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Identifying the elements of Development Thinking in India-final paper

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‘Water’ – A Heritage Perspective1

S. Manasi2 and K.V. Raju3

Abstract

The current paper provides an historical overview of water management over time and space and also makes an attempt to understand the values that the ancient texts and scriptures laid on ‘water’ in specific, further detailing out challenges in water management in the current context and suggesting future options for improved water management. The focus is to see how ‘water’ was and is perceived and the influence it had and has on ‘water management’. There are references made in Vedas and in early scholarly manuscripts to several aspects of water management viz. technologies in water management and use, irrigation water management, water allocation and pricing, medicinal properties of water, and conservation of water for sustainable use. All this was perceived through viewing water as a ‘divine component’ where emphasis was on reverence for water, belief systems, religious practices through which they created a sense of awareness and respect towards water usage which helped conserve it as well. There are also several simple and sustainable technologies that were in practice and are found effective even to this day. Further, the paper describes the challenges encountered in water management in the current context due to competing water uses within and across sectors in view of urbanization and population explosion capturing illustrations from Karnataka. Besides providing a historical view and looking at these two contexts, efforts are made to draw some lessons from the traditional water management practices and other literature as well, for future water management.

1 This paper was presented in ISEC-DF workshop on 25-1-2012 and revised based on comments received.

We thank Prof. N.S.S. Narayana and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions and

comments. 2 Assistant Professor, Centre for Ecological Economics and Natural Resources, Institute for Social and

Economic Change, e-mail: [email protected] 3 Professor, Centre for Ecological Economics and Natural Resources, Institute for Social and Economic

Change, Currently, Economic Advisor to the Chief Minister, Government of Karnataka,

e mail:[email protected]

mailto:[email protected]


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1.0. Background

The roots of civilizational-cultural landscape of India can be located

historically in terms of an inalienable and harmonious existence with nature over

time and space. Our ancient scriptures such as Vedas make several reverential

references to nature as an all inclusive embodiment of existence (both animate

and inanimate). Further in the Indian socio-cultural context, flora and fauna are

considered valuable entities of nature considering their relevance to the

sustainability of a healthy eco-system. Protecting the environment has been

closely related to safeguarding the earth as well. There are several examples

that indicate that cultural traditions have played a significant role in conserving

many of our water and forest resources even to this day. The ancient Indian

scriptures often emphasize the importance of a harmonious coexistence between

human beings and nature. -“Do strengthen me. May all beings regard me with

eyes of a friend. May I regard all beings with the eyes of a friend. With the eyes

of a friend do we regard one another.” YV 36.18 (Sharma, 2000).

As Shadananan Nair (2003) observes, ‘Ancient Indian literature points

towards an intuitive understanding of nature and natural processes’. However,

many of the ideas are presented philosophically, so skill and effort are needed

for tracing the meaning of many such lines. The Vedas, Upanishads, Puranas,

Epics and scholarly writings such as "Mayurchitraka" "Brihat Samhita" are vast

treasure troves of scientific and environmental knowledge. The ancient

scriptures, particularly the Vedic literature stresses maintaining the importance of

natural resources. Protection of environment is articulated through informal rules

in the form of traditions/daily rituals/prayers along with compassion towards all

forms of life with a particular emphasis on human wellbeing wherein pious

actions would result in nature’s blessings, (the earth - mother and the

atmosphere above - father would protect and provide one with a long and

peaceful life) while erroneous actions could harm nature and its functions.


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The natural forces have been associated with specific names of deities -

Indra as the god of water (and heaven), Marut as god of winds while Aryaman,

Mitra, Varuna and Soma as the expediters of water, Aditi as universe, Fire (Agni)

also regarded as a god. In Vedic cosmology, the earth (Prithivi) symbolizes the

material base while the upper sky or heaven (Dyaus) symbolizes the

unmanifested immortal source also known as the ‘Universal Atman’ which

together and between them, provides the environment (paryavaran’. In Atharva

Veda also, earth is referred to as mother, while the sky or heaven (dyaus) as

father, and atmosphere between them as brother while seeking forgiveness for

any inadvertent harm that may have been caused to these ‘relatives’. The Rig

vedic hymns clearly describe the Dyava Prithivi (Heaven and Earth) as `full of

water’, `decorated with ornaments of water’, `abundantly blessed with love of

water’, `conservator of waters’, etc (Sharma, 2000).

Given this broad background, the paper makes an attempt to understand

the significance that the ancient texts and scriptures have attributed to ‘water’ in

specific, with a view to explore how ‘water’ has been perceived and the influence

it has and can have on ‘water management’. There are several references made

in Vedas and in early scholarly manuscripts to the various aspects of water

management which are not available in a compiled version. From a broader

perspective, the review would aid in a better understanding of ‘water

management practices’ as prevailing in the ancient times a part from helping us

realize its relevance to the current context of water management. Although the

contexts and the challenges are entirely different, we still hope to find some

answers and draw lessons from the past experiences for future water

management practices. The paper is divided into three sections – section 1 is a

review of ancient scriptures/historical documents on water management and

related aspects – viz. technologies in water management and use, irrigation

water management, water allocation and pricing, medicinal properties of water,


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and water conservation for sustainable use and so on, while section 2 highlights

the current challenges in water management in the context of population

explosion and urbanization in addition to issues such as water scarcity due to

competing water uses, water quality, environmental flows and so on. Several

studies indicate that there is an urgent need for addressing the current water

crisis and that the situation of water management looks bleak, in spite of several

initiatives being undertaken throughout the country for its protection and

sustenance. The state’s effort in meeting the water requirements in terms of

quality and accessibility continues to remain a challenge. Section 3 proposes

certain possible future water management options.

Section 1: Traditional Water Management Approaches and

Practices

1.1. ‘Water’ in Ancient Scriptures

1.1.1. Water – As a philosophical component of life

Water, or the water element, finds cited in the Vedas, Upanishads and

other ancient literature abundantly (Box 1). In the Vedas, water occupies the

highest place amongst the five basic elements of nature4. In all the four Vedas,

water is seen as a form of god fit to be worshipped, considering its life giving

properties. Rig-Veda contains several 'shlokas' in praise of ‘Water’. Water is seen

as an embodiment of self-awareness. Besides, water is referred to as a source

of life, protector of earth and environment, nectar, honey, generator of

prosperity, cleanser of sins and so on. Water is regarded as the first important

element that gave rise to the subsequent evolution of the universe. In Yajur

4 All living and non-living bodies are made up five basic, gross elements of Nature, called

‘Panchamahabhuta’. The substance capacity later in the five basic elements (Bhutas) manifests in the

following order — Ether or Space or Firmament (Akash), Air (Vayu), Energy or Fire(Tej or Agni), Water

(Aapah) and Earth (Prithivi).


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Veda, water is referred to as - ‘The Earth revolves with its mother water in its

orbit, The Earth revolves around its father, the Sun’ – (Yajur Veda 3/6). Rig

Veda says, on this planet, all life forms have evolved from apah (water); and

water is a basic need of all living creatures of this earth’. Sheetam (cold to

touch), Suchihi (clean), Shivam (replete with useful minerals and trace of useful

elements), Istham (transparent), Vimalam Lahu Shadgunam (its acid-base

balance should not exceed normal limits) - these properties symbolize water as

‘divyajal’. Further, water is seen as nectar and revered as pure, faultless, rain-

shedding, sweet essence of the earth, which the devout have first consecrated

as the beverage of Indra (RV 7.47.1). Water is also referred to as an

intermediate component between all pervasive air and localised earth. ‘Agni

Vaisvanara is the Universal God, who has entered into the heart and spirit of

water, hence considered as the life and the awareness’. Offerings are made to

waters of wells, pools, lakes, ponds, tanks, marshes, rains, streams, rivers and

ocean (Taittriya Samhita vii-4-13).

Similarly, the Taittariya Upanishad (II-i) says - `From the Self, verily,

space arose, from space air, from air fire, from fire water, from water the earth,

from the earth herbs, from herbs food, from food semen, from semen the

person’. From water earth was formed, i.e. out of water sprang forth the

embryonic state of the universe. Chhandogya Upanishad (7.10.1) says “it is the

waters which pervade everything, big or small, the earth, the atmosphere, the

heaven, the mountains, gods, men, animals, birds, grass, plants, dogs, worms,

insects, ants. All these (worldly manifestations) are waters indeed” (Sharma,

2000).


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Box 1: Mythological Anecdotes

The physical and aesthetic properties of water give it a unique mythical-religious niche and, therefore, has played an important role in myths and religious rituals.

- Lord Vishnu, the God of existence, also known as "Narayan", is the one who resides in

water. The origin of life from water and the development of species explained through the ten incarnations of Lord Vishnu, constitute a Hindu theological concept of the

evolutionary of life in Vedic history. The incarnations through the ages are of various forms tortoise, boar, lion and so on till he is a perfect human being.

- The importance of rivers and water bodies is highlighted throughout "Ramayana" and "Mahabharata", epics there exist several legends about water and water bodies. The epic

"Ramayana" (Valmiki) explains a lot about the river Sarayu (Ganges) into which Lord Sri

Rama disappeared on the way to heaven. - Saints appearing in epics always lived in the vicinity of rivers, as physical purity

associated with mental purity was believed a must in realizing the eternal truth.

1.2. Benefits from Water

1.2.1. Water – Source of Happiness, Inspirer and Motivator - Water is

seen as a source of happiness and strength also represents splendor (Atharva

Veda Samhita iii – 13-5). Water is also seen as loving like mothers who care for

their children. As regards wisdom and happiness, “Since waters are the source

of happiness, grant to us to enjoy abundance, and a great and delightful

perception”. (RV 10.9.1). “I invoke for protection the divine waters of excellent

wisdom, discharging their functions – flowing by day and flowing by night” (RV).

Water is seen as an inspirer and motivator to achieve one’s goal, full of vigour

and strength besides following the right path with clarity, as in the rig veda that,

‘ceaselessly they flow from the depths, pure, never sleeping to reach the ocean,

where King Varuna resides. Waters may pour from heaven or run along channels

dug out by men; or flow clear and pure having the Ocean as their goal. ln the

midst of the Waters is moving the Lord, surveying men's truth and men's lies.

How sweet are the Waters, crystal clear and cleansing! From whom King Varuna,

Soma, and all the Deities drink exhilarating strength, into whom the Universal

Lord has entered, now may these great divine Waters quicken me’ ( RV VII, 49).


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1.2.2. Water - Embodiment of Prosperity – Prayers were offered as water

was considered divine, purifier, gratifier as it provided people with food, aided to

pursue the path of the gods, offered oblation to the rivers for their incessant

flows. Water is vaporized by the sun’s rays, while Indra opens a path to bestow

upon us wealth; and cherish us with blessings." (RV 7.47.3-4). Earth, in which

lie the seas, the rivers and other waters, in which food and cornfields have come

to be, in which lives all that breathes and that moves, may she confer on us the

finesse of her yield (Atharva Veda – Hymns to the Earth – Bhumi-Sukta).

Similarly, rain plays an important role and without rain, there cannot be water

flows and even the wealth of the wide seas gets reduced. The continuance of

timely rainfall will help the world preserve its existence for bestowing fortune. In

the case of failure of rainfall, the results would be disastrous with respect to

hopes and, hunger and distress situation would prevail. The farmers will not be

able to plough their lands, resulting in the loss of lives including livestock due to

scarcity of fodder, and hence there can be no celebration of annual festivals and

daily prayers (Sharma, 2000).

