidity, iron and manga- Cross-Connection Controlnese, taste and odor, color, and coliforms. New regulationsprovided new focus, and thus a paradigm shift. Today thetraditional approach is no longer sufcient. Providing Continuous Monitoring & Testingacceptable water has become more sophisticated and FIGURE 1.1 Multiple-barrier approach.costly. In order to meet the requirements of the new para-SDWA, passed in 1974, amended in 1986, and reau-digm, a systems approach must be employed. In the sys- thorized in 1996, gives the U.S. Environmental Protectiontems approach, all components are interrelated. What Agency (EPA) the authority to set drinking water stan-affects one impacts others. The focus has shifted to mul-dards. This document is important for many reasons, buttiple requirements (i.e., new regulations require the pro- is even more important because it describes how the EPAcess to be modied or the plant upgraded). establishes these standards. To illustrate the paradigm shift in the operation ofDrinking water standards are regulations that EPA setswater supply systems, let us look back on the traditionalto control the level of contaminants in the nations drinkingapproach of disinfection. Disinfection was used in water water. These standards are part of SDWAs multiple-barrierto destroy harmful organisms. It is still used in water to approach to drinking water protection (see Figure 1.1).destroy harmful organisms, but is now only one part of As shown in Figure 1.1, the multiple barrier approachthe multiple-barrier approach. Moreover, disinfection hasincludes the following elements:traditionally been used to treat for coliforms only. Cur-rently, because of the paradigm shift, disinfection now1. Assessing and protecting drinking water(and in the future) is used against coliforms, Legionella,sources This means doing everything possi-Giardia, Cryptosporidium, and others. Another example ble to prevent microbes and other contaminantsof the traditional vs. current practices is seen in the tradi-from entering water supplies. Minimizingtional approach to particulate removal in water to lessen human and animal activity around our water-turbidity and improve aesthetics. Current practice is still sheds is one part of this barrier.to decrease turbidity to improve aesthetics, but now micro- 2. Optimizing treatment processes This pro-bial removal plus disinfection is practical.vides a second barrier and usually means lter- Another signicant factor that contributed to the par- ing and disinfecting the water. It also meansadigm shift in water supply systems was the introductionmaking sure that the people who are responsibleof the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) in 1989. for our water are properly trained and certiedSWTR requires water treatment plants to achieve 99.9% and knowledgeable of the public health issues(3 log) removal activation/inactivation of Giardia andinvolved.99.99% (4 log) removal/inactivation of viruses. SWTR 3. Ensuring the integrity of distribution systems applies to all surface waters and ground waters under This consists of maintaining the quality ofdirect inuence.water as it moves through the system on its wayto the customers tap.1.3 MULTIPLE-BARRIER CONCEPT 4. Effecting correct cross-connection control pro-cedures This is a critical fourth element inOn August 6, 1996, during the Safe Drinking Water Act the barrier approach. It is critical because the(SDWA) Reauthorization signing ceremony, President Bill greatest potential hazard in water distributionClinton stated, A fundamental promise we must make tosystems is associated with cross-connections toour people is that the food they eat and the water they nonpotable waters. There are many connectionsdrink are safe. No rational person could doubt the impor-between potable and nonpotable systems tance of the promise made in this statement.every drain in a hospital constitutes such a 2003 by CRC Press LLC 31. connection, but cross-connections are thosehidden part out of services delivered by water and waste- through which backow can occur.4water professionals.5. Continuous monitoring and testing of the water Water service professionals provide water for typical before it reaches the tap Monitoring water urban domestic and commercial uses, eliminate wastes, quality is a critical element in the barrier protect the public health and safety, and help control many approach. It should include having specic pro-forms of pollution. Wastewater service professionals treat cedures to follow should potable water ever fail the urban wastestream to remove pollutants before dis- to meet quality standards. charging the efuent into the environment. Water andwastewater treatment services are the urban circulatoryWith the involvement of EPA, local governments, system.6 In addition, like the human circulatory system,drinking water utilities, and