Water Tests:

What Do the Numbers Mean?

College of Agricultural SciencesAgricultural Research and CooperativeExtension

mg

µg H2S

SO4

Cl

Fe

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Table of Contents

3 About This Publication

3 Why Test Your Water?

3 Use a Certified Laboratory

4 A Typical Water Test Report

5 The Components of a TypicalWater Test Report

6 What Are Drinking WaterStandards?

6 Understanding Units

7 Descriptions of CommonPollutants (by Category)

7 Microbial Pollutants

7 Coliform Bacteria

7 Fecal Coliform Bacteria

8 Fecal Streptococcus Bacteria

8 E. Coli

8 Standard Plate Count(Heterotrophic Plate Count)

8 Iron Bacteria

8 Giardia and Cryptosporidium

9 Inorganic Chemicals

9 Alkalinity

9 Arsenic (As)

9 Barium (Ba)

9 Chloride (Cl)

9 Copper (Cu)

10 Corrosivity

10 Hardness

11 Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

11 Iron (Fe)

11 Lead (Pb)

12 Manganese (Mn)

12 Nitrate (NO3)

12 pH

12 Sulfate (SO4)

12 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

13 Turbidity

13 Organic Chemicals

13 Volatile Organic Chemicals(VOCs)

14 Benzene

14 Carbon Tetrachloride

14 Chloroform

14 MTBE (Methyl Tert-ButylEther)

14 Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) andTrichloroethylene (TCE)

14 Xylenes

15 Nonvolatile or Synthetic OrganicChemicals (SOCs)

15 Atrazine

15 2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid(2,4-D)

15 Chlorpyrifos

15 Glyphosate

16 Metolachlor

16 Simazine

16 Other Synthetic OrganicChemicals

16 Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD)

16 Polychlorinated Biphenyls(PCBs)

16 Radiological Pollutants

16 Radon

17 Need More Information?

17 What’s Your Next Step?

19 APPENDIX I—DRINKING WATER

STANDARDS

21 APPENDIX II—GLOSSARY OF

COMMON TERMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

24 Quick Reference Table toCommon Pollutants inPennsylvania

26 Important Information AboutYour Water Source

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About This Publication

Congratulations! If you are interested inthis publication, you must have hadyour water tested. That’s a big steptoward ensuring that your water supplyis safe to drink. But are you able tounderstand and interpret what yourwater test report really means? Watertest reports sometimes seem as thoughthey are written in another language.That’s where this publication fits in—itwill help you translate your water testreport into more understandable terms.

If water tests are completely new to you,you might want to read the first fewpages, which give a description of asample water test report and providespecific explanations of drinking waterstandards and measurement units. Ifyou’re more experienced with watertests, you might want to go straight tothe detailed discussions of 40 commonwater quality problems in Pennsylvaniaor consult the quick reference guide thatsummarizes these 40 contaminants inone table. References to more detailedwritten and Web-based publications canbe found in many of the topics and nearthe end of the publication. You can evenget some tips on what to do if yourwater test report indicates a waterquality problem. In the Appendices,you’ll find a detailed listing of up-to-date drinking water standards and aglossary that defines some of thoseconfusing water quality terms. Finally,you can use the last two pages tocompile a record of informationessential to the operation of your watersupply. The pocket provided inside theback cover is a handy place to storewater test reports and other importantinformation (well logs, treatmentequipment manuals, etc.).

That water test report may lookconfusing, but with a little help you canmake sense out of it in no time! If you’reready, let’s start learning about yourreport and what it tells you about thesafety of your drinking water.

Why Test Your Water?

If you’ve had your water tested, youprobably did so to find out if it is safe touse as a drinking water supply. Even ifyour water tastes, smells, and looks fine,water testing is necessary because manycontaminants have no obvious odors ortastes. In other cases, where a waterquality problem is obvious, testing candetermine the exact concentration ofthe pollutant to assist in determiningthe best solution to the problem.

Water testing is especially necessary ifyour house is served by a private watersystem, because many of these systemshave water quality problems. Privatewater systems include drilled wells, dugwells, springs, or cisterns that serve anindividual home. There are no regula-tions or laws that require water testing,system maintenance, or water treatmenton these water supplies. Rather, ownersmust voluntarily arrange for watertesting and must voluntarily correct anyproblems to provide safe drinking water.Regardless of whether your water supplyis private or public, the information inthis publication will help you interpretwater test results.

If you live in a community that is servedby a public water supply (i.e., onesource of water for multiple customers),then the water company already doeswater testing for you. Public watersuppliers are required by law to rou-tinely test their water and treat it tomeet water quality standards. They arealso required to issue water test reportsto their customers on a regular basis.This publication may be helpful ininterpreting these reports also.

Although drinking water standards areapplicable to all types of water supplies,they are not legally binding for privatewater supplies. It is recommended,however, that private water supplyowners maintain their water quality tothe same standards required by law forpublic water supplies.

Use a Certified Laboratory

Always have your water tested by acertified water testing laboratory. ThePennsylvania Department of Environ-mental Protection (DEP) certifies watertesting laboratories in Pennsylvania toensure they are using analytical proce-dures designed to give accurate testresults. Be sure to ask if the lab iscertified every time you have your watertested. Laboratories are re-evaluatedperiodically, and their certificationstatus may change. You can obtain a listof certified labs from your local PennState Cooperative Extension Office orfrom your local DEP office. Also, yourlocal DEP office can arrange for bacteriatesting through their state laboratory.

Be cautious of water test results fromuncertified labs. In addition, be cautiousof water test results from salespeopleand others who say they have their ownlaboratories or who try to test water atyour residence. Always have these testsconfirmed by a certified laboratory and,if possible, interpreted by a knowledge-able and neutral third party beforetaking corrective action.

Once you have received your water testreport from the laboratory, you’re readyto interpret exactly what it means. Theexample water test report on the nextpage will get you started by familiarizingyou with the information presented inthe report.

For More Information onHaving Your Water Tested

Testing your water is like a trip tothe doctor. If you have no ideawhat is wrong, the doctor willhave to run every known test topin down the problem, and thecost could be enormous. Factsheet #F-104, Water Testing, isavailable from your local exten-sion office to help you determinewhich water tests are mostappropriate for your water supply.

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A Typical Water Test Report

Water Analysis Report

Sample Number: 1000034

Sample Description: Well water at kitchen tap

Sampled By: Client

Date/Time Sampled: 3/22/00 10:00 AM

Date/Time Sample Received: 3/22/00 1:00 PM

Comments:

Sample does not meet safe drinking water standards. Total coliform bacteria are present. Iron concentration is above recommended

level. Water should be disinfected to remove bacteria. Treatment of iron may be necessary if staining or taste are objectionable.

532Analysis Result Unit Standard

Total Coliform Bacteria 20 per 100 ml 0 per 100 ml

Fecal Coliform Bacteria ND per 100 ml 0 per 100 ml

pH 7.2 pH units 6.5 to 8.5

Hardness 7.3 gpg no standard

Total Dissolved Solids 260 mg/L < 500 mg/L

Iron 0.4 mg/L < 0.3 mg/L

Nitrate 4.23 mg/L < 45 mg/L

Lead 11 µg/L < 15 µg/L

1Client: John Doe

12 University Street

Anytown, PA 10000

Submitted by:

Laboratory Director

ANYLAB LABORATORIES INC.

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Pennsylvania has dozens of water

testing laboratories, each with its own

way of presenting results. Your water test

may not look exactly like the one shown

here, but it probably contains the same

basic components. Read about each

water test component below and try to

find it on your own water test report.

Remember that these are only the most

common components of a typical water

test report. Some laboratories will

include additional information such as

the method used for each test (usually

an EPA number), the initials of the

person that completed each test, and the

date each test was completed. This

information is generally unimportant to

the client.

1. Client and Sample Information

Basic information at the top of most

water test reports identifies the person

who submitted the water sample, where

the sample came from, who received it at

the laboratory, etc. This is called the

chain-of-custody information and could

be very important if the results were to

be used in any type of legal action.

2. Analysis

All water test reports will list the water

quality parameters that were tested. The

list will include only those that you asked

the laboratory to analyze or those that

the lab recommended for your water

sample. The number of parameters can

vary from just a few to dozens of tests.

Consult other sections of this publication

for a description of each of these tests.

3. Results

The most important information on your

water test report are the actual results

that the laboratory found for your water

sample. The numbers indicate the

concentration of each water quality

parameter in your water sample. In some

cases, the unit of measure for each test

will be shown next to the result. In others,

the units will be shown in a separate

column (as in the example test report).

The result for each test should be

compared to the drinking water standard

for that parameter. Sometimes, a water

test result will be reported as “ND” (Not

Detected), which means that the lab was

unable to detect any of that pollutant with

its equipment. Similarly, some results

may have a less-than sign (<) in front of

a number. This result means the sample

contained less than the detection level

for that test. Detection levels are often

set at the permissible drinking water

concentration for a particular pollutant. If

the less-than symbol (<) appears before

a number and the number is equal to the

drinking water standard, the water is

likely safe to drink for that particular

contaminant.

4. Units

Concentrations of pollutants are usually

measured in water by a unit of weight

such as milligrams per liter (mg/L), or by

number such as number of bacteria per

100 milliliters of water (#/100 ml). You

might see several different measurement

units on your water test report. Refer to

the section “Understanding Units” on

page 6 to learn more about these.

