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WaspRepor terExam Issue
Fear, joy, power: How crowds affect usBritain’s child armyBlood on the tracks
Editorial
Speaking ( ) Recycling:Workinprogress 3
( ) Totalrecall 4
( ) Preachyourchildrenwell 6
Writing ( ) Advertisements 8
( ) Britain’schildarmy 10
( ) Advertisements 12
reading Bloodonthetracks 14
Mindtomind 16
Fear,joy,power: Howcrowdsaffectus 18
Breakingthechains 21
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Researchshowsthatweareobsessedbycelebrities.Wedonotjustspendmoretimethanevertalkingaboutcelebrities,wealsoregardthemasrolemodels.Theyaresaidtoformournew‘socialconscience’.WendyCarlisleandMarkChestertalkaboutthepossiblenegativeeffectsthatnewformsofcelebritycharity,forexampleinter-countryadoptions,mayhave.
Helloeveryone,
Sittingexamsisastressfulandnerve-rackingbusiness,especiallywhenyoucan’tprepareforatestbylearningfactsbyheart.Languageexamsareanotoriousexampleoftestsforwhichpreparingisoftendifficult.Howdoyouknowyou’rereadyforanoralexamorareadingcomprehensiontest? Practisingistheonlythingyoucando.ThisExamIssueofWaspReporterisspeciallydesignedforyoutopractiseyourlanguageskillsandprepareforyourfinaltests. IntheSpeakingSectionofthisMagazineyou’llfindatextaboutrecyclinginLondonandBerlin.Therearealsotextsaboutapersonalblackboxrecorder,andhomeschoolingintheUnitedStates.Hopefullythesesubjectswillgiveyouenoughinputtoputapresentationtogetherorholdadebate(seeStudentFile). TheadvertisementsintheWritingSectionshouldprovideamplepossibilitytopractiseyourwritingskills.AndforyourfinalexamattheendofthisschoolyearyoucanprepareyourselfwiththehelpofthetextsintheReadingSection. Havingworkedthroughthisissue,youwillhopefullyfeelmoreconfidentaboutsittingyourexams.Anddon’tforget:practicemakesperfect!
Johan Graus,Editor
Contents
( )International Herald Tribune
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Speaking
Whyrecycle?Itiscostly,time-consumingandtakesmoreeffortthansimplychuckingallthewasteintoasinglebin. Nonetheless,overthelasttwodecades,recyclinghasbecomethenormintheWesternworld.Citizenspayhighertaxestocoverthecosts;municipalitiesenforcerecyclingregulationsandrefusetopickupthegarbageofhouseholdsthatdonotcomply. Asfortheactualprocess,theInternational Herald Tribunedecidedtoboardagarbagetruckinafewcitiestoseefirsthandwhathappensoncepeoplestashtheirtrashinarecyclingbin.Whatemergesisaglobalworkinprogress.
Beth Gardiner
LONDON–RichmonduponThames,awealthy,park-dottedboroughofwestLondon,hasmaderecyclingapriorityasBritainstrugglestosheditsreputationasoneofWesternEurope’sworstrecyclers. Residentsleavecansandglassinblackplasticboxesalongthestreets;papergoesintoreusablebluebags.Twocrewmembersgathertherecyclingintobigredbinsthattheyhandintotheirtruck,whileathirdsortsitintotherightcontainer.Adifferenttruckcollectssmallgreenbinsfilledwithkitchenwasteforcomposting.Plasticsarenotpickedupyetbutcanbeleftatdrop-offcentres. ThecrewIaccompaniedpickeduppaper,bottles,jars,andcansandwentontoasortingcentreinRichmond.Allthematerialissoldtorecyclingcompanies.GlassgoestoaplantinHarlow,northeastofLondon,tobemadeintonewbottlesandjars.PaperheadstoWirral,nearLiverpool.AluminiumcansaresenttoCheshireandwillagainholdbeerandsoda. Britainexportsabouthalfofitsplasticwaste.MuchissenteastonthesameshipsthatdeliverChineseimportstoBritain.BecauseEuropesellsfarlesstoAsiathanitbuys,cargovesselshavelittletocarryonthereturnjourneys,andtheytakewastematerialtoAsiaatdiscountedrates.DestinationsincludeIndiaandSouthKorea,aswellasChina. London’s33boroughspayfortheirownrecycling,somewithhelpfromthenationalgovernment.Richmondearnsenoughfromsellingitsrecyclables,about£600,000ayear,or$1.17million,tocoverabouthalfthecostofcollectionandprocessing.
andreas tzortzis
BERLIN–Germansseparatetheirtrashwithanearnestnessandconvictionthatoftenconfoundsnewcomers.Therearebinsforpaper,compost,andgeneraltrash,andthreebinsforglass–clear,green,andamber.Sincethemid-1990s,therehasalsobeenayellowbinforplastic,metalsandpackaging.Sevenbinsinall. Onachillymorning,IaccompaniedacrewpickingupyellowbinsineastBerlin.ThebinswerefittedontothebackofaMercedes-issuetruckoperatedbyAlba,aprivaterecyclingcompany.Atthepressofabutton,thebinstippedintoacompactor.Milkcartons,yogurtcups,aluminiumcans,andbottlesspilledout. WetooktheloadtoanAlbaplantontheoutskirtsofBerlin–Germany’smostmodernrecyclingfacility.Computer-guidedinfraredscannersseparatethetonsofrecycledmaterial;itisthencompactedintodifferenttypesofbales:plastics,metals,packaging,andmaterialthatcanbeusedforalternativefuel. Recyclingcompaniespayuptoe200abaleforthematerial.Glassismelteddownandreshapedintobottlesandjars.Paperandpackaginggetsreprocessed,muchgoingtotheBerlinnewspapermarket.Plasticisgroundintolittlelentil-sizedpiecesthatcanbeusedfornewproducts,fromlicense-plateholderstocoathangers. Consumersfootthebillforthisbypayingalittleextraforrecyclablepackaging.Buttheyseemhappytodoso.Inthisnationofrecyclingpioneers,9outof10Germansclaimtoseparatetheirtrash,accordingtoa2004studybytheAllensbachInstitute.And65percentthinkitisbadifaneighbour,evenanewcomer,doesn’tusetheyellowbinproperly.
Much plastic waste gets exported to Asia Residents sort trash
into 7 different bins
Recycling: Work in progress
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Exam Issue Volume 6 Exam Issue Volume 6
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Total recallAre you hopeless at putting names
to faces? Or do you just wish you
could remember what you got up
to at your last birthday party? The
solution could be to record your
entire life digitally
By ian taylor
You’llneverforgetanotherweddinganniversary.Infact,you’llneverforgetanything,everagain.That’sbecauseinthenextfewdecades,you’llbeabletostoreallyourmemoriesonadevicewhichissmallenoughtoweararoundyourneck. Abitlikeapersonalblackboxrecorder,thegadgetwillrememberanythingyoukeepindigitalform.Itmightcarrythefootageyourfathertookonthedayyouwereborn.Yourelectronicschoolreports.Yourhealthrecordsandyourbankstatements. Thisisnotthefutureaccordingtosomestarry-eyedsciencefictionwriter.It’swhatagroupofUKscientistsrealisehasalreadybegun.MemoriesforLife(M4L)isanetworkofresearchersthathavespentthelasttwoyearsswappingnotesonwhattodowiththegrowingbulkofinformationwekeepindigitalform.
Shrinking memory‘Thisisallhappeningrightnow,’saysProfNigelShadbolt,theM4Lnetwork’sprincipalinvestigator.‘There’smoreandmoreinformationgoingdigitalandthetechnologytostoreitisshrinkingatthesametime.’
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( )≠ BBC Focus
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recognitiontechnology.Oryoumightbecarryingsomekindofsensorthatbeamsoutwhatyouwantmetoknow.’ Similarly,elderlypeoplesufferingwithshort-termmemorylosscouldhaveadevicethatrememberstheirdailyroutineandgivesreminderswheneverthey’reneeded.Artificialmemorydevicesofferhugepotentialforthehealthcaresector.Electronicdiagnosissystemscanalreadyputhumandoctorstoshame.Alltheyneedisenoughdataaboutapatient.‘Clearly,we’removingintoaworldwherehealthinformationandbiosignalsarebeingcollected,’Shadboltsays.‘That’shappeningnowforathletesintraining,orpeoplecarryingcertainmedicalrisks.Butinthefuture,wecanimagineeveryoneroutinelycollectingalifetimeofbiophysicaldata.’ Collectingdata,then,willnotbeaproblem.Storingitshouldalsobeeasy.Butthewaythisinformationisused–whetherit’smedical,business-relatedorcompletelybanal–raisesanumberofquestionsaboutmanagingsuchvastdatabanks.Copyrightgetsverymurkywhendigitaldataispublishedenmasse.Andthedangersofidentitytheftareheightenedwhenthere’ssomuchpersonalinformationoutthere. There’salsotheissueofprivacy.Ifeverything’sconnected,justwhowillhaveaccesstoyourdigitalmemories?Andshouldyoubeallowedtokeepdigitalmemoriesofothers?Thepolicecouldevenfollowdigitalfootprintswhenhuntingcriminals,presentingdigitalmemoriesasevidenceincourt.