citizens, these multiple barri- the urban circulatory system is less than effective if owers ensure that the tap water in the U.S. and territories isis not maintained.safe to drink. Simply, in the multiple-barrier concept, weMaintaining ow is what water and wastewater oper-employ a holistic approach to water management that ations is all about. This seems easy enough; water hasbegins at the source and continues with treatment, throughbeen owing literally for eons. However, this is not to saydisinfection and distribution.that water and wastewater operations are not without prob-lems and/or challenges. The dawn of the 21st centurybrought with it, for many of us, aspirations of good things1.3.1 MULTIPLE-BARRIER APPROACH:ahead in the constant struggle to provide quality food andWASTEWATER OPERATIONS water for humanity. However, the only way in which weNot shown in Figure 1.1 is the fate of the used water. What can hope to accomplish this is to stay on the cutting edgeof technology and to face all challenges head on. Somehappens to the wastewater produced? Wastewater isof these other challenges are addressed in the followingtreated via the multiple-barrier treatment train, which issections.the combination of unit processes used in the system. Theprimary mission of the wastewater treatment plant (andthe operator/practitioner) is to treat the wastestream to a 1.4 MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS FACINGlevel of purity acceptable to return it to the environmentWATER AND WASTEWATER OPERATIONSor for immediate reuse (i.e., reuse in such applications asirrigation of golf courses, etc.).Problems come and go, shifting from century to century, Water and wastewater operators maintain a continuous decade to decade, year to year, and site to site. They rangeurban water cycle on a daily basis. B.D. Jones sums upfrom the problems caused by natural forces (storms, earth-this point as follows:quakes, res, oods, and droughts) to those caused bysocial forces, currently including terrorism. Delivering services is the primary function of municipal In general, ve areas are of concern to many water government. It occupies the vast bulk of the time and effort and wastewater management personnel. of most city employees, is the source of most contacts that citizens have with local governments, occasionally 1. Complying with regulations and coping with becomes the subject of heated controversy, and is often new and changing regulations surrounded by myth and misinformation. Yet, service deliv- ery remains the hidden function of local government.52. Maintaining infrastructure3. Privatization and/or reengineering In Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment4. BenchmarkingPlant Operations, we focus on sanitary (or environmental) 5. Upgrading securityservices (excluding solid-waste disposal) water andwastewater treatment because they have been and 1.4.1 COMPLIANCE WITH NEW, CHANGING,remain indispensable for the functioning and growth ofAND EXISTING REGULATIONS7cities. Next to air, water is the most important life-sustain-ing product on earth. Yet it is its service delivery (and all Adapting the workforce to the challenges of meetingthat it entails) that remains a hidden function of localchanging regulations and standards for both water andgovernment.5 This hidden function is what this text is allwastewater treatment is a major concern. As mentioned,about. We present our discussion in a completely new anddrinking water standards are regulations that EPA sets tounique dual manner in what we call the new paradigm control the level of contaminants in the nations drinkingshift in water management and in the concept of the mul-water. Again, these standards are part of SDWAs multiple-tiple barrier approach. Essentially, the Handbook takes the barrier approach to drinking water protection. 2003 by CRC Press LLC 32. There are two categories of drinking water standards:1.4.2 MAINTAINING INFRASTRUCTURE1. A National Primary Drinking Water RegulationDuring the 1950s and 1960s, the U.S. government encour- (primary standard) This is a legally enforce- aged the prevention of pollution by providing funds for able standard that applies to public water systems. the construction of municipal wastewater treatment plants, Primary standards protect drinking water qualitywater-pollution research, and technical training and assis- by limiting the levels of specic contaminantstance. New processes were developed to treat sewage, that can adversely affect public health and are analyze wastewater, and evaluate the effects of pollution known or anticipated to occur in water. Theyon the environment. In spite of these efforts, expanding take the form of Maximum Contaminant Levels population and industrial and economic growth caused the or Treatment Techniques.pollution and health difculties to increase.2. A National Secondary