1.2.3. Water as ‘Purifier’ - The position of water as a life giving and life

sustaining element is very high. Water is considered a cleanser of sins besides

being regarded as divine and a protective power. Water is seen as a means of

purification and as per "Yajur Veda" clean water has the potential to purify all

things through rain: "may waters, like mother, purify our bodies". “The waters,

with their ocean-chief, proceed from the midst of the firmament, purifying (all

things), flowing unceasingly; may the divine waters, whom the thunder-bearing

Lord Indra, showered, sent forth, protect me here (on earth)” (RV 7.49.1-2).

“May the maternal (earth’s) waters purify us, may the shedders of water purify

us with effusion; for the divine (waters) bear away all sin: I come away from

them purified” (to heaven). (RV 10.17.10). “(Waters)! the plants flourish by

means of water, by prayer is effectual through water; the essence of water is

vigorous through water; purify me with it.” (RV 10.17.14). Similarly, in the Yajur


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Veda, the sages pray for purification, – “O Water, thou art the reservoir of

welfare and propriety, sustain us to become strong. We look up to thee to be

blessed by thy kind nectar on this earth. O water, we approach thee to get rid of

our sins. May the water cleanse the earth, the earth cleanse me. May the holy

waters make me devoid of sins and remove my bad deeds. The waters that keep

Agni (fire) inside them, bless us. The waters that generate all prosperity on earth

and heaven and those which dwell in different forms in the atmosphere, those

who irrigate the earth, may those waters be kind to us and bless us. O Water,

kindly touch me with thy divine self and establish strength, radiance, intellect

and wisdom in me.”

“Earth, in which the waters, common to all, moving on all sides, flow

unfailingly, day and night, may she pour on us milk in many streams, and endow

us with luster” (Atharva Veda – Hymn to the Earth – Bhumi Sukta). “Waters

bear off all defilements and cleanse people (Vajasaneya Samhita iv.2). ‘Water

cleanses humanity of the evil of pollution committed by it’ (Atharva Veda Samhita

xii-2-40) (Sharma, 2000). Similarly, the popular ‘Tirukulals’ indicate the

importance of water in a person’s life wherein he/she, without water cannot go

about the daily routine and discharge one’s duties of life.

1.2.4. Water as Procreator - Water has always been highly respected and

treated with great reverences and is prayed to grant men procreative power (RV

10.9.3). It mentions- “All creatures are born from the waters” (RV 1.23.16,

10.17.10). Waters have been considered as the producers of all that is stationary

and all that moves” (RV 6.50.1). They are also hailed as mothers of all beings

(RV 1.23.10, 6.50.6, 10.17.10). Waters as friends of man, give full protection to

his progenies (Rig Veda Samhita vi-50-7).

1.2.5. Water’s Medicinal Properties - Water’s medicinal and healing

properties are highlighted in vedas. Vedas encourage and inspire people to


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explore and acquire the knowledge of nature cure. Water is seen as the reservoir

of all curative medicines. ‘Varuna’ is a cosmic ruler as well as the deity that

dwells in waters, presides over them and is, therefore, prayed to for granting

strength and virility to people’. Rigveda hails waters as the reservoir of all

curative medicines. It offers oblations to deities presiding over the flowing

waters- “O Water, which we have drunk, becomes refreshing in our body. May

you be pleasant to us by driving away diseases and pains – O divine immortal

waters” (RV 63).

Atharva Veda and other several hymns (6.23; 24 & 57) specifically

mention the medicinal value of waters and as a dispeller of diseases, as a curer

of incurable diseases. Atharvaveda and Rigveda (1.161.9) state – ‘there exists no

better element other than water - “Water is sovereign of precious treasures,

hence requested to act as a healer and remove all ill health” (RV 10.9.5).

1.3. Promoting Conservation and Protection

1.3.1. Sustainable Practices

Water conservation, use and management were given considerable

importance in ancient India (Shadananan Nair, 2003). Conservation, Protection

and Judicious use of water have been well documented in the Vedas and

Upanishads. The ancient teachers have specified the conservation of water

keeping in view the future generations. ‘Plants and water are treasures for

generations’ (Rig Veda Samhita vii.70-4). ‘Waters and herbs should have no

poison’ (Rig Veda Samhita vi – 39-5). ‘Waters are to be freed from defilement’

(Atharva Veda Samhita x-5-24’). The environmental protection was closely

related to the protection of heaven (atmosphere) and the earth. During the Vedic

times, the sages prayed for the maintainance of a required balance in the

functioning of all entities of nature - the mountains, lakes, heaven and earth, the

forests, the waters in the firmament. People were ordained to use their life

sustaining waters most judiciously and with greatest reverence. Generating


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respect for water among the masses acted as a regulatory measure for curtailing

water pollution. Water in all its various forms was considered divine and blissful.

1.3.2. Water Purification Practices - It is also interesting to note that

there existed several methods for assessing and maintaining water quality and

also treatment methods as revealed by the Vedas and also books on "Ayurveda".

In Brihat-Samhita, written and compiled by Varahamihira, several methods for

obtaining potable water from contaminated sources, using plants, metals and

heat are described besides the purification process of ground water has been

dealt with at length. A powder mix extracted from herbs like Anjan,

Bhadramustha, Khas (vetiver), Amla (emblica officinalis, gooseberry) and Nirmali

(bhui amla / kataka), was in use in measured quantities for purifying water in

wells. Sushruta, the famous Indian physician provided a detailed practical

guidance for water purification. He showed that with herbs and other natural

substance muddy water could be purified, using Nirmali seeds, roots of Kamal

(lotus/water lily), rhizomes of algae and three stones, Gomed (garnet) Moti

(pearl) and Sphatik (quartz crystal). He suggested exposing contaminated water

to the sun or immersing a red hot iron rod or hot sand in it, for purification

purpose. Table 1 provides details on traditional practices in maintaining water

quality.

Table 1: Traditional Practices of safeguarding Drinking Water

Use of Alum in Water Aluminium sulfate or Alum is used as an aflocculant for removing unwanted colour and turbidity from water supplies. It has been used since ancient times for this purpose and its use together with filtration is a standard practice in conventional water treatment processes around the world.

Using cloth for filtering In Dhoti method, a thin piece of cloth is used for filtering water

Keeping Tortoises in open wells

Tortoises are known to have a much longer life span than humans. It has been a traditional practice particularly in India to keep tortoises in drinking water wells so that they feed on organisms harmful to humans while keeping water safe for drinking.

Use of Moringa Seeds Moringa tree seeds are crushed into powder and used as a water-soluble extract in suspension, resulting in an effective natural purification agent for highly turbid and untreated pathogenic surface water.

Rain water harvesting Harvesting rain water through simple filtration methods such as using cloth pieces.

Combination of local plant and filtration methods

Raw water is filtered through powdered seeds of local plant materials including Moringa oleifera and Phyllanthus emblica—natural flocculants—and through coarse sand, charcoal, and gravel, which reduce the total aerobic mesophilic bacterial, E coli, coliform, pseudomonas, and yeast counts, and turbidity, consistent with World Health Organization acceptable standards for potable water. http://hopebuilding.pbworks.com/w/page/19222829/Tamil-Nadu-group-finds-simple-way-to-purify-drinking-water


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It has been scientifically proved by researches that storing drinking water

in brass vessels is good for health, a system which was also in practice in ancient

times. Microbiologists suggest that rather than using plastic containers for storing

water, it is better to use brass containers which help combat many water-borne

diseases.

“The scientific principle involved in this is the fact that any metal or alloy

tends to disrupt biological systems. The element acts by interfering with the

membranes and enzymes of cells; for bacteria, this can mean death. Pots made

of brass, (an alloy of copper and zinc), shed copper particles into the water that

they contain. But the miniscule amount that circulates into the water, while

destroying bacteria does not harm human beings”.

http://www.indiaheritage.org/science/edviron.htm

1.4. Imbibing Awareness through Belief Systems

1.4.1. Use of Water in Social and Religious Traditions

In all the cultures of the world, water is given a high prominence.

Similarly, in respect of the socio-religious-cultural tradition of India, water is

accorded a very high and unique status. This can be observed during

religious/social customs and practices, festivals and so on. Water is the most

important requirement for performing religious rituals and social ceremonies as it

is considered the basic means for purification of body and soul in Indian culture

since ancient times. On auspicious occasions like marriage and other religious

functions, metallic pitchers, symbolizing rivers, are used. Water and fire are

considered as the divine witnesses to all human deeds; hence all rituals and rites

are performed in their presence (Sharma, 2000). Several beliefs and practices

are observed (Box 2).



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Box 2: Dogmas and Practices

- Associated with every Hindu temple and ashrams, are big ponds and wells. There is a popular belief that bathing in holy rivers or drinking some drops of water from these rivers

before the last breath, helps absolve oneself of all the sins committed through evil deeds

during the present lifetime and also through several lives. - There is also a popular belief that a dip in the sacred waters at Kumbha Mela ensures one

salvation or freedom from the cycle of births and deaths. - On specific occasions like the solar and lunar eclipses or specific planetary configurations a

dip in the holy rivers is an essential part of Hindu culture, as it is considered to have Cosmo- biological effect on the human body and mind.

- According to Agni Purana and Padma Purana, the Ganga descended to the earth on Ganga

Dussehra day and a bath in the holy river on this day is said to purify one of all sins. To die on the banks of the Ganga is considered most auspicious. If that is not possible, then ashes

after cremation are immersed in the river Ganga as it is believed to release one from the cycle of births and re-births.

- There is a common belief among the locals that girls who take a holy dip in the river Ganga

on Makara Sankranti day get handsome grooms and the boys beautiful brides. - On the banks of the river Ganga, Haridwar, India, there is a practice going on even to this

day, every morning and evening a daily Ganga worship with lighted lamps in the presence of thousands of devotees, and with holy music and chants of mantras is performed.

- In all religious practices, the sprinkling of divine water is an inevitable part. The water is purified with "mantras", invoking the presence of seven sacred rivers. This divine water is

used for anointing idols, which is then distributed to devotees.

- At the functions following funerals and during offerings to ancestors, bathing and dipping in holy water bodies, including the ocean, is considered of great religious and spiritual value.

- Praying with a handful of water in the mornings and the evenings is part of one’s daily life. There are several water bodies considered sacred in different States of India.

- Former generations used to give due consideration to the right of all creations for using

water. Open wells have been in use for centuries. Near the well, they used to construct small pits to be filled with water so that birds, reptiles or animals could drink.

- A certain class of Brahmins even judges the behaviour of a newly-wedded girl by asking her to water the sacred plant "tulsi" while watching to see if she leaves some water in the bucket

for other creatures. The custom is not to empty the bucket until sunset.

1.4.2. Respect to ‘Rivers’ in Scriptures and Mythological Descriptions

Rivers are considered divine in the Indian civilization and worshipped as

Goddesses as revealed in mythological descriptions. The rivers are worshipped

like goddesses, considered as holy and seen as life sustaining having medicinal

value and as a cleanser of sins. The traditional ‘chants’ invoke all the major rivers

of India to purify and absolve them of their sins. In Rigveda, river Sarasvati is

compared to the celestial cow (Kamadhenu) that nurtures people with its

nutritive milk. More references to rivers, their waters, their behaviors and the

bliss they bestow on people are to be found in the Vedas. The rivers are


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considered as the daughters of the Sun and cloud and the "mantras" of the "Rig

Veda" denote that the creation started with the origin of water. The knowledge

of Geography, Geomorphology and stream flow has been well developed in the

ancient times. "Atharva Veda" mentions that rivers originate in mountains and

are perennial while during the summer river flow is maintained by the snow-

covered mountains (Nair, 2004).

