Water Resources, Sustainability, Adn Societal Livelihoods in Indonesia

Water resources, sustainability and societal livelihoods in Indonesia

Hidayat Pawitan1, Gadis S. Haryani2

1 Department of Geophysics and Meteorology, Bogor Agricultural University, Bogor 16680, Indonesia, e-mail: [email protected]

2 Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Bogor, Indonesia

AbstractRapid national development and increasing population pressures on land resources have caused serious social and environmental problems in Indonesia that require concerted efforts to overcome and proper resource management. A series of national programs dealing with the problem of linking the water environment and community livelihoods were created, and they are being implemented around the country under a framework of broad guidelines for sustainable development and integrated water resources management. This paper presents a brief description of Indonesian water and environmental resources, followed by an overview of progress in and development of an ecohydrological approach that has been introduced during the past decade. It was recognized that the approach provides a strong scientifi c basis and is in line with the needs and efforts being promoted through national movements in natural resource management to guarantee societal livelihoods and sustainable national development.

Key words: environmental resources, degradation, national programs, ecohydrology approach.

DOI: 10.2478/v10104-011-0050-3

Vol. 11 No. 3-4, 231-2432011

Towards engineering harmony between water, ecosystem and society

1. Introduction and some backgroundIndonesia is rich in environmental resources as

can be recognized from the abundant biodiversity, and land and water resources However national de-velopment programs in the past decades that stressed physical and economic aspects have generated a multitude of social and environmental problems. The past decades also have been characterized by a series of natural disasters, many of which were water and environmentally related such as water pollution, fl oods, droughts, landslides and forest fi res. These are believed to be due to excessive hu-man interventions, such as forest land conversion

to agriculture and other uses, and deforestation by legal and illegal logging that have caused serious erosion and sedimentation problems and pollution in the downstream portions of catchments, that have competed as new users of limited natural resources, and which push land hungry people upstream. Pockets of poverty in densely populated areas can be recognized around the country which overlap with degraded land and forest resources of much reduced carrying capacity (Nerlove 1994). Therefore, there is strong relationship between land degradation and poverty that can be expressed as a vicious circle of poverty which threatens the

&ECOHYDROLOGYHYDROBIOLOGY

232 H. Pawitan, G.S. Haryani

degradation of environmental resources. Ideas of linking the water environment with community livelihoods have become concerns in Indonesia that need government interventions. Consequently, many national programs have been initiated in the wider economic sectors to improve community welfare.

This paper will limit the discussions of the en-vironment to land and water resource related aspects and their sustainability, especially the conversion of watershed resources and forest land to agricultural and other uses. The linking of the water environ-ment and community livelihoods will be discussed in the context of the programs that relate to land and water, either in the form of national movements adopting broad guidelines for sustainable develop-ment or integrated water resources management, with multi-sectoral and hierarchically coordinated implementation around the country. A description of Indonesian water resources and the water environ-ment problems will be given fi rst, followed by brief description of some of the National Programs related to the environment and community livelihoods, the perspective and development of ecohydrological approach in Indonesia, and the sustainability chal-lenge of the water environment and its linkages to societal livelihoods within the water environment. Some case studies of activities that link the envi-ronment and community livelihoods, the necessary institutional set up, and lessons to be learned also will be presented.

1.1. Indonesian water environment resources Indonesian forest land resources consist of 144

Mha (approximately 74% of total land area of the country) with 109 Mha of forest cover. These forest lands consist of 18.8 Mha of conservation forest; 30.3 Mha of protection forest; 64.4 Mha of produc-tion forest; and 30.5 Mha of conversion forest. The total land resources of Indonesia cover 1.91 Mkm2with 17 000 islands (1.3% of the worlds land sur-face) that contains about 10% of global freshwater resources, 10% of the worlds plant species, 12% of the mammal species, 16% of the reptiles and amphib-ians, and 17% of the bird species. The abundance of water resources is characterized by an annual rainfall averaging about 2790 mm within a range from 600 mm to well above 6000 mm per annum. Land use and cover changes consequent to national development efforts appear to have changed hydro-logic regimes that also may be altered due to global climate change. Recent estimates of degraded forest land total nearly 60 Mha with deforestation rates averaged at 1.09 Mha per year (2000-2006). Land degradation has been severe and un-controllable, especially during the reformation/autonomous era of the last decade, as permits or restrictions were not acknowledged and illegal logging, forest encroach-

ment and conversion to other uses were rampant (Ministry of Forestry 2007).