You’re being watched It’sclearlyasensitiveissue.In2004,LifeLog,aUSresearchprojectnotdissimilartoMemoriesforLife,wasshutdown.Ittoohadbeguninvestigatingtheplausibilityofrecordingeverythingaboutapersonindigitalformat.Buttherewasoutrage.Civillibertycampaignerspouncedontheproject,claimingittoyedwithtechnologythatBigBrothercouldusetokeeptabsoneveryone. ToensurethatM4Lisnotderailedbysimilarconcerns,thenetworkisactivelydiscussinghowprivacyandrightscanbeprotected.OnemantoaskwouldbeGordonBell.HehasmoredigitalmemoriesthananyoneelseonEarth.Since1998,theseniorMicrosoftresearcherhasdiligently
recordedhisentirelifeforaprojectcalledMyLifeBits. Allhisphotosanddocumentsarescannedandsaved,andconversationsaretakendownonarecorder.Hiscomputerretainsallemails,webpagesandinstantmessages,andevenhismouseandkeyboardactivityisremembered.Aroundhisneck,Microsoft’sprototypeSenseCamautomaticallytakesphotosthroughoutthedaytoprovideavisualrecord. Thetroubleis,whenyou’vegotthatvolumeofinformation,howdoyoutrawlthroughitandpickoutwhat’suseful?Orsentimental?SothebiggesttechnicalchallengeforBell–andtheentireM4Lmovement–ismanagement.Andofcourse,weneedtoolsthatletusfilter,orevenforgetthemostbanalinformation.Anythingthatwillmakeyourdigitalliveseasiertoorganise,retrieveandre-presentforourselvesandothers.Because,ifnothingelse,digitalmemorieswillgiveusthechancetoleaveabitofourselvesbehind.
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Speaking
The memory machineResearchers in the US are developing brain implants to help store memories
WhiletheMemoriesforLifenetworkcontemplateshowwerecordourlivesasdigitaldata,othersareinvestigatingamoredirectfusionbetweenmemoryandtechnology.ResearchersintheUSaredevelopingasiliconchipdesignedtoreplacetheregionofthebrainresponsibleforcreatingmemories. Theimplantwouldinteractdirectlywithneuronsinthehippocampus,thepartofthebrainwhereshort-termmemoriesarereprogrammedforlong-termstorage.Whenthehippocampusisdamaged,asinstrokecasesorAlzheimer’sdisease,patientslosetheabilitytoformlong-termmemories.Thechipcouldbypassthedamagedtissue,processtheelectricalsignalsitselfandrestoresomelong-termmemoryfunction. That’sthegoalofProfTheodoreBergerworkingattheUniversityofSouthernCalifornia.Bystudyingtheneuralcircuitryinthehippocampus,heandhisteamhavedevisedmathematicalmodelsforthewayneuronsprocesselectricalsignals.Themodelsallowthechipimplanttoacceptasignalandprocessitinthesamewayashealthytissue. Bergerhasalreadyprovedthiscanwork.In2004,histeamusedthechipwithslicesofratbrainkeptaliveinnutrients.Theimplantstimulatedneuronsinthetissueandelectricaloutputpatternswerethencomparedwiththerealthing.Theywere95percentaccurate. Nowtheplanistoreplicatetheresultsinliverats,andtheninmonkeys.Eventually,Bergerbelievesitwillbepossibletoreplacedamagedhumanhippocampustissuewithanimplant.Butheadmitstheprocessiscomplex:‘Wewillhavetouseachipsmallenoughtobesurgicallyandstrategicallyplacedinaparticularlocationofthebrain.’
FIND OUT MORE www.memoriesforlife.org BackgroundinfoandpaperstromtheM4Lnetwork
http://tinyurl.com/yuw�b� GordonBell’sMyLifeBitsproject
www.neuralprosthesis.comTheodoreBerger’sresearchintobrainimplants
www.bbc.co.uk/radio�/ memory/BBC’sMemoryExperience
!
Moore’sLawstatesthatthenumberoftransistorsyoucanpackonacomputerchipdoubleseverytwoyears.It’sheldtrueforthelastfourdecadesandshowsnosignoflettingup.‘In20years,adevicethesizeofasugarcubewillbeabletostorealifetimeofvideoimages,’Shadboltsays. Ofcourse,peoplewon’tnecessarilywanttorecordeverywakingmomentonvideo.ButfortheM4Lcrowd,theveryprospectraisesendlesspotentialforotherapplications.Thegoalnowistodevelopactualproductsthatmakeinnovativeuseofourdigitalmemories.
Oiling social cogs There’salsotalkofinnovativeeducationtoolsandvirtualrealityreplaysofsportingeventsorbirthdayparties.Yetsomeofthemostobviousideasarethosedesignedtogiverealmemoriesalittleelectronicback-up. ‘Iwanttobuildamemoryaid,’saysProfWendyHall,anotherM4Lnetworker.‘SomethingthatwilltellmewhoyouarewhenImeetyou.Imightneedapictureofyou,sothedevicecanspotyouviaface-
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Exam Issue Volume 6 Exam Issue Volume 6
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� Exam Issue Volume 6
Christian conservatives want to empty America’s classrooms. They want kids educated at
home, where they are free to use the Bible as the ultimate science reference book – and so
shape the next generation of conservative leaders
By amanda gafter
PatrickHenryCollegelookslikeatypicalAmericanliberal-artscollege.Itscurriculumisfarfromtypical,however,andanythingbutliberal.Witnessthebeginningofthislectureonfaithandreason.Asthespeakertakestothepodium,severalstudentssilencetheircellphones.OneputsdownhiscopyofThe Wall Street JournalandtakesouthisBible.TheybowtheirheadsandpraytoJesus,thenstandupandsingahymn.Eventually,thespeakeraddressesthecrowd. ThestudentsareallevangelicalChristiansandmostofthemwereschooledathomebeforearrivingatPatrickHenry–acollegecreatedespeciallyforthem.Theyarepartofalarge,well-organisedmovementthatisempoweringparentstoteachtheirchildrencreationistbiologyandotherunorthodoxversionsofscienceathome,allcentredontheideathatGodcreatedEarthinsixdaysabout6000yearsago.PatrickHenry,nearthetownofPurcellville,about60kilometresnorth-westofWashingtonDC,isgearinguptogroomhome-schooledstudentsforpoliticalofficeandtypifiesamovementthatseemssettoexpand,openingupanewfrontinthebattle
betweencreationistsandDarwinianevolutionists. Ironically,home-schoolingbeganinthe1960sasacounter-culturemovementamongpoliticalliberals.Theideawastakenupinthe1970sbyevangelicalChristians,andtodayanywherefrom1.9to2.4millionchildrenarehome-schooled.72percentofhome-schoolingparentsinterviewedsaidthattheyweremotivatedbythedesiretoprovidereligiousandmoralinstruction. Fortheseparents,religiousinstructionandscienceareoftenintertwined.ThisbothersBrianAltersofMcGillUniversityinMontreal,Canada,whostudiesthechangingfaceofscienceeducationintheUS.Heisappalledbysomehome-schoolingtextbooks,especiallythoseonbiologythatclaimtheyhavescientificreasonsforrejectingevolution.‘Theyhavegrossscientificinaccuraciesinthem,’hesays.‘TheywouldnotbeallowedinanypublicschoolintheUS,andyetthesearethebooksprimarilyfeaturedinhome-schoolingbookstores.’Altersworriesforthestudentswholearnfromsuchtexts(see‘Booklearnin’).‘Iftheygoontosecularuniversity,home-schoolersareinforsomemajorsurpriseswhentheygetintoanintroductorybiologyclass.’ Home-schoolparentsareabletoteachtheirchildren
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( ) New Scientist
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thiswaythanksmainlytoagroupcalledtheHomeSchoolLegalDefenseAssociation(HSLDA),anon-profitorganisationbasedinPurcellville–likePatrickHenryCollege(PHC),whichtheHSLDAfounded.Inthe1970sandearly1980s,thepracticewaslargelyillegalacrosstheUS.‘Themechanismthatwascausinghome-schoolingtobeillegalwasteachercertification,’saysIanSlatterofHSLDA.HSLDAwasfoundedin1983todefendtherightsofhome-schoolparentsandfoughttoremove
requirementsthatparentsbecertifiedtoteachtheirownchildren.Throughanimpressiverunoflegalbattlesandpoliticallobbying,theymanagedtomakehome-schoolinglegalinall50stateswithin10years.Consequently,thereisvirtuallynogovernmentregulationofhome-schooling.ThislackofregulationmaybeskewingscienceeducationinUShomes,saysAlters.