5. Standards

Many laboratories include the specific

drinking water standards on the report

next to each test result. This allows for an

easy comparison of your result with the

safe or recommended level for each test

parameter. A complete list of up-to-date

drinking water standards can be found in

Appendix I in this publication.

6. Comments

Some water testing laboratories will

include a brief explanation of your water

test results. Specifically, they often will

list those pollutants that did not meet the

drinking water standard. Occasionally,

these comments will also describe the

potential harmful effects of pollutants that

exceeded the standard and how these

pollutants may be removed from the

water.

The Components of a Typical Water Test Report

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What Are Drinking WaterStandards?

Drinking water standards give the levelof a pollutant that is acceptable in water.These standards are set by the U.S.Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) using available research data. TheEPA sets standards for contaminantsthat are known to occur in water, aredetectable in water, and cause a healthor aesthetic problem in water. EPA setsthese standards, but it is up to thePennsylvania Department of Environ-mental Protection to enforce thestandards when and where they apply.

Two types of drinking water standardsare used: primary and secondary.Primary standards are set for contami-nants that cause some health effect suchas illness, disease, cancer, or anotherhealth problem. Adherence to thesestandards is mandatory for public watersystems, but on private water systemsthese standards are voluntary. Primarystandards are also known as MaximumContaminant Levels or MCLs.

Secondary standards are created forwater contaminants that cause aestheticproblems such as bad taste, discolora-tion, or odor. In the past, these stan-dards were always voluntary and wereused mainly as guides. Recently,however, some community watersystems have been required to meetsome of these secondary standards.Secondary standards are also known asSecondary Maximum ContaminantLevels (SMCLs) or RecommendedMaximum Contaminant Levels(RMCLs).

Understanding Units

All drinking water test results andstandards have a unit associated withthem. These units give the amount ofthe pollutant per unit of water. Themost common unit is the milligram perliter (mg/L), which expresses themilligrams of a pollutant in every literof water. Some laboratories prefer to useparts per million (ppm), which isidentical to milligrams per liter. Somecontaminants that can be measured invery small quantities are reported inmicrograms per liter (µg/L), which isidentical to a part per billion (ppb).Keep in mind that concentrationsexpressed in mg/L (or ppm) can beconverted to µg/L (or ppb) by multiply-ing by 1,000, and that µg/L (or ppb)can be converted to mg/L (or ppm) bydividing by 1,000.

The Most Common Water TestUnits

milligrams per liter (mg/L) =parts per million (ppm)

micrograms per liter (µg/L) =parts per billion

Most pollutants occur in water in verysmall concentrations. The units shownabove are designed to express these smallconcentrations. The following examplesillustrate just how small these unitsreally are.

● One milligram per liter (mg/L) orpart per million (ppm) correspondsto one minute in two years or asingle penny in $10,000.

● One microgram per liter (µg/L) orpart per billion (ppb) corresponds toone minute in 2,000 years or a singlepenny in $10,000,000.

Although most water quality measure-ments are expressed in these units, sometests such as bacteria, corrosivity,turbidity, and radon use different units.To learn more about these other units,refer to the discussions on individualparameters in the following section.

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Descriptions of CommonPollutants (by category)

Hundreds of pollutants can occur indrinking water in Pennsylvania. Theycan be grouped into four basic catego-ries: microbial, inorganic, organic, andradiological. Although over 100pollutants have drinking water stan-dards (see Appendix I for a completelist), many of these pollutants are veryrare in Pennsylvania. The followingsections briefly discuss 40 of the mostcommon pollutants in Pennsylvaniadrinking water. These pollutants arelisted alphabetically within the fourcategories.

Microbial Pollutants

Microbial pollutants include bacteria,viruses, and protozoans. These are livingorganisms that are visible in water onlywith the help of a high-poweredmicroscope. Many different kinds ofbacteria, some disease-causing but manynot, may be present in a water supply.The tests discussed below are specificbacteria tests that are used to determinewhether disease-causing bacteria may bepresent in the water. Protozoans are lesscommon in water than bacteria, but afew can be problems. Viruses will not bediscussed because they rarely occur inPennsylvania drinking water; however,viruses such as hepatitis are carried bywater and can cause serious illness.

Coliform BacteriaColiform bacteria are a large group ofbacteria that occur throughout theenvironment. They are used as anindicator organism to indicate thepotential for disease-causing bacteria tobe present in water. In other words, ifcoliform bacteria are present, it ispresumed that a contamination pathwayexists between the bacteria source andthe water supply and that disease-causing bacteria may use this pathwayto enter the water supply. Coliformbacteria occur frequently in privatewater systems, usually from contamina-tion by surface runoff or from humanor animal wastes.

Most coliform bacteria do not causedisease, but the greater their number thegreater the likelihood that disease-causing bacteria may be present. Sincecoliforms persist in water longer thanmost disease-causing organisms, theabsence of coliform bacteria leads to theassumption that the water supply ismicrobiologically safe to drink. Con-suming water with coliform bacteriapresent may cause gastrointestinalillnesses, fever, and other flu-likesymptoms. Therefore, the drinkingwater standard requires that no coliform

bacteria be present in public drinkingwater supplies.

Results from coliform bacteria tests arenormally expressed as the number ofbacteria colonies present per 100milliliters (ml) of water. Some laborato-ries may simply express coliformbacteria results as “Present” (P), or“Absent” (A). In this case, “Present”indicates only that at least one bacte-rium was present in each 100 ml ofwater. Occasionally, bacteria results willbe expressed as “MPN,” which standsfor Most Probable Number. This simplymeans that a statistical relationship wasused to estimate the number of bacteriain your sample. Finally, bacteria resultsalso may be reported as “TNTC,” or“Too Numerous To Count,” meaningthe bacteria concentration was too highto quantify.

Fecal Coliform BacteriaFecal coliform bacteria are a smallergroup of bacteria within the coliformbacteria group. Water may be tested forfecal coliform bacteria if the totalcoliform test is positive. Fecal coliformbacteria are specific to the intestinaltracts of warm-blooded animals and arethus a more specific test for sewage oranimal waste contamination. The ratioof fecal coliform bacteria to fecalstreptococcus bacteria is often used toestimate the source of bacterial contami-nation (see discussion below). Fecalcoliform bacteria levels are expressed asthe number of colonies per 100 ml ofwater. No fecal coliform bacteria arepermitted in public drinking watersupplies.

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Fecal Streptococcus BacteriaFecal streptococcus bacteria are anothersmaller group of bacteria within thecoliform bacteria group that areespecially numerous in animal waste (asopposed to human waste). The ratio offecal coliform to fecal streptococcusbacteria is usually much higher inhumans than it is in animals. As a ruleof thumb, a fecal coliform to fecalstreptococcus ratio greater than 4.0 isindicative of a human source of bacteriasuch as a septic system. A ratio less than1.0 is indicative of an animal source ofbacteria such as runoff from a feedlot.Ratios between 1.0 and 4.0 are incon-clusive about the source of the bacteria.Fecal streptococcus bacteria are ex-pressed as the number of colonies per100 ml of water. No fecal streptococcusbacteria are permitted in drinking water.

E. ColiAn even more specific bacteria test is thetest for E. coli (short for Escherichiacoli). This is a type of fecal coliformbacteria commonly found in theintestines of animals and humans. Apositive E. coli result is a strong indica-tion that human sewage or animal wastehas contaminated the water.

Hundreds of strains of E. coli exist.Although most are harmless and live inthe intestines of healthy humans andanimals, a few can produce a powerfultoxin that causes severe illness and evendeath. Infection often causes severebloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps;sometimes the infection causes non-bloody diarrhea. Frequently, no fever ispresent. It should be noted that thesesymptoms are common to a variety ofdiseases and may be caused by sourcesother than contaminated drinkingwater.

E. coli tests are reported as the numberof bacteria per 100 ml of water. Thepresence of any E. coli in a water sampleis unacceptable; thus, the primarydrinking water standard for E. coli is 0per 100 ml of water.

Standard Plate Count (HeterotrophicPlate Count)The Standard Plate Count (SPC) orHeterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) is amore general indicator of bacterialcontamination. On some test reports,this also may be referred to as the “TotalBacteria Count.” It measures all of thebacteria, including coliform and manyother groups, in a water sample. TheSPC is usually reported as the numberof bacteria per milliliter of sample.There are no drinking water standardsfor SPC, but if more than 500 bacteriaare counted in one milliliter of sample,further testing for total coliform or fecalcoliform bacteria is suggested.

Iron BacteriaIron bacteria are a type of bacteria thatfeed on small amounts of iron in water.Iron bacteria do not constitute a healththreat, but they are a nuisance in privatewater systems because they formgelatinous strands, masses, or thin filmsthat plug pipes, toilets, and plumbingfixtures and reduce flow from wells.Their appearance can vary from orangeor brown to clear. Iron bacteria cancolonize an entire water system from thewell itself through the plumbing, orthey may be present only in parts of theplumbing system.

There are no drinking water standardsfor iron bacteria. Rather, their presenceis normally aesthetically degradingenough to require treatment. Watertesting is rarely available to determine ifiron bacteria are present. Confirmationis usually based upon the visual symp-toms in the water.

For More Information onBacteria in Water

Contact your local Penn StateCooperative Extension office andask for Extension Circular #345,Safeguarding Wells and Springsfrom Bacterial Contamination.