The present management of environmental resources (air, water, wetlands, wildlife, aesthetics, as well as toxic and hazardous wastes) follows the principles of sustainable development and integrated resources management. Knowledge resources with appropriate scientifi c and technological support were planned and implemented, but their effec-tiveness is still in question, including integration of the role of local knowledge/traditional wisdom. Therefore, much effort is still required to improve water resources management in the country in line with the principles of: the integrative science of ecohydrology developed by Zalewski (2005; 2007), and integrated watershed management for sustain-able water resources development through decision making processes based on scientific research, good governance and capacity building (Tanaka 2009). A new paradigm in integrated water resources management and in watershed management is the one that adopts the broad principles of sustainable development and integrated resource management as well as one that also considers water quality parameters as indicators of watershed status and carrying capacity. The perspective and development of ecohydrology concepts and principles are very much in line with the present national development policy of Indonesia.

Indonesian water resources can be examined from the point of view of regional variability, as given in Table I, which indicates a total water avail-able of 2110 mm a year, equivalent to a fl ow rate 127 775 m3 s-1, or to four million mega cubic me-ters per year (MCM yr-1). Dividing this regional water availability by the population of the region gives a water availability index that ranges from 0.15 m3capita-1day-1 for developed urban areas to 1480 m3capita-1day-1 for West Papua, with a national average of approximately 50 m3 capita-1 day-1. This water availability index indicates relative abun-dance; however, with un-equal distribution in time and space, in many cases, water shortages have caused serious problems to ecosystems and society. Monsoon rains drop 80% of the annual total dur-ing the half-year rainy season, and severe droughts with widespread impacts occurring periodically during the dry seasons. In the past century, land use changes have reduced forest land cover and converted forest lands to agricultural uses, but in the last few decades land use conversion is from agricultural land to human settlements and industrial land uses (Ministry of Forestry 2007). Population pressure, land hungry people and rapid industrial development imply extensive land use changes and increased water demands, and cause uncertainties in water resources availability and serious ecologi-cal problems, in addition to the likely long term consequences of global climatic change.

Water resources, sustainability and societal livelihoods in Indonesia 233

The water resources and hydrologic events are characterized by occurrences of extreme fl oods and droughts, high sediment/pollutant contents in the water bodies, and an anticipated water crisis. In the case of Java Island, population pressures (with 121 million people in 2000) and extensive land conversion activities have signifi cant impacts in the form of environmental degradation and are now believed to have changed the natural carbon, nutrient and water cycles; i.e., creating ecological hazards (Pawitan et al. 2007). The hydrologic characteristics of some major river basins in Indonesia and their stream fl ows are given in Table II, with the aver-age minimum and maximum discharges indicating extreme conditions. Pawitan et al. (2006), from a study in West Java, indicated changes to watershed functions due to intensive agricultural practices and industrial development. Depletion of forest resources threatens Indonesian water resources due to signifi cant decline of rainfall (Aldrian 2006).

1.2. Water environment problemsThe last census, in 2010, recorded the popu-

lation of Indonesia as 236.7 million people, and the percentage of urban population continued to increase from previous censuses to about 50%.This

is a natural development that requires the neces-sary facilities so that the carrying capacity of the natural environment can be maintained. Currently, the high population density in Indonesia occurs in urban development centres where population densities reach over 10 000 people km-2. Such high densities are known to be the root of serious environmental problems. Increasing population has signifi cantly infl uenced the rate of change of land use and vegetation cover with the consequent changes in hydrological regime and quality of the environment, increased pollution and outbreak of diseases related to water and climate. The impacts of environmental change continue as the water environment problems multiply: water pollution, forest and land degradation, declining availability of water resources, natural resource management issues, and the vicious circle of poverty pose threats to the use of natural resources. This population pres-sure on land, with associated intensive agriculture and rapid industrial development, has contributed to forest land degradation, which in the long run also results in increased water demand and environmental change, including climate change. This high popula-tion, with a growth rate presently at 1.3% annually, is the main driver of increased food and energy

Table I. Water resources availability in Indonesia by major islands (source: Pawitan et al. 1996).

Major islands

Area(103 km2)

Rainfall(mm yr-1)

Runoff Groundwater Total water available(mm yr-1) (m3 s-1) (mm yr-1) (m3 s-1) (mm yr-1) (m3 s-1)

Sumatra 477.4 2801 1848 27 962 280 4 236 2 128 32 198Java 121.3 2555 1658 6 378 255 982 1 915 7 360Bali & NT 87.9 1695 1997 2 779 170 472 1 167 3 251Kalimantan 534.8 2956 1968 33 359 296 5 010 2 264 28 369Sulawesi 190.4 2156 1352 8 157 216 1 301 1 564 9 458Maluku 85.4 2218 1400 3 785 222 600 1 621 4 385W. Papua 413.9 3224 2175 28 524 322 4 229 2 497 32 754Indonesia 1911.1 2779 1832 110 944 278 16 831 2 110 127 775

Table II. Hydrologic characteristics of some of Indonesias major rivers (source: Takeuchi et al. 1995; Jayawaardena et al. 1997; Pawitan et al. 2000; Ibbit et al. 2002; Tachikawa et al. 2004).