Evangelical internsUntilrecently,mosthome-schoolerschosetogoontosecularuniversities,becausesuchinstitutionstendtobemoreacademicallyrigorousthanChristiancolleges.Nowevangelicalhome-schoolerscanalsooptforacollegelikePHC.Theschoolwasfoundedin2000to‘prepareleaderswhowillfightfortheprinciplesoflibertyandourhome-schoolfreedomsthroughcareersofpublicserviceandculturalinfluence’. Itworked.By2004,PHCstudentsheldsevenoutof100internshipsintheWhiteHouse,anumberevenmorestrikingwhenoneconsidersthatonly240studentswereenrolledintheentirecollege.Lastyear,twoPHCgraduatesworkedintheWhiteHouse,sixworkedformembersofCongressandeightforfederalagencies,includingtwofortheFBI. Home-schoolersaredrawntoPHCpartlybecauseofitspoliticalconnectionsandpartlybecause,unlikemostChristiancolleges,itboastshighacademicstandards.
Besidesthefocusoncreationism,muchofthecurriculumisdedicatedtorhetoricanddebate,preparingstudentstofightpoliticalandlegalbattlesonissuessuchasabortion,stemcellresearchandevolution.
A strategy for the renewal of societyThegrowthinthehome-schoolmovementseemssettocontinue,ashome-schooladvocatesarepushinghardtoconvinceparentstokeeptheirchildrenoutofpublicschools.‘We’vewonallthelegalbattlesnow,thankstoHSLDAandgroupslikethat,’saysE.RayMoore,authorofLet My Children Go: Why parents must remove their children from public schools now.‘It’stimetoshiftfromdefencetooffence,’hesays. MooreisthedirectorofExodusMandate,basedinColumbia,SouthCarolina,anorganisationthaturgesChristianparentstopulltheirchildrenoutofpublicschools.ExodusMandatehasspentthepastfewyearstryingtowinovertheSouthernBaptistConvention(SBC),whichhasmorethan16millionmembers.‘IftheSouthernBaptistsgotonboardandsaidhome-schoolingandChristianeducationisthepreferredmethodofeducation,thatwouldbetransformational,’Slattersays.‘Itwouldeasilydoubleormaybetriplethenumberofhome-schoolersovernight.’ Mooresays,‘Ifwecouldgetupto30percentof
public-schoolstudentsintohome-schoolingandprivateschools,thesystemwouldstarttounravelandatsomepointimplodeandcollapse.Thegovernmentwouldbeforcedtogetthestatesoutoftheeducationbusinessaltogether.Itwouldgobacktothechurchesandthefamilies.It’sastrategyfortherenewalofsociety.’Notallhome-schoolparentshaveareligiousagenda,however.‘Thereareprobablysomewonderfulhome-schoolparents,someofwhommay
beevolutionarybiologiststhemselves.ButIhaveafeelingaftertalkingtoalotofhome-schoolersthatthisistheminority,’saysAlters.Indeed,evangelicalChristiansdodominatethehome-schoolmovement.‘It’sdisconcerting,tosaytheleast,’hesays.
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Exam Issue Volume 6
Book learnin’Biologyisnottheonlysciencebeingrewritteninhome-schoolingtextbooks.OthersciencesarealsobeingmodifiedtosuitthecreationistperspectivethatGodcreatedEarthabout6000yearsago. Chemistrytextbooks,forinstance,arguethatradiometricdatingisunreliableandthereforenotaconcernforthosewhobelieveina6000-year-oldEarth.AndgeologybooksclaimthattheGrandCanyoninArizona–agorgecarvedbytheColoradoRiver,exposing2billionyearsofEarth’shistory–wasformedrapidlyduringtheworldwideBiblicalflood. Evenastronomyisbeingrethoughttoexplainhowstarlightfrombillionsoflight-yearsawayhasreachedtheEarthinonlyafewthousandyears.BookslikeTaking Back AstronomybyJasonLislesuggestpossibleexplanations:maybeGodcreatedthelightalreadyenroute;ormaybetheMilkyWaysitsinalargegravitationalwellwherethetime-stretchingeffectsofgeneralrelativitycanexplaintheanomaly;or–thecreationists’favourite–maybethespeedoflightwasmuch,muchgreaterinthepast.
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Preach your children well
Speaking
� Exam Issue Volume 6
( )≠
�Exam Issue Volume 6
Writing
TRAVEL ADVISERSSeasonal Summer EmploymentDublin Tourism CentresCity Centre and Dublin Airport
õHours of Work33.75 hours per week based on 5 days, 6.75 hours per day, working on a roster basis.
õ DutiesServicing customer enquiriesOperating room reservations serviceSales of tours, literature, publications, maps etc.To undertake other work/duties to be allocated as required
õ Preferred QualificationsGood standard of educationExcellent interpersonal / customer services skillsFluency in one continental language (French/Italian/Spanish/German) is desirableA good knowledge of Dublin’s tourism productsComputer literacyFlexibility in working patternsFluency in English is essential
If you are interested in this position and possess the qualities listed above, please contact us by email on [email protected] or post to:
The Human Resources DepartmentDublin Tourism CentreSuffolk StreetDublin 2
Please specify dates in which you are available to work and preferred location.
Lively Teens wanted for Tonight with Trevor!
ITV – LIVELY, OUTGOING TEENAGERS WANTED
Lively, outgoing teenagers aged 15–18 are needed to take part in a primetime ITV1 programme.
The programme will involve the teens learning a little bit about personal finance (bank accounts, credit cards etc.) and then trying to save their parents some money.
We’re particularly looking for parents who are worried about their kids’ spending habits and feel their children need to learn the value of money.
If you’re interested in finding out more then please get in touch, including a few details about your family.
( )≠WritingAdvertisements Classified ads
WaiterWaiter wanted for weekends during summer holiday. You will work Fridays, Saturdays and Sundays from 5 p.m. to 2 a.m. Your salary will be 80 euros per week plus tips.Write for more details to Bistro Firenze, Mr John Adams, 18 New Road, CB3 9DF Cambridge, United Kingdom.
Room assistantAlexandria Hotel London requires room assistant for 6 days for summer months. Your pay is good and your work hours will be from 8.30 a.m. to 1.30 p.m. Please contact Mrs Dohery by writing to Alexandria Hotel, 4 Avesbury Lane, WE1 4NH London, United Kingdom.
Disc jockeyDisc jockey wanted for New Wave Southampton Vacation Club during holiday season. Age 16-24. 1 week on trial. Your work hours will be from 7.30 p.m. to 11.30 p.m. Pay is good and your stay at the resort is free. Please contact Suzy Bedford for more details at [email protected].
Shop assistantIf you like fashion, here is your thing! Trendy young women wanted to work as shop-assistants in modern boutique at Welsh seaside resort for summer months. We only sell quality labels. After receiving your email we will personally invite you for an interview. Write your mail to Mrs Charlotte Kings: [email protected].
10 Exam Issue Volume 6
Britain’s child army
Stricken by Iraq and low morale, the British army is on a desperate recruitment drive.