1.4.3. Water Festivals of India - Several water-related festivals are organized

with millions of people participating for a holy dip in the sacred rivers, even to

this day though the celebration of these festivals varies across cities (Table 2).

During these festivals thanks giving ceremony to God for providing food, water

and shelter is also conducted. The faith behind this indicates that Lord Shiva

showers his grace in terms of providing water in times of extreme drought

conditions. Most of these legends about rivers relate to religious, cultural, and

social events in history. For instance, Pushkaram festival occurs in any particular

year with respect to one of the twelve important rivers5 which is based on the

zodiacal sign Jupiter. The first twelve days are knows as Adi Pushkaram and the

last twelve days are known as Anthya Pushkaram. There is a belief that during

these twenty four days ‘Pushkar’ the person, who is imbued with the power to

make any river holy will travel with Jupiter as Jupiter moves from one Zodiac

house to another.

5 Ganges, Narmada, Saraswati, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Bhima, Brahmaputra, Tungabhadra,

Indus, Pranahita


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Table 2: Water Festivals across States

Maharashtra Uttarkhand Madhya Pradesh

"Kumbh Mela" considered the greatest of the Indian fairs with the highest state of water symbolism, attracts the largest congregation of religious pilgrims from all over the world. Symbolically speaking, the forces of creation are collected in one vessel (Kumbh) and a celebration (mela) ensues, hence called "Kumbh Mela". Millions of piligrims take a dip in the holy rivers in order to wash away their sins. The month long festival represents a time when the river is believed to turn into purifying nectar, allowing the devotees to cleanse their souls as they bathe. It is a very important occasion that takes place every 3 years at the following four locations in India: (a) Allahabad (Prayag), at the confluence of rivers Ganga, Yamuna and mythical river, Saraswati (b) Haridwar, where the River Ganga enters the plains from the Himalayas; (c) Ujjain, on the banks of the river Shipra; (d) Nasik, on the banks of the river Godavari.

The "Ardh (half) Kumbh Mela" is held every 6 years at Allahabad and Haridwar

"Purna (complete) Kumbh Mela", the biggest and the most auspicious fair, is held every 12 years.

"Purna Kumbh Mela" is always held at Allahabad, considered exceptionally sacred because of the confluence of holy rivers. "Maha Kumbh Mela" occurs every 144 years. In addition, the "Magh Mela" or the Annual Mini Kumbh (in the month of Magh in the national calendar i.e. falls during January-February) is held every year at Allahabad, excepting the years of "Puma Kumbh Mela".

Uttarpradesh Bihar West Bengal

Ganga Dashara Sagara means the location of the ocean, and the island where the river Ganga enters the ocean. A fair is held with people coming from long distances for bathing and later they worship Goddess Ganga. The legend has it that Ganga entered the ocean at this point to wash away the bones of 60,000 sons of Sagara, in whose memory the island is named. Ganga Dussehra is celebrated on the tenth day of Jyeshtha. The river Ganga is worshipped as a mother/ Goddess, by people of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Bengal where it flows. On this day, if a devotee is unable to visit and bathe in the river Ganga, then Ganga Jal (water) kept in most Hindu homes is used for purification. It is believed that bathing in the river will wash away one’s sins. People have a ceremonial bath in the river Bhagirathi before offering worship to mother Ganga and distributing alms to beggars, supposedly to earn a bonus of religious merit.

West Bengal Makara Sankranti – A dip in the ocean, where the Ganga drains into the sea is considered to be of religious significance on the Makara Sankranti day when the sun makes a transition to Capricorn from Sagittarius and becomes home to vast fairs, drawing visitors from all over the state. After they are done with the ritual obligations, they head towards the Kapilmuni Temple situated nearby, to worship the deity as a mark of respect.

Kerala

Boat festivals- Certain competitive races are held across villages of central Kerala featuring smaller churulans, oadis, and irrutukuthies by way of providing an expression to the spirit of athletics. On the backwaters of Kerala, fierce Vallom Kallies (boat races) and water carnivals are held annually that are witnessed by thousands of spectators. The water carnivals and snake boat races herald the week of the great harvest festival of Onam.

Tamil Nadu Adiperukku- This unique festival is celebrated during mid July-August, 18th day of Tamil month, Aadi, by women. The festival pays rich tributes to water’s life-sustaining properties.

Himachal Pradesh

Minjar - Celebrated during July-August at Chamba, is kind of a thanks giving ceremony to the rain god. It is also a prayer for good harvest, held for 7 days and is one of the major monsoon festivals in Himachal Pradesh.

Karnataka

Tula Sankramana - It is believed that, on this day, Goddess Cauvery provides her ‘Darshan’ to devotees in the form of an upsurge of water in a small tank. It is considered a very sacred moment with thousands of devotees visit Kodagu for receiving Goddess Cauvery's blessings. Taking a bath in the tank by devotees is the most important ritual of the day. It is said that, taking a dip in the tank purifies one’s body and soul. Devotees also take holy water to their homes.

Orissa

Kartika Purnima: The massively popular fair is held on the banks of Mahanadi river in the fort area of Cuttack from where the traders of yesteryears (sadhaba) undertook voyages along the beaten trade route in huge boats called “Boita”. To relive the glory of ancient times – the opulence associate with the thriving trade and the prosperity, the people of Cuttack as well as those of the entire state small boats in the river while recalling the by gone times .In consonance with the “bidding adieu” practice in those days when the wives prayed for the successful return of their husbands, married women and children today, wearing colorful costumes, gather near the water bodies carrying tiny boats made of paper or thermocol . They then place small lighted lamps inside them as a mark of memory of the merchants who had ventured out into the unknown in search of prosperity and launch them on the gentle waves of the water amidst the blowing of the conches, ululations and occasional bursting of fire crackers. The entire stretch of Mahanadi flowing beside the Gadgadeswar Temple in Cuttack, which was once the starting point of the trade route to the Bali island, turns into a conundrum of activity early in the morning on this day of Kartik Purnima.

Madya Pradesh

Kumbha Mela - Ujjain has the honor of holding the famous Kumbha fair once in twelve years. Ganga Dashmi- The festival falls on the tenth day of the second fortnight of Jyaistha (May-June). In Surguja region, the occasion is practiced by the Adivasis and non-Adivasis. The classes of the Hindu fold celebrate it because on this day the river Ganges had made its descent on the earth. They take a dip in any nearby river and make offerings. The tribal people go in batches with their women to the riverside for drinking and dancing. Games and local competitions are arranged.

Haryana Teej - This is celebrated on Sawan Sudi - 3 (Jul-Aug),by way of to welcoming 'Sawan' or the rainy season. After the first showers of Sawan, a small red insect called Teej in Haryana comes out from earth's soil. Swings are set up in the open courtyards and

http://www.haryana-online.com/


15

Teej gets the first swing of the season. Girls apply henna on their hands and feet and hence are excused from household chores on this day. On Teej, girls receive new clothes from their parents and mothers send bayas or gifts. A puja is performed in the morning. The baya which consists of a variety of foodstuff, is placed on a thali at the place of worship, a decorated chowk (square) with an idol or a picture of Parvati installed. The evenings are set aside for singing and dancing. Chetar Chaudas Mela The festival is annually held in Pehowa, which has the holy Saraswati tank also called 'Saraswati Teertha' or 'Prithudak Teertha'. This ‘Teertha’ also finds mention in the ancient Hindu texts. Here at this place, the Chetar Chaudas Fair is held during the spring season. Pilgrims, both Sikhs and Hindus, flock to this place for offering 'pinds' to their ancestors. It is claimed that here in this holy spot, Yudhister had offered 'pinds' in memory of all his relatives killed in the Mahabharat war. Pilgrims take bath in the Saraswati tank during this fair. Madlia Naumi This is celebrated at the beginning of the rainy season.

Bihar

Chhath or Surya Puja is the main festival of Bihar, held after six days of Diwali; it is a festival of prayers and propitiation observed with solemnity. It is an expression of thanks and seeking blessings from the forces of nature, mainly the Sun and river. The belief is that a devotee’s desire is always fulfilled during Chhath when people worship the Sun God. On the first day, the house is cleaned, with family members going in for a holy dip and eating strict vegetarian food and sleep on the floor. All earthen vessels are reserved for this day only. The persons observing Chaath also known as Parvatis, observe dawn to dusk fast which concludes with partaking of sweets. This is followed by another fast for 36 hours till the dawn of the final day when puja starts at the river bank much before sunrise. These parvatis remain in water from late midnight until the first ray of dawn. The rivers are flooded with offerings to the sun which is followed by breakfast and distribution of sweets among those gathered. Fresh paddy, sweets and fruits are also offered by the devotees to the Sun God for a good harvest at the sun temple in Baragaon near Nalanda.

Manipur Yaoshang (Holi)- A riot of colours and water and the various chantings of devotees of Lord Krishna characterize this festival. Another feature of this premier festival is the Thabal Chongba (Dancing in the Moonlight). Boys from various places come to the site of the festival and dance with girls holding hands while moving in circles. It is celebrated for five days starting from the full moon of Phalguna (February/March).

Uttar Pradesh

Ganga Mahotsav is a five day event celebrated on the banks of the river Ganges in Varanasi. This festival is celebration of Varanasi as the cultural and spiritual capital of India and the Ganges as India’s lifeline, considered worthy of highest reverence by the Hindus. Ganga gives a sense of belonging to the people of India especially those living near its banks. http://www.festivalsofindia.in/ganga_mahotsav/

Gujarat Rishi Panchami According to is a legend Ganga came down to the earth on Rishi Panchami, the fifth day of Bhadra (September) at Tarnetar. There is a sacred tank where people congregate for a holy bath on that day.

Source: See Foot Note6

1.4.4. Local Awareness through Proverbs and Sayings

Proverbs across Indian languages related to nature, rainfall, water etc. are

treasures of wisdom simple and popular and are easily passed on through

generations. Collecting those simple connotations amounts to a huge task says

Shadananan Nair. This knowledge has been developed through keen

observations of nature and events. A review of behaviour of 165 birds and

animals is taken as an indicator of the nature of forthcoming rainfall and the

6 http://www.whereincity.com/india/west-bengal/festivals.php, http://www.indiasite.com/manipur/fairs-festivals.html

http://www.indovacations.net/english/BiharFestival.htm, http://www.haryana-online.com/culture/fairs_&_festivals.htm http://www.onlytravelguide.com/madhya-pradesh/fairs-festivals/ganga-dashmi.php, http://www.indialine.com/travel/karnataka/fairs-festivals.html, http://www.indiaatitsbest.com/kerala/festivals.html http://scraps.oriyaonline.com/blog/?tag=fairs-and-festivals-of-orissa, http://www.walkthroughindia.com/festivals/the-10-major-monsoon-festivals-in-india/, http://www.indiatraveltours.net/fair-festivals-in-india/fairs-of-madhya-pradesh.html

http://www.haryana-online.com/History/mahabharat.htm

http://www.whereincity.com/india/west-bengal/festivals.php

http://www.indiasite.com/manipur/fairs-festivals.html

http://www.indovacations.net/english/BiharFestival.htm

http://www.haryana-online.com/culture/fairs_&_festivals.htm

http://www.onlytravelguide.com/madhya-pradesh/fairs-festivals/ganga-dashmi.php

http://www.indialine.com/travel/karnataka/fairs-festivals.html

http://www.indiaatitsbest.com/kerala/festivals.html

http://scraps.oriyaonline.com/blog/?tag=fairs-and-festivals-of-orissa

http://www.walkthroughindia.com/festivals/the-10-major-monsoon-festivals-in-india/

http://www.walkthroughindia.com/festivals/the-10-major-monsoon-festivals-in-india/

http://www.indiatraveltours.net/fair-festivals-in-india/fairs-of-madhya-pradesh.html


16

availability of resources. Citing examples from proverbs in Kerala, Shadananan

Nair summarizes that, "If planted in 'njattuvela' (break monsoon), even dry sticks

will grow". The break monsoon gives rain and strong sunshine alternately several

times a day, and this is considered a good time for planting small plants and

trees. "Water should be inside 'thundams' (heaps of sand) in the 'thulavarsham'

(winter monsoon)". The winter monsoon marks the end of the rainy season with

the detention of water enhancing groundwater recharge.

