1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of experiment

Water safety is one of the concerns in our daily life. Nowadays, even clear water may

contain pollutants which cannot be seen with our naked eyes. Polluted water may

contain dissolved salt, acids and also very small particles. Water from any sources has

to be analyzed to detect the pollutants in water and then taking any possible steps to

prevent further harms to the environment and pollutions to the water.

There are several indicators that can be used in conducting water quality analysis,

which are physical, chemical and biological indicators. Physical Indicator includes

temperature, conductivity, total suspended solids (TSS), turbidity, total dissolved solids

(TDS), odor of water, color of water and taste of water. Chemical Indicator includes

pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), dissolved

oxygen (DO), heavy metals, nitrate and orthophosphates. Biological Indicator includes

Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Coliform bacteria.

For our experiment, the water sample from UTM’s lake will be analysed with

TSS, pH, conductivity and turbidity test. TSS is also called non-filterable residue. TSS

test is carried out to find out the amount of total suspended solid present in the water

which will be carried out using filter paper. pH test is a measure of the acidity of water.

Conductivity test will measure the conductivity of water sample. Larger conductivity

value means higher amount of ions present in the water sample. Turbidity is the

cloudiness or haziness of a fluid caused by suspended solids that are generally invisible

to the naked eye, similar to smoke in air.

1.2 Objective of experiment

To analysis the water from UTM’s lake from four different parameters include pH,

conductivity, total suspended solid and turbidity.

1.3 Scope of Experiment

The scope of experiment will only include the water sample from UTM’s lake.

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conductivity

Conductivity is a measure of the ability of water to pass an electrical current.

Conductivity in water is affected by the presence of inorganic dissolved solids such as

chloride, nitrate, sulfate, and phosphate anions (ions that carry a negative charge) or

sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, and aluminum cations (ions that carry a positive

charge). Organic compounds like oil, phenol, alcohol, and sugar do not conduct

electrical current very well and therefore have a low conductivity when in water.

Conductivity is also affected by temperature: the warmer the water, the higher the

conductivity. For this reason, conductivity is reported as conductivity at 25 degrees

Celsius (25oC).

Conductivity in streams and rivers is affected primarily by the geology of the area

through which the water flows. Streams that run through areas with granite bedrock

tend to have lower conductivity because granite is composed of more inert materials

that do not ionize (dissolve into ionic components) when washed into the water. On the

other hand, streams that run through areas with clay soils tend to have higher

conductivity because of the presence of materials that ionize when washed into the

water. Ground water inflows can have the same effects depending on the bedrock they

flow through. Discharges to streams can change the conductivity depending on their

make-up. A failing sewage system would raise the conductivity because of the presence

of chloride, phosphate, and nitrate; an oil spill would lower the conductivity.

The basic unit of measurement of conductivity is the mho or siemens.

Conductivity is measured in micromhos per centimeter (µmhos/cm) or microsiemens

per centimeter (µs/cm). Distilled water has a conductivity in the range of 0.5 to 3

µmhos/cm. Studies of inland fresh waters indicate that streams supporting good mixed

fisheries have a range between 150 and 500 µhos/cm. Conductivity outside this range

could indicate that the water is not suitable for certain species of fish or

macroinvertebrates. Industrial waters can range as high as 10,000 µmhos/cm.

2.2 pH

Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe chemicals, just like hot and cold are

two extremes that describe temperature. Mixing acids and bases can cancel out their

extreme effects; much like mixing hot and cold water can even out the water

temperature. A substance that is neither acidic nor basic is neutral.

The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. It ranges from 0 to 14.

A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic, and a pH greater than 7 is basic. Each

whole pH value below 7 is ten times more acidic than the next higher value. For

example, a pH of 4 is ten times more acidic than a pH of 5 and 100 times (10 times 10)

more acidic than a pH of 6. The same holds true for pH values above 7, each of which

is ten times more alkaline—another way to say basic—than the next lower whole value.

For example, a pH of 10 is ten times more alkaline than a pH of 9.

Pure water is neutral, with a pH of 7.0. When chemicals are mixed with water, the

mixture can become either acidic or basic.

2.3 Total suspended solid (TSS)

Total suspended solids (TSS) are particles that are larger than 2 microns (μ) found in

the water column. Anything smaller than 2 microns (average filter size) is considered a

dissolved solid. The lower size range of this class is 0.1 to 1.0 μm, about the size of

bacteria. TSS are solid materials, including organic and inorganic, that are suspended in

the water. These would include silt, plankton and industrial wastes. Total suspended

solids, as a measurement of mass are reported in milligrams of solids per liter of water

(mg/L). Suspended sediment is also measured in mg/L

High concentrations of suspended solids can lower water quality by absorbing

light. Waters then become warmer and lessen the ability of the water to hold oxygen

necessary for aquatic life. Because aquatic plants also receive less light, photosynthesis

decreases and less oxygen is produced. The combination of warmer water, less light

and less oxygen makes it impossible for some forms of life to exist.

Suspended solids affect life in other ways. They can clog fish gills, reduce growth

rates, decrease resistance to disease, and prevent egg and larval development. Particles

that settle out can smother fish eggs and those of aquatic insects, as well as suffocate

newly-hatched larvae. The material that settles also fills the spaces between rocks and

makes these microhabitats unsuitable for various aquatic insects, such as mayfly

nymphs, stonefly nymphs and caddis fly larva. Suspended solids can result from

erosion from urban runoff and agricultural land, industrial wastes, bank erosion, bottom

feeders (such as carp), algae growth or wastewater discharges.

Prevention methods include protection of the land in our watershed from erosion

by use of conservation tillage measures and giving urban runoff time to settle out

before reaching our surface waters.