Its new targets? Poorly educated teenagers and young schoolchildren
By Stephen armStrong
Onastormywinterday,38schoolchildrengatheratFulwoodBarracksinPreston.TheyaremainlyYear11pupils–agedbetween14and16–andtheyhavebeenbussedoverfromapoorlyperformingcomprehensiveinadeprivedpartofanearbytownforanencounterdaywiththeDukeofLancaster’sRegiment. Thefourteacherswhohavecomealongwiththemseemapprehensive.Manyofthesekids,theysay,canbeunruly;othersarequietbutdon’tperformwellinclass.WarrantOfficerNickFroehling,however,isyoung,friendlyandeasy-going.Withinminuteshehasthechildrendoingrifledrill,shiftingmodelSA80sfromshouldertoarm’slengthandbackdownto‘atease’–althoughFroehling
doesn’tsay‘Atease’.Hepreferstheorder‘Chill’. Duringtheday,thepupilslearnhowtouseaclimbingwall,negotiateanobstaclecourseandcompleteaone-milerun.Attheend,theyreceiveapresentationcertificatesignedbyLieutenantColonelJ.Pitt,commanderofregionalrecruitinginthenorth-west.‘Congratulationsonsuccessfullycompletingtheone-dayArmyPersonalDevelopmentCourse,’itsays.Onthebackthere’salistoflocalrecruitingoffices,anditcomeswithaDVD,recruitingbrochuresandaglossyteenmagazinecalledCamouflage. BythetimetheyleaveFulwoodBarracksatleasttwopupils–LukeandCara–havedecidedtobecomesoldiers.Anarmythatactivelyrecruits14-year-oldsissomethingusuallyassociatedwithsomeoftheworld’smoretroubledstates.Thetruthis,however,thatshortergapsbetween
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toursofduty,concernsoverequipment,resentmentatthepoorstateofaccommodationandrisingmilitarydeathtollsinIraqandAfghanistanareproducingaretentioncrisisintheBritishmilitary.In2006,14,000personnelleftthearmy,withjustover12,000recruitedtoreplacethem.Thisyear’srecruitmenttarget–8,500soldiers–looksunlikelytobehit.
Other optionsWithtroopspouringaway,thepressuretofindreplacementsisintensifying.Thetime-honouredpoolsofunemployedyoungmenfromThames-sideandMerseysideandTynesidearebecominglessandlesskeenonjoiningthearmedforces.Employmentlevelsarehigh,andthereareplentyofoptionstoworkthroughbeforetheyturntothecolours.
‘It’sdifficult,’explainsWarrantOfficerChrisJones,seniorarmyrecruiterinthenorth-west,whoseLiverpoolofficeusedtoreapabountifulharvestforallthreearmsofthemilitary.‘You’vegottheBigDiggoingoninLiverpool–allthebuildingworkfortheCityofCulture–andthatmeanskidswhomighthavethoughtaboutjoininguscanget£250aweekcashinhand.Nowadays,thegovernmentispayingkids£40aweektostayatschooluntilthey’re18,whichisprovingarealproblemaswell.’ Althoughthearmyrefusestopublishfiguresonthesocialbackgroundofrecruits,itisclearthattheyoung,unskilledandunemployedarestillatthecoreofitstargetdemographic.SittingatthearmydeskinLiverpool’sglass-frontedcareersoffice,arecruitingsergeantexplainsthathalfoftheapplicantswhowalkinoffthestreethavedifficultyfillingintheform.Otherstrytofaketheirparents’signaturegivingpermissiontojoin.‘There’salotofkidscominginbecausetheirhomelifeisamess,’thesergeantsays.‘Theywantthearmytogivethemabitofdisciplineandabitofsupportbecausetheirhomelifedoesn’tofferthat.’ Atthesametime,aconstantstreamofstoriesaboutbullyingattrainingcampssuchasDeepcut,bizarreRoyalMarineinitiationceremoniesandpost-conflictproblemssufferedbyveteransishurtingtheappealofalifeinuniform.Thismayexplainwhylastyear’sintroductionofaUS-stylebountyschemetoenticecombattroopsintotheforceperformedsobadly.Infantrysoldiershavebeenoffereda£1,300bonusiftheyencouragesomeonetoenlist.TheMoDadmitstheschemehasnothad‘anenormousresponse’.
Changing standardsAsaresult,thearmyisthrowingopenitsdoorstopeopleitwouldn’thaveconsideredfiveyearsago.Lastmonth,themaximumrecruitmentagewasraisedfrom26to33,allowingolderentrantstosignup.Meanwhileoverseas
recruitment,mostlyinCommonwealthcountries,hasproducedmorethan6,000soldiers,drawnfrom54nations.Coupledwiththe3,000Gurkhas,thismeansoneineverytensoldiersisaforeignnational. ThearmywouldprefertogetitssoldiersyoungandBritish,however,andinthepast18monthsithashadarethinkofitsentirerecruitmentcampaign,turningthefocusawayfromtheschoolleaverandontotheschoolchild. Theheadoftheservice’srecruitmentstrategyisColonelDavidAllfrey.HeisthemanwithBritain’sschoolchildreninhissights,andhehasaplantoreachthem.Whenhetalksaboutrecruitment,heusesthekindofup-to-the-minutemarketingjargonthatyouwouldexpecttohearfromamanagementconsultant. ‘Thesedays,ouryoungstersareincrediblydiscerning,’Allfreysays.‘Theymakedecisionsbasedonamuchbroadertapestryofinformationthanwasofferedtoanyofus.Wehavetocutthroughbrandingclutterwithrealefficiency.Ournewmodelisaboutraisingawareness,andthattakesaten-yearspan.Itstartswithaseven-year-oldboyseeingaparachutistatanairshowandthinking,“Thatlooksgreat.”Fromthenthearmyistryingtobuildinterestbydrip,drip,drip.’ ThecoreofthispolicyinvolvesrampinguptheCamouflageyouthinformationscheme.Introducedin2000,theschemeisdesignedto‘holdanddeveloptheinterestofthosewhohavemadecontactwiththearmybutaretooyoungtojoin’.Camouflagemembers,whostartat13,gettheteenmagCamouflagemailedtothemeveryquarter.ItispackedwithpicturesofhelicoptersloopingtheloopandfashionshootswithcutekidsfromtheRoyalMilitarySchoolofMusicwearingarmyT-shirtsandcamogear.Theygetbooks,akitbag,accesstoamembers-onlywebsitewithmilitarygames,survivaltipsandscreensavers.TheyalsogetChristmascardsfromtherecruitingofficerandwhentheyleaveschoolthereisaninvitationtopopintoseeArmyCareersforachat.Sincetheschemestarted,ithasprocessed271,000youngsters;18percentofthisyear’sarmyintakewereoriginallyCamouflagemembers. It’sabigpush,withalotofmoneybehindit–althoughtheexactamounthasn’tbeenannouncedyet.Ifitfails,thearmymayhavetoadjustitsstandardsagain. In2005,theUSmilitarywasregularlymissingitsrecruitmenttargets.In2006,ithadtodoublethetopenlistmentbonusesforrecruitsfrom$20,000to$40,000,loosenmedicalstandards,forgivemoreminorcriminaloffences,raisetheagelimitfornewrecruitsfrom35to42,andacceptmorepeoplewhohavenotfinishedhighschool. WhatchangeswilldesperationforceontheBritisharmy,whoseten-yearrecruitmentstrategybeginswithaseven-year-oldboy?
The names of the children have been changed.
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Exam Issue Volume 6
‘There’s a lot of kids coming in because their home life is a mess’
Writing
1� Exam Issue Volume 6 1�Exam Issue Volume 6
( ) WritingAdvertisement
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Educate in Africa with Camara What we need: 40 volunteers to teach ICT in Africa for 4 weeks during the summer of 2008.
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By coming in on work experience, you’ll be joining a very busy team of staff, so you’ll need to be willing to ‘muck in’, help out, and generally make yourself useful – and sometimes this means being assertive to get yourself noticed. To be successful you will need to show a genuine interest in and knowledge of national and international news, and in particular BBC News output. BBC News welcomes enquiries and applications from minority ethnic and disabled people who are currently under-represented.
BBC RecruitmentPO Box 48305 London - W12 [email protected]
1� Exam Issue Volume 6
Blood on the tracks
[1]21-year-oldBradleyChapmanhadbeenplanningtoemigratetoAustraliafromhishomeinGrays,Essex,totraintobeapsychiatricnurse.ButonaFridaynightafewmonthsago,shortlyafter11p.m.,heandhisfriendDanielElgar,a19-year-oldpostmanfromSouthend,werespottedsprayinggraffitiataLondonUndergrounddepotbetweenBarkingandUpneystationsineastLondon.Theyhadapparentlyscaledthe3m-highpalisadesecurityfencing,andwereplanningtospray-paintthesideofatrain.AccordingtotheBritishTransportPolice(BTP),securityguardsspottedthemandshouted,atwhichpointthetwomendashedoutacrossthetracks,onlytobestruckbyawestboundDistrictLinetrain.Thedriverreportedfeelinga‘tremendousjolt’andimmediatelybroughtthetraintoahalt.Bothmendiedatthescenefrommassivemultipleinjuries. [2]KeithElgar,Daniel’sfather,describedhisson’sdeathas‘justapointlesswasteoflife.Wearejustanormalfamily.WehavegotamemorynowofDanjustonadarkgrimyrailwaytrack...’