1.5. Technologies in Water Management

1.5.1. Awareness regarding Water Cycle and Hydrology

The Vedas have made references to hydrological cycle indicating the

conversion of water from one form to another was well understood and

documented in a scientific way during the vedic times. In Puranas, Bruhat

Samhita, Meghmala and other literature, the intake of water by plants, division of

water into minute particles by sun rays and wind, clouds of different types, their

heights, their rainfall capacities etc., with the calculation of rain-fall quantity in

advance through observation of natural phenomena are described.

The early studies on weather and water in India can be traced back to

thousands of years. The Sukla Yajur Veda Mantra is used traditionally in the

Vedas to invoke Mars (Angaraka) which has reference to water. The early

philosophical writings contain descriptions of the earth’s revolution around the

Sun, the seasons, and the processes of cloud formation and rain. The

‘Arthashastra’ and Panini’s ‘Astadhyayi’ refer to rain gauges during the 700 BC

besides the rainfall quantity in different parts of India. "Arthashastra" contains

records of scientific measurements of rainfall in various parts of India and its

application to the country's revenue and relief work.

By the time of Kautilya (4th century B.C.), instrumental devices for

measuring rainfall were developed. This raingauge was known as Varshaman.


17

Kautilya was acquainted with the distribution of rainfall in various areas. He

furnishes a very accurate scientific description of the same with statistics. The

quantity of rain that falls in the country of Jangala (desert countries) is 16 dronas

(4 Adak = 1 drona and one adak equals nearly 7 lb, 11 oz), half as much in

moist countries (the countries which are fit for agriculture), 13.5 dronas in the

countries of Asmakas (Maharashtra); 23 dronas in Avanti, and an immense

quantity in the western countries, the border of the Himalayas and the countries

where water channels are used in agriculture (Arth, Chapter XXIV, Book II, P.

130).

It also classifies climate and identifies the zones suitable for agriculture. It

appears that fire and flood control measures for protecting farms and villages

were also practiced in respect of rainfall and water. As Shadananan Nair points

out ‘Many of the hydrological concepts developed in the last few centuries were

known and well documented in them by 3000 BC. Only a small fraction of the

scientific knowledge contained in them has so far been studied in detail. A

valuable attempt at undertaking this work was carried out by the National

Institute of Hydrology (1990). Similarly, the "Vayu Purana" and the "Matsya

Purana" mention the rainfall potential of clouds and the formation of clouds by

cyclonic, convectional and orographic effects. The "Vishnu Purana" discusses the

glorious sun that exhales moisture from seas, rivers, the Earth and living

creatures. The great poet Kalidasa of the 7th century BC, in his work

"Meghdoot", mentions the date of onset of the monsoon over central India and

the path of the monsoon clouds (India Meteorological Department, 2003).

There was familiarity about the phenomena of infiltration, interception;

stream-flow, geomorphology, artesian wells and erosive action of water were

also well understood. According to Bruhat Samhita, the development of ground

water and quality had got sufficient attention. The management of water and

conservation, well organized water pricing system, methods of construction and


18

materials of dam, tanks etc., and protection measures mentioned in the ancient

books reveal the expertise in the development of water resources management

and hydrology in ancient India (Lochan, online).

1.5.2. Traditional Sustainable Practices

Societies and cultures have traditionally developed sustainable techniques

for conserving and managing nature and natural resources. India has a

fascinating and significant ancient tradition of conserving land and water and

even today, local people follow several such traditional conservation practices.

India’s diversity in respect of its climate conditions led to innovative ways of

water conservation and management which are locale specific. Technologies in

water management were practiced with regard to irrigation water management

(Box 3) and urban contexts with drinking water and sanitation given due

importance. Biodiversity-related cultural phenomena exist by different local

names in different parts of India. For example, making small heaps of sands

before the end of the winter monsoon in the central part of Kerala was, in fact, a

multi-purpose method involving water and agricultural management. Water

trapped in between the heaps infiltrates in to groundwater, so that there is no

serious water shortage in the dry months. In addition, the weeds get removed

and soil becomes loose to fit the land for agriculture. Similarly, in some parts of

Karnataka, where Arecaunut is grown, the husk is spread evenly on the earth to

contain moisture and retain groundwater. Unfortunately, because of fast

changing life styles, the rising cost of labour and the shortage of land availability

due to an ever increasing population, this sustainable and environment-friendly

method are becoming uncommon (Shadananan Nair, 2003).


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Box 3: Lakes

Artificial ponds and lakes had been created in the ancient times by stopping the outlets of streams and rivers. From such water-bodies, water was lifted by counterpoised 'sweeps', or other

devices, and fed into smaller channels. These, in turn, carried the water into fields. Artificially

fabricated lakes were built across India and it has been estimated that, over time, there exist nearly 1.3 million human-made lakes and ponds. The Earliest Artificial Lake known is 'Sudarshan'

lake, Gujarat's Girnar area, (early period of Mauryan dynasty emperors). Largest Artificial lake (250 sq miles, 65,000 ha) in Bhojpur, near Bhopal, had been built during the middle of the 11th

century, by king Bhoj Parmar, of Dhar. This was built across two hills fed by 365 streams and springs. Another Artificial lake the Raj Samand in Rajasthan, built at the command of Maharana

Raj Singh of Mewar, in 1676 AD. This is a large water-body of conserved fresh-water, created,

in part, through damming the waters of a small rivulet, and augmented by the excavation of a large tract in which rain-water could be collected. Ana Sagar Lake, Ajmer, Rajasthan, 12th

century Ghadsisar reservoir-lake, Jaisalmer in 1367 AD by Bhati ruler, Rawal Ghadsi are some of the most popular old lakes known among the various lakes of Udaipur city.

Source: Hooja Rima, 2010

Agriculture was practiced on a large scale, with extensive networks of

canals for irrigation (Box 4 and 5). Irrigation systems were based on formal and

informal rules laid down by traditional societies which helped conserve and

sustain water. Traditional systems of water storage – tank systems, numerous

types of wells, low cost water harvesting techniques lay a great stress on the

need for considering the elapsed acumens gained from past knowledge. The

reservoirs built in 3000 BC at Girnar, Bhojsagar, the artificial irrigation lake at

Madhya Pradesh constructed in the 11th century, an artificial lake fed by Kaveri

river indicate finer skills associated with water management practices in the past.

Temple tanks that dot the popular south Indian temples are to be found

exceptionally in good condition. In India (western part) since fifth to the

nineteenth centuries, water was collected and stored in stone cisterns; these

glorious structures are known as step wells or stepped ponds. They are

outstanding architectural structures; few are profound as nine stories with

intricate carvings, ornamented towers, and elaborate sculptures depicting the

local culture and environment. Over the past 500 years, step wells held a center-

stage for communities as sites for drinking, washing, bathing besides colorful

festivals and sacred rituals. Distinctive, often highly decorated communal Hindu

architectural structures, with origins in the seventh century in the semiarid

regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan, step wells reached their peak from 900 to


20

1300 C.E. as elaborate water buildings were invested with ritual and social

meanings. These water collection systems which were designed to preserve

monsoon rains, and modified by Muslims and Mughals in the mid-19th century,

were effectively shut down by the Britishers (Agarwal and Sunita, 1997).

For several thousands of years, Indians have recognized the importance

of groundwater development and utilization, as life was and is dependent on

agriculture and because many parts of North India used to experience dry

climatic conditions. In Bhagavad-Gita, Lord Krishna discusses the importance of

sinking wells for water as great work (yagna) and emphasizes on the role of

water in the evolution (Ramakrishnan, 2000). Information on infiltration can be

found in "Taitariya Samhita" and in "Mahabharata". The Vedas mention clearly

the use of water abstracted from wells. Three chapters of "Brihat Samhita" of

Varaha Mihira, of the 5th century AD, are fully devoted to meteorology and

climatology, while one chapter is fully dedicated to groundwater exploration,

exploitation and equipment. Physiographic features, termite mounds, soils, flora,

fauna, rocks and minerals, were used for detect groundwater. It is interesting to

note that the estimation of the depth of the water table was based on the

presence of termite mounds and certain trees near them (Shadananan Nair,

2003).

.

Box 4: Tank and Canal Irrigation Practices Practices like contour-bunding and local-level lift-irrigation schemes have used available water-resources

in ways suitable to the local terrain and economy. These include the khadin-based cultivation, tankas,

nadis etc of Rajasthan, bandharas and tals of Maharashtra, the bundhis common to Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar's ahars and pynes. These also include the kuhls known in Himachal Pradesh

and the kuhals of Jammu & Kashmir, the ponds used in the Kandi belt of Jammu, the eris of Tamil Nadu, surangams of Kerala, and the kattas of Karnataka, which are still in use today. Sringaverapura, Allahabad, - Series of tanks, 1st century BC - The Sringaverapura tank-complex

obtained water from the nearby river Ganga during the monsoon season, when the level of the river usually rose by about 7-8 metres. As a result, excess water used to spill over from the Ganga into an

adjoining stream. From this stream, a 11m wide and 5m deep canal carried the water further into the Sringaverapura tanks.

Hathigumpha inscriptions, dating back to the 2nd century BC contain descriptions of the major irrigation works of Kalinga, Orissa. Artificial reservoirs or tanks too were built for irrigation purposes

through damming smaller streams. A complex network of irrigation and water management systems

had been established by the Gond kingdom of central India together with the necessary social and


21

administrative systems needed to sustain them.

Various Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate, including Iltutmish, Alauddin Khilji, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq and Feroz Shah Tughlaq built and repaired various tanks, water-collection systems, and canals etc.

during the 13th to 15th centuries.

Kalhan's 12th century text, the 'Rajatarangini' (composed around 1148-1150 AD), while chronicling the history of Kashmir, refers to a well-conceived and maintained irrigation system. 'Rajatarangini' also

provides information regarding various canals, irrigation channels, embankments, aqueducts, circular dykes, barrages, wells and waterwheels, and details of numerous hydraulic works executed during the

reigns of various rulers of Kashmir. In the 8th century AD, king Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty, constructed a series of

arghat or waterwheels. These waterwheels were constructed to lift waters from the river Vitasta

(Jhelum), for their distribution to villages. In the desert areas of the Thar region, now belonging to the states of Rajasthan and Gujarat, tanks,

kunds, step-wells or baolis/ baoris, vavs, wells, ponds etc., were built. Besides these, specific indigenous water-harvesting and collection methods were developed / evolved in direct response to the

local geo-physical conditions. This led to the development and maintenance of systems like johadhs,

anicuts, check-dams, khadins, tankas, adlaz, jhalara, modhera, vapi, medhbandhi the virdas of the Kutch region, etc. Water-lifting devices like draw-wells, 'rahat' and 'dhekli' systems were developed too.