No. Name of river StationCatchment

area (A) (km2)

Mean fl owQ

(m3 s-1)

Maximum fl owQmax(m3 s-1)

Minimum fl owQmin(m3 s-1)

Qmax/A (m3 s-1 100 km-2)

1 Asahan Siruar 3782 96.6 133.1 42.1 72 Citarum Nanjung 1 675 68.7 455 5.4 27.13 Cimanuk Rentang 3 003 134.7 305.6 19.9 14.64 Citanduy Cikawung 2 515 204 710.6 16.3 39.25 Serayu Rawalo 2 631 273.4 1 497 58.8 76.86 Bengawan

SoloBojonegoro 12 804 362.9 2 127 19 17

7 Brantas Jabon 8 650 258.7 866.1 46.6 108 Jeneberang Patalikang 384.4 43.5 352.2 0.3 182.4


consumption, which cause serious environmental degradation and reduced ecosystem services. This human factor will continue to present signifi cant pressures on land and water resources over a time horizon of 20 to 30 years before any adjustment can take place. Pawitan (2002) noted the Boeke report (Boeke 1941), entitled From four million to forty four million people in Java and Madura, indicating the population increase from 1800 to 1930, after the fi rst census was conducted. It was reported that, since historic times, the population density in Java has been very variable, ranging from 9 persons km-2to 880 person km-2 in 1815 with average density of 35 person km-2. This average density increased to 330 persons km-2 (1930) and then to 1000 persons km-2 (2000). This population increase has severely affected land usage and vegetation cover, with the consequences of land degradation, soil erosion, and uncertainties in the ability to adjust to future changes in hydrologic regimes and environmental quality. Pawitan (2000) concluded that land use changes on Java Island had led to signifi cant reductions in an-nual rainfall and associated river discharges, which also were strongly infl uenced by El Nio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events.

Water pollution Pollution and the management of lakes and

rivers (inland waters) has been highlighted at the Indodanau Bali Seminar held in 2009, that defi ned the crisis due to the continuing degradation and threats to the sustainability of global water re-sources. Indonesia, which has relatively abundant water resources, was not immune from this water resources crisis, which requires a choice of smart solutions such as those offered by the concept of ecohydrology.

Sedimentation and eutrophication: One obvious consequence of the above mentioned population pressures on land and water resources is the phe-nomena of erosion, sedimentation, and eutrophica-tion in water bodies. Land use changes and forest land conversions are occurring at alarming rates in Indonesia. In the past three decades the estimated rate of deforestation was one million hectares per year, and in the last decade, during the reformation era, deforestation rates reached three million hect-ares per year, while the target for reforestation was only 500 000 hectares year-1. Signifi cant losses of land cover and intensive agriculture land uses have enriched the waters in rivers and lakes, creating extensive eutrophication. The case of Tempe Lake in South Sulawesi was described by Hargono et al.(2003), where a signifi cant reduction in lake storage capacity occurred due to sedimentation at rates of be-tween 600 000 m3 year-1 (1980) and 675 000 m3year-1(2003). Such sedimentation has led to a reduction

in fi sh production from 58 000 tons year-1 (1948) to between 10 000 and 15 000 tons year-1 (1981). Such declines continue. The lake surface area reached 43 000 ha during the wet season at 6 m depth and declined to 10 000 ha during the dry season at 1 to 3 m depth. In some of the tributary waterways, the average depth during the dry season was 1.5 m. Similar phenomena were occurring in most inland water bodies in Indonesia.

Aquaculture: Floating fi sh ponds are becom-ing common practice in raising fi shes, not only on river banks, but especially in lakes and reservoirs. The development of these aquaculture facilities has reached an alarming level as a consequence of the feeding practices employed that have caused serious increases in pollution levels. These conse-quences become obvious during the dry season with increasing incidences of dead and diseased fi shes due to the upwelling of hypolimnetic water with low dissolved oxygen levels.

Changes of land use and land cover: degradation of forest land

In the last hundred years since 1900, the use of land in Java Island has undergone a change from forest area to agricultural land. This change has continued in the past three decades, with shifts from agricultural land to residential and industrial areas. These changes are the basis of the anthropogenic infl uences on the hydrological regime and carrying capacity. The area of natural forest on Java has been steadily decreasing during the last hundred years, as recorded by the Agency of Planology, Ministry of Forestry (2008): 10 million ha in the 1800s; 1 million ha in 1989; and 0.4 million ha in 2005.