Respect[3]Whatdrivesayoungman,muchlovedbyhisfamilyandfriends,withplansforhisfutureand,inElgar’scase,afive-month-oldson,toriskeverythingtosprayafewloopinglettersonatrain?Itisnotasifhishandiworkwillbeseenbythousands.LondonUndergroundhasapolicyofnotallowingcarriagesthathavebeenvandalisedtorununtiltheyhavebeencleaned;newgraffiti-resistantpaintsappliedtotrainsmeanthatmosttagscanbeeasilyremovedwithnomorethanahigh-poweredjetofwater. [4]‘Whydowedoit?’saysTwisted,aLondon-basedwriterwhoknewChapman.‘It’saboutrespect.Obviouslythere’stheadrenalinefrompaintinginatubeyard,theyarereallyhardtogetintothesedays.Therearenokidspaintingtubelines;it’sadultsonlyreallybecauseit’ssohard.It’sprobablysimilartobreakingintoahouseorsomething;it’ssuchabigmission.Findingit,breakingin,painting,gettingawayscot-free...’
Graffiti 101[5]ThehistoryofgraffiticanbetracedtoNewYorkinthelate1970s,whenahandfulofwritersbeganpaintingtheirnamesonthesidesoftrainsandsubwaywallsaroundManhattan.Thankstotherelativelackofsecurity,thecity’ssubwaywassoonwallpaperedwithtags,thoughthewriterssoonlearnedtodisguisetheiridentities:DemetriusPanayiotakis,anearlypioneer,calledhimselfTaki183in
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referencetohisaddresson183rdStinWashingtonHeights.Thoughthescenediversifiedasitspreadacrosstheworld,andhasexpandedtotakeinsomewell-knownartworldnames,topurists,paintingontrainswillalwaysbegraffiti’shighestcalling.
Risky business[6]‘It’sareallydedicatedthingforpeopletogooutandrisktheirlivestodosomethingentirelyforfreethatnobodywilleversee,’saysAmoe,a21-year-oldwriterfromLondon.‘Inthatsense,there’snothinglikegraffitithatIcan’tsee.’(Itisnoteventhedonething,amongabsolutepurists,topostpicturesofyourworkontheInternet.) [7]Theproblem,ofcourse,isthatthatriskcanbemuchgreaterthanasimpleboyishthrill.Thefirstpersontodieinagraffiti-relatedincidentonBritishtrainlineswasJohnKoporo,11,whoseclothingwascaughtonatrainpassingthroughKilburnParkstationin1987andwhowasdraggedtohisdeath.ThefollowingyearGaryBaxter,a16-year-oldcalled‘Rase’,slippedwhilefleeingsecurityguardsandwaskilledonliverails.
[8]Fiasko,anothertagger,describesoneoftheriskshetookwhenhewasstillwriting.‘OnetimewhendoingbackjumpsIfelloffthetopofafenceandendeduphangingfromthetopofitnexttoatubetrainwhichhadjustpulledin.Thepassengersmusthavehadashockseeingsomeonesuspendedupsidedownlookinginthroughthewindowatthem.’
Playing tag[9]TheBTPhashadadedicatedgraffitisquadsincethe1980s;itwon’tdisclosethenumberofofficersworkingsolelyoncapturingwriters,butteamswillfrequently
workformonths,usingprofiling,covertsurveillance,evenhandwritinganalysis,totracktaggersorentirecrews.LondonUndergroundspends£20mand70,000hourseachyearremovinggraffitionthenetwork.OvertheChristmasweekendalonelastyear,63graffiti‘attacks’werereportednationally.Reportedoffencesin2005/6wereup28%onthepreviousyear. [10]TheBTPestimatestherearearound200‘seriousgraffitivandals’aroundthecountry.Itestimatesthatitwouldcost£38mtoreplaceeverytubewindowthathasbeendamagedbyetching.Fordamagevaluedatmorethan£5,000,aconvictedgraffitiwritercanbejailedforupto10years. [11]Andyet,despitetherecenttragedyandthepolice’sbestefforts,determinedtaggersinsisttheywillnotbedeterred.Somesuggestthetragedymayevenspurwritersontotakemorerisks.‘Alotofpeoplearegettingveryangry,’saysTwisted.‘Ithinkthewholegraffitisceneseesthatitcouldbeagame,butsomepeoplenowwillcallitwar.Somepeoplewilldostufftowindthepoliceup,writingstufflike,“ThisAin’tOverBTP”.’
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Tagging by numbers11AgeofJohnKoporo,hitbyatrainin1987atKilburnPark.HistagwasEvilandhenowfeaturesinaYouTubevideoclip.
1���Tracy168iscreditedwiththefirstpieceoftraingraffiti,inNewYork.
�,���ThenumberofrecordedseriousgraffitiattacksontheUKrailnetworkhadmorethandoubledsince2001.
�%Percentageof10-25year-oldssurveyedbytheHomeOfficein2004whoadmittedtowritinggraffiti.
£�0mLondontransport’sannualbillforremovinggraffiti.
£�00Policerewardtomembersofthepublicpreparedtoidentifyprolificgraffitiartists.Onecampaign,NameThatTag,concentratedon12offenderswhotaggedhundredsoftrainsandbuildings.
£�00,000AmountreportedlypaidbyfilmstarAngelinaJolieforaworkbygraffitiartistBanksyinaLosAngelessale.AnotherofhispiecesentitledMonaLisafetched£57,600atSotheby’s.
S
Two graffiti writers were
killed after breaking into a
tube depot. Esther Addley
enters the dangerous world of
the taggers who believe that
‘respect’ is worth the risks
‘We have got a memory now of Dan just on a dark
grimy railway track...’
‘It’s probably similar to breaking into a house or something,
it’s such a big mission’
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Sceptics have always been quick to dismiss the idea of telepathy – communication using
the power of thought alone. But now new brain scanning technologies are being used to
investigate the phenomenon – with some fascinating results. Robert Matthews investigates...
1� Exam Issue Volume 6
Mostofushaveexperienceditatsomepoint–thinkingofafriendwe’venotheardfromforages,whothensuddenlyphonesup.It’saneeriephenomenon,onethatseemstohintatakindoftelepathiclinkbetweenmindsseparatedbyspaceandtime.Butmanyscientistsdismisssuchideasasridiculous.SomewerenotimpressedwhentheBritishAssociation(BA)recentlydevotedpartofaFestivalofSciencetoadebateoverresearchsuggestingsuch‘telephonetelepathy’mightbereal. TheBAfounditselfpubliclycriticisedbytopscientistsandeventheRoyalSociety.‘Youcan’trelyonanyoftheseexperiments,’saidProfessorPeterAtkinsofOxfordUniversity.‘Thesamplesthatpeopleuseareverytiny,theeffectsarestatisticallyinsignificant,thecontrolsarenotdoneinascientificway.’ProfAtkinswentontoadmitthathehadnotactuallyseenthenewfindingsbutinsisteditmadenodifference:‘Therearenoseriousreasonsforbelievingthereshouldbeaneffectoftelepathy.’ Butnotallscientistsagree.Somearguethatevidencefortherealityoftelepathyhasbeensteadilyaccumulatingfordecades,withexperimentsatrespecteduniversitiessuggestinghumanmindsreallycancommunicatedirectlywithoneanother. Someofthemostimpressiveevidencehascomefromso-calledganzfeldexperiments,inwhichonepersonattemptsto‘transmit’animagepickedrandomlyfromasetoffourtoanotherpersonsittinginaspeciallyisolatedroom.Theprobabilityofguessingtherightimagebychancealoneis25percent.Arecentmeta-analysisstudy,
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alsoshowedanincreaseinactivity–andintheverysamepartsoftheirbrains,despitenotseeinganyflashesatall.Thesizeoftheeffectfoundwasimpressive,andtheteamcalculatetheoddsof
gettingsobiganeffectbyflukealonearelessthan1in100. Kittenisstressesthattheresultsofthisonestudyarefarfromconclusive:‘Weneedtolookatmultiplestudiesconductedbydifferentinvestigatorsindifferentlaboratories,andseeifthere’sanyconsistencyinthefindings.’Evenso,‘Wemaybeontosomethingreallynewhere,orwemayhavefallenvictimstosomeerrorinourmethods,’hesays.