Adalaj Step Well, located in Gandhinagar district, Ahmedabad, built during the reign of Queen Rudabai, a muslim ruler in 1499. It is five storey step well directly reaching out to the water table

wherein it is exposed to the fresh water that varied across the seasons and rainfall patterns. It was also used as a resting place for pilgrims for hundreds of years. The opening in the ceilings above the landing

allows the light and air to enter the octagonal well. Direct sunlight does not touch the flight of steps

except for a brief time during noon. This step well is a spectacular example of Indo-Islamic architecture and design.

The southern part of India, under several dynasties such as the Chola, Pandya, Pallava, Chera, Vakataka, Kakatiya, etc. developed a vast network of tanks and canals, famed the world over, for

irrigating crops and enhancing agrarian production. Under the Vijayanagar kingdom, a mighty reservoir

was built using the labour of 20,000 men during the reign of king Krishna Deva Raya. In northeastern areas of the Sub-Continent, including the the foothills and lower slopes of the

Himalayas different local communities had devised indigenous methods of collecting and channeling rainwater towards meeting their agricultural and drinking water requirements.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adalaj_Stepwell


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Box 5: The Sanchi Dams Project - Major Buddhist hilltop, UNESCO World Heritage site Sanchi, Central India. It is a very well preserved and most studied Buddhist site in India. The establishment of

Sanchi was closely tied to the spread of the Mauryan Empire and related processes of urbanisation,

the latter well-represented by the early historic city-site of Vidisha.

According to the edicts writing of Asoka; during the later 2nd century BCE and early 1st century CE a number of building works were taken up financed by the collective patronage of the

powerful families and guilds. The contribution of land and villages recorded in the inscriptions

during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods, show that the Buddhist sangha was involved in a sustainable exchange system with local agricultural communities. To maintain water levels in the

main reservoir, two smaller tanks at Karondih and Dargawan in the shorter valleys to the west had been designed as part of an upstream irrigation system.

Throughout the Sanchi area, similar dams can be found. All have earthen cores with stone facing, on the upstream side, with heights of 1 to 6 m, and lengths of 80 to 1400 m. The volume of

early reservoir ranges between 0.03 to 4.7 m3 x 106. At Sanchi built on sloping terrains, act as inundation tanks for upstream irrigation, while for downstream irrigation dams built across deeper

valleys in the eastern part. Devrajpur shows evidence of the latter category with spillways and clean gates.

Between 1998 and 2001 during a wide archaeological survey, dams spread across 750 km2 around Sanchi, were recorded four distant Buddhist sites recognized by Alexander Cunningham in

the 19th century which included Satdhara, Sonari, Morel Khurd and Andher. The aim was to place the monuments within their archaeological landscape, with religious changes taken place during

the late centuries BCE to other key processes such as urbanization, state-formation, and

agricultural innovation. About 35 Buddhist sites, 145 settlements, 17 irrigation works and numerous sculptures were recorded.

A study of surface residue, local present-day hydrology and ancient pollen sequences, has

led to many assumptions regarding the dams' chronology and functions, usage of crops, and their

relationship to the urban at Vidisha and the history of Buddhism at Sanchi and adjacent sites. A summary of the study observations is given here:

i) Following the chronology of the primary monument at Sanchi and adjacent Buddhist sites, it is

assumed that 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE the first dam was constructed.

ii) Dams were built to provide irrigation, principally for rice cultivation in view of the increased population.

iii) Their position within a broader archaeological landscape warrants their being viewed as part of a cultural package that had accompanied the spread of Buddhism, urbanization and the

development of centralized state polities during the late centuries BC; and

iv) Like the inter-site pattern in Sri Lanka, where the monastic landlordism is found attested from c. 2nd century BC onwards, the Sanchi dams were under a similar system of exchange between

Buddhist monks and local agricultural communities.

http://www.basas.org.uk/projects/sanchi.htm

http://www.basas.org.uk/projects/sanchi.htm


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1.6. Water Use and Management in Ancient Indian

Civilizations

Urban centres were usually planned near rivers or around the coastal

areas. The great and well planned cities had excellent infrastructure facilities

with arrangements made for public and private baths,

sewerage through underground drains built bricks precisely laid, and an efficient

water management system with numerous reservoirs and wells. Under the

remarkable drainage systems, drains from houses were connected to the larger

public drains.

The Indus Valley civilization, one of the earliest civilizations and the first

major settlements of the Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa civilizations, were found

along the Indus River and its tributary, the Ravi. The Indus Valley Civilization,

which flourished on the banks of the river Indus and across parts of the western

and northern India about 5,000 years ago, had one of the most intricate urban

water supply and sewage systems in the world. The towns were well acquainted

with hygiene and sanitation as evident from the covered drains along the streets

of the ruins at both Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa. One of the best known

examples of this is the 'Great Bath' at the site of Mohenjodaro. Explorations in the

recent decades have disclosed several sites along the dry bed of a huge river.

Evidences from the excavations at the Harappan Culture site of Dholavira,

in Gujarat, also indicate the existence of a complex system for collecting and

storing rainwater within the vicinity of several reservoirs, and in part within a

partially encircling moat that might have served as a supportive mechanism.

Dholavira lies in an area that presently receives less than 160 cm of rainfall

annually with a history of prolonged droughts.

The excavations at Inamgaon – a chalcolithic site in Maharashtra/ with

three successive cultures dating back to 1600 to c.700 BC – reveal the presence

of a stone rubble and a mud embankment and a channel suggesting that during


24

the c.1400-1000 BC period, artificial irrigation probably facilitated agriculture at

this site (Dhavalikar 1988).

For example, during the 4th century BC, Nanda dynasty kings (c 363-321

BC), built irrigation canals for carrying water from rivers to agricultural tracts.

Their successors, the Mauryan dynasty rulers (c.321-185), built many more

irrigation works for facilitating agriculture (besides providing wells for public use

alongside roads accompanied traveller's rest-houses).

In Naneghat, about 130 km off from Pune (in Western Ghats) the oldest

water harvesting systems has been found. There existed a number of rock-cut

tanks for supplying water to tradesmen who travelled through this ancient trade

route. In the form of rock-cut cisterns, ponds, tanks and wells every fort in the

area had water harvesting and storage systems which were in use every day.

In Western Rajasthan houses were constructed with a rooftop water

harvesting system. The rainwater from these rooftops was directed into

underground tanks. Even today in all the forts, palaces and dwelling houses of

the region these systems are found in use. For the maintenance of these

structures and for the transportation of water to distant places earthen pipes and

tunnels, (placed underground) were used. In places like Burhanpur (Madhya

Pradesh), Golconda (Andhra Pradesh), Bijapur in Karnataka, and Aurangabad in

Maharashtra these systems are found still functioning.

The reviews of traditional knowledge have highlighted several aspects of

significance that are relevant to the current context as well. Perceiving water as

a divine component has always played a major role as it imbibes a sense of

respect in the mindsets of people towards the resource. The tradition and

practices had inculcated a sense of discipline and values towards the resource

that a major source of life while consciously reminding them of the need for

protecting the resource for future sustenance. Besides this, the judicious use of


25

the resource is obviously seen in the technological advancements made for

sustainable use. An in-depth knowledge and understanding of water resources

are visible in the varied documentations. In brief, a holistic approach towards

the management of water resources was evidently followed.

1.7. Water Management during various dynasties’ rule (Mauryans, Satavahanas, Guptas, Pallavas, Cholas and Mughals)

The Mauryan Empire’s success is also seen in terms of its extensive

development of water resources through the construction of several dams for

irrigation. Kautilya’s Arthashastra gives a good account of water management

practices in purview of levying taxes from cultivators which was based on the

type of irrigation. The tax levied varied across sources was 25 per cent of the

produce in respect of water drawn from natural resources, 20 per cent of tax for

water drawn manually and 25 per cent of tax for water drawn with the help of

bullocks and 33 per cent of tax for water diverted through channels. There were

special benefits given when cultivators intended to build or improve irrigation

facilities subject to certain specifications viz, 5 years for new tanks and bunds, 4

years for renovation of old constructions and 3 years for de-weeding. Privately

owned water bodies like reservoirs, and tanks were common with the owners

being free to sell or lease them out. They were also entitled to sell water in

exchange for produce. These water bodies were maintained by the villagers in

the absence of the owner. Violators were fined in cases like damage caused to

neighbour’s fields through water over flows, damage to gardens, parks, bunds

etc, sharing issues when high reach tank owners prevented low reach tank

owners from filling water, failure to maintain water bodies, misusing water

access, encroachment, misuse of water bodies meant for common purposes and

so on.


26

Brick and ring wells were introduced during 1st century BC to 2nd century

BC by the Satavahanas. Similarly, lake and well irrigation was developed during

the Pandya, Cehra and Chola dynasties (1st to 3rd century AD). During the Gupta

period a lot of water resource development took place (300-500 AD) and during

the Pallava period, (7th century AD) irrigation system was intensified and the

during Chola dynasty tank systems were developed, specifically tank cascades.

The Rajput dynasty (1000-1200 AD) largely progressed through irrigation works

in North India. During the medieval period, Mohammend bin Tughlaq (1325-

1351 AD) promoted rain water harvesting systems while Shahjahan was known

for the construction of canals.

The canals built during the Vijayanagar Empire (1336-1546 AD) are in use

even to this day and during the Bahamani kingdom, (1388-1422 AD) canal

irrigation was first introduced (see Box 6).

Box 6 : Vijayanagar System of Canals and Tanks Tungabhadra river which was the lifeline of the Vijayanagar kingdom paved the way for the construction of several canals involving colossal engineering skills. These canals fed cultivated areas within and beyond the city and had advanced features. A majority of the population depended on agriculture; plantations of coconut, areca and betel were also common. The major canals constructed by the Vijayanagar kings include the Raya Canal (King’s canal), Basavanna Canal (Nandi or Bull Canal), Turthu Canal (Fast Canal), Anegundi Canal and the Kamalapura Water Tank. Although most of the canals are old and need further maintenance, they are still in use.

Name Canal Length in kms Total area irrigated (in Ha)

Raya Canal 27.20 2,226.70

Basavanna Canal 16.00 1,240.48

Kalaghatta 7.200 237.25

Turtha 18.00 931.58

Anegundi 37.00 NA

The urban areas were provided water from private and community tanks. Large tanks such as Bukkasamudram, Vyasasamudram, Krishnarayasagara, Sadashivasagara, Maiviru Magada, Kamalapurasagara, Rayavakaluve, Basavanakaluve were constructed. The royal palaces enjoyed the most sophisticated water distribution and recirculation systems. Water pipes were sealed with brick and lime plaster. Within the royal area, a number of stone aqueducts connecting around 20 wells and ponds are to be seen indicating the engineering skills. The giant aqueduct on the north bank of Tungabhadra at Virupapur Gadde is an outstanding example. Water conservation and recirculation were given prominence.


27

Source: http://waterresources.kar.nic.in/irri_in_kar.htm

There were several indigenous architectural approaches to maintain natural

cooling in palaces using water, made it very comfortable (Table 3).

