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Research in Education.
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New Technology and Digital Worlds: Analyzing Evidence of Equity in Access, Use, and Outcomes
Author(s): Mark Warschauer, Tina Matuchniak, Nichole Pinkard and Vivian GadsdenSource: Review of Research in Education, Vol. 34, What Counts as Evidence in EducationalSettings? Rethinking Equity, Diversity, and Reform in the 21st Century (2010), pp. 179-225Published by: American Educational Research AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40588177Accessed: 18-08-2015 14:39 UTC
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Chapter
New
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds:
Analyzing
vidence f
Equity
n
Access,Use,and Outcomes
Mark
Warschauer
Tina
Matuchniak
Universityf California,
rvine
is broad onsensus
mong
ducators,
ommunication
cholars,
ociologists,
and economistshat he
development
nd diffusionf
nformationnd com-
municationechnologiesICT) arehaving profoundffectn modernife. his s
due
to the
ffordancesfnew
digital
media,
which
ridge
he
nteractiveeaturesf
speech
nd the rchivalharacteristicsf
writing;
llow
many-to-many
ommunica-
tion
mong eople
without
egard
o time
nd
space,
ncluding
ass
ollaborative
editing
f
exts;
acilitatehe reationf
global yper-indexed
ultimodalnforma-
tion
tructure;
nd enable ontent
roduction
nd distributionn
both
writing
nd
multimedian a scale
previously
nimaginable
Jewitt,
008; Warschauer,
999).
For ll these
easons,
omputer-mediated
ommunication
an be
considered new
mode
f nformation
Poster,
990),
or
a fourth
evolution
n
themeans f
produc-
tion f
knowledge
Harnad,
991,
p.
39),
following
he hree
rior
evolutionsf
language, riting,ndprint.
The
previous
evolution,
rought
bout
hrough
he
development
nd diffusion
of
printing,
ook enturies
o
unfold,
s itsfull
mpact epended
n
the ndustrial
revolutionhat
Gutenberg's
rinting
ress receded y
everal
enturies
Eisenstein,
1979).
oday,
hough,
he
evelopment
nddiffusion
f
omputers
nd
he
nternetccur
simultaneously
ith new conomic
evolution,
ased
n
transitionrom n
ndus-
trial o an nformational
conomy
Castells,
996).
This
helps xplain
oth
why
ew
media ave
pread
o fast
ndalso
why hey
re o
crucial o
enabling
ull
ocial nd
economic
articipation.
s Castells
1998)
concludes,
ased n his
xhaustiveocio-
economic
nalysis
f
his
ostindustrialtage
f
apitalism,
information
echnology,
Review
f
Researchn
Education
March
010,
Vol.
34,
pp.
179-225
DOI:
10.3102/0091732X09349791
©
2010 AERA,
http://rre.aera.net
179
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180 Review
f
Research
n
Education,
4
andthe bilityo use t nd dapt t, s the riticalactorngeneratingndaccessing
wealth,
ower,
nd
knowledge
n
our
ime
p.
92).
To
emphasize
his
oint,
he
U.S.
Department
fLabor'smost
ecent
ccupational
Outlook
andbookists Network
ystems
nd data
communication,
computer
software
ngineers,
pplications,
computer
ystems
nalysts,
database
dmin-
istrators,
nd
computer
oftware
ngineers,
ystems
oftware
mong
hefastest
growing
ccupations
n
the
United tates
U.S.
Bureau
f
Labor
Statistics,
007).
Looking
more
roadly,
n
the
nformationalist
conomy,
igh-paid
lue-collar
obs
based
n manual
abor
re,
or he
most
art, thing
f
the
past,
with he
previous
split
etween
lue- nd
white-collar
orkers
ow
replaced
y
three-way
ivision
among outine-productionorkerse.g.,dataprocessors,ayrolllerks,actoryork-
ers),
n-person
ervice orkers
e.g., anitors,
ospital
ttendants,
axi
drivers),
nd
symbolicnalysts
e.g.,
cientists,
ngineers,
xecutives,
awyers,
anagement
onsul-
tants,
rofessors;
eich,
991).
The
income, tatus,
nd
opportunities
orworkers
in
the
firstwo
categories
re
continuallyiminishing,
hereas
ymbolic
nalysts
command
disproportionate
nd
rising
hare f
hewealth
n
the
United tates
nd
other ountries.
nd
lthough
ome
ypes
f
ymbolic
nalysts
ight
e considered
as
technology
pecialists,
irtually
llof
hemmake
xtensivese
ofnew
igital
media
on a
daily
asis o
dentify,
olve,
ndbroker
roblems
nd
to communicate
omplex
concepts.
hus,
ccess o new
echnologies,
hether
t home
r at
school,
s critical
tothe
evelopment
f
ymbolic
nalysts,uthow uch echnologiesreput o use s
evenmore
mportant,
ith
high
remium
laced
n
abstraction,
ystemhinking,
experimentation,
ndcollaboration
Reich,
991;
Warschauer,
999).