A blow to sceptics ScepticsstillbelievethattherealexplanationwillindeedturnouttobeESP–‘ErrorSomePlace’.ButsucheasydismissalshavebeendealtablowbythefindingsofsimilarexperimentscarriedoutattheUniversityofWashingtoninSeattle.ProfessorToddRichardsandhisteamput30pairsofpeoplethroughEEGtestslikethosecarriedoutbyKittenisandhiscolleagues.Thisinvolvedstudyingthechangesinbrainactivityinthosewithapparentlyimpressivetelepathicabilitiesusingsophisticatedfunctional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).Thisbrainscanningmethodrevealsareasofmentalactivitywithgreatprecisionanddetail.ItalsoprovidesanindependenttestoftheresultsfoundusingEEG. Thebest-performingcouplesidentifiedbytheEEGscreeningprocesswereisolatedfromeachother,andthesenderwasexposedtorandomsequencesofflashinglights.Butthistime,thereceiver’sbrainactivitywascontinuouslymonitoredusingthefMRIscanner.Theresults,however,werethesameasthosefoundbytheEEGexperiments:thereceiver’sbrainshowedsignsofactivityinthevisualprocessingareas–despitenotbeingexposedtotheflashinglights. LiketheEdinburghteam,Richardsandhiscolleaguesstressthatmoreresultsareneededbeforeconclusionsarereached.Theyalsobelievethefindingsmaybeduetowhattheycallan‘anomalousphenomenon’ratherthanamereexperimentalartefact. Whatcanthisanomalousphenomenonbe?Somehavesuggesteditmaybelinkedtoquantummechanicaleffectssuchasbiological entanglement–asuggestionmanyphysicistsdismiss.Otherswillsimplydismissthefindingsasjunkscience.Stillotherswillalwaysclaimthattheremustbesomethingwrong,thattheexplanationis‘ErrorSomePlace’. Forthetimebeingatleast,theresearcherscarrying
outthetestsandtheirmoreenlightenedcriticsareinagreement:theearlyresultshintatsomethingextraordinarygoingon,butextraordinaryclaimsdemandextraordinarylevelsofevidence.‘There’snosingletheorythatcanaccommodateallthefacts,’saysKittenis.‘Westillknowtoolittle,andthereisstillsomuchworktobedone.’
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Jargon busterGanzfeldFromtheGermanterm‘totalfield’,thisisamethodoflookingfortelepathicabilities.Anindividual’ssensesareputintoarelaxedstateby,forexample,havingtheireyescoveredwithpinklightfiltersandlisteningtorelaxingsoundsbeforetelepathytestsarecarriedout.
Biological entanglementWhereparticlesinanorganismmaintainaconnectionevenwhentheyareseparated.
Meta-analysisAstatisticaltechniqueforcombiningtheresultsoflotsofsmallstudiestorevealhowstrongtheevidenceisoverall.
Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)Amedicalscannerwhichusesstrongmagneticfieldsandradiowavestoaffectthebehaviourofatomicnucleiinbiologically-importantmolecules.
Mind to mind
•
hehadbeenshockedtotheotherparticipants,andwhethertheeffectwouldshowupasphysiologicalchangesandvariationsinbrainactivity. Testson11peoplerevealedthatboththeEEGpatternsandphysiologicalresponsesdidindeedseemtorespondwheneverTartwasshocked.Theresultspromptedotherresearcherstotrytoreplicatethefindings.Theseadditionalexperimentssuggestedthatsuch‘unconscioustelepathy’wasstrongestbetweensubjectswhohavestrongemotionalties.
Exciting resultsWhileintriguing,theseearlystudiesfailedtoimpresssceptics,whodismissedtheexperiments,claimingtheresultsmusthavebeenerroneous.Butnowadvancesintechnologyhaveallowedmuchmoresophisticatedtechniquestobeusedtostudythephenomenonindetail. AttheUniversityofEdinburgh,DrMariosKittenisandhiscolleagueshavebeenusingthelatestEEGtechniquestofindoutmoreabouttheclaimsoftelepathiccommunicationbetweenpeopleincloserelationships.Pairsofsuchpeopleweregiventimetogethertorelaxanddecidewhowasgoingtoactasthesenderandwhowouldbethereceiver.TheywerethentakentotwoseparateroomstobewireduptoEEGmachinescapableofdetectingactivityinspecificareasofthebrain.Thenrandomflashesoflightwerebeamedatthepersonactingasthesender.Andasexpected,thistriggeredEEGactivityinthevisualcortex,theregiontowardstherearoftheirbrainsknowntorespondtovisualstimuli. Altogethermoresurprisingweretheeffectsonthebrainactivityofthepeopleactingasreceivers.TheirEEGs
whichcombinestheresultsfromover3000testsupuntil2004,revealedaguessingsuccessrateof32percent–asmallbuthighlystatisticallysignificantincreaseonwhatyouwouldexpectfromchancealone. Suchresultsflyinthefaceofassertionsthatexperimentsintelepathyarebasedonsmallnumbersandproduceinsignificanteffects.Yettheyhavestillfailedtoconvincescepticsthattelepathyisgenuine.
Brain scans NowscientistsatresearchinstitutesonbothsidesoftheAtlanticarecomingupwithfreshevidencefortelepathy.Theyusemedicalscanningtechniquestoexaminedirectlytheebbandflowofactivitywithinsubjects’brains.Thefirstresultsfromthesestudiespointtosomethingextraordinary:correlationsinthebrainactivityofpeoplewhentheyattempttocommunicatetheirthoughtstoeachother.Someresearchersbelievethisnewevidencecouldbethebreakthroughthefieldofparapsychologyhaslongneeded. Hintsofthekindofcorrelationsnowbeinguncoveredfirstemergedintheearly1960s,inexperimentsconductedbythepioneeringparapsychologistDrCharlesTartattheUniversityofCalifornia.Thosetakingparthadelectrodesplacedontheirbodiesandheadstodetectchangesinbloodvolumeandskinconductance.Theirbrainactivitywasmeasuredbyanelectroencephalogram(EEG).Meanwhile,inaseparateroom,Tartwaswireduptoadevicethatgavehimmildelectricshocksatrandom.Theideawastoseeifhecouldmentallytransmitthefact
reading
1� Exam Issue Volume 6
Fear, joy, power how crowds affect us
[1]At7.23a.m.onaWednesdaythestationconcourseisfullofcommuters,allsharpelbowsandlongfaces.Someonewithawheeledsuitcaseclipsmyfootandshootsawitheringlook.Ismile.Iknowsomethingtheydon’t.Inoneminute’stimethiscrowdwillbetransformed.Onthestrikeof7.24a.m.commuterswillwatchas300oftheirnumberpressplayontheiriPodsandstarttodanceasifnooneiswatching.Wewillbeoblivious,wewillbeunited,wewillhavelousycoordinationbutwitheachtrackwewillbesloughingoffoururbanalienationtobecome‘we’;changingfromworkadayisolatedcommutersintointentionalcommunity.Flashmobbing,whereagroupofstrangersmeetataprearrangedlocation,isarecenttrend,
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hasnopoliticaloverture,noagendanoranyleaders,butthatdoesn’tmeanithasnopoint.Ourpointiscommunion–asharedexperienceinalandscapeofstrangers. [2]ProfessorStephenReicher,asocialpsychologistattheUniversityofStAndrews,wouldmakeadistinctionbetweenthecrowdat7.23a.m.andtheoneat7.24a.m.justashewouldbetweencrowdsonatrainplatformandcrowdsonafootballterrace,shoppersonOxfordStreetorworshippersatMecca.‘Thefirstiscrowdinthephysicalsenseonly,whereyouarejammed,againstyourwill,upagainststrangers,’hesays.‘Thesecondis“crowd”inapsychologicalsense.PeoplewhophysicallyandpsychologicallyIfeelanaffinitywith,sothereisnoneoftherepulsionyoumightfeelwithcommutersonthetrain.Hereproximityisactivelyvalued.’Thereisacommonpurposeandsolidarity,whetherthatisfoundamongthesilenceofstrangersintheaftermathoftheLondonbombs,orinthe‘encores’ofanappreciativeaudience–upstandingandeuphoric–astheactorstaketheircurtaincalls.
Hypnotic influence[3]Manyofusfeeluneasyandevenfrightenedinlargegroups,andcrowdsgenerallygetanegativepress.Thedominant,traditionalviewisoneofmindless,maraudingmobsandirrationalthugs.SocialpsychologistGustaveLeBonmaintainedthatcrowdsexertahypnoticinfluenceovertheirmembers,onethat–throughcollectivesuggestibility–cancompelustoactirrationallyorevenviolently.Butsocialpsychologistshavesinceacknowledgedthatcrowdsarenotintrinsicallyirrational.‘Differentcrowdshavedifferentnorms,’saysDrJohnDrury,seniorlecturerinpsychologyatSussexUniversity.‘Theyarenotbad,justastheyarenotnecessarilygood.Eachhastheirownideology.’