Drinking Water Regula-In response to the need to make a coordinated effort tion (secondary standard) This is a nonen-to protect the environment, the National Environmental forceable guideline regarding contaminants that Policy Act was signed into law on January 1, 1970. In may cause cosmetic effects (e.g., skin or tooth December of that year, a new independent body EPA discoloration) or aesthetic effects (e.g., taste, was created to bring under one roof all of the pollution- odor, or color) in drinking water. USEPA rec- control programs related to air, water, and solid wastes. ommends secondary standards to water systems, In 1972, the Water Pollution Control Act Amendments but does not require systems to comply. How-expanded the role of the federal government in water ever, states may choose to adopt them aspollution control and signicantly increased federal fund- enforceable standards. This information ing for construction of wastewater treatment plants. focuses on national primary standards. Many of the wastewater treatment plants in operation today are the result of federal grants made over the years. Drinking water standards apply to public water sys- For example, because of the 1977 Clean Water Acttems that provide water for human consumption throughAmendment to the Federal Water Pollution Control Actat least 15 service connections or regularly serve at leastof 1972 and the 1987 Clean Water Act Reauthorization25 individuals. Public water systems include municipal Bill, funding for wastewater treatment plants was provided.water companies, homeowner associations, schools, busi- Many large sanitation districts, with their multiplenesses, campgrounds and shopping malls.plant operations, and an even larger number of single plant More recent requirements, including the Clean Water operations in smaller communities in operation today are aAct Amendments that went into effect in February 2001, result of these early environmental laws. Because of theserequire water treatment plants to meet tougher standards.laws, the federal government provided grants of severalThey have presented new problems for treatment facilitieshundred million dollars to nance construction of waste-to deal with and have offered some possible solutions to water treatment facilities throughout the country.the problems of meeting the new standards. These regula-Many of these locally or federally funded treatmenttions provide for communities to upgrade existing treatmentplants are aging; based on our experience, we rate some assystems, replacing aging and outdated infrastructure withdinosaurs. The point is many facilities are facing problemsnew process systems. Their purpose is to ensure that facil-caused by aging equipment, facilities, and infrastructure.ities are able to lter out higher levels of impurities from Complicating the problems associated with natural agingdrinking water, reducing the health risk from bacteria,is the increasing pressure on inadequate older systems toprotozoa, and viruses, and that they are able to decreasemeet demands of increased population and urban growth.levels of turbidity and reduce concentrations of chlorineFacilities built in the 1960s and 1970s are now 30 toby-products in drinking water. 40 years old; not only are they showing signs of wear and In regards to wastewater collection and treatment, thetear, but they simply were not designed to handle the levelNational Pollution Discharge Elimination System programof growth that has occurred in many municipalities.established by the Clean Water Act, issues permits that Regulations often necessitate a need to upgrade. Bycontrol wastewater treatment plant discharges. Meeting per-matching funds or providing federal money to cover somemit is always a concern for wastewater treatment managersof the costs, municipalities can take advantage of a win-because the efuent discharged into water bodies affects dow of opportunity to improve their facility at a lowerthose downstream of the release point. Individual pointdirect cost to the community. Those federal dollars, ofsource dischargers must use the best available technologycourse, do come with strings attached; they are to be spentto control the levels of pollution in the efuent they dis-on specic projects in specic areas. On the other hand,charge into streams. As systems age, and best availablemany times new regulatory requirements are put in placetechnology changes, meeting permit with existing equip-without the nancial assistance needed to implement.ment and unit processes becomes increasingly difcult. When this occurs, either the local community ignores the 2003 by CRC Press LLC 33. new requirements (until caught and forced to comply) or Our experience has shown that few words conjure upthey face the situation and implement through local taxmore fear among municipal plant managers than privati-hikes to pay the cost of compliance. zation or reengineering. Privatization means allowingAn example of how a change in regulations can forceprivate enterprise to compete with government in providingthe issue is demonstrated by the demands made by the public services, such as water and wastewater operations.Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) Existing management, on the other hand, can accomplishand EPA in their Process Safety Management (PSM)/Riskreengineering internally or it can be used (and usually is)Management Planning (RMP) regulations. These regula- during the privatization process. Reengineering is the sys-tions put the use of elemental chlorine (and other listedtematic transformation of an existing system into a newhazardous materials) under scrutiny. Moreover, because form to realize quality improvements in operation, systemof these regulations, plant managers throughout the coun-capability, functionality, performance, or evolvability at atry are forced to choose which side of a double-edgedlower cost, schedule, or risk to the customer.sword cuts their way the most. One edge calls for fullMany on-site managers consider privatization and/orcompliance with the regulations (analogous to stufng thereengineering schemes threatening. In the worse case sce-regulation through the eye of a needle). The other edgenario, a private contractor could bid the entire staff out ofcalls for substitution. This means replacing elemental their jobs. In the best case, privatization and/or re-engi-chlorine with a nonlisted hazardous chemical (e.g.,neering is often a very real threat that forces on-sitehypochlorite) or a physical (ultraviolet irradiation) disin- managers into workforce cuts, improving efciency andfectant a very costly undertaking either way.cutting costs. (At the same time, on-site managers work to ensure the community receives safe drinking water andNote: Many of us who have worked in water andthe facility meets standards and permits. This is done withwastewater treatment for years characterizefewer workers and without injury or accident to workers,PSM and RMP as the elemental chlorine killer.the facility, or the environment.)You have probably heard the old saying: If you There are a number of reasons causing local ofcialscant do away with something in one way, thento take a hard look at privatization and/or re-engineering.regulate it to death. 1. Decaying infrastructures Many water andNote: Changes resulting because of regulatory pressurewastewater operations include water and waste-sometimes mean replacing or changing existing water infrastructures that date back to the earlyequipment, increased chemical costs (e.g., sub- 1900s. The most recent systems were built withstituting hypochlorite for chlorine typically federal funds during the 1970s, and even theseincreases costs threefold), and could easilynow need upgrading or replacing. The EPAinvolve increased energy and personnel costs. recently estimated that the nations 75,000+Equipment condition, new technology, anddrinking water systems alone would requirenancial concerns are all considerations when more than $100 billion in investments over theupgrades or new processes are chosen. In addi-next 20 years. Wastewater systems will requiretion, the safety of the process must be considereda similar level of investment.because of the demands made by EPA and 2. Mandates The federal government hasOSHA. The potential of harm to workers, the reduced its contributions to local water andcommunity, and the environment are all underwastewater systems over the past 30 years,study, as are the possible long-term effects of while at the same time imposing stricter waterchlorination on the human population. quality and efuent standards under the CleanWater Act and SDWA. Moreover, as previously1.4.3 PRIVATIZING AND/OR REENGINEERING8 mentioned, new unfunded mandated safety reg-ulations, such as OSHAs PSM and EPAs RMP,As mentioned, water and wastewater treatment operations are expensive to implement using local sourcesare undergoing a new paradigm shift. We explained thatof revenues or state revolving loan funds.this paradigm shift focused on the holistic approach to3. Hidden function Earlier we stated thattreating water. The shift is, however, more inclusive. It much of the work of water and wastewater treat-also includes thinking outside the box. In order to remainment is a hidden function. Because of this lackefcient and therefore competitive in the real world of of visibility, it is often difcult for local ofcialsoperations, water and wastewater facilities have either to commit to making the necessary investmentsbought into the new paradigm shift, or been forciblyin community water and wastewater systems.shifted to doing other things (often these other things Simply, the local politicians lack the politicalhave little to do with water and