The hydrological regime is characterized by the geomorphology of watersheds and the behaviour of rainfall-runoff as a function of river basin hydrology. The watershed, as an area / restricted area bounded by topography that receives rainfall, stores and drains water through a river network, resulting in a surface runoff through major rivers that drain into a lake or the sea. The rainfall-runoff relationship indicates the watershed condition. It is expected that an undisturbed watershed has functions that ensure the sustainability of a balanced rainfall-runoff relationship. If the watershed function is disturbed, for example due to biogeophysical changes in land watershed, watershed degradation is said to have occurred. The occurrence of land conversion that increases the area of bare land is indicative of sus-ceptibility to degradation that is characterized by increasing runoff coeffi cients, increased erosion and sedimentation, increased fl ood discharges and fl ood prone areas, reduced low fl ows in the dry season, and increased ratios of maximum : minimum fl ows. Land areas with vegetation cover of less than 25%


of the area are a source of erosion, in the forms of both sheet and gully erosion. Watershed conditions affected by forest and land degradation have been widely found in Indonesia, as shown in Table III. The increasing number of critical watersheds in Indonesia has been recognized since the 1980s, with 22 critical watersheds and 13 million ha of degraded land in 1984. This has increased to 62 critical water-sheds with a total area of 59.62 million ha by 2005, with an on-going deforestation rate of 1.09 million ha year-1 (during the period 2000-2006).

Decreased water resources availabilityThe availability of water resources in Indonesia

has experienced a signifi cant reduction in line with the widespread occurrence of forest loss and land degradation. This is as shown in Figure 1 which presents the trends of discharge of the major rivers in Java that follow declining basin rainfalls. Large

changes in rainfall and river discharge have oc-curred throughout the twentieth century, as shown in Table IV, with decreases of between 1.6 to 8.5 mm year-1 for annual rainfall and 0.5 to 3.1 mm year-1 for river discharge. The Brantas River is an exception to this general trend, with increases both in rainfall and annual river discharge. Table V shows the changes in river fl ow patterns in Java, from upstream to downstream, with variable discharges in the upstream and middle reaches of the river, and an almost consistent decrease in the downstream reaches, except for the Cimanuk which has normal rates of discharge.

The issue of natural resource management Demands to increase local revenues to each

local government and the enactment of the policy of regional autonomy after the reformation era in last decade have brought about serious impacts on

Table III. List of critical watersheds in Indonesia in 1999 (source: Bappenas-RI 2005).

No Name of the watershed Province No Name of the watershed Province1 Krueng Aceh NAD 32 Girindulu Jawa Timur 2 Krueng Pesangan NAD 33 Saroka Jawa Timur 3 Asahan Sumatera Utara 34 Tukad Unda Bali 4 Lau Renun Sumatera Utara 35 Dodokan Nusatenggara Barat 5 Ular Sumatera Utara 36 Benain Nusatenggara Timur6 Nias (Kepulauan) Sumatera Utara 37 Noelmina Nusatenggara Timur7 Kampar Riau 38 Aisissa Nusatenggara Timur8 Indragiri Riau 39 Kambaheru Nusatenggara Timur9 Rokan Riau 40 Lois Nusatenggara Timur

10 Kuantan Sumatera Barat 41 Sambas Kalimantan Barat11 Kampar Kanan Sumatera Barat 42 Tunan-Manggar Kalimantan Timur12 Batanghari Sumbar-Jambi 43 Kota Waringin Kalimantan Tengah13 Manna-Padang Guci Bengkulu 44 Barito Kalteng-Kalsel 14 Musi Bengkulu-Sumsel 45 Jeneberang-Klara Sulawesi Selatan15 Way Seputih Lampung 46 Walanae Sulawesi Selatan16 Way Sekampung Lampung 47 Billa Sulawesi Selatan17 Citarum Jawa Barat 48 Saddang Sulawesi Selatan18 Cimanuk Jawa Barat 49 Bau bau-Wanca Sulawesi Tenggara19 Ciliwung Jawa Barat 50 Lasolo Sulawesi Tenggara20 Citanduy Jawa Barat 51 Poso Sulawesi Tengah21 Cipunegara Jawa Barat 52 Lamboru Sulawesi Tengah22 Ciujung Jawa Barat 53 Palu Sulawesi Tengah23 Kali Garang Jawa Tengah 54 Limboto Sulawesi Utara24 Kali Bodri Jawa Tengah 55 Tondano Sulawesi Utara25 Kali Serayu Jawa Tengah 56 Dumoga Sulawesi Utara26 Bribin DIY 57 Batu Merah Maluku 27 Pasiraman Jawa Timur 58 Hatu Tengah Maluku 28 Rejoso Jawa Timur 59 Baliem Papua 29 Brantas Jawa Timur 60 Merauke-Bulaka Papua 30 Sampean Jawa Timur 61 Memberamo Papua 31 Bengawan Solo Jateng-Jatim 62 Sentani Papua


Fig. 1. Trends in major rivers discharge in Java during the twentieth century.

Table IV. Trends in annual rainfall (P) and river discharge (Q) in a number of major rivers in Java during the twentieth century. Linear regression results of P and Q from the period 1916-2004.