Table 3: Devises used in Palaces

Palaces of the Mughals, Rajputs,

and other ruling dynasties

Systems of copper pipes carrying water for cooling terrace

pavilions, channels flowing through royal chambers, fountains and water-gardens, and under-water collection tanks were

extensively designed.

Amber Fort, Jaipur, Rajasthan and other medieval fortresses of

South Asia

There are an ascending chain of water-lifting devices dating back to the 16th century. These served to lift water from a

reservoir at the base of the fort to its very peak, to the upper-most chambers of the hilltop palaces.

Deegh palace, Bharatpur Entire palace is surrounded by water for maintaining coolness

Mauryan dynasty Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ makes a reference to the cooling

device that was manually operated during the 400 BC.



28

Section 2: Current Status of Water Supply

India’s average annual surface run-off generated by rainfall and snowmelt

is estimated at 1869 billion cubic meter (BCM). It is also estimated that only 690

BCM (37%) of the surface water resources can be mobilised as around 90 per

cent of the annual flow of the Himalayan rivers transpire in a brief period of four

months and the potential to capture such resources is complex, given the limited

and suitable reservoir sites. The average annual rainfall in India amounts to

about 1170 mm with vast variation in rainfall over time and space. Most of the

rainfall occurs in the monsoon season (June to September) necessitating the

maximum possible utilisation of surface runoff. Regional variations remain

extreme ranging from a low value of 100 mm in Western Rajasthan to over

11000 mm in Meghalaya in North Eastern India (see Table 4).

Table 4: Land and Water Resources of India

Land and Water Resources Details

Geographical area 329 million ha

Flood Prone Area 40 million ha

Ultimate Irrigation Potential 140 million ha

Total Cultivable Land Area 184 million ha

Natural runoff (surface and Ground water) 1869 cubic km

Estimated utilisable surface water potential 690 cubic km

Ground water resource 432 cubic km

Available ground water resource for irrigation 361 cubic km

Net Utilisable Ground water resource for irrigation 325 cubic km Source: Water Resources India, National Institute of Hydrology website

India’s rechargeable annual ground water potential has been assessed at around

431 BCM in aggregate terms with 30 per cent of the ground water potential

being tapped for irrigation and domestic uses. The regional situation varies with

large parts of the country overexploiting the water resources beyond their

carrying capacity of their dynamic recharge. Depleting ground water tables are

more visibly prominent in Rajasthan, Gujarat and most of Western Uttar Pradesh

and all the Deccan States.


29

Over time, the usage of both surface and ground water resources has assumed

alarming proportions resulting in water scarcity and limited development options.

India’s situation with respect to its water resources has become increasingly

precarious in view of their over exploitation coupled with the increasing

competing water demands across and within sectors. Total annual demand for

water estimated from 552 BCM in 1997 to 1050 by 2025. The population

explosion has added immensely to the problem of water scarcity as the

difference in demand to the projections made for 2025 amounts to 30% of the

availability levels made compared to time of India’s independence. (per capita

availability over 5000 cubic meter per year for 400 million population; 200 cubic

meter per year with 1 billion population in 2000; and with 1500 cubic meter per

year by 2025).

Although the water availability index includes only surface water, ground

water is an important source of water availability which supplies 80 per cent of

water for domestic use in rural areas and about 50 per cent of water for urban

and industrial use. Ground water forms a significant percentage of water supply

for irrigation and as well. There are more than 17,000 energized wells across

the country supplying more than 50 per cent of irrigated area.

Providing safe and quality drinking water has been a challenge with a

growing demand for water due to increasing urbanization, economic

development and an improvement in living standards. The situation is more

alarming in rural areas, where half of the population does not have a ready

access to proper sanitation and water supply services. Water supply and

sanitation sectors in India have been suffering from inadequate levels of service,

increasing demand-supply gaps, deteriorating financial and technical

performance. The availability of clean water has become a scarce good. Water,

which was once considered a public good, is now considered a priced good.

There are limitations to capacities in terms of increasing water supply in relation


30

to the projected rise in water demand. The competing demands for water are

also continuously altering the opportunity cost of water across different sectors.

Legal rights with respect to using water (ground) are still not clear, while

dealing with related issues appears ambiguous while fresh water resources are

shrinking; the issues in management of water have become complex and

contextual to a large extent. The adverse health impacts, as a result of poor

access to clean water and poor sanitation facilities have been alarming.

Accessibility to safe drinking water is a problem that varies across regions while

causing inequity and conflicts between stakeholders. Although resource

depletion is obvious, efforts taken towards an efficient use reuse are not able to

meet the expected requirements. Technical constraints add to the problem while

the critical crisis in respect of finance has manifested.

Misuse and encroachment of natural water bodies is a area of concern.

Pollution is causing contamination problems leading to environmental and health

risks. Lack of awareness regarding the seriousness of the crisis among the

public has led to wastage and inefficient usage of water. Lack of trained

personnel for scientific planning and utilization of modern techniques have

contributed to further constraints with respect to efficient water management.

Besides, Climate change effects could add to sustainability issues as water

related disasters, with an increase in the frequency of floods and droughts, can

result in the imbalance use of water resources. It is also expected that Climate

change would further increase sea levels leading to salinity ingress in ground

water aquifers/surface waters besides causing increased floods in coastal areas.

Investments in water can be an engine for accelerating economic growth,

sustainable development, improved health and finally reduction of poverty. In

view of these facts, the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) was to "Halve, by

2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water


31

and sanitation". In the context of India, the government has committed itself to

meeting the MDGs. Lately, the focus has been on using resources effectively

and efficiently, while making way for transparency. It has been argued that

there is a need for critical sector reforms. Since independence, the major sources

of investment have been government agencies (Central, State and local

governments), and donor agencies. Initially, more funds were provided for

urban water supply, but since 1980s, funds for rural water and sanitation are

earmarked largely because of the focus on the "International Decade for Water

Supply and Sanitation”.

Water being a state subject, the role of the Central government is limited

to special schemes, hence, there is a huge financial pressure on the State

government. The Government has been addressing this as a priority issue since

the beginning of the of first five-year plan. Although there have been constraints,

the State government still provides increasing budgetary allocations to the water

supply and sanitation sectors every year. However, the cost recovery and

revenue generation have remained inconsistent in relation to the government

expenditure and investment, while the financial returns from the sector are too

meagre to ensure sustainability.

2.1. Key Issues

The issues pertaining to water management are dealt in further depth in

this section. The first section described at length on the traditional ways of water

management in India, however this section will mainly draw from Karnataka’s

experiences as water is a state subject, besides, challenges encountered and

approaches adopted vary across states. Hence, Karnataka is taken as an

illustration to provide a better picture on the water challenges at the state level.


32

2.1.1. Dependency on Groundwater - Depletion Evident

In view of the failure of municipal corporations to supply adequate volume

of water, the dependency on ground water is increasing. Groundwater serves 85

per cent of the rural population’s drinking water requirements and nearly half of

the urban and industrial requirements. For instance, in Karnataka, of the 208

Urban Local Bodies (ULB), 47 are dependent on ground water sources. The

private investment on bore wells has increased tremendously with new upcoming

urban areas. For instance, the dependency on groundwater in Dharwad amounts

to 30 per cent, Hubli 51 per cent, Belgaum 37 per cent, Bangalore 45 per cent

and Kolar depends entirely on ground water (Raju K.V. et.al, 2007). With an

intense dependency on groundwater, the sources are declining very fast in the

state with 72 taluks considered critical due to over exploitation. Owing to over

exploitation of groundwater, a number of dug wells have dried up resulting in

economic losses to farmers. Even bore wells drilled up to 1000 feet have dried

up in the dry areas. On the other hand, the geologists of the Department of

Mines and Geology observe concluded that this has led to the scarcity of drinking

water, increased unit cost of wells, increased energy consumption, a drop in the

efficiency of pumps while at the same time productive lands have become fallow

(Reddy et.al, 2000).

A number of complex legal issues are involved with regard to the

integrated development and utilisation of and ground water, water rights and

people’s participation are considered. All ground water coming under private

property is fully under the control of the land owners. Inadequate regulatory

restrictions on the exercise of private property rights in respect of ground water

have resulted in excessive withdrawals in many areas.

2.1.2. Declining Traditional Sources The traditional sources of water include open dug wells, step wells, tanks,

ponds, lakes and other sources. In fact, Karnataka has been in the forefront in


33

respect of traditional water harvesting structures with about 40,000 such

structures existing even to this day (Agarwal and Sunita, 1997). However, these

traditional water sources have declined over the years due to a to decline in the

social values attached, inefficiency of the government in tank management,

financial crunch, poor accountability, political interference, increased access to

alternative source of water, changed user expectations from the tanks owing to a

shift in emphasis on food production, the state’s emphasis on major and minor

irrigation and so on (Raju K V et.al, 2003). The traditional sources are

significantly concentrated in the western ghats and hilly areas, while in the plain

areas, the traditional water sources have dried up due to less rainfall and an over

extraction of ground water for agriculture and industrial uses. Further, the

traditional sources, such as tanks and ponds have gradually got filled with silt,

thus affecting the storage capacity of these sources, which in turn indirectly

affects ground water levels. A ISEC study on Rural Water Supply (Raju, et.al,

2003) highlights the present status of traditional sources, in that traditional

sources have either dried up completely or have been neglected mainly because

piped water supply has taken over their place. Similarly, negligence of tanks has

led to a poor recharging of ground water.

2.1.3. Inadequate and Unreliable Water Supply

An inadequate water supply service prevails in both rural and urban areas.

Surface water supply has been poorly managed due to various inefficiencies in

terms of supply duration, quantity supplied and water demand pressure. For

instance, in Karnataka, according to the Karnataka Urban Water Supply and

Drainage Board, the municipal corporations are found unable to provide the

recommended norm of 135 LPCD as prescribed in the state water policy with

about 77 per cent of 208 ULBs (i.e. 161 ULBs) accounting for an inadequate

water supply. The per capita of water supply in Bangalore city comes to about

115 LPCD, which is less than the norm of 150 - 200 LPCD, recommended by

Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organization (CPHEEO).


34

Apart from covering habitations for supply of an adequate quantity of drinking

water, it is essential to see whether the stipulated norm of adequacy has been

compiled with or not; and also whether the water supply schemes initiated so far

are functioning properly or not. Generally, the claim of having covered the

habitations with respect to an adequate quantity of water supply appears to

relate to the potential distribution created under various water supply schemes

rather than the actual supply service provided to the villagers. The physical

distance involved in fetching the drinking water from far off sources in the rural

areas is another issue that needs a serious attention as sources situated far off

consumes a larger share of the productive time of households, resulting in a loss

of productivity, besides being a further burden on the part of women and girl

children.

2.1.4. Booming Water Markets

In view of the failure of water supply agencies in providing adequate and

safe drinking water, water markets have flourished. Packaged drinking water

produced by using high-tech water purifiers is assumed to be a pure source of

drinking water. In India, with an increasing demand for clean drinking water, the

numbers of bottled water manufacturers has increased. The bottled water

industry is estimated to be a gigantic Rs 1,000 crore business with a growth rate

of 40-50 per cent annually. The water quality standards maintained by the

packaged drinking water companies is another issue that needs further probing.

The mushrooming of illegal companies is becoming increasingly a major concern.