wastewater operations).will water pipes and interceptors are not 2003 by CRC Press LLC 34. Start Plan Research Observe Analyze AdaptFIGURE 1.2 Benchmarking process.visible and not perceived as immediately criti-performance vs. best-in-class operations, and using thecal for adequate funding. It is easier for elected analysis to meet and exceed the best in class.ofcials to ignore them in favor of expendituresof more visible services, such as police and re. What benchmarking is:Additionally, raising water and sewage rates tocover operations and maintenance is not always1. Benchmarking vs. best practices gives watereffected because it is an unpopular move for and wastewater operations a way to evaluateelected ofcials. This means that water andtheir operations overall.sewer rates do not adequately cover the actual a. How effectivecost of providing services in many municipalities. b. How cost effective2. Benchmarking shows plants both how wellIn many locations throughout the U.S., expenditurestheir operations stack up, and how well thoseon water and wastewater services are the largest facingoperations are implemented.local governments today. (This is certainly the case for3. Benchmarking is an objective-setting process.those municipalities struggling to implement the latest 4. Benchmarking is a new way of doing business.storm water requirements). Thus, this area presents a great 5. Benchmarking forces an external view toopportunity for cost savings. Through privatization, water ensure correctness of objective-setting.and wastewater companies can take advantage of advanced 6. Benchmarking forces internal alignment totechnology, more exible management practices, and achieve plant goals.streamlined procurement and construction practices to 7. Benchmarking promotes teamwork by direct-lower costs and make the critical improvements moreing attention to those practices necessary toquickly. remain competitive.1.4.4 BENCHMARKINGPotential results of benchmarking:Primarily out of self-preservation (to retain their lucrative 1. Benchmarking may indicate direction ofpositions), many utility directors work against the trendrequired change rather than specic metricsto privatize water, wastewater, and other public operations. a. Costs must be reducedUsually the real work to prevent privatization is delegatedb. Customer satisfaction must be increasedto the individual managers in charge of each specic oper- c. Return on assets must be increasedation. Moreover, it can be easily seen that working againstd. Improved maintenanceprivatization by these local managers is also in their own e. Improved operational practicesself-interest and in the interest of their workers; their jobs2. Best practices are translated into operationalmay be at stake. units of measure. The question is, of course, how does one go aboutpreventing his water and wastewater operation from beingTargets:privatized? The answer is rather straightforward and clear:Efciency must be improved at reduced cost. In the real 1. Consideration of available resources convertsworld, this is easier said than done, but is not impossible. benchmark ndings to targets.For example, for those facilities under Total Quality Man-2. A target represents what can realistically beagement (TQM), the process can be much easier. accomplished in a given timeframe. The advantage TQM offers the plant manager is the3. A target can show progress toward benchmarkvariety of tools to help plan, develop, and implement waterpractices and metrics.and wastewater efciency measures. These tools include4. Quantication of precise targets should beself-assessments, statistical process control, International based on achieving benchmark.Organization for Standards 9000 and 14000, process anal-ysis, quality circle, and benchmarking (see Figure 1.2). Note: Benchmarking can be performance based, pro- Our focus in this text is on use of the benchmarkingcess based, or strategy based and can comparetool to improve water and wastewater operations efciency.nancial or operational performance measures,Benchmarking is a process for rigorously measuring yourmethods or practices, or strategic choices. 2003 by CRC Press LLC 35. 