River name Trends of change (mm year-1)

P QCitarum -4.772 -2.253Cimanuk -7.087 -2.725Bengawan Solo -1.616 -0.476Brantas +0.214 +0.062Progo -8.517 -3.052Serayu -2.459 -1.109Citanduy -6.362 -3.063

Table V. Trends in discharges of rivers in Java according to reach position in the upper, middle and lower sections of the river (source: Pawitan et al. 2007).

No. Names of RiverTrends in river discharge

Upstream Middle Downstream1 Ciujung Highly decreasing Decreasing Decreasing 2 Cisadane Moderately decreasing Highly increasing - 3 Citanduy Moderately increasing Increasing Decreasing 4 Citarum Normal - Moderately decreasing 5 Cimanuk Highly decreasing Moderately decreasing Normal 6 Serayu Decreasing Moderately decreasing Decreasing 7 Bengawan Solo Highly increasing Moderately decreasing Moderately decreasing


the management of natural resources. The issuance of District Regulations have tended to encourage exploitation of existing natural resources without much consideration of the environmental capacity and practices of good governance/best management practices. This is shown in Table VI which presents the consequences of issuing District Regulations related to natural resource management in Java, with 39% being related to water resources and 27% related to forest resources. The District Regulations have provided a strong motivation for the exploitation of natural resources with 71 (60%) out of the total of 119 District Regulations supporting resource use. Only 10% of the District Regulations give the people the right to access and utilize natural resources.

2. National programs related to the environment and community livelihoods

The impacts of high population densities on Java Island have been known since the fi rst census in 1930, which recognized the need for increased food production. These impacts triggered the de-velopment of large scale technical irrigation in east Java, and continued with the construction of many water resources development projects, including canal structures and reservoirs, in other places in Indonesia until the 1970s. At present, there are some on-going national programs that take the form of national movements adopting the broad guidelines of sustainable development and integrated water resources management. These programs are multi-sectoral with hierarchically coordinated implemen-tation mechanisms and occur around the country. Examples of such programs include: (i) GN-KPA a national movement on partnerships for the safeguard-ing of water resources; (ii) GN-RHL a national movement for land and forest rehabilitation; and, (iii) the National Program on Integrated Agricultural Management Field Schools. More sectoral programs

include (i) ESP Environmental Support Program, a watershed development project administered by the Department of Forestry supported by the US Agency for International Development (USAID); (ii) SCBFWM Strengthening Community-Based Forest and Watershed Management In Indonesia, a pilot project under Department of Forestry supported by UN Development Programme being implemented around the country; and, (iii) P4MI Poor Farmers Income Improvement through Innovation Program, a pilot project under Department of Agriculture that was supported by Asian Development Bank.

At national level, several institutions were formed, such as: (i) Coordination Board of Spatial Planning chaired by the Coordination Minister of Economic Affairs with members from across several departments; (ii) National Water Resources Board, also chaired by the Coordination Minister of Economic Affairs with members from across departments and daily activities chaired by the Minister of Public Works; (iii) National Energy Coordination Board with daily activities chaired by the Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources; (iv) National Watershed Management Forum chaired by the Minister of Forestry; (v) Regional Offi ces of Water Resources and Watershed Management at the provincial level; and, (vi) Water Resources Authori-ties at the national river basin level. However, at the practical operational and implementation level, most of the good concepts and plans are not working so that obviously there is still an urgent need for an organizational set up that can effectively deliver services linking the environment and community livelihoods. Such an organizational framework may be created by adopting the basic principles of the human-environment system (HES) approach, rec-ognizing the regulatory and feedback mechanisms (Scholz, Binder 2004).

Lessons to be learned from project implementa-tion include: (i) improvements in information shar-ing to build trust in technical cooperation projects;

Table VI. District Regulations related to natural resource management (source: Menko Ekuin 2007).

Regulatednatural resources

District Regulations (PERDA) objectives:Levy a business license (tax) or granting permission for the exploitation of natural

resources

Collaborationaction of the

exploitation of natural resources

Right for the community to access, utilization an control over the natural

resources

Total(%)

Water 28 16 2 46 (39%) Land 11 1 0 12 (10%) Forest 15 10 7 32 (27%) Mine 17 0 0 17 (14%) Environmentalquality standard 0 9 3 12 (10%)

Total (%) 71 (60%) 36 (30%) 12 (10%) 119 (100%)


(ii) the power of community level participation to improve livelihoods in participating communities; (iii) planning and implementation of community based actions and sharing of experiences between sectors as well as between communities across governmental boundaries; (iv) local knowledge and self-motivation to make up for limited fi nancial resources by working through existing farmers groups and programs that they are familiar with; and, (v) the multi stakeholders/participatory approach is slow, expensive and time consuming but neces-sary to mobilize partnerships with ministries, and decentralized local governments, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and civil society.