Similarly private water tankers supply water to consumers without adhering to

regulations regarding quality control. In Bangalore there are around 120 water

tanker companies with 3500 tankers. In addition, a large number of bore well

drillers work informally. None of the bore well drilling companies is found

accountable to the number of bore wells to be drilled, the extent of drilling, rules

or regulations to be followed in the process (Raju et.al, 2007). Based on various

parameters, a rough estimate arrived at in respect of Bagepalli taluk, Kolar


35

district, amounts to Rs.120.25 million per year just for drilling bore Wells (Raju,

et.al, 2005). However, ‘The Karnataka Groundwater (Regulation and Control of

Development and Management) bill 2011 brings new hope with constitution of

the Karnataka Groundwater Authority and also mandates that permission has to

be taken from the authority for drilling a borewell in private properties.

2.1.5. Inefficient use – increase in Non revenue water

Lacunae associated with operation, maintenance and poor distribution

systems limit the availability of safe drinking water. Non revenue water (NRW)

is water that is ‘lost’ before it reaches the customer. Losses can be real losses

(leaks,) or apparent losses (theft or metering inaccuracies). NRW although is

referred to as Unaccounted for water many a times, are not identical as revenue

water includes authorized unbilled consumption (for instance – firefighting, use

in religious institutions) but not included in Unaccounted for water. Although

accurate data is not available on non-revenue water, the estimates vary between

30-70 per cent in respect of most Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). The implications

of increased UFW are the reduced per capita availability of water, an increase in

supply cost, a decrease in revenue and a relatively low efficiency of service. For

instance, the UFW are estimated at 40 per cent in Hubli-Dharwad and Belgaum.

In Bangalore, a large proportion of piped water is lost in transmission, mainly

due to leakage across the network of pipes, from distribution mains, service

pipes to stand posts (EMPRI, 2008). Of the total gross supply of 1,059 Million

Liters’ per Day (MLD), sourced primarily from Cauvery, only 550 MLD is billed

while 508 MLD remains unaccounted for amounting to 48% of loss, 4th highest in

India. The unaccounted for water has increased from 16 per cent to 48 per cent

between 1990 to 2009 even though the supply has increased from 375 MLD to

1,059 MLD indicating the per capita availability for domestic use at just 75 LPCD

which is half of the (World Health Organization) WHO stipulated requirement of

150 liters per capita per day (LPCD). Like Bangalore Water Supply and

Sewerage Board, water losses in other cities throughout Karnataka range


36

between 35-40% indicating the gravity of the situation. With respect to

irrigation, poor water use efficiency is more visible. Distribution and conveyance

losses are huge. The violations in respect of cropping patterns also lead to an

over exploitation of ground water resource (Raju K.V, 2004).

2.1.6. Quality Degradation

Although India has perhaps the best environmental regulations pollution

thrives and environmental degradation continues. Several reasons have been

attributed to the present scenario. The principal sources of pollution include

agricultural activities, industrial effluents, urban settlements, mining activities

and over exploitation of ground water. It is a well-known fact that nearly 80

per cent of the population is dependent on agriculture for livelihoods. An

increased fertilizer and pesticide usage has resulted in high levels of water

contamination. Besides, runoffs from agricultural fields have resulted in water

logging and salinization problems affecting irrigated areas and water quality.

Industries are one of the major sources of water pollution. One of the important

indicators of water quality is the impact on fish stock and other aquatic forms of

life. Fish kills are a serious issue resulting from pollution, particularly industrial

pollution. The issue of water quality and the availability of fish have assumed

greater significance as they are directly related to the livelihoods. River quality

faces a major threat by some groups of people who illegally blast dynamite

affecting water quality and species (Raju K.V, 2007). Urban Settlements add to

pollution as Urban Local Bodies are not completely equipped with proper

infrastructure to manage underground drainage system and treatment facilities

for collecting and treating the municipal sewage. The lack of Sewage Treatment

Plants in urban areas pollutes rivers, agricultural fields, open tanks and low lying

areas. Besides, the newer forms of pollution that have evolved with practices like

immersion of idols of Ganesha and Durga during festivals have added to

contamination of water sources. Traditionally, these idols were made of clay

which was not harmful to the environment. Currently, these idols are replaced


37

by the materials used by Plaster of Paris and chemical dyes. The impacts on

flora, fauna and health of the people are serious. Heavy metals like lead and

chrome get assimilated in the water and affect the heart, kidneys, liver and the

central nervous system.

Ground water contamination is a matter of serious concern. The seepage

of domestic, industrial sewage, agricultural runoffs and over exploitation

contaminates ground water quality. The Department of Mines and Geology

monitor ground water quality regularly in the state. Based on the extent of

contamination, the areas are classified into four categories – most critical,

critical, less critical and non-critically affected. In most of the cities, ground

water is not tested for its quality or one time testing is practiced. There have

been no regularized processes in place for testing water quality in urban areas.

For instance, in Kolar, the ground water quality is critical with 97 per cent being

non potable while in Dharwad, 45 per cent is non-potable; similarly in Hubli 42

percent is non-potable and in Belgaum 22 per cent is non-potable (ISEC Report,

2006). The North of Bangalore indicates high levels of nitrate contamination.

2.1.7. Financial Issues

Financial issues in the form cost and time overruns have become endemic

and chronic while at the same time spill-over costs are increasing with every

plan. Financial returns are negligible because of a highly subsidized pricing of

water and substandard modernization. The returns are not sufficient to cover

costs of operation and maintenance. With an increased expenditure for

maintaining the system with worn out networks, water management remains a

problem. Water is under priced, added to that a poor collection of charges add

on. The funding pattern for the water supply schemes and also the minimum

water tariff levied are uniform throughout Karnataka, though the amount

remitted across urban local bodies – Town Municipal Council, Taluk Panchayat,

City Municipal Council and Corporations varies. The tariff charges are fixed


38

between Rs. 40 to Rs. 45 as a flat charge in many towns. In the Corporations,

they charge Rs. 3 per kilolitre while Rs. 2.50 in the City Municipal Corporations

(Varghese and Miglani, 2008). Resistance for increasing the tariff rates and poor

institutional arrangements in cost recovery are serious issues.

2.1.8. Technical Issues

Urban areas face a poor status of pipeline networks causing distributional

problems and equity issues. Huge investments have been made to draw surface

water from long distances though leakages lead to huge quantities of wastage.

Meters are installed but not maintained properly; hence, charging is an issue.

Rural areas also face operation and maintenance problems reducing the

efficiency of quality service. Technical interventions are introduced without

proper monitoring and appropriateness which can have negative implications.

For instance, rainwater harvesting is made compulsory in Bangalore without

studying groundwater aquifer mapping with the result that rainwater harvested

and sewage are getting mixed up in some parts of the city. Besides, violations of

the process of installing structures have accentuated the problem. In brief, it is

important not to implement a blanket policy across the issues but have to be

studied in depth and appropriate policies administered.

2.1.9. Data Inadequacies and Discrepancies

Accessing relevant State-level data regarding various components is a

major issue. Where some figures are available, they are not properly

disaggregated or classified. Adequate mechanisms for the collection and

compilation of data on a regular basis are not put in place in many states.

Moreover, information related to core functions provided by the State finance

commission and the state government concerned varies by a wide margin in

many States. Similarly, near to accurate data on irrigation potential created and

utilized is not available. Discrepancies reported are attributed to multiple

agencies collecting data with varied methodologies leading to double counting

errors as adequate checks are not carried out.


39

Section 3: Future Perspectives

An overview of the water management scenario indicates marked changes

in the contexts and the approaches towards water management over time and

space. The previous sections have detailed out two wide-ranging scenarios – (i)

the ways in which water has been perceived in ancient scriptures and traditional

practices in addition to water management practices prevalent in the ancient

times. The ancient scriptures and traditional practices and during the reign of

various dynasties provide a good scenario of water resources management.

(ii) Changes in water management in the current context highlighting several

issues that have evolved in due course of time with illustration from Karnataka.

One of the major causes seen is the reversal of environmental quality supply-

demand relationships in just a few years. This is mainly due to economic growth

accompanied by population increases, over-exploitation and mismanagement of

natural resources, and urbanization and its cumulative effects are resulting in

decreasing the available supply of clean water. The current scenario represents a

crisis situation which needs to be addressed on a priority basis.

In the current context, a review of the government’s efforts in

implementing various programmes, policies adopted has shown inadequate

progress in providing sufficient quantity of potable water to all persons. The

available literature indicates that various initiatives/approaches have shown signs

of improvement, but the results have not been satisfactory. As indicated earlier,

it is in this context that a historical review of ‘water resource management’ has

been taken up with a view to drawing some illustrations from the past and its

relevance for future water management options. Besides, the current options

and suggestions have also been added to this section as a way forward.

Strengthening Community Involvement and Awareness – Community

involvement in water resource management should be further strengthened for


40

sustainable management of water resources. Institutional mechanisms for

delegating responsibilities and powers to the various water management bodies

like the Water Users Associations, Village Water Supply and Sanitation

Committees would help a proper management of resources. Water has to be

charged for certain uses and stakeholders so as to ensure conservation and

efficiency.

Key lessons can be drawn from the traditional practices where there are

several pointers for involving people in water management. A blend of

traditional approaches with a combination of current technological means can

bring about good results. Awareness Creation through mass media

communication on a periodic basis would aid in the dissemination of water

related information. Targeted information regarding facts and figures on the

water situation and its implications could be highlighted through organizing

innovative and effective means of communication. Religious and educational

institutions could be involved in promoting awareness regarding water use and

conservation. Clues can be taken from water festivals and rituals and altered to

suit present conditions in disseminating the significance of water. Similarly, the

approaches about traditional approaches are detailed out for inclusion.

Instilling Right Behaviour Patterns – There are several indicators from the

past that focused on the behavior patterns of the society during the ancient

times. It can be observed that the admiration and veneration aided in terms of

conservation, use, and protection of water resources as these practices were

infused as behavior patterns in society. The respect for water through worship,

prayers and religious beliefs helped instill a sense of importance and value to

ensure a proper use of water. This respect for water also worked as a means

against pollution.


41

Capturing the psyche of people to instill change – The masses were and are ‘god

fearing’ in general. This ‘nature’ of people was used for creating a sense of

moral responsibility among the general populace to protect the environment

besides the moral standards of the society as well. For instance, there are

several hymns that point to the fact that, one should be engaged in good deeds

in order to enjoy the benefits of nature else they would face the wrath of nature

in the form of floods and droughts. An elegant hymn in the “Rudra” (from

Yajurveda) says: Namoe Rudrebhyaha yE Pruthivyaam yE antarikshe, ye Divi

Yeshaam annam vaatoe varsham ishavaha tebhyaha!) which explains thus,

There are some Gods called Rudras. Some of them exist on earth, some in skies,

and some in heavens. All of them punish sinners on earth. The arrows they use

to punish the sinners are food (deprivation of annam causes hunger), air (winds,

Vaata+Aavaranam=Vaataavaranam indicating weather), and rains (low or excess

varsham causing droughts or floods). Ishu means arrow. The verse further states

that we salute all of them in all directions (east, south etc.) with our two hands

folded for protecting us (Rajagopala Aiyar, 1985).

Creating Awareness through practice – Rituals and practices were one

important means of communicating to the people the importance of protecting

all water resources. As mentioned earlier, there are several rituals and practices

that highlight the significance of water for purification of the body and soul.

Water festivals acted as mass means of communicating and connecting to the

cosmic forces.