1.4.4.1 Benchmarking: The Process 1.4.4.1.2 Benchmarking: An ExampleTo gain better understanding of the benchmarking process,When forming a benchmarking team, the goal should bewe have provided the following limited example. It is into provide a benchmark that evaluates and compares priva- outline and summary form only discussion of a full-tized and reengineered water and wastewater treatment blown study is beyond the scope of this text. (Althoughoperations to your operation. This helps your operation tothe details described below come from a real study, webe more efcient, remain competitive, and make continualhave provided a ctitious name for the sanitation district.)improvements. It is important to point out that benchmark-ing is more than simply setting a performance referenceor comparison; it is a way to facilitate learning for continualimprovements. The key to the learning process is lookingRachels Creek Sanitation Districtoutside ones own plant to other plants that have discoveredIntroductionbetter ways of achieving improved performance.In January 1997, Rachels Creek Sanitation District1.4.4.1.1 Benchmarking Stepsformed a benchmarking team with the goal of pro-viding a benchmark that evaluates and comparesAs shown in Figure 1.2, the benchmarking process con-privatized and re-engineered wastewater treatmentsists of ve steps.operations to Rachels Creek operations in order tobe more efcient and remain competitive. After three1. Planning Managers must select a process (ormonths of evaluating wastewater facilities using the processes) to be benchmarked. A benchmarking benchmarking tool, our benchmarking is complete. team should be formed. The process of bench- This report summarizes our ndings and should serve marking must be thoroughly understood andas a benchmark by which to compare and evaluate documented. The performance measure for theRachels Creek Sanitation District operations. process should be established (i.e., cost, time, and quality).Facilities2. Research Information on the best-in-class41 wastewater treatment plants throughout the U.S. performer must be determined through research. The benchmarking team focused on the followingtarget areas for comparison: The information can be derived from the indus-1. Reengineering trys network, industry experts, industry and2. Organization trade associations, publications, public informa-3. Operations and maintenance tion, and other award-winning operations.a. Contractual services3. Observation The observation step is a studyb. Materials and supplies of the benchmarking subjects performancec. Sampling and data collection level, processes, and practices that have achievedd. Maintenance those levels, and other enabling factors.4. Operational directives4. Analysis In this phase, comparisons in per-5. Utilities formance levels among facilities are determined. 6. Chemicals The root causes for the performance gaps are 7. Technology studied. To make accurate and appropriate com- 8. Permits parisons, the comparison data must be sorted,a. Water quality controlled for quality, and normalized.b. Solids quality5. Adaptation This phase is putting what is c. Air quality learned throughout the benchmarking processd. Odor quality into action. The ndings of the benchmarking 9. Safety study must be communicated to gain accep- 10. Training and development tance, functional goals must be established, and11. Process a plan must be developed. Progress should be12. Communication monitored and, as required, corrections in the13. Public relations process made. 14. Reuse 15. Support servicesNote: Benchmarking should be interactive. It should a. Pretreatmentalso recalibrate performance measures and b. Collection systemsimprove the process.c. Procurement 2003 by CRC Press LLC 36. d. Finance and administrationequipment, and kept the plant clean. Due to theire. Laboratoryefciency and low staff, we felt that most of thef. Human resources privately operated plants were better than ours. We agreed this needs to be changed. Using what weSummary of Findings: learned during our benchmarking effort, we can beOur overall evaluation of Rachels Creek Sanitationjust as efcient as a privately operated plant and stillDistrict as compared to our benchmarking targets ismaintain our standards of quality.a good one; that is, we are in good standing as com-pared to the 41 target facilities we benchmarked with.In the area of safety, we compare quite favorably.Only plant 34, with its own full time safety manager,1.4.5 The Bottom Line on Privatizationappeared to be better than we are. We were verycompetitive with the privatized plants in our usage of Privatization is becoming of greater and greater concern.chemicals and far ahead of many public plants. WeGovernance boards see privatization as a potential way towere also competitive in the use of power. Our surveyshift liability and responsibility from the municipalitysof what other plants are doing to cut power costsshoulders, with the attractive bonus of cutting costs. Bothshowed that we clearly identied those areas ofwater and wastewater facilities face constant pressure toimprovement and our current effort to further reduce work more efciently and more cost-effectively withpower costs is on track. We were far ahead in thefewer workers to produce a higher quality product; alloptimization of our unit processes and we were lead- functions must be value-added. Privatization is increasing,ers in the area of odor control. and many municipalities are seriously considering out-There were also areas that we need to improve. sourcing part or all