Giardia and CryptosporidiumGiardia lamblia and Cryptosporidiumparvum are small microscopic animalsknown as protozoa. They both can livein the intestinal tract of mammals,including humans. While there, theymultiply by producing oocysts. Infectedanimals and humans can excrete theoocysts, which can then contaminatewater sources. Once ingested, theorganism emerges from the protectiveoocyst and infects the lining of theintestine. Both giardiasis andcryptosporidiosis cause severe diarrhea,nausea, fever, headache, vomiting, andloss of appetite. Both illnesses can belife-threatening to people with de-pressed immune systems.

Many private water system owners arefamiliar with Giardia andCryptosporidium as a result of publicityfollowing outbreaks of illnesses inpublic water supplies. Most of theseoutbreaks have occurred in communi-ties that use surface water supplies(streams, rivers, lakes) where the oocystscan commonly be found. Giardia andCryptosporidium are rarely a concern forprivate water systems using deepergroundwater sources, because theoocysts are efficiently filtered as waterpasses through soil and rock. Shallowsprings or poorly constructed wells thatbecome contaminated with surfacewater would be most likely to containGiardia and Cryptosporidium oocysts.This is one reason that roadside springsare not a good alternative source ofdrinking water.

Both Giardia and Cryptosporidium aremeasured in water by filtering largevolumes of the water through a smallfilter and examining the filter under amicroscope for oocysts. Oocysts shouldbe totally absent from water for it to besafe to drink.

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For more information onGiardia and Cryptosporidium:

Contact your local extensionoffice and ask for Penn StateAgricultural and BiologicalEngineering Fact Sheet F-134,Removing Giardia Cysts fromDrinking Water.

Consult the following Pennsylva-nia Department of EnvironmentalProtection fact sheet:http://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/wsm/wsm_dwm/complian/cryto-giardia.htm

Inorganic Chemicals (IOCs)

The second category of water pollutantsincludes inorganic chemicals. These areusually substances of mineral origin.Salt, metals, and minerals are examplesof inorganic chemicals. The chemicalsdiscussed alphabetically below are themost common inorganic pollutants inPennsylvania water supplies, or they areof the greatest health concern. Unlessotherwise stated, these inorganicchemicals are usually reported in mg/Lor ppm units.

AlkalinityAlkalinity is a commonly measuredwater characteristic that has littlemeaning or importance to the typicalhomeowner. It is a measure of theability of water to neutralize acids.Calcium is a major component ofalkalinity, as it is with hardness. Thus, ifyour water has a high alkalinity, it isprobably hard also. There is no drinkingwater standard for alkalinity.

Arsenic (As)Arsenic occurs in groundwater fromboth natural sources and humanactivities. In drinking water, it isodorless and tasteless. It is relatively rarein Pennsylvania water supplies, com-pared to those of the western UnitedStates.

In Pennsylvania, arsenic can originatenatually from certain types of rock, or itmay be traced to deep-water brinesproduced from gas and oil well drillingor from industrial activity. Arsenic has aprimary drinking water standardbecause it can cause skin lesions,circulatory problems, and nervoussystem disorders. Prolonged exposurealso can cause various forms of cancer.The present arsenic drinking waterstandard (0.05 mg/L) is being studiedand will likely be lowered to 0.005 mg/L(5 µg/L) in the near future. A recentsurvey by the U.S. Geological Survey(USGS) found that arsenic exceeded 5µg/L in 5% of wells in Pennsylvania.

Barium (Ba)Like arsenic, barium occurs naturally insmall concentrations in many ground-water supplies. Barium contamination isnot common in private water systems inPennsylvania, but it may occur sporadi-cally in western and northern Pennsyl-vania near active and abandoned gasand oil wells.

Barium has a primary drinking waterstandard of 2.0 mg/L because it causesnervous and circulatory system prob-lems, especially high blood pressure.Standard water softeners are effective inremoving barium.

Chloride (Cl)Chloride is common in Pennsylvaniawater supplies, but it rarely reacheslevels of concern. It occurs naturally inmost groundwater but may becomeelevated due to leaching from saltstorage areas around highways or frombrines produced during gas well drilling.Other possible sources of chloride aresewage effluent, animal manure, andindustrial waste.

Chloride has a secondary drinking waterstandard of 250 mg/L because it maycause a salty taste in the water. Ground-water in Pennsylvania usually containsless than 25 mg/L of chloride.

Copper (Cu)Copper usually originates from corro-sion of copper plumbing in the home(see “Corrosivity,” below). Copper has asecondary drinking water standard of1.0 mg/L because it causes a bitter,metallic taste in water and a blue-greenstain in sinks and bathtubs. Copperlevels above 1.3 mg/L are a healthconcern because they may cause severestomach cramps and intestinal illnesses.Copper can be reduced in water usingthe corrosion control strategies outlinedbelow.

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CorrosivityCorrosive water is a term used todescribe aggressive water that candissolve materials with which it comesin contact. It is a problem because manyhomes have copper or galvanized pipes,lead solder joints, and brass plumbingfixtures. Thus, corrosive water maycause increases in copper and leadconcentrations in drinking water. Inrare cases, corrosive water may dissolveeven PVC plastic plumbing, causingvinyl chloride contamination of thewater. This generally occurs only wheninferior plastic pipe that was notapproved for drinking water systems hasbeen used. Approved plastic pipe isdirectly stamped with “NSF” (NationalSanitation Foundation) and “DrinkingWater” on the side.

Symptoms of corrosive water problemsinclude metallic taste, bluish-greenstains in sinks and bathtubs, and, insevere cases, small leaks in the plumbingsystem. Because corrosive water is not ahealth concern by itself, there is only asecondary or recommended standard thatwater be noncorrosive.

Water that is soft and acidic (pH < 7.0)tends to be more corrosive, but the onlytrue measure of water corrosivity is astability or saturation index. Theseindices use chemical characteristics ofthe water such as hardness and pH toestimate its corrosiveness. A stabilityindex greater than about 6.5 indicateswater that is probably corrosive, withhigher values being increasingly corro-sive. A negative saturation index valuelikewise indicates a corrosive watersupply. The most common saturationindex in use is the Langelier SaturationIndex (LSI).

Past surveys of private water supplies inPennsylvania have indicated thatcorrosive water is a common waterquality problem, present in over 60% ofthe groundwater wells and springstested. It tends to be most common innorthern and western Pennsylvaniawhere more acidic groundwater isprevalent, although areas underlain byTriassic shales in southeastern Pennsyl-vania also produce corrosive water. It isleast common in the agricultural valleysunderlain by limestone where ground-water typically has a higher pH andhardness. Cistern water can be quitecorrosive.

If your water test indicates that yourwater is corrosive, you should test yourwater for copper and lead. Corrosivewater problems can be corrected usingan acid neutralizing filter or by replac-ing metal plumbing with NSF-approvedplastic components.

HardnessHardness is a general term used to referto the CaCO

3 (calcium carbonate)

content of water. Hardness does notpose a health threat, but it does causeaesthetic problems. It can ruin hot waterheater elements, reduce soap lathering,and make laundry difficult to clean.Moderate levels of hardness are benefi-cial because they inhibit plumbingsystem corrosion. Removal of hardnessusing a water softener is necessary onlyif the water is causing aesthetic prob-lems. Use of water softeners may resultin undesirable levels of sodium indrinking water and may increaseplumbing system corrosion.

Hardness may be reported in milligramsper liter (mg/L) or in a special unitcalled grains per gallon (gpg). One grainper gallon is equal to about 17 mg/L orparts per million (ppm). Since the levelof hardness or calcium carbonate meanslittle to consumers, a chart of waterhardness classifications has beendeveloped and appears on the next page.A water hardness of about 90 to 100mg/L provides excellent corrosioncontrol and is usually acceptableaesthetically, but there are no drinkingwater standards for hardness.

For More Information on WaterSoftening

Contact your local Penn StateCooperative Extension office andask for Agricultural and BiologicalEngineering Fact Sheet F-141,Water Softening.

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Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S)

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is a noxious gas

that imparts a disagreeable rotten eggodor when dissolved in water. It is anaturally occurring gas that is commonin groundwater in parts of Pennsylvania.Very small concentrations of hydrogensulfide in water are offensive to mostindividuals. Although hydrogen sulfideis a highly toxic gas, only under themost unusual conditions would it reachlevels toxic to humans as a result of itsoccurrence in drinking water. Moreoften, it is simply an aesthetic odorproblem that can be removed usingseveral treatment processes.

Iron (Fe)Iron is a common natural problem ingroundwater in Pennsylvania that maybe worsened by mining activities. Itoccurs throughout Pennsylvania but ismost problematic in the western regionof the state. Iron does not occur indrinking water in concentrations ofhealth concern to humans. The second-ary drinking water standard for iron is0.3 mg/L because it causes a metallictaste and orange-brown stains that makewater unsuitable for drinking andclothes washing.

Lead (Pb)If lead is detected in your drinkingwater, it probably originated fromcorrosion of your plumbing system.Lead was a common component ofsolders used in plumbing systems untilit was banned in 1991. In homes builtin the early 1900s, lead pipe also may bepresent. Thus, if your home was builtbefore 1991 and has a metal plumbingsystem, it is likely that some lead ispresent. If your water supply is corrosive(see discussion above), then any leadpresent in the plumbing system may bedissolved into your drinking water. Leadconcentrations are usually highest in thefirst water out of the tap (known as“first-draw” water), since this water hasbeen in contact with the plumbing for alonger time. Lead concentrationstypically decrease as water is flushedthrough the plumbing system.