Educating masses through Simple and Localized Practices – Simple

sayings, Proverbs related to water served as powerful means of simple but

effective means of educating the masses. These sayings and proverbs as words

of wisdom passed on through generations acted as informal checks in protecting

water and other natural resources. Community participation in water

management was made part of the system that helped protect water resources


42

and associated development. Technically proven methods of water management

remain functional even to this day. Localized practices in the form of ‘shramadan’

where people contribute in terms of labour to managing natural resources was a

popular way of protecting natural resources and promoting community

participation and a sense of belonging. Local technologies were evolved in

relevance to the context, hence were tailor made to the situation. Besides these,

several other technologies, simple and effective, were shared with and passed on

to the neighbouring communities. This was widely practiced while managing

‘Tanks’ in rural areas. Similarly, the medicinal uses of water were popularized

through hymns and traditional informal practices. All these aided in the

sustainable management of water resources. Further, wisdom regarding water

management was made an integral part of their culture and community

responsibility.

Recognition and endorsing benevolence – It was a common practice

among the wealthy to construct water bodies and was seen as a benevolent act

that a man could do to society which contributed to the overall community

welfare. These are endorsed in the popular ‘Tirukurals’ that, ‘The wealth of that

man of eminent knowledge who desires to exercise the benevolence approved of

by the world, is like the full waters of a city-tank. The wealth that wise and kind

do make is like water that fills a lake’. There were several such acts which were

popularized and implemented out of good will.

All these indicate a holistic understanding and perspectives in managing

water resources which made implementation simple. Even in the current

context, water resources management need to be addressed in a holistic

perspective and implemented in an integrated way considering various and

differing socio-economic and environmental requirements. To ensure equity,

priorities have to be set with informed decision making. Given the current

challenges, besides drawing lessons from the traditional methods, there are


43

other approaches which are relevant to address the issue of sustainable water

management.

Integrated Water Resource Management Approach - Water

management should be based on hydrological boundaries considering river basin

as a unit and addressed in an integrated water resources management

perspective. Basin authorities have to be established for managing and

regulating water resources. Preservation and protection of all water bodies

under a basin should be carried out in a planned and holistic way.

Environmental concerns should be given a high priority including all aquatic

species. River basin authorities should also be responsible for collecting data

and information on a regular basis with respect to the basin from a social,

economic and environmental point of view. Regarding sharing and management

of waters of international rivers should be negotiated in consultative association

with riparian States while focusing on national interests besides establishing

adequate institutional arrangements at the Center for implementing national and

international agreements respectively.

Addressing Ground Water Issues - Ground water aquifers have to be

mapped which determine the status and quality of ground water besides aiding

in taking appropriate decisions on water conservation strategies at appropriate

locations. Watershed development and rain water harvesting initiatives have to

be adopted in a comprehensive way. Inter-basin transfers of flood waters aid in

recharging depleting ground waters in water stressed areas. Legal dimensions of

ground water management need further streamlining for effective

implementation.

Land and Water Use Linkages - Land utilization and water use are

interlinked; hence, appropriate measures should be taken to evolve mechanisms

to understand water demands across/within sectors and ensure sustainable


44

actions in land and water use management. Loss of land during erosion should

be avoided to prevent permanent loss and damage while supportive studies on

geo morphology and nutrient loss should be taken up. Besides, encroachments

should be curtailed effectively as most of the water bodies are subject to misuse.

Tackling Water Quality - Water quality in both urban and rural areas is an

issue that needs an urgent intervention. Efforts should be taken to ensure

quality through preventing pollution and using technological interventions at

various levels and types to provide quality water. Water quality is to be

protected by penalizing polluters appropriately. Strengthening of the processes

within the existing systems through accountability and transparency in place is

called for. Traditional methods of tackling the water quality issue can be

popularized as they are proven simple and effective practices that could be cost

effective and sustainable as well.

Improving Water Use Efficiency – Demand-supply management

approach is replaced by the supply driven management, but needs further

strengthening in the processes adopted to improve water use efficiency. Water

resources need to be assessed and accounted at periodic intervals for taking

appropriate decisions on usage besides coming up with innovative mechanisms

for making an efficient use of water. Contexts and issues are different in respect

of both rural and urban areas; however, efforts should be taken towards

removing disparities between the stipulations of water supply. Public–Private

partnership of water management may work out to be more feasible given the

vastness of interventions required and several success stories have proven.

Water-energy nexus needs to be addressed with appropriate measures to avoid

misuse and wasteful use of water.

Financing Water Management - Financial management should be

holistic from the view point of recovery of capital and operation and maintenance


45

costs to ensure proper maintenance and sustainability of projects. Monitoring

should be carried out at varied levels to avoid time and cost over-runs. Efforts

should be taken to ensure that there is no gap between the potential created

and the actual potential utilized. Water is to be priced appropriately keeping

varied needs and contexts in view. Institutional mechanisms have to be

developed for fixing water charges by involving stakeholders and ensuring that

water is not underpriced but at the same time should meet the requirements of

all.

Emphasis on appropriate Technical interventions – There is large

scope for reviving traditional practices in sustaining the simple technical

approaches that were followed. For instance, Reviving Tank Management and

involving communities has been initiated at large; similar methods can be

adopted in other sectors as well. Technical interventions for water saving and

efficient uses across sectors have to be encouraged. Unaccounted for water

should be reduced largely in rural areas and more specifically in urban areas.

Encouragement should be given for taking up innovative practices in

conservation, utilization and management of water so as to make it context

specific. Reuse and recycled water should be appropriately streamlined for users

to access and adopted extensively. Incentives and disincentives should be

provided for appropriately using water and for violations, if any respectively.

Subsidies and incentives should be provided and made feasible for adopting

reuse and recycling mechanisms.

Dealing with Climate Change - Climate change is likely to create

extreme variations affecting livelihoods, health and infrastructure. Micro level

mitigation and coping mechanisms involving community should be promoted.

Identification, resettlement and rehabilitation issues should be recognised and

beneficiaries should be given proper protection and benefits so as to help them

abide by the resettlement and rehabilitation policy.


46

Streamlining Data Insufficiencies and Inconsistencies - It would be

important to create a vigorous data collection mechanism that will ensure

accuracy of data. An accurate data base and information are important for

informed decision making. It is important that Hydrological Data collection and

compilation are done by a single agency with a ready access made available.

Common processes, procedures and formats for establishing a good data base

are also important.

Establishing Institutional Mechanisms – A Water Regulatory

Authority should be established at the state level to oversee all aspects of water

management – planning, monitoring, regulating and reviewing performance. A

separate wing for addressing conflicts and conflict resolution mechanisms at the

state and national levels should be established. Although Water is a state

subject, it is important to frame a policy at the National level with a legal

framework which the states adhere to. A newly formulated National Water Policy

2012 is being debated now at present throughout the country. Research and

Training need to be conducted periodically and in innovative ways for addressing

issues. Appropriate funding to respective states should be provided for

understanding the traditional ways of management and also international

approaches need to be followed for implementing the best of both the

approaches. Regular Training programmes are to be formulated and promoted

across various levels.

Concluding Remarks

It is important to understand that ‘water’ was not a scarce resource in the

ancient times as compared to the scarcity challenges that we face in the current

context. This makes it all the more relevant to use water prudently and follow a

holistic approach towards water management as stressed by the water experts

based on studies that have captured various water scenarios. Besides other


47

challenges, one of the crucial challenges has been the ‘implementation’, given

the conflicting interventions and situations. Best practices have strongly indicated

the role of community in its success but up scaling has remained an issue. In

this context, several lessons that are highlighted from the traditional perspectives

on water management could also be used in the current context. Similarly,

practices during the various dynasties also throw light on simple and popular

technologies besides community participation. In this context, it would be useful

to develop an overall framework for sustainable water management policies,

monitoring and progress tracking initiatives, detecting problems to suit customer

satisfaction and the user demand as well. These could be developed into various

focused frameworks in which water management issues could be perceived,

addressed and implemented in a phased manner. All through the development

of frameworks, it would be useful to understand the traditional and historical

perspectives on water management and lessons that could be drawn for its

appropriate use in the current context. Specific case studies could be taken up

which involve a thorough review of these traditional practices and lessons drawn

thereof. The response to these could be developed by involving a wide range of

stakeholders and establish demands from these various sets of stakeholders and

demonstrate the benefits in respect of an effective delivery. This would also aid

in designing pricing strategies, creating awareness and dissemination strategies,

exploring and understanding the existing processes and appropriate changes

thereof.

References Agrawal, Anil & Sunita Narain. 1997. Dying Wisdom: Rise, fall and potential of India's traditional water harvesting systems. (State of India's Environment – A Citizens' Report, No. 4), Centre for Science & Environment (CSE), New Delhi. Aiyar Rajagopla, 1985, Sri Rudram and Chamakam, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Mumbai.


48

Dhavalikar M.K, 1988, Excavation: The Scientific Method and the Scientific Aids, Paper presented at the International Seminar on New Archeology, Indian Council of Historical Research, New Delhi, 14-16 Oct. Hooja Rima, Channelling Nature: Hydraulics, Traditional Knowledge Systems, and Water Resource Management in India – A Historical Perspective. http://www.infinityfoundation.com/hooja_book.htm Narayana NSS, 2006, ‘Issue of Sustainable Water-use and Land–use for India, Write up for the TIFAC (DST). Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India, Draft National Water Policy

2012. Nair Shadananan K, 2003, ‘Role of water in Development of Civilization in India – a review of ancient literature, traditional practices and beliefs’ ‘The Basis of Civilization – Water Science?, Proceedings of the UNI-SCO/1 AI IS/I WI IA symposium held in Rome, December 2003. Palaniswamy, K and K.W. Easter, K.W, 1983, ‘The Tanks of South India: A potential for Future Expansion in Irrigation, Economic Report, Department of Agriculture and Applied Economics, University of Minnisota. Palaniswami, K (1981), Irrigation Tank Rehabilitation’ The New Irrigation Era, Vol

XIX. Raju K.V, Hema Nagaraj, Manasi S, Deepa N, Latha N, 2007, Urban Water Supplies: Emerging Alternatives – A Case study of extent of Ground Water Use and its Implications in Hubli, Dhawad and Belgaum cities, Report, Centre for Ecological Economics and Natural Resources, ISEC, Bangalore. Raju K.V., A. Narayanamoorthy, Govind Gopakumar, H.K. Amarnath, State of the Indian Farmer, A Millennium Study, Water Resources, Vol 3., 2004, Academic Foundation. Raju K.V. 2002, ‘Participatory Irrigation Management in Andhra Pradesh: The Way Forward in Users in Water Management, eds, Rakesh Hooja, Ganesh Panagre and K.V. Raju (eds), New Delhi, Rawat Publications. Ramakrishnan M (2000), Sreemad Bhagavad Gita, Anandsramam, Kanjangad,

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Sharma K.N, 2000, Environmental Protection and Water Reverence in Ancient Indian Culture Secretary, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID) 48, Nyaya Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi – 110 021, India as in http://www.scribd.com/doc/16813661/Environmental-Protection-and-Water-Reverence-in-Vedic-Culture-by-KN-Sharma-Secretary-ICID Sakthivadivel, R, 1982, ‘ A Pilot Study of Modernization of Tank Irrigation in Tamil Nadu’, Proceedings of a Workshop on Modernization of Tank Irrigation – Problems and Issues, Chennai, Centre for Water Resources. Sekhar Nagothu Udaya, K.V. Raju, S. Manasi, Latha N, Lenin Babu K, 2008,

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