of their operations to contractors.To the Rachels Creek employee, reengineeringapplies to only the treatment department and has been1.5 UPGRADING SECURITYlimited to cutting staff while plant practices and orga-nizational practices are outdated and inefcient.You may say Homeland Security is a Y2K problem thatUnder the reengineering section of this report, wedoesnt end January 1 of any given year.have provided a summary of reengineering efforts atthe reengineered plants visited. The experiences ofthese plants can be used to improve our own re-Governor Tom Ridge9engineering effort. Next is our organization and staff-ing levels. A private company could reduce the entireOne consequence of the events of September 11 was EPAstreatment department staff by about 18 to 24%. The directive to establish a Water Protection Task Force to18 to 24% are based on number of employees and ensure that activities to protect and secure water sup-not costs. In the organization section of this report, ply/wastewater treatment infrastructure are comprehen-organizational models and their stafng levels are sive and carried out expeditiously. Another consequenceprovided as guidelines to improving our organization is a heightened concern among citizens in the U.S. overand determining optimum stafng levels. The last big the security of their critical water and wastewater infra-area that we need to improve is in the way we accom- structure. The nations water and wastewater infrastructureplish the work we perform. Our people are not used consisting of several thousand publicly owned water andefciently because of outdated and inefcient policies wastewater treatment plants, more than 100,000 pumpingand work practices. Methods to improve the way westations, hundreds of thousands of miles of water distri-do work are found throughout this report. We noted bution and sanitary sewers, and another 200,000 miles ofthat efcient work practices used by private compa-storm sewers is one of Americas most valuable resources,nies allow plants to operate with small staffs.with treatment and distribution/collection systems valuedOverall, Rachels Creek Sanitation District treat- at more than $2.5 trillion. Wastewater treatment operationsment plants are much better than other public plants.taken alone include the sanitary and storm sewers, formingAlthough some plants may have better equipment,an extensive network that runs near or beneath key build-better technology, and cleaner efuents, the costs inings and roads, and is contiguous to many communicationlabor and materials is much higher than ours. Severaland transportation networks. Signicant damage to theof the public plants were in bad condition. Contrary nations wastewater facilities or collection systems wouldto popular belief, the privately operated plants had result in loss of life; catastrophic environmental damagegood to excellent operations. These plants met permit, to rivers, lakes, and wetlands; contamination of drinkingcomplied with safety regulations, maintained plant water supplies; long-term public health impacts; destruction 2003 by CRC Press LLC 37. of sh and shellsh production; and disruption of com-ment, public health, environmental protection,merce, the economy, and our normal way of life. and emergency response organizations.Governor Tom Ridge points out the security role ford. Ensure that employees are fully aware of thethe public professional (we interpret this to include water importance of vigilance and the seriousnessand wastewater professionals):of breaches in security, and make note ofunaccompanied strangers on the site and Americans should nd comfort in knowing that millionsimmediately notify designated security of their fellow citizens are working every day to ensure ofcers or local law enforcement agencies. our security at every level federal, state, county, munic-e. Consider varying the timing of operational ipal. These are dedicated professionals who are good atprocedures if possible in case someone is what they do. Ive seen it up close, as Governor of Penn-watching the pattern changes. sylvania but there may be gaps in the system. The job of the Ofce of Homeland Security will be to identify f. Upon the dismissal of an employee, change those gaps and work to close them.10 passcodes and make sure keys and accesscards are returned. It is to shore up the gaps in the system that has driveng. Provide customer service staff with trainingmany water and wastewater facilities to increase security.and checklists of how to handle a threat if itIn its Water Protection Task Force Alert #IV: What Waste-is called in.water Utilities Can Do Now to Guard Against Terrorist 3. Coordinating actions for effective emergencyand Security Threats,11 EPA made several recommenda-responsetions to increase security and reduce threats from terrorism.a. Review existing emergency response plans,The