Farmer-groups are hungry for new skills and technologies that are friendly to the watershed en-vironment. They all have stories and experiences on how the use of chemicals has polluted their water systems, affected their health and tied them to high interest rates with banks or loan sharks. They have also seen how converting lands with critical slopes or improper cultivation of lands can lead to fl ash fl oods, loss of topsoil and leaner harvests due to loss of soil fertility and diminished carrying capacities. Moreover, they offer some confi rmation of the infl uences of climate change on their lands and activities (Pawitan, Rachman 2009).

3. Perspectives on and development of an ecohydrological approach

Water management in Indonesia has a long history, not only obvious from the present practices of Subak in Bali, but also from a relic imprinted on the walls of Borobudur, a more than a millen-nium old Buddhist temple located in central Java. However, modern technical irrigation techniques were first introduced by the Dutch East Indies Government in the early 1900s, when large scale irrigation schemes were constructed from North Sumatra to South Sumatra, West Java, East Java, and South Sulawesi. Included in this development was the construction of hydroelectric power plants and a fl ood control system for Jakarta city. In 1934, the fi rst regulation on water allocation was issued to ensure the operation of estates producing coffee, sugar cane and quinine.

With National Independence in 1945, the Na-tional Constitution stated that water as natural re-sources is to be used for the welfare of the people. After being neglected following independence, a major water resources development effort in In-donesia emerged as an important part of national development in Indonesia during the early 1970s. In 1974, Water Law No.11 was issued, covering the management of surface irrigation waters ad-

ministered by the Ministry of Public Works and groundwater administered by the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources.

In the 1970s, development of large scale irriga-tion schemes and water management facilities was taking place, including construction of hydrometric stations nationwide. Adoption of the Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) approach took place in the 1990s, and, by the end of 1990s, a combined approach of IWRM and sanitation was adopted (Hehanussa, Haryani 2011).

Progress of ecohydrology in Indonesia can be identifi ed during the period from 1995 through 2011, as recorded in part by Hehanussa and Hary-ani (2011). The inclusion of Theme 2.3 of IHP-V Programme in 1995 and the agreement between UNESCO and the Government of Indonesia led to the establishment and operation of the Asia-Pacifi c Centre for Ecohydrology (APCE) in Indonesia as a Category II Centre under the auspices of UNESCO. The objectives of the Centre are: (i) to promote re-search in order to better understand the relationship between biota and hydrology in the region; (ii) to identify a hierarchy of environmental problems in selected study areas associated with ecohydrological processes; and, (iii) to introduce, enrich, and dis-seminate ecohydrological concepts at the regional, national and international levels (Asian-Pacifi c region). The outputs of the Centre for Ecohydrol-ogy are expected to include new management tools to address water and ecosystem degradation in the Asia-Pacifi c region.

A series of regional training workshops have been conducted so far on ecohydrology, adopting the framework of the International Hydrology Program of UNESCO (UNESCO-IHP), that should play a ma-jor role in encouraging networking among scientists, research workers, and fi eld engineers in the region and at national level. A network among the different national institutions, working or dealing with water related issues, such as water corporations, district offi ces responsible for water resources management, research agencies and universities, has already been initiated. The Centre would further facilitate coopera-tion between water related scientists and engineers to actively conduct in-house research, training and knowledge exchanges, and dissemination of water related information.

Field research on the application of ecohy-drological approaches, conducted by the Research Centre for Limnology Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), from 1990 until now include: Treatment of laboratory waste water using surface

and subsurface fl ows in a tropical constructed wetland (Fig. 2);

Storm water treatment using a constructed wetland at Lake Cibuntu;


Microphytobenthic approaches to reduce nitrogen and phosphorus concentrations in lotic ecosystems (Fig. 3);

Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment at Islamic boarding schools (Pondok Pesantren), Arrafah, Cililin, Bandung, West Java;

Constructed wetlands for treatment of public sanitary wastes in North Petojo, Jakarta;

Passive treatment using constructed wetlands in a small fi eld scale mine waste treatment system for Kolong (mine pit), Bangka Island;

Application of ecohydrological concepts in several lakes: Maninjau lake in West Sumatra, Semayang-Melintang lakes in East Kalimantan, and Limboto lake in Gorontalo province (Fig. 4);

Conduct of an ecohydrological engineering study for the restoration of the aquatic ecosystem in Lake Limboto. Ecohydrological engineering will potentially be applied to 562 ha in the eastern and northern parts of the lake (Lukman 2010) to improve water retention of up to 10 million m3 (15%), reduce fl ood risks in the downstream areas, and increase fi shery productivity by up to 300 tons year-1.