A survey in 1989 found that about 20%of the private water supplies in Pennsyl-vania contained lead concentrationsabove the MCL of 0.015 mg/L (15 µg/L).Lead poses a serious health threat to thesafety of drinking water. It is colorless,odorless, and tasteless. Long-termexposure to lead concentrations inexcess of the drinking water standardhas been linked to many health effectsin adults including cancer, stroke, andhigh blood pressure. At even greater riskare the fetus and infants up to four yearsof age, whose rapidly growing bodiesabsorb lead more quickly and efficiently.Lead can cause premature birth,reduced birth weight, seizures, behav-

ioral disorders, brain damage, andlowered IQ in children. The U.S.Environmental Protection Agencyconsiders lead to be the most seriousenvironmental health hazard forchildren in the United States.

It should be noted that in rare cases, thesource of lead in drinking water mightbe from groundwater pollution ratherthan corrosion of the plumbing system.Such pollution may be the result ofindustrial or landfill contamination ofan aquifer. The source of the leadusually can be determined by compar-ing water test results from a first-drawsample versus a sample collected afterthe water runs for several minutes. If thelead concentration is high in bothsamples, then the source of the lead islikely from groundwater contamination.

For More Information on Lead

Contact your local Extensionoffice and ask for ExtensionCircular #416, Lead in DrinkingWater.

This publication is also availableonline at http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/ec416.html

Classification Hardness (mg/L or ppm) Hardness (gpg)

Soft Less than 17 Less than 1.0

Slightly hard 17 to 60 1.0 to 3.5

Moderately hard 60 to 120 3.5 to 7.0

Hard 120 to 180 7.0 to 10.5

Very hard More than 180 More than 10.5

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Manganese (Mn)Like iron, manganese is a naturallyoccurring metal that can be worsenedby mining activities. Manganese atconcentrations normally found indrinking water does not constitute ahealth hazard; however, even smallamounts of manganese may impartobjectionable tastes or blackish stains towater. For this reason, manganese has arecommended drinking water standardof 0.05 mg/L.

Nitrate (NO3) or Nitrate Nitrogen

(NO3-N)

Nitrate in drinking water usuallyoriginates from fertilizers or fromanimal or human wastes. Nitrateconcentrations in water tend to behighest in areas of intensive agricultureor where there is a high density of septicsystems. In Pennsylvania, nitrateconcentrations tend to be highest in thesoutheastern and southcentral countieswhere agriculture is most prevalent.

Nitrate has a primary drinking waterstandard that was established to protectthe most sensitive individuals in thepopulation (infants under 6 months ofage and a small component of the adultpopulation with abnormal stomachenzymes). These segments of thepopulation are prone to methemoglo-binemia (blue baby disease) whenconsuming water with high nitrates.The need for a nitrate MCL has beenquestioned lately because blue-babydisease occurs very rarely in the UnitedStates.

Nitrate may be reported on your watertest report as either nitrate (NO

3) or

nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N). Look

carefully at your report to determinewhich form of nitrate is being reported.The primary drinking water standard orMCL is 10 mg/L as nitrate-nitrogen(NO

3-N), but it is 45 mg/L as nitrate

(NO3).

For More Information onNitrates

Contact your local Penn StateCooperative Extension office andask for Agricultural and BiologicalEngineering Fact Sheet F-136,Nitrates in Drinking Water.

pHThe pH of water is a measure of howacidic or basic the water is. It is mea-sured on the pH scale (from 0 to 14) inpH units. If the pH of water is less than7.0, it is acidic, and if it is greater than7.0, it is basic. Water with a pH ofexactly 7.0 is considered neutral. If pHvalues deviate very far from neutral,other water quality problems may beindicated. These would include thepresence of toxic metals such as lead (atlow pH) and high salt contents (at highpH).

It is recommended that the pH of yourwater be between 6.5 and 8.5 tominimize other potential water qualityproblems. Acidic water with a pH lessthan 6.5 is much more common inPennsylvania than high-pH water,especially in the northern and westernregions of the state. In general, pH is anindicator of other potential waterquality problems and is very rarely aproblem by itself.

Sulfate (SO4)

Sulfates normally are present at somelevel in all private water systems.Sulfates occur naturally as a result ofleaching from sulfur deposits in theearth. Private water systems withexcessive sulfate in Pennsylvania aregenerally confined to the westernportion of the state or other coal miningregions. Even in these areas, surveysindicate less than 10% of the watersupplies have excessive sulfate. Otherless common sources are industrialwaste and sewage effluent.

Sulfate has a secondary drinking waterstandard of 250 mg/L because it mayimpart a bitter taste to the water at thislevel. A proposal also exists to makesulfate a primary contaminant with anMCL of 500 mg/L, because it may havea laxative effect and cause other gas-trointestinal upset above thisconcentration.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)The total amount of substances dis-solved in water is referred to as the totaldissolved solids (TDS) content of water.Waters high in TDS often containobjectionable levels of dissolved saltssuch as sodium chloride. Thus, highTDS may indicate the presence of otherwater quality problems. The recom-mended drinking water standard of 500mg/L for TDS exists because high-quality waters generally have lower TDSlevels.

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TurbidityDrinking water should be sparklingclear for health and aesthetic reasons.Turbidity refers to fine particles of clay,silt, sand, organic matter, or othermaterial that might reduce the clarity ofwater. Turbidity makes water unappeal-ing to drink because of its muddyappearance. Particles also might act toshield disease-causing bacteria fromchlorine or ultraviolet light treatmentand provide nutrients for bacteria andviruses to flourish.

Turbidity usually indicates directpollution from surface runoff oftenduring or shortly after heavy rainfall.Turbidity might increase in wellsbecause of borehole cave-ins; it alsomight increase when water levels in thewell are low such as during a drought,because the submersible pump maydisturb sediments near the bottom ofthe well.

Turbidity is usually measured in aspecial unit known as an NTU orNephelometric Turbidity Unit. Drink-ing water should not exceed 1 NTU, forboth health and aesthetic reasons. Waterwith less than 1 NTU of turbidity isessentially clear to the naked eye. Waterwith more than 1 NTU of turbiditymakes disinfection to kill bacteriadifficult and is the primary reason forthe 1 NTU standard.

Organic Chemicals

Organic chemicals are a large group ofover 100 mostly man-made chemicals.They can occur in drinking watersources from industrial activity, landfills,gas stations, pesticide use, or airdeposition. Organic chemicals vary intheir ability to pollute groundwater andtheir toxicity. Many organic chemicalsare carcinogenic (cancer causing), sothey often have very low drinking waterstandards, usually measured in µg/L.Remember that µg/L are the same asppb (parts per billion).

Generally speaking, organic chemicalscan be grouped into two major catego-ries: volatile organic chemicals (VOCs)and nonvolatile or synthetic organicchemicals (SOCs). The discussionbelow introduces these general groupsof organic chemicals and describes indetail the most common examples ineach group. Specific drinking waterstandards for all organic chemicals aregiven in Appendix I in the back of thispublication. More detailed informationon organic pollutants can be found atthe following locations.

For More Information onOrganic Chemicals

Agency for Toxic Substances andDisease Registry (ATSDR)1-888-422-8737 (toll free)or online at http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaq.html

U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency Fact Sheets on CommonOrganic Pollutantshttp://www.epa.gov/safewater/hfacts.html

Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs)

VOCs are man-made compounds thatvolatilize from water into air. Theypresent a health risk not only fromdrinking contaminated water, but alsofrom inhaling VOCs that escape fromthe water as it is used during showeringor other home uses. VOCs also areabsorbed directly through the skinduring bathing and showering. They arecommonly used as solvents, fuels,paints, or degreasers. Virtually all VOCsproduce an odor in water, although itmay not be obvious before the drinkingwater standard is exceeded. Nearly allVOCs have primary drinking waterstandards, because they are carcinogenic(cancer-causing) or cause damage to theliver, kidneys, nervous system, orcirculatory system.

VOCs are not common in private watersystems in Pennsylvania, but they arebecoming a more important concern asindustrial activities, landfills, gasstations, and other sources of thesepollutants encroach on rural areas. TheU.S. Geological Survey conducted arecent survey of 118 wells in southernand eastern Pennsylvania. The surveyanalyzed well water for 60 differentVOCs and detected at least one VOC in27% of the samples. (Although theVOCs were commonly detected, noneof the samples exceeded drinking waterstandards.) VOC contamination ofwells was much more common in urbanareas than agricultural areas.

Dozens of VOCs are regulated in publicwater supplies, but the most commonare described below. Consult Appendix Ifor a complete list of drinking waterstandards for all regulated VOCs.

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BenzeneBenzene is a clear, colorless liquid that isused primarily as an industrial solventand chemical intermediate. It is lighterthan water, migrates easily in groundwa-ter, and is slow to decay. It is alsopresent as a gasoline additive. Because itis a known human carcinogen, benzenehas a primary drinking water standardof 0.005 mg/L (5 µg/L).