recommendations include:and ensure they are current and relevant. b. Make sure employees have necessary train-1. Guarding against unplanned physical intrusioning in emergency operating procedures. (water and wastewater)c. Develop clear protocols and chains-of-com- a. Lock all doors and set alarms at your ofce,mand for reporting and responding to threatspumping stations, treatment plants, and along with relevant emergency, law enforce-vaults, and make it a rule that doors are ment, environmental, public health ofcials,locked and alarms are set.consumers, and the media. Practice the b. Limit access to facilities and control access emergency protocols regularly.to pumping stations, chemical and fuel stor- d. Ensure key utility personnel (both on and offage areas, giving close scrutiny to visitorsduty) have access to crucial telephone num-and contractors.bers and contact information at all times. c. Post guards at treatment plants, and post Keep the call list up to date.employee only signs in restricted areas. e. Develop close relationships with local law d. Control access to storm sewers. enforcement agencies, and make sure they e. Secure hatches, metering vaults, manholes,know where critical assets are located.and other access points to the sanitary col-Request they add your facilities to their rou-lection system. tine rounds. f. Increase lighting in parking lots, treatment f. Work with local industries to ensure thatbays, and other areas with limited stafng. their pretreatment facilities are secure. g. Control access to computer networks andg. Report to county or state health ofcials anycontrol systems, and change the passwords illness among the employees that might befrequently. associated with wastewater contamination. h. Do not leave keys in equipment or vehicles h. Report criminal threats, suspicious behavior,at any time.or attacks on wastewater utilities immedi-2. Making security a priority for employees ately to law enforcement ofcials and the a. Conduct background security checks on relevant eld ofce of the Federal Bureau ofemployees at hiring and periodicallyInvestigation.thereafter. 4. Investing in security and infrastructure b. Develop a security program with writtenimprovementsplans and train employees frequently.a. Assess the vulnerability of collection/distri- c. Ensure all employees are aware of communi-bution system, major pumping stations,cations protocols with relevant law enforce-water and wastewater treatment plants, 2003 by CRC Press LLC 38. chemical and fuel storage areas, outfall able, introduction of techniques to make more water avail- pipes, and other key infrastructure elements.able through watershed management, cloud seeding,b. Assess the vulnerability of the storm waterdesalination of saline or brackish water, or area-wide edu- collection system. Determine where large cational programs to teach conservation or reuse of pipes run near or beneath government build-water.12 ings, banks, commercial districts, industrial Many of the management techniques employed in facilities, or are contiguous with major com-water treatment operations are also employed in wastewa- munication and transportation networks.ter treatment. In addition, wastewater treatment operationsc. Move as quickly as possible with the mostemploy management techniques that may include upgrad- obvious and cost-effective physical improve- ing present systems for nutrient removal, reuse of process ments, such as perimeter fences, securityresiduals in an earth-friendly manner, and area-wide lighting, tamper-proong manhole coverseducational programs to teach proper domestic and indus- and valve boxes, etc.trial waste disposal practices.d. Improve computer system and remote oper-Whether managing a waterworks or wastewater treat- ational security.ment plant, the manager, in regards to expertise, must bee. Use local citizen watches. a well-rounded, highly skilled individual. No one ques-f. Seek nancing for more expensive and com-tions the need for incorporation of these highly-trained prehensive system improvements.practitioners well-versed in the disciplines of sanitaryengineering, biology, chemistry, hydrology, environmental1.5.1 THE BOTTOM LINEON SECURITYscience, safety principles, accountants, auditors, technicalaspects, and operations in both professions. Based onAgain, when it comes to the security of our nation andpersonal experience, however, engineers, biologists,even of water and wastewater treatment facilities, few have chemists, and others with no formal management trainingsummed it better than Governor Ridge: are often hindered (limited) in their ability to solve thecomplex management problems currently facing both Now, obviously, the further removed we get from Sep- industries. tember 11, I think the natural tendency is to let down ourThere are those who will view this opinion with some guard. Unfortunat