2.4 Turbidity

Turbidity is a measure of water clarity how much the material suspended in water

decreases the passage of light through the water. Suspended materials include soil

particles (clay, silt, and sand), algae, plankton, microbes, and other substances. These

materials are typically in the size range of 0.004 mm (clay) to 1.0 mm (sand). Turbidity

can affect the color of the water.

Higher turbidity increases water temperatures because suspended particles absorb

more heat. This, in turn, reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen (DO) because

warm water holds less DO than cold. Higher turbidity also reduces the amount of light

penetrating the water, which reduces photosynthesis and the production of DO.

Suspended materials can clog fish gills, reducing resistance to disease in fish, lowering

growth rates, and affecting egg and larval development. As the particles settle, they can

blanket the stream bottom, especially in slower waters, and smother fish eggs and

benthic macroinvertebrates.

Turbidity is generally measured by using a turbidity meter. Volunteer programs

may also take samples to a lab for analysis. Another approach is to measure

transparency (an integrated measure of light scattering and absorption) instead of

turbidity. Water clarity/transparency can be measured using a Secchi disk or

transparency tube. The Secchi disk can only be used in deep, slow moving rivers; the

transparency tube, a comparatively new development, is gaining acceptance in

programs around the country but is not yet in wide use.

3.0 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Conductivity

Materials : Water sample

Apparatus : Conductivity meter, beaker, measuring cylinder, probe

Procedures

1. Before conduction of the experiment, the conductivity meter is switched on for at

least 30 minutes.

2. 200mL water sample is measured and transferred into a beaker.

3. The probe is dipped into the water sample.

4. ‘RED LINE’ is fixed by turning the mode knob. This is to let the red line knob to

be adjusted until perpendicular to the red line.

5. To get the reading of the temperature, the mode knob is turned to ‘Temperature’.

To read the temperature, adjust the temperature knob.

6. To obtain the reading of salinity and water conductivity the mode knob is turned

to ‘SALINITY’ and ‘CONDUCTIVITY’ respectively.

7. The mode knob is turned to ‘OFF’ upon completion and the probe is dipped into

distilled water.

3.2 pH

Materials : Water sample, buffer solution(with pH 4, 7 and 9).

Apparatus : pH meter, beaker, probe

Procedures

1. The pH meter is switched on. ‘Cal/measure’ button is pressed until ‘cal’ is shown

on the screen.

2. The probe is put into the blank solution with pH 4 and button enter is pressed

when the reading on the screen shows pH 4.

3. The probe is rinsed and repeated using the blank solution with pH 7 and pH 9.

4. After calibration, the probe is put into the water sample and ‘measure’ button is

pressed. The probe is rinsed before taking new reading.

3.3 Total Suspended Solid

Materials : Water sample, distilled water

Apparatus : Grooch crucible, vacuum pump, filtration apparatus, glass-fibre filter,

desiccator, digital balance, drying oven, filter paper, measuring

cylinder.

Procedures

1. The filter paper is placed in the crucible and weighed.

2. 20 mL distilled water is filled into the crucible and the suction is started.

3. The crucible is placed into oven for 30 minutes at 103-105°C.

4. Then, the crucible is cooled down to room temperature and weighed.

5. Using the same filter paper and crucible, 20 mL water sample is filled and the

suction is started again.

6. The crucible is placed into oven for 1 hour at 103-105°C.

7. The crucible is cooled down to room temperature and weighed

3.4 Turbidity

Materials : Water sample, formazin standard(with NTU 18, 200 and 2000)

Apparatus : Turbidity meter, sample cell

Procedures

1. The turbidity meter is switched on and warmed for a while. Ensure that the cell

holder is closed and empty.

2. The zero reading is changed to .000 and range ‘20-NTU’ is chosen.

3. A sample cell containing 18-NTU standard formazine is inserted into the cell

holder and the light lid is closed.

4. By using the calibration plot, 20-200 S (span) control is changed to get 18.00

reading. The step is repeated for 200 NTU and 2000 NTU.

5. After calibration, the NTU for water sample is measured by pouring the water

sample into the sample cell.

6. The sample cell is inserted into the cell holder and closed with the light lid.

4.0 LIST OF MATHEMATICAL EQUATION/CORRELATIONS NEEDED

4.1 Total Suspended Solid (TSS)

(mgl

)=(weight of sample+ filter )−(weight of filter )

volume of sample (ml) X 1000 mg / g

5.0 IDENTIFICATION OF DATA NEEDED

pH test : pH value of water sample

Conductivity test : conductivity value of water sample

TSS test : weight of sample, weight of filter, volume of sample to calculate TSS value

Turbidity test : NTU value

6.0 ANTICIPATED RESULT

The water sample from UTM’s lake will have low turbidity, slightly basic while having high

TSS (polluted water) but with low conductivity.

7.0 REFERENCE

Environmental Protection Agency United States, (n.d), What is pH, Retrieved 30 October, 2014 from http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/measure/ph.html.

EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency (n.d), Turbidity, Retrieved 30 October, 2014 from http://water.epa.gov/type/rsl/monitoring/vms55.cfm.

EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency (n.d), Conductivity, Retrieved 30 October, 2014 from http://water.epa.gov/type/rsl/monitoring/vms59.cfm.

Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements, (n.d), Total Suspended Solid (TSS), Retrieved 30 October, 2014 from http://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/water-quality/turbidity-total-suspended-solids-water-clarity/#Turbid1

North Dakota, Department of Health Surface Water (n.d), Total Suspended Solid (TSS), Retrieved 30 October, 2014 from https://www.ndhealth.gov/WQ/SW/Z6_WQ_Standards/WQ_TSS.htm