Carbon TetrachlorideCarbon tetrachloride is a colorless liquidthat is heavier than water but migrateseasily in groundwater. It has been usedmostly for the production of chlorofluo-rocarbons and in the dry-cleaningindustry. Carbon tetrachloride has aprimary drinking water standard of0.005 mg/L (5 µg/L) because it is aprobable human carcinogen with otheracute effects on the gastrointestinal andnervous systems.

ChloroformChloroform is a colorless liquid that isused primarily to make other chemicals.It also can be found in small amountswhen chlorine is added to water.Chloroform travels easily in groundwa-ter and does not easily degrade. Chloro-form is believed to be a carcinogen. Ithas been one of the most commonlyreported organic chemicals in Pennsyl-vania groundwater.

Chloroform is one of a group oforganics known as trihalomethanes orTHMs. No specific drinking waterstandard exists for chloroform, but theprimary standard for THMs is 0.08mg/L (80 µg/L).

MTBE (Methyl Tert-Butyl Ether)MTBE is the most common organicchemical found in Pennsylvaniagroundwater. It has been used exten-sively as a gasoline additive in someparts of the United States to reduce airpollution emissions from automobiles.It smells like turpentine and can oftenbe detected in water at low concentra-tions. Most MTBE originates fromgasoline spills or leaking undergroundstorage tanks. It is more water-solublethan other components of gasoline, so itcontaminates groundwater more easily.Once in groundwater, MTBE is slow todecay. MTBE is a possible humancarcinogen, but little information isavailable on other health effects.Pennsylvania presently has no drinkingwater standard, but numerous otherstates have set standards in the 0.02 to0.2 mg/L range (20 to 200 µg/L). Moreinformation on MTBE is availableonline at the U.S. EnvironmentalProtection Agency and U.S. GeologicalSurvey Web sites listed at the end of thispublication.

Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) andTrichloroethylene (TCE)Tetrachloroethylene (commonly knownas PCE) and Trichloroethylene (com-monly known as TCE) are similarchemicals that have been found inPennsylvania around industrial sites andlandfills. Most of the groundwatercontamination from these chemicals hasoccurred due to improper disposal ofindustrial wastes. Both chemicals areused as industrial solvents for metaldegreasing, but PCE is used primarily inthe dry-cleaning industry. Both areheavier than water and move freelythrough soil and groundwater, but TCEis much more water-soluble than PCE.PCE is a possible carcinogen that causesliver, kidney, and nervous systemdamage. TCE is a probable carcinogenthat also causes acute effects to the liver,kidneys, and central nervous system.Both PCE and TCE have primarydrinking water standards of 0.005 mg/L(5 µg/L).

XylenesXylenes are a component of gasoline.They also are used in the manufacturingof some chemicals, and therefore appearcommonly in industrial wastes. Xylenescause liver, kidney, and nervous systemdamage. Xylenes biodegrade and moveslowly in groundwater. Xylene has beenreported in much higher concentrationsthan most other VOCs in Pennsylvania,but the drinking water standard forxylenes is also much higher (10 mg/L or10,000 µg/L).

For More Information onVolatile Organic Chemicals(VOCs)

U.S. Geological Survey, WaterResources Investigations Report96-4141Occurrence and Concentrations ofVolatile Organic Compounds inShallow Ground Water in the LowerSusquehanna River Basin, Pennsyl-vania and Marylandhttp://pa.water.usgs.gov/reports/wrir_96-4141/report.html

Pennsylvania Department ofEnvironmental ProtectionCitizen’s Guide to Volatile SyntheticOrganic Chemicals in DrinkingWaterhttp://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/WSM/Facts/BK0208_TOC.htm (Alsoavailable from your local DEPoffice.)

15

Nonvolatile or Synthetic OrganicChemicals (SOCs)

Nonvolatile organic chemicals are alsoknown as Synthetic Organic Chemicalsor SOCs. Nearly all SOCs are pesti-cides, with a few notable exceptions(PCBs and dioxin). They differ fromVOCs because they do not escapereadily into the air from water.

Dozens of pesticides, including herbi-cides, insecticides, and fungicides, areused throughout Pennsylvania on crops,golf courses, and lawns. The risk toprivate water supplies from pesticideapplications depends on many factorsincluding the amount, mobility, andtoxicity of the pesticide, the proximityof the application to the water supply,and the depth and construction of thewater source.

Pesticides are not common in privatewater supplies, but they are oftendetected in agricultural areas of thestate. A 1993 study by Penn Statescientists found detectable residues of atleast one pesticide in 27% of the ruralwells surveyed in corn-producingregions of Pennsylvania. (Although thepesticides were commonly detected,none of these wells contained a concen-tration above the drinking waterstandard.) Pesticide concentrations aregenerally higher in wells located inlimestone, which includes most of theprime agricultural regions ofPennsylvania.

Detailed descriptions are given belowfor some of the pesticides most oftenfound in Pennsylvania groundwater. Formore information on these and otherless common pesticides, consult thefollowing:

For More Information onPesticides

U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgencyhttp://www.epa.gov/pesticides/

Penn State Pesticide EducationProgramhttp://www.cas.psu.edu/docs/casdept/pested/index.html

Publication NRAES-34, Pesticidesand Groundwater, can be orderedfor $5.00 from your local exten-sion office.

AtrazineAtrazine is the most commonly usedherbicide in Pennsylvania. It is appliedto nearly 90% of the corn crop in thestate. It is water-soluble, moves easilyinto groundwater and surface waterafter application, and is by far the mostcommon pesticide reported in privatewater supplies in Pennsylvania. In a1993 study, Atrazine was detected in22% of private water supplies in corn-producing regions of Pennsylvania.Because it is classified as a possiblehuman carcinogen that also damagesthe liver, kidney, and heart, Atrazine hasa primary drinking water standard of0.003 mg/L (3 µg/L).

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic Acid(2,4-D)2,4-D is widely used to kill broadleafweeds in farm fields and pastures andon lawns and golf courses. It also is usedto kill algae and aquatic plants in pondsand lakes. 2,4-D damages the liver,circulatory, and nervous systems. Likeatrazine, it is one of the most commonlyused pesticides in Pennsylvania and alsoone of the most commonly found ingroundwater in agricultural areas of thestate. 2,4-D has a primary drinkingwater standard of 0.07 mg/L (70 µg/L).

ChlorpyrifosChlorpyrifos, also known as Dursban, isone of the most commonly usedinsecticides on corn crops in Pennsylva-nia. It is also used to control pests oncattle, and it is widely used around thehome for control of cockroaches, fleas,and termites. Chlorpyrifos does not mixwell with water and sticks tightly to soilparticles. It was detected in traceamounts in a small percentage of privatewater systems in a 1993 study.Chlorpyrifos is presently considered apossible human carcinogen. No drink-ing water standard exists forchlorpyrifos, but the U.S. Environmen-tal Protection Agency recommends thatchildren not drink water containinglevels greater than 0.03 mg/L. The U.S.EPA recently announced a ban on theproduction of chlorpyrifos, starting inJune 2000.

GlyphosateGlyphosate is one of the most widelyused pesticides in the United States. It isa herbicide used mostly for control ofbroadleaf weeds and grasses in pastures,corn, soybeans, and lawns. It is acomponent of the often-used herbicideRoundup. Glyphosate has a primarydrinking water standard of 0.7 mg/L(700 µg/L) because it causes kidneydamage and reproductive effects afterlong-term exposure. Glyphosate isstrongly adsorbed to soil and does notreadily move to or in groundwater.

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MetolachlorMetolachlor is the second most com-monly used herbicide on corn inPennsylvania. It is slightly less mobilethan atrazine but still moves easilythrough soil to groundwater. A 1993survey of private water systems inPennsylvania found metolachlor to bethe third most commonly detectedpesticide in the state.

There are no reported short-term effectsfrom exposure to metolachlor in water,but it is listed as a possible carcinogenwith prolonged exposure. No drinkingwater standard exists, but further testingis being done by the U.S. Environmen-tal Protection Agency. In the interim,the EPA has issued a health advisory formetolachlor of 0.07 mg/L (70 µg/L).

SimazineSimazine is commonly used for controlof broad-leaved and grassy weeds oncrops, orchards, and Christmas treefarms. It is also used to control plantsand algae in ponds and lakes. Simazinehas a primary drinking water standardof 0.004 mg/L (4 µg/L) because it is aprobable carcinogen that also can causedamage to the testes, kidneys, liver, andthyroid after long exposure. Simazinetravels easily through soils to groundwa-ter and persists in groundwater for longperiods of time.

Other Synthetic OrganicChemicals

Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD)Dioxin (also known as 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-1,4-dioxin or2,3,7,8-TCDD) is a contaminantformed in the production of somechlorinated organic compounds,including a few herbicides. It may alsobe formed when some chlorinatedorganic chemicals are burned. Dioxinhas been linked to a variety of healtheffects including liver damage, repro-ductive effects, birth defects, and cancer.Most dioxin in water comes fromimproper disposal of industrial wastes.It is not very water-soluble, and mostdioxin is found adhering to sediment ororganic particles. It does not move easilyinto groundwater because it is usuallytrapped in soil. It has the lowestdrinking water standard of any regu-lated substance (0.00000005 mg/L or0.00005 µg/L).