Reasons to be cheerful and fearful[4]Whathappenswhenweenteracrowdisthatweidentifywiththegroup,aspiretoitsnormsandnaturallyadoptitsbehaviours.Evenasmallcocktailpartyfindsusdoingthis–wearingacertaindress,modifyingourconversationtochimewiththecrowd’s.Wedonotfeelwehavelostourselvesorlostourcontrol,becausemembershiphasbeenfreelyelectedandisdesirable.‘Therehassimplybeenasubtleshiftinthelocationofthatcontrol–fromtheindividualtothesocial,’saysDrury.‘Thegroup’ssocialbehaviourhasbecomeourguide.’ [5]However,manyofusfearcrowds.Theytestusonmanylevels–psychologically,morally,evenchemically.
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Exam Issue Volume 6
Crowds can be uplifting and unifying,
but they can also be claustrophobic and
overwhelming. Tanis Taylor asks why they
have such a powerful effect on us, and two
readers describe their experiences
‘I had an overpowering sense of being looked after and secure’
ANNA HARPER, 26, LIVES AND WORKS IN CENTRAL LONDON, WHERE SHE IS PA TO A SOLICITOR
[7]Onthedayofthefuneral,therewasanincrediblesilenceandstillnessacrossLondon.Everyonewassubdued.Althoughthereweresomanypeoplegathered,noonewasaggressiveandtherewasn’tanyelbowingorshovingthatnormallyoccursinthecity.Instead,therewasasenseofcalmandareverenceIhadneverseenanywherebefore.Thehushaspeoplecommunicatedinlowwhispersorstoodsilentlywatchingaddedtothesolemnity.IwasstandingnearWestminsterAbbey,andtheatmosphere,particularlyastheprocessionapproached,wasintense.Weweremoreemotionalthanthemournersattendingthefuneral.
Strangerswereopenlycryingandcomfortingeachother.AtfirstIfeltIdidn’thavetherighttofeelthatway,butseeingothers’griefmadememoreemotional.Everyonefeltthesame–wegaveeachotherthefreedomtoshowemotionsthatusuallywewouldconcealfromstrangers.
Massive comfort[8]ItwasthesamewithEarlSpencer’sspeech–atfirstpeopledidn’tknowhowtoreact,andthenweheardtheclappingstartbehindus,andafterthateveryonejoinedin.Therewasasenseofrelease;thatwecouldallshowhowwereallyfelt.Afterwards,nooneseemedtowanttoleave.Welingered,talkingtoeachotherabouttheday.Curiously,Ifeltcomfortedtobesurroundedbysomanypeople–Ihadanoverpoweringsenseofbeinglookedafterandsecure.Itwaslikebeingwithanextendedfamily,ratherthaninacrowdofstrangers.
PRINCESS DIANA’S FUNERAL, � SEPTEMBER 1���
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‘Therearesomeveryrealprecedentsformasshysteria,’saysDrCynthiaMcVey,seniorlectureratGlasgowCaledonianUniversity.‘Andtherearesuggestionsthatthishysteriaistransmittedviasubliminalemotional,psychologicalandevenchemicaldetectorssuchasfearpheromones.Inoneepisode,girlsinaUShighschoolbelievedtheycouldsmellgasandfaintedlikedominoes.Physicallytherewerenosymptoms,buttheremayhavebeenaverypalpable,chemicalcontagionatplay.’Biologyaside,ittakesrealfortitudetokeepyourheadwhilethosearoundyouarelosingtheirs.Welooktoourpeersforguidance.
The crowds that bind[6]Weshyawayfromcrowdsmorethanweusedto;ourlegislationdiscouragesitandourschedulesprohibitit.Yettobevalidatedandbeunitedisahumanimpulse.Afterall,thereisnosubstituteforphysicalandintimate,psychologicalandsensualcamaraderie,whetherstandingshouldertoshoulderinsilentgrief,orwithvoiceupliftedalongsidethoseofstrangersinunitedcelebrationorsong.
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CROWDS GATHER AT MECCA
‘Even surrounded by thousands of people, I felt calm’
FAREZ RAHMAN, 34, IS A FREELANCE PROGRAMMER WHO LIVES IN LONDON
[10]IvisitedMeccaforthefirsttimetwoyearsago,andIwasimmediatelyinaweofthesituationandthenumberofpeoplepresent.WhenIgotothemosqueathome,Ijustseepeoplefrommyowncommunity,butherethewholeworldwaspartofthatcommunity,andthatwasexciting.Therewasarealsenseofunity.ThecrowdbecamemostemotionalwhentheyapproachedtheholysiteknownastheKaabah–somepeoplewerecrying;others,likeme,werecontenttostandbackfromtheKaabah,whileotherswerepushingpasteachothertogettoit.Yet,despitethis,therewasadeepsenseofcalm,andonceIhadrecitedmyprayersIsatinthecrowdforseveralhours.Evenwithallthosepeoplearoundme,itwascalming,awayfromlife’susualstresses.Youfeelyouareamemberofthatgroup,andIfeltastrongerconnectionwithmyreligionbyseeingIwaspartofthishugecommunity.YetIalsofeltstronglyawareofmyself,notdepersonalisedorcutofffromrealityasyoucansometimesbeinacrowd.WhenIlookbackonthatday,Irememberfeelingaconnectiontosomethingdeeper,morespiritual.
Why the many are smarter than the few [9]Untilrecently,theintellectualabilitiesofthecrowdwereheldinpoorcontempt.But,arguesJamesSurowieckiinThe Wisdom of Crowds,acrowd’sresponsewillbefarfromthelowestcommondenominator.Giventherightcircumstances,‘groupsareremarkablyintelligent’.Agroupcanreachawisedecisionevenwhenmostofitsmembersarenotespeciallywell-informedorrational.Crowds,bydintoftheirdiversity,lateralknowledgeandinnatefrictionsareprogrammedtomakebettercollectivedecisionsthantheexperts,positsSurowiecki.Thereisadeep-seatedwisdomaccessedincrowdsthatworks.Assembleabunchofrandoms,arguesSurowiecki,askforarealsolutionandyouwillgetaclarityofanswerbornofdisagreementandcontest.Assembleabunchofexpertsandyouwillgetconsensus,compromiseandsycophanticspecialisms.
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CAPE COAST, GHANA – Britain abolished
the slave trade 200 years ago. Its landmarks
are an abiding legacy of cruelty
ByMaryEvans
Thedungeonscanstillshock,twocenturiesaftertheirlastinmateswerefreed.Dampandsmellyinthetropicalair,immersedinvirtualdarkness,thisiswhereslaveswerekept,oftenformonthsatatime–beforebeingleddownatunnelthroughthe‘doorofnoreturn’toshipsridinginthesurf,readytobegintheirappallingvoyageovertheocean. Thedungeonswereexcavatedinthelate19thcentury,amassofcakedexcrementwasremoved,togetherwiththebonesofbirdsandanimalsonwhichtheslavespresumablyfed.Onsuchmiserywasfoundedaglobaltradingsystemthatinitsheyday,inthemid-18thcentury,wastakingabout85,000AfricansayearacrosstheAtlantictoworkonsugarandtobaccoplantationsthatmadeEuroperich.
CapeCoastCastlewasthegrandestoftheslaveemporiums,atthecentreofthetrade.Butinpresent-dayGhana,thencalledtheGoldCoast,therewereover30moreslaveforts,builtandmaintainedbyalmostalloftheEuropeantradingpowersoftheday:theSwedes,Danes,French,British,DutchandPortuguese. The‘triangulartrade’asitwasknown,wherebyslave-shipsleftEuropeanportsforwestAfricawithrum,guns,textilesandothergoodstoexchangeforslaves,andthentransportedthemacrosstheAtlantictoselltoplantation-
owners,andthenreturnedwithsugarandcoffee,alsofuelledthefirstgreatwaveofeconomicglobalisation. Bythemid-18thcenturyBritainwasthebiggestslavingnation,andportslikeBristol,LiverpoolandLondonthrivedasaresult. SointegraltotheBritisheconomywastheslavebusinessthattherewerefewmenandinstitutionsofwealthwhodidnotwanttoinvestinit,fromtheroyalfamilyandtheChurchofEnglanddownwards.