4. Sustainability challenge of the water environment

Adoption of ecohydrological concepts and principles certainly would provide a strong scientifi c basis for integrated water resources management that would ensure the sustainability of the water environment. However, at present, there are still big gaps between theory and reality, with little implementation of the principles in water resources projects. The challenge is obvious: to simplify the adoption of ecohydrology approaches in practice based on knowledge already gained from laboratory and fi eld research and from various case studies. The general guidance suggested for watershed management in Indonesia was to consider cause-effect relationships: to guarantee water resources

Fig. 3. Microphytobenthic approach to reducing N and P in lothic ecosystems: lab experiments (source: Nofdianto, RC for Limnology, LIPI).

Fig. 2. Pilot scale constructed wetland (SSFCW and SFCW) for laboratory waste water treatment at the Research Centre for Limnology Cibinong, Bogor (Photo: Gadis Sri Haryani, RC for Limnology-LIPI).


conservation, to guarantee soils conservation, and to plant trees and maintain vegetation cover. There-fore, as a necessary condition to guarantee water resources conservation, the planting of trees to stabilize soils and encourage groundwater recharge is a major step. Certainly, planting trees needs to follow good silvicultural practices and be based upon phytotechnology approach.

Ecohydrology is a relatively new approach that integrates the concepts of ecology with hydrology as a holistic problem-solving approach to the manage-ment of water and environmental resources, such as in an inland water environment, estuary, etc. The concept of ecohydrology that has been developed by Zalewski in Poland since the 1980s covers both the aquatic and terrestrial aspects of a watershed (Zalewski 2007). It is obviously different from the approach of Rodrigues-Iturbe (2000) developed in the United States that stressed the soil moisture-plant dynamic relationship from a terrestrial perspective. The study of ecohydrology models the interaction between ecosystems and the hydrological system, as a basic environmental management approach, to conserve water resources, manage fl oods and enhance environmental productivity at the level of the biota. Obviously, in Indonesia, there is still a need to conduct some ecohydrological research and synthesis, considering the complexity of the water environmental problems, and especially as applied research can provide practical guidance. Ecohydrological research is necessarily related to the need for capacity building of human resources with competencies to solve ecohydrological prob-lems in Indonesia. Such capacity building can be achieved with the inclusion of ecohydrological education in university study programs. Research

in ecohydrology also needs to be associated with other scientifi c disciplines such as environmental economics, sociology, and culture, gender, health, food, energy, and climate sciences, because water is a basic building block of life that covers all aspects of life (Hiwasaki, Ariko 2007; Strang, Undated). The needs for ecohydrological research in Indone-sia are very real in order to support the sustainable development of the water environment. Research on the following topics, among others, is required: trophic levels, in terms of the balance between

producers and consumers in a lake or reservoir, and their relationship to water levels,

ecotones, between biotic and water fl uctuations, zonation of aquatic ecosystems and lakes, for

development and management purposes, wetland ecohydrology, related to the development

of riparian and wetland areas, water retention capacity of the environment, phyto-technology to solve water environment

problems, urban ecohydrology and rural agro-ecohydrology, river delta ecohydrology, fl oods and droughts, and their environmental

impacts.All this research needs to be aligned with the

IWRM concept, to optimize the benefi cial outcomes. If the research can be used as part of ecohydrology education in Indonesian universities, at the masters or doctoral levels, it can be expected that the en-vironmental management of water resources in a sustainable manner can be achieved more quickly. Education and research into natural resources and the environment in Indonesia was facilitated by the Ministry of Environment in the mid-1980s through the establishment of research centres of

Fig. 4. Proposed utilisation zones in Lakes Semayang-Melintang (East Kalimantan) based on hydrologyhabitatsocial interactions (source: Research Centre for Limnology, LIPI).


the environment in a number of public universities in Indonesia. Currently, ecohydrology concepts can be incorporated easily into the environmental and natural resources study programs offered at many universities in Indonesia.

5. Community livelihoods linkages within the water environment: case of Singkarak lake basin, West Sumatra

Several study areas were available for imple-menting different development programs, each with its own characteristics in terms of environmental resources as well as its socio-economic conditions, ranging from North Sumatra to Indonesias eastern regions. For illustration purposes, the case of the Singkarak Lake basin of West Sumatra was selected (Fig. 5) (Pawitan, Rachman 2009).

Fig. 5. Location map of the Singkarak Lake basin in West Sumatra.

Singkarak is the largest lake in the West Sumatra province, with a water surface area of 112 km2 at 363 m.a.s.l., a maximum depth of 268 m, a catch-ment area of 1076 km2 and a water storage capacity of 16.1 billion m3. Geologically the lake is consid-ered to be a volcanic lake with inlets from several tributaries, and a single outlet at Batang Ombilin with a hydropower station generating 175 MW. The lake basin is divided into two districts: Solok and Tanah Datar, and is famous for supporting recreation, irrigation of 215 000 hectares of agriculture land, and domestic water supplies. In the past decades, the watershed has been characterized by the pres-ence of an extensive area of critical lands, totalling 35 000 hectares in the catchment area, that have had signifi cant impacts on the lake waters.