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs)PCBs are a group of manufacturedorganic chemicals that are odorless andtasteless in water. They have been usedwidely as insulating materials, coolants,and lubricants in electrical equipment.The manufacture of PCBs stopped inthe United States in 1977 because ofhealth effects, but products containingPCBs are still prevalent. Most PCBs ingroundwater originate from improperwaste disposal. In water, a small amountof PCBs may remain dissolved, but alarger amount sticks to organic particlesand sediments. PCBs have been shownto cause numerous health effectsincluding liver, kidney, and nervoussystem damage. They are also consid-ered probable carcinogens. As a result, aprimary drinking water standard of0.0005 mg/L (0.5 µg/L) exists forPCBs.

Radiological Pollutants

Radioactivity usually occurs in waterfrom radium, uranium, or radon. Thesematerials emit radioactivity as alpha,beta, or gamma radiation. Each form ofradiation affects the human bodydifferently, yet all can lead to cancer.Radioactivity in water is normallymeasured in picocuries per liter (pCi/L).Although several drinking waterstandards exist for radioactivity (seeAppendix I), radon is likely to be themost common problem in Pennsylvania.

RadonRadon is a naturally occurring radioac-tive gas formed underground by thedecay of uranium or radium deposits.Radon can enter groundwater as itescapes from surrounding rocks. The gasis then released during household usesof the water such as showering,dishwashing, or laundering. Radon hasbeen shown to cause lung cancer uponinhalation, but ingestion of radon inwater is not thought to be a majorhealth concern. Thus, the most seriousthreat from radon in water is theinhalation of escaping gas duringshowering or bathing. For this reason,the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency has proposed a primary drink-ing water standard for radon in water of300 pCi/L.

17

Recent surveys by the PennsylvaniaDepartment of Environmental Protec-tion and the U.S. Geological Surveyindicate that over 60% of the privatewater supplies in Pennsylvania containmore than 300 pCi/L of radon. Theproblem is most severe in southeasterncounties, but it is present throughoutthe state.

For More Information on Radonin Water

Pennsylvania Department ofEnvironmental ProtectionRadon Hotline: 1-800-237-2366

Penn State College of Agriculturaland Biological Engineering FactSheet F-135, Reducing Radon inDrinking Water, is available fromyour local extension office.

U.S. EPA Fact Sheethttp://www.epa.gov/safewater/radon/qa1.html

Need More Information?

Do you still have questions? There arenumerous sources of both written andonline information related to drinkingwater and interpreting water test results.In addition to the specific referenceslisted throughout this circular, thefollowing general locations may behelpful for finding more information oninterpreting water test information.

Your Local Penn State CooperativeExtension OfficePenn State Cooperative Extension hasmany agents and university specialiststrained in water resources who can helpsolve your water supply problems.Numerous publications also are avail-able on many water issues.

Water publications onlinehttp://pubs.cas.psu.edu/Water.htmlhttp://wqext.psu.edu

U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgencySafe Drinking Water Hotline1-800-426-4791

Office of Groundwater and DrinkingWaterhttp://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/

U.S. EPA Drinking Water and Healthhttp://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwhealth.html

U.S. Department of Agriculture—National Extension Water QualityDatabasehttp://www.waterdatabase.org/

Pennsylvania Department of Environ-mental ProtectionBureau of Water Supply Managementhttp://www.dep.state.pa.us/dep/deputate/watermgt/WSM/WSM.HTM

U.S. Geological Surveyhttp://www.usgs.gov/http://water.usgs.gov/pandp.html

What’s Your Next Step?

If your water test has indicated aproblem with your water, you’reprobably wondering what you shoulddo about it. You have a number ofoptions.

More Water Testing?In some cases, further water testing maybe a good idea. If your first water testwas not done by a certified laboratory,then you should arrange to have yourwater retested by a certified lab toconfirm the results. Even if a certifiedlab was used for the first test, you maywant to have them retest for parametersthat were shown to be a problem, beforeyou invest in water supply improvements.

MaintenanceSome simple maintenance on yourwater supply may take care of someproblems. For example, making surethat the ground slopes away from yourwell and that it has a good sanitary sealmay help prevent surface water con-tamination of your well and therebyreduce coliform bacteria contamination.

Pollution PreventionIf the source of your water qualityproblem is obvious, you may be able totake some action to reduce or removethe source. For example, if your watercontains excessive amounts of copperand/or lead, you can probably eliminatethis problem by removing your metalplumbing and replacing it with ap-proved PVC plastic pipes.

New SourceIn some cases, it may be easier and lessexpensive to develop a new source ofwater. This might include drilling a newwell at a different location away from asource of pollution, developing a moreshallow or deeper well or spring to avoidcontaminated groundwater, or buildinga rainwater cistern to avoid contami-nated groundwater altogether.

18

Water TreatmentWater treatment processes are availablethat remove many contaminants fromwater to make it drinkable. The otheroptions listed above should be consid-ered and compared to the cost oftreatment equipment and maintenance.

Specific publications on treatment andremoval of some pollutants have beenreferenced throughout this circular. Inaddition, you might want to consult thefollowing publications before purchas-ing water treatment equipment.

For More Information on WaterTreatment

Contact your local Penn StateCooperative Extension office andask for publication NRAES-48,Home Water Treatment (availablefor $15.00), or Agricultural andBiological Engineering Fact SheetF-131, Home Water Treatment inPerspective.

NSF—National SanitationFoundationhttp://www.nsf.orgAn independent organization thattests and certifies water treatmentequipment.

19

PageParameter Standard Unit Number

Microbial (all are primary standards)

Total Coliform Bacteria 0 bacteria 7per 100 ml

Fecal Coliform Bacteria 0 bacteria 7per 100 ml

E. Coli 0 bacteria 8per 100 ml

Giardia Lamblia 0 oocysts 8

Cryptosporidium Parvum 0 oocysts 8

Inorganic Chemicals with Primary Standards

Antimony (Sb) 0.006 mg/L

Arsenic (As) (proposed) 0.005 mg/L 9

Asbestos 7 million fibers/L

Barium (Ba) 2 mg/L 9

Beryllium (Be) 0.004 mg/L

Bromate 0.01 mg/L

Cadmium (Cd) 0.005 mg/L

Chlorite 1.0 mg/L

Chromium (Cr) 0.1 mg/L

Copper (Cu) 1.3 mg/L 9

Cyanide 0.2 mg/L

Fluoride (Fl) 4 mg/L

Lead (Pb) 0.015 mg/L 11

Mercury (Hg) 0.002 mg/L

Nickel (Ni) 0.1 mg/L

Nitrate (as Nitrogen) (NO3-N) 10 mg/L 12

Nitrite (as Nitrogen) (NO2-N) 1 mg/L

Appendix I—Drinking Water Standards as of April 2000

PageParameter Standard Unit number

Nitrate + Nitrite (as Nitrogen) 10 mg/L

Selenium (Se) 0.05 mg/L

Sulfate (SO4) (proposed) 500 mg/L 12

Thallium (Tl) 0.002 mg/L

Volatile Organic Chemicals (all are primary standards)

Benzene 0.005 mg/L 14

Carbon Tetrachloride 0.005 mg/L 14

o-Dichlorobenzene 0.6 mg/L

p-Dichlorobenzene 0.075 mg/L

1,2-Dichloroethane 0.005 mg/L

1,1-Dichloroethylene 0.007 mg/L

cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene 0.07 mg/L

trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene 0.1 mg/L

Dichloromethane 0.005 mg/L

1,2-Dichloropropane 0.005 mg/L

Ethylbenzene 0.7 mg/L

Monochlorobenzene 0.1 mg/L

Styrene 0.1 mg/L

Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) 0.005 mg/L 14

Toluene 1 mg/L

1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 0.07 mg/L

1,1,1-Trichloroethane 0.2 mg/L

1,1,2-Trichloroethane 0.005 mg/L

Trichloroethylene (TCE) 0.005 mg/L 14

Total Trihalomethanes 0.08 mg/L

Vinyl Chloride 0.002 mg/L

Xylenes (Total) 10 mg/L 14Note: Standards in mg/L can be converted to µg/L units by multiplyingby 1,000.