Conscience speakingGivenhowentrenchedtheslavetradewasatthetime,itisremarkablethatacampaigntoabolishitwhichbeganin1787succeededonlytwodecadeslater.Itwas200yearsagothatabilltoabolishslaverygotthroughitssecond,decisivereadinginParliament. Ultimatelyitwastheshameanddegradationthattheslavetrafficbroughttothoseinvolved,perpetratorsaswellasvictims,thatproveditsundoing. Someevencalltheslavetradeaholocaust.Upto20mAfricansweretakenacrosstheAtlanticbetweenthe15thand19thcenturies.Theslaveswerenotmeanttobekilled,orevenworkedtodeath(thoughmanydiddie);therewasnoefforttowipeoutarace.Still,asthewriterWilliamSt
reading The Economist
Breaking the chains
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By the mid-18th century Britain was the biggest slaving nation
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Clairpointsout,inonewaytheanalogywithNazideathcampsworks–in‘theorganisedfictions,hypocrisiesandself-deceptionsthatenabledotherwisereasonablydecentpeopletocondone,toparticipateandtobenefit’. FormostEuropeanstheexistenceoftheslavetrade,andslaveryitself,wasbarelyknown.InEnglandtherewasnoslavery,sotherewasnoparticularreasonformostpeopletofacetheuglytruth. Themeansbywhichsugarlumpsarrivedontablesinpolitesocietywerecarefullyhidden.TheyoungofficersoftheAfricanServicewhovolunteeredtomantheslavefortsandoverseethedungeonswerechildrenoftheageofenlightenment.Theysawthemselvesaswell-endowedwithalltherefinedfeelingsandsensibilitiesthatcouldbeexpectedofagentleman. Buttherewasstillapervasivefeelingthatthoseinvolvedinthetradeweredoingsomethingdeeplywrong.ThissenseofguiltwastoprovetheAchillesheeloftheslavetradeinEurope.Thetasktheabolitionistssetthemselveswastoexposetherealityofthetradetoanignorantpublic.Theythoughtthemoralsenseofordinarypeoplewoulddotherest,andinparttheywereright.
An essay that matteredButlightingthesparkofconscienceneedsbraveindividuals–likeThomasClarkson,themovingspiritbehindthefoundingoftheSocietyforEffectingtheAbolitionofSlaveryin1787.HehadbeenastudentatCambridgeUniversitytwoyearsbefore.Heenteredtheuniversity’sLatinessaycontest,setbyavice-chancellorwhowasalsoanearlyabolitionist.Thetitlewas:Isitlawfultomakeslavesofothersagainsttheirwill?Aftertwomonths’research,henotonlywontheprizebutalsodedicatedtherestofhislonglifetothecauseofabolition. Ifanyonewasthefounderofthemodernhuman-rightsmovementitwasClarkson.EventheQuakers,thefirstabolitionists,wereimpressedbyhiszeal.Itwasessentially
theallianceofClarkson,anAnglican,andtheQuakers,withtheirexistingnetworkofpreachersandsupporters,thatmadeuptheabolitionistmovement. Clarksonfixedthestrategyofthecampaign.Hisfirsttaskwastogatherevidenceabouttheslavetrade,noteasywhenthingsweresohiddenfrompublicview.HespentlongperiodsinLiverpoolandBristol,tryingtogathertestimonyfromthecaptainsordoctorsofslaveships,orfreedslaves.Almostnobodywouldtalktohim,butovertheyearssmallchinksopenedinthewallofsilence. Clarkson’sgreatestcoupwastogetholdofa‘plate’,ordiagram,oftheslave-shipBrookes,ownedbyaLiverpoolfamilyofthatname,whichoperatedbetweentheGoldCoastandJamaica.TheplateshowedtheBrookesloadedwith482slaves,linedupinrowsandsquashedtogether.In1789theypublished700postersofthisimageanditwasasensation;nobodycouldnowdenythehorrorsofthe‘middlepassage’,duringwhichmanyslaveseither
killedthemselvesordiedofdisease,starvationandcrueltreatment.Itbecametheabidingimageofthecampaign. Clarksonalsoorganisedwhatwasprobablythefirsteverconsumer-goodsboycott,ofslave-grownsugar,tobringhometoordinaryBritonsattheirteatablesthemessagethattheywerepayingadreadfulpriceinhumancrueltyforindulgingasweettooth.Andheinspiredtheparliamentarymovementagainstslavery,recruitingayoungTory,WilliamWilberforce,*asspokesman.
Copy, copy and copy againInitstactics,boycotts,moralzeal,lobbying,researchanditsuseofimages,theBritishcampaignwasatemplateformanylaterones–againstslaveryintheBelgianCongointhelate19thcentury;againstapartheidinSouthAfrica;andagainstsegregationintheAmericansouth. Forallthefervourofitsopponents,theslavetradewouldnothavecollapsedwithoutrebellionsbythevictims.Themostimportantwasin1791onStDomingue.Withintwomonthstheslaveshadtakencontroloftheisland,ledbytheremarkableToussaintL’Ouverture.SamuelSharpe’suprisingonJamaicain1831wasputdownatgreatcost.TheBritishfearedthatifslaverycontinued,theywouldlosesomecoloniesaltogether.Soin1833slaverywasabolishedthroughouttheirempire.
Britainwasnotthefirsttooutlawtheslavetradeinitsterritory;theDaneshaddonesoin1803,theFrenchtemporarilyin1794andseveralnorthernAmericanstateshadalsodonesobefore1807.OtherEuropeannations,notablythePortuguese,persistedwiththetradeintothe1860s. TheEuropeanandAmericanroleintheslavetradeisnowwell-knownandgovernments,suchasBritain’sandFrance’s,aswellasindividualcitieshaveapologised.Therewillbemuchtalkaboutapologiesthisyear.Butwillwordsofregretbeenough?
* It was William Wilberforce who brought successive bills before Parliament to abolish the slave trade until one was passed in 1807.
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The means by which sugar lumps arrived on tables in polite society
were carefully hidden
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Where there’s a Will, there’s a wayOfthe17,677differentwordsWilliamShakespeareusedinhisplaysandpoems,anestimated10%werenewtotheEnglishlanguage.Heiscreditedwithneologisms(newwords)thatarenowcommonlyused,suchas:excellent,submerge,homicide,gnarled,bump,hurry,hint,lonely,andmajestic.Theword‘neologism’itself,however,onlyenteredthelanguageinaround1800.
SupersuckersTheAmericanFoodandDrugAuthority’sdecisionin2004tolicenseleechesasthefirst‘livemedicaldevices’marksthe
recognitionofaformofmedicinepractisedbytheAncientEgyptians3,500yearsago.Itseemsthatleechsalivacontainsmorethan30differentproteinsthathelptonumbpain,reduceswellingandkeepbloodflowing.
Name that nameInadditiontoNovelty,atowninMissouri,
USA,over152placenamesaroundtheworldcontaintheEnglishword‘New’.
Invisible man?ScientistsatTokyoUniversityareworkingonan‘invisibility
cloak’whichcombinesavideocamera,computerandhoodedcoatmadeofspecialreflectivematerialtoenablethewearertomeltintothebackground.
� times a secondWithmorethan80millionbirthsperyear,ithasbeencalculatedthatanaverage176babiesareborneveryminute–orthreepersecond.Ifcurrentgrowthratescontinue,theworld’spopulationofaboutsixbillioncouldbecome12billionby2054.
Fits �00MicrochipmanufacturerIntelsaysthatsiliconwillsoonbereplacedbyhafnium–ametalusedinmakingnuclearreactors.Usinghafniumwillallowtheuseof45-nanometretransistors,whicharesosmallthat400couldfitonthesurfaceofasinglehumanredbloodcell.
Talk through the handJapanesecommunicationscompanyNTTclaimsithasdevelopedtechnologythatcansenddataover
thesurfaceoftheskinatspeedsofupto2Mbps(megabitspersecond)–equivalenttoafastbroadbanddataconnection.Usingthebody’snaturalelectriccurrentitwouldenableyouto
downloadphotosfromyourcameratoyourlaptopjustbytouch.
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Whilewehavemadeeveryefforttotracethecopyrightholdersofarticlesandillustrationscontainedinthisissue,wewouldbegratefulforanyinformationthatmightassistusinidentifyingsourceswehaveasyetbeenunabletofind.
EditorJohanGraus
Editorial assistantAafkeMoons
Compiled byGerdaCook-BodegomJohanGrausCasparvanHaalenRobvanKoldenhovenAafkeMoonsIneSandersBiancaStruikFrederikeWestera
Listening materialsBridgetSchiff
Teaching [email protected]
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