Reductions in fi sh stocks in the lake are not only due to over fi shing, but also to domestic waste inputs and sedimentation. Since 1999, during the dry season, lake water levels drop 1.50 m, reducing hydropower generating capacity by 50%, and, dur-ing wet season, damaging fi sh ponds, paddy fi elds and agricultural crops around the lake. Erosion and sedimentation are related to degraded land conditions in the lake catchment area. These critical conditions are believed to be due to forest logging over many years that increased soil erosion and caused severe land degradation. This has led to negative impacts, including depletion of the indigenous endemic fi sh known as bilih fi sh (Mystacoleucus padangensis), measuring 6-12 cm in length and only found in Singkarak Lake. During the past 20 years, the fi sh population as a whole has been declining due to over fi shing, deterioration of lake ecosystems, and lack of local knowledge on nature conservation.

During the past fi ve years, a series of activi-ties has been implemented at the community levelwithin the Singkarak Lake basin with the goals of eradicating poverty and improving environmental conditions. These include: (i) GN-RHL activities through government agencies at the district level with funding from the Department of Forestry, and which, in the past fi ve years, have succeeded in reforesting 8000 ha out of 35 000 ha critical land; (ii) regreening activities undertaken by the Singkarak Hydropower Plant; (iii) Japan International Forest Promotion and Cooperation Centre (JIFRO) Revegetation Project, which, since 2005, has succeeded in reforesting 255 ha at a cost of 5.5 million Rp ha-1; (iv) Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) Project of the Dutch Government, which, in 2009, reforested 28 ha at a cost of 10 million Rp ha-1; (v) support of activi-ties from Ministry of the Environment; (vi) support of activities from the Environmental Management Offi ce for the Sumatra Region in Pekanbaru; and, (vii) Kemiri tree planting activities on sloping lands and dalu-dalu tree planting activities on the lake shores by the local community.

This last activity was achieved through the prac-tice of traditional values such as gotong royong where people in the community, including school children and NGOs, work voluntarily with support by the Singkarak Hydropower Plant. This initiative was offi cially recognized by the Government in 2009.

The activities under the GN-KPA Program range from the national scale to the local scale, with implementation down to the village level and with planning support at the district government level involving all the district technical agencies. The activities are undertaken in three general categories: (i) improvement of vegetation cover through tree planting; (ii) improvement of soil infi ltration capacity


using civil technique activities; and, (iii) community development activities.

Fortunately, recent political change has returned autonomous local government to West Sumatra based on local wisdom known as nagari governance. A nagari is a local government unit and the West Sumatra Province consists of twelve nagaris. This autonomous local government system is founded on local communities practicing traditional rules that relate to the potential uses of Singkarak Lake. These rules regulate biodiversity and management of the lake, restrict the use of jaring lingkar fi sh nets, and require the catch to be shared amongst those who own the fi sh net as well as those who do not. In 2003, there were 1202 active fi shermen with a low educational level. Another regulatory initiative prohibits the disposal of garbage in the lake, and is supported by the construction of garbage shelters and by the Agency for Environmental Management at the nagari level.

Concluding remarks Richness in water environment resources does

not lead to freedom from water crises, and social and environmental problems. Pockets of poverty in densely populated areas can be recognized around the country, which overlap with degraded land and forest resources and much reduced carrying capaci-ties, trapping people in a vicious circle of poverty.

The challenge of simplifying the adoption of ecohydrological approaches to promote implemen-tation of practices in Indonesia remains. There is a need to incorporate these practices into societal livelihoods as the people very much rely on the availability of water environment resources.

Restoration and sustainable management of the water environmental resources through differ-ent national programs can be achieved only if soil conservation is successfully implemented through land and forest rehabilitation. This can be achieved only through effective and science based reforesta-tion, revegetation and regreening programs which are a long term, multi-generational efforts requir-ing all necessary support from every stakeholder within the framework of an effective institutional set up. Ecohydrological approaches should play an important role in this effort.

AcknowledgementsThis contribution was prepared during a visit

by the authors to ERCE UNESCO PAS at Lodz, Poland during September and October 2011 made possible by the kind invitation of Professor Maciej Zalewski and the fi nancial support of DGHE RI through the Program for Academic Recharging (PAR B) 2011.

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Water resources, sustainability and societal livelihoods in IndonesiaIntroduction and some backgroundIndonesian water environment resourcesWater environment problemsWater pollutionChanges of land use and land cover: degradation of forest landDecreased water resources availabilityThe issue of natural resource management

National programs related to the environment and community livelihoodsPerspectives on and development of an ecohydrological approachSustainability challenge of the water environmentCommunity livelihoods linkages within the water environment: case of Singkarak lake basin, West SumatraConcluding remarksAcknowledgements

Water Resources, Sustainability, Adn Societal Livelihoods in Indonesia

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