20

PageParameter Standard Unit Number

Radionuclides (all are primary standards)

Alpha emitters 15 pCi/L

Radium 226 + 228 5 pCi/L

Radium 226 20 pCi/L

Radium 228 20 pCi/L

Beta-particle & photon emitters 4 mrem

Radon (proposed) 300 pCi/L 16

Uranium 20 µg/L

Inorganic Chemicals with Secondary Drinking Water Standards

Aluminum (Al) 0.05-0.2 mg/L

Chloride (Cl) 250 mg/L 9

Color 15 color units

Copper (Cu) 1.0 mg/L 9

Corrosivity Noncorrosive 10

Fluoride 2 mg/L

Foaming Agents 0.5 mg/L

Iron (Fe) 0.3 mg/L 11

Manganese (Mn) 0.05 mg/L 12

Odor 3 T.O.N.

pH 6.5-8.5 pH units 12

Silver (Ag) 0.1 mg/L

Sulfate (SO4) 250 mg/L 12

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 500 mg/L 12

Zinc (Zn) 5 mg/L

PageParameter Standard Unit Number

Synthetic Organic Chemicals (all are primary standards)

Alachlor 0.002 mg/L

Atrazine 0.003 mg/L 15

Benzo(a)pyrene 0.0002 mg/L

Carbofuran 0.04 mg/L

Chlordane 0.002 mg/L

2,4-D 0.07 mg/L 15

Dalapon 0.2 mg/L

Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) 0.0002 mg/L

Di(2-Ethylhexyl) Adipate 0.4 mg/L

Di(2-Ethylhexyl) Phthalate 0.006 mg/L

Dinoseb 0.007 mg/L

Diquat 0.02 mg/L

Endothall 0.1 mg/L

Endrin 0.002 mg/L

Ethylene Dibromide (EDB) 0.00005 mg/L

Glyphosate 0.7 mg/L 15

Heptachlor 0.0004 mg/L

Heptachlor Epoxide 0.0002 mg/L

Hexachlorobenzene 0.001 mg/L

Hexachlorocyclopentadiene 0.05 mg/L

Lindane 0.0002 mg/L

Methoxychlor 0.04 mg/L

Oxamyl (Vydate) 0.2 mg/L

PCBs 0.0005 mg/L 16

Pentachlorophenol 0.001 mg/L

Picloram 0.5 mg/L

Simazine 0.004 mg/L 16

2,3,7,8-TCDD (Dioxin) 0.00005 µg/L 16

Toxaphene 0.005 mg/L

2,4,5-TP (Silvex) 0.05 mg/L

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Appendix II—Glossary of Common Terms andAbbreviations

Acid Mine DrainageDrainage of water from areas that havebeen mined for coal or other mineralores; the water has low pH, sometimesless than 2.0 because of its contact withsulfur-bearing minerals, and oftencontains metals in concentrations toxicto aquatic life.

AcidicThe condition of water or soil contain-ing a sufficient amount of acid sub-stances to lower the pH below 7.0.

Action LevelThe level of lead or copper which, ifexceeded, triggers treatment or otherrequirements that a public water systemmust follow.

Acute Health EffectAn immediate effect that may resultfrom exposure to certain drinking watercontaminants.

AlkalineThe condition of water or soil contain-ing a sufficient amount of alkalisubstances to raise the pH above 7.0.

Background LevelThe average presence of a substance inthe environment or occurring naturally.

BacteriaMicroscopic living organisms usuallyconsisting of a single cell. Some bacteriain soil, water, or air may cause human,animal, and plant health problems.

Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

EquivalentAn expression of the concentration ofspecified constituents in water, in termsof their equivalent value to calciumcarbonate. For example, the hardness inwater caused by calcium, magnesium,and other ions is usually described ascalcium carbonate equivalent.

CarcinogenAny substance that produces cancer inan organism.

Central Nervous System (CNS)Portion of the nervous system consistingof the brain and spinal cord.

Chronic Health EffectThe possible result of exposure overmany years to a drinking water con-taminant at levels above its MCL.

CisternA storage facility used to store water fora home or farm. Often used to storerain water.

ColiformA group of bacteria found in theintestines of warm-blooded animals(including humans) and in plants, soil,air, and water. Fecal coliforms are aspecific class of bacteria that inhabitonly the intestines of warm-bloodedanimals. The presence of coliform is anindication that the water is polluted andmay contain disease-causing organisms.

ConductivityA measure of the ability of water tocarry an electric current. Related to thetotal dissolved solids (TDS) in thewater.

ContaminantAny physical, chemical, biological, orradiological substance or matter that hasan adverse effect on air, water, or soil.

CorrosivityAn indication of the corrosiveness of awater sample, as described by the waterpH, alkalinity, hardness, temperature,total dissolved solids, and dissolvedoxygen concentration. The LangelierIndex combines several of these featuresand is the commonly accepted measureof corrosivity.

Cryptosporidium ParvumFlagellate protozoan that is shed duringits oocyst stage with the feces of manand animals. When water containingthese oocysts is ingested, the protozoancauses a severe gastrointestinal disease.

ExposureContact with a chemical or physicalagent.

Fecal Coliform BacteriaBacteria found in the intestinal tracts ofanimals. Their presence in water is anindicator of pollution and possiblecontamination by pathogens.

FiltrationA process for removing particulatematter from water by passage throughporous media.

22

First DrawThe water that immediately comes outwhen a faucet is first opened. This wateris likely to have the highest levels of leadand copper contamination fromplumbing materials.

Gallons Per Minute (gpm)A common unit used to express the flowof water over time.

GastroenteritisAn inflammation of the stomach andintestine resulting in diarrhea, withvomiting and cramps when irritation isexcessive. When caused by an infectiousagent, it is often associated with fever.

Giardia LambliaFlagellate protozoan that is shed duringits oocyst stage with the feces of manand animals. When water containingthese oocysts is ingested, the protozoancauses a severe gastrointestinal diseasecalled giardiasis.

Grain Per Gallon (gpg)A unit of measure for hardness, equal to17.1 mg/L.

Gram (g)A unit of mass (weight) equivalent toone milliliter of water at 4 degreesCelsius. 1/454 of a pound.

Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)Material used in water treatment devicesto remove organic chemicals, radon, andother pollutants.

Gross Alpha Particle ActivityThe total radioactivity due to alphaparticle emission, as inferred frommeasurements on a dry sample. Alphaparticles do not penetrate solidmaterials.

Gross Beta Particle ActivityThe total radioactivity due to betaparticle emission, as inferred frommeasurements on a dry sample. Betaparticles penetrate solid materials andare more hazardous.

GroundwaterThe supply of fresh water foundbeneath the Earth’s surface. Usually inaquifers, which are often used forsupplying wells and springs. Becausegroundwater is a major source ofdrinking water, there is growing concernover areas where leaching agricultural orindustrial pollutants or substances fromleaking underground storage tanks arecontaminating groundwater.

Hard WaterAlkaline water containing dissolved saltsthat interfere with some industrialprocesses and prevent soap fromlathering. Some textbooks define hardwater as water with a hardness of morethan 100 mg/L (as calcium carbonate).

HardnessA characteristic of water caused mainlyby the salts of calcium and magnesiumsuch as bicarbonate, calcium sulfate,chloride, and nitrate. Excessive hardnessin water is undesirable because it causesthe formation of soap curds, increaseduse of soap, deposition of scale inboilers, damage in some industrialprocesses, and sometimes objectionabletastes in drinking water.

Heavy MetalsMetallic elements with high atomicweights; e.g., mercury, chromium,cadmium, arsenic, and lead. They candamage living things at low concentra-tions and tend to accumulate in thefood chain.

Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC)A measure of the total number ofbacteria in a sample. Also known as theStandard Plate Count (SPC).

Inorganic Chemicals (IOCs)Chemicals of mineral origin.

Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL)The maximum level of a health-relatedcontaminant permitted in a publicwater system. Also known as a primarydrinking water standard.

Maximum Contaminant Level Goal(MCLG)The maximum level of a contaminantin drinking water at which no known oranticipated adverse effect on the healthof persons would occur, and whichallows an adequate margin of safety.Maximum contaminant level goals arenonenforceable health goals.

Microgram (µg)One-millionth of a gram.

Micrograms Per Liter (µg/L)One microgram of a substance dissolvedin each liter of water. This unit is equalto parts per billion (ppb).

MicroorganismsLiving organisms that can be seenindividually only with the aid of amicroscope.

Milligram (mg)One-thousandth of a gram.

Milligrams Per Liter (mg/L)A measure of concentration of adissolved substance. A concentration ofone mg/L means that one milligram of asubstance is dissolved in each liter ofwater. For practical purposes, this unit isequal to parts per million (ppm).

Most Probable Number (MPN)MPN is the Most Probable Number ofcoliform group organisms per unitvolume of sample water as determinedby a statistical relationship. Expressed asthe number of organisms per 100 ml ofsample water.

NDAbbreviation for “Not Detected.”Laboratory expression for a concentra-tion of a substance in water too small tobe detected by the instrumentationused.

23

NonpotableWater that may contain objectionablepollution, contamination, minerals, orinfective agents and is considered unsafeand/or unpalatable for drinking.

National Sanitation Foundation(NSF)Independent testing organization forwater treatment equipment.

Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)Unit of measure for turbidity in water.

Nonvolatile Organic ChemicalsOrganic chemicals that do not escapereadily into air from water. Also knownas Synthetic Organic Chemicals(SOCs).

OrganicsA term used to refer to chemicalcompounds made from carbonmolecules.

Parts Per Million (ppm)Parts per million parts, a measurementof concentration on a weight or volumebasis. This term is equivalent to milli-grams per liter (mg/L).

Parts Per Billion (ppb)Parts per billion parts, a measurement ofconcentration on a weight or volumebasis. This term is equivalent to micro-grams per liter (µg/L).

PathogensMicroorganisms that can cause diseasein other organisms or in humans,animals, and plants. They may bebacteria, viruses, or parasites, and arefound in sewage in runoff from animalfarms or rural areas populated withdomestic and/or wild animals, and inwater used for swimming.

PesticideAny substance or chemical designed orformulated to kill or control weeds oranimal pests.

pHAn expression of the intensity of thebasic or acid condition of a liquid.Mathematically related to the hydrogenion concentration, the pH may rangefrom 0 to 14, where 0 is most acid, 14most basic, and 7 neutral. Naturalwaters usually have a pH between 6.5and 8.5.

Picocurie per liter (pCi/L)A measure of radioactivity in water,commonly used for radon. Onepicocurie of radioactivity is equivalentto 0.037 nuclear disintegrations persecond as measured by a Geiger counter.

Potable WaterWater that is safe and satisfactory fordrinking and cooking.

Primary Drinking Water StandardSee Maximum Contaminant Level(MCL).

Public Water SystemA system for providing piped water forhuman consumption to the public,having at least 15 service connections orregularly providing water at least 60days out of the year to 25 or morepeople per day. A public water system iseither a “community water system”(town) or a “noncommunity watersystem” (gas station, camp, etc).

Recommended Maximum Contami-nant Level (RMCL)See “Secondary Maximum Contami-nant Level,” below.

Septic SystemAn onsite system designed to treat anddispose of domestic sewage.

Secondary Maximum ContaminantLevel (SMCL)Limits or standards given to pollutantsthat have only aesthetic effects in water.Also called Recommended MaximumContaminant Levels or RMCLs.

Secondary Drinking Water StandardSee Secondary Maximum ContaminantLevel (SMCL).

Soft WaterWater having a low concentration ofcalcium and magnesium ions. Accord-ing to U.S. Geological Survey guide-lines, soft water is water having ahardness of 60 milligrams per liter orless.

Standard Plate Count (SPC)See Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC)above.

Surface WaterAll water naturally open to the atmo-sphere, and all springs, wells, or othercollectors that are directly influenced bysurface water.

Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOC)Term used to describe nonvolatileorganic chemicals such as mostpesticides.

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)A measure of all of the dissolved ions inwater.

TNTCAbbreviation for “Too Numerous toCount.” A measure of bacteriaconcentration.

TurbidityThe cloudy appearance of water causedby the presence of suspended andcolloidal matter. Used to indicate theclarity of water.

VirusThe smallest form of microorganismcapable of causing disease.

Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs)Organic chemicals that escape readilyinto the air from water.

24

Quick Reference Table to Common Pollutants in Pennsylvania

Contaminant Source Standard Effects

Microbial

Coliform Bacteria Surface water, human and animal waste 0 per 100 ml Gastrointestinal problems,

waterborne diseases

Fecal Coliform Bacteria Human and animal waste 0 per 100 ml Gastrointestinal problems,

waterborne diseases

Fecal Streptococcus Bacteria Human and animal waste 0 per 100 ml Gastrointestinal problems,

waterborne diseases

E. Coli Human and animal waste 0 per 100 ml Gastrointestinal problems,

waterborne diseases

Standard Plate Count or Common bacteria including coliform No standard > 500 per milliliter may indicate

Heterotrophic Plate Count and other groups coliform bacteria contamination

(see above)

Iron Bacteria Naturally occurring No standard Unsightly growth, clogged pipes,

reduced well yield

Giardia Human and animal waste, surface 0 cysts Giardiasis (nausea, fever, diarrhea,

water etc.)

Cryptosporidium Human and animal waste, surface 0 cysts Cryptosporidiosis (nausea, fever,

water etc.)

Inorganic Chemicals

Arsenic Natural deposits, gas well brines 0.005 mg/L Skin lesions, nervous system

(proposed) disorders, cancer

Alkalinity Natural sources No standard Influences hardness

Barium Natural deposits, gas well brines 2.0 mg/L High blood pressure, nervous

system damage

Chloride Natural sources, road salt, sewage 250 mg/L Salty taste, corrosion of metal

(recommended)

Copper Corrosion of plumbing 1.3 mg/L Gastrointestinal illness

1.0 mg/L Metallic taste, bluish stains

(recommended)

Corrosivity Natural sources Noncorrosive Dissolves plumbing components

(recommended)

Hardness Natural sources No standard Scaly deposits, decreased soap

cleansing

Hydrogen Sulfide Naturally occurring No standard Rotten egg odor

Iron Coal mining or natural sources 0.30 mg/L Metallic taste, stains

(recommended)

Lead Plumbing corrosion, industrial wastes, 0.015 mg/L Numerous health effects,

gas well brines especially in children

Manganese Coal mining or natural sources 0.05 mg/L Blackish stains, metallic taste

(recommended)

Nitrate (as Nitrogen) Animal and human wastes, fertilizers 10 mg/L Blue-baby disease in infants

25

Quick Reference Table to Common Pollutants in Pennsylvania

Contaminant Source Standard Effects

pH Natural sources, mining, 6.5 to 8.5 Corrosion (low pH), taste (high pH)

acid rain (recommended)

Sulfate Coal mining or natural sources 500 mg/L Laxative effects

(proposed MCL)

250 mg/L Bitter taste

(recommended)

Total Dissolved Solids Sum of all dissolved ions in water 500 mg/L Objectionable taste, odor, color

(recommended)

Turbidity Surface water, runoff 1.0 NTU Objectionable appearance,

promotes bacteria

Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOCs)

Benzene Industrial solvent, gasoline additive 0.005 mg/L Carcinogen

Carbon Tetrachloride Production of chlorofluorocarbons 0.005 mg/L Gastrointestinal and nervous

system effects

Chloroform Industrial processes No standard Possible carcinogen, part of

trihalomethanes (THMs), which

have a MCL of 0.08 mg/L

Methyl Tert-Butyl Ether (MTBE) Gasoline additive No standard Possible carcinogen

Tetrachloroethylene (PCE) Dry-cleaning industry, industrial 0.005 mg/L Possible carcinogen; liver, kidney,

solvent nerve damage

Trichloroethylene (TCE) Industrial solvent, metal degreaser 0.005 mg/L Probable carcinogen; liver, kidney,

nerve damage

Xylenes Gasoline, industrial processes 10 mg/L Liver, kidney, nervous system

damage

Nonvolatile (Synthetic) Organic Chemicals (SOCs)

Atrazine Common herbicide 0.003 mg/L Possible carcinogen; liver, kidney,

heart damage

2,4-D Common herbicide on farms and 0.07 mg/L Liver, circulatory and nervous

lawns system damage

Chlorpyrifos (Dursban) Common insecticide No standard Possible carcinogen

Dioxin Production of chlorinated chemicals 0.00000005 mg/L Carcinogen, birth defects, liver and

reproductive effects

Glyphosate Common herbicide 0.7 mg/L Kidney and reproductive damage

Metolachlor Common herbicide No standard Possible carcinogen

Polychlorinated Biphenyls Insulating material, coolant, lubricant 0.0005 mg/L Probable carcinogens; liver, kidney,

(PCBs) nervous system damage

Simazine Common herbicide 0.004 mg/L Carcinogen; damage to testes,

kidneys, liver, and thyroid

Radiological

Radon Naturally occurring gas 300 pCi/L Carcinogen if inhaled, possible

(proposed) carcinogen if ingested

Important Information About Your Water Source

Provide as much of the following information as possible about your water supply. This information will be useful should you

need help solving a future water problem.

Type of Water Supply (circle one): Drilled Well Dug Well Spring Cistern Public Water Other

How deep is your well? feet

When was it drilled or dug?

What was the approximate flow or yield from the well? gallons per minute

Do you have a copy of your completed well log? If yes, you may want to place it in the pocket inside the back cover of this publication.

If you have a spring, when was it developed or redeveloped?

What is the approximate flow or yield from the spring? gallons per minute

If you have public water, what is the name of your water supplier?

How far is your water supply from the nearest septic system?

How close are other contaminant sources (mines, gas stations, industries, farm fields etc.)?

Contaminant Source Distance from My Water Supply

1.

2.

3.

Name and address of the person who installed or developed your well, spring, or cistern:

Name

Address

City State Zip

Phone Fax E-Mail

What water treatment devices do you have on your water supply?

Name and address of the person or company who installed your water treatment equipment:

Name

Address

City State Zip

Phone E-Mail

Additional comments:

Record any water testing information from your water supply on the next page.

26

Date Sampled Water Source Water Test Results Comments

Example: August 15, 2001 Spring Feeding the House OK Not OK Iron level high

OK Not OK

OK Not OK

OK Not OK

OK Not OK

OK Not OK

OK Not OK

OK Not OK

OK Not OK

OK Not OK

Water Test Results

✓

H2S

Prepared by:

Bryan R. Swistock, extension associate,School of Forest Resources, Penn StateUniversity

Dr. William E. Sharpe, professor,School of Forest Resources, Penn StateUniversity

James A. Clark, extension agent,McKean County, Penn State Coopera-tive Extension

Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences

research, extension, and resident education

programs are funded in part by Pennsylvania

counties, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania,

and the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

This publication is available from the

Publications Distribution Center, The

Pennsylvania State University, 112 Agricultural

Administration Building, University Park, PA

16802. For information telephone (814) 865-

6713.

Where trade names appear, no discrimination

is intended, and no endorsement by the Penn

State College of Agricultural Sciences is

implied.

The Pennsylvania State University is commit-

ted to the policy that all persons shall have

equal access to programs, facilities, admission,

and employment without regard to personal

characteristics not related to ability, perfor-

mance, or qualifications as determined by

University policy or by state or federal

authorities. The Pennsylvania State University

does not discriminate against any person

because of age, ancestry, color, disability or

handicap, national origin, race, religious creed,

sex, sexual orientation, or veteran status. Direct

all inquiries regarding the nondiscrimination

policy to the Affirmative Action Director, The

Pennsylvania State University, 201 Willard

Building, University Park, PA 16802-2801:

Tel. (814) 865-4700/V, (814) 863-1150/TTY.

© The Pennsylvania State University 2000

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