Levy
nd Murnane
(2004,
2005)
detailed
tudy
f
occupational
atterns
n the
United
tates
rovides
mpiricalupport
or he
bove
nalysis.
heir
xamination
of ensus ata
hows
hat rom
969
to
1999
the emand
or
obsrequiring
omplex
communication
ose
early
4%,
and
the emand
or
obs
requiring
xperthinking
rose bout
%.
In the ame
eriod,
he emand
or
obs
requiring
anual
rroutine
cognitive
asks
ell
y
2%
to
8%
(see
Figure
).
Thesenumbers
ctually ownplay
thereal hanges,ecause hey nly eflecthiftsmong ifferentccupations,ot
changes
n
skills
equired
ithin
he ame
ccupation.
verall,
hedemand
or
obs
in
which
computer
an
ubstitute
or uman
hought
as
teadily
eclined,
hereas
the emand
or
obs
n
which
omputers
an
complement
nd
amplify
he
reativity
and
experthinking
fhumans
as
teadily
xpanded.
The
large
nd
growing
ole
f new
media
n the
conomy
nd
society
erves
o
highlight
heir
mportant
ole
n
education,
nd
especially
n
promoting
ducational
equity.
n the
ne
hand,
ifferential
ccess
o new
media,
roadly
efined,
an
help
further
mplify
he
lready
oo-large
ducational
nequities
nAmerican
ociety.
n
the ther
and,
t s
widely
elieved
hat ffective
eployment
nduse
of
echnology
inschoolsanhelp ompensateor nequal ccess otechnologiesn thehome nvi-
ronmentndthus
elpbridge
ducational
nd
ocial
aps.
For these
easons,
ccurately
ssessing
iverse
emographic
roups'
xperiences
with
echnology,
oth
n
and
out
of
school,
has been
an
important
riority
or
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Warschauer,
atuchniak:
ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
181
Source.
evy
nd
Murnane
2005;
based n data
from
utor,
evy,
Murnane,
003).
advocates
f ocial
nd economic
quality
n theUnited tates
nd elsewhere.
arly
effortsodo so focusedn a narrowlyefinedigital ivide fdifferentialccess o
computers
see,
.g.,
National elecommunications
nd
nformationdministration
[NTIA],
1998).
However,
danger
o this
pproach
s that t
overly
etishizes
echni-
cal
matters.s
Kling
xplains,
[The]
big
problem
ith the
igital
ivide
raming
s that
t tends o connote
digital
olutions,
.e.,
computers
nd
telecommunications,
ithout
ngaging
he
mportant
et f
omplementary
esourcesnd
complex
nterventionso
support
ocial
nclusion,
fwhich nformational
echnology
pplications
ay
be
enabling
lements,
ut
re
ertainly
nsufficient
hen
imply
dded o
the tatus
uo
mix
fresources
and
relationships.
Warschauer,
003,
pp.
7-8)
In this eview,e take much roader
erspective
n how o
analyze
ssues ftech-
nology
nd
equity
or
outh
n
theUnited
tates.1 e
begin
with ccesss a
starting
point,
ut
onsider ot
nly
whetheriverse
roups
f
youth
ave
igital
media
vail-
able o
them ut lsohow hat
ccess s
upported
rconstrained
y
echnological
nd
social
actors.rom here
e
go
on tothe
uestion
f
use,
nalyzing
he
ways
nwhich
diverse
outh eploy
ewmedia or
ducation,
ocial
nteraction,
ndentertainment.
We
thenmove o
the
uestion
f
outcomes,
onsidering
he
gains
chieved
y
diverse
groups
hrough
se
ofnewmedia s measured
y
cademic
chievement,
cquisition
of
21st
entury
earning
kills,
nd
participation
n
technology-related
areers.
inally,
we ncludeneexample the isparitiesf nvolvementncomputerciencetudy
to
llustrate
ow ssues
f
ccess, se,
ndoutcome
re ntertwined.
Conducting
uch a broad
review s
theoretically
nd
methodologically
hal-
lenging.
he
very oncept
f CT or
digital
media s difficult
o
define,
nd could
Complex
ommunication
Expert
hinking
Routine
ognitive
RoutineManual
Non-Routine
anual
FIGURE 1
U.S.
Job
Skill
Demand,
1969-1999
(1969
=
0)
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182 Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
potentiallyncludenythingrom cellphone o a globalpositioningystem.n
this
eview,
e not
nly
ocus
n
computers
ndthe
nternetut
lso
considerther
related
media,
uch s video
game
onsoles,
f
evidence
uggests
heir se
may
be
related o differential
ducational
r social
utcomes.
n
addition,
hediverse
ays
that
eople
use
new
media nd
the
outcomes
hey
might
chieve re neither ell
understood
or
asily
auged.
or
example,
hevalue f21st
enturyearning
kills
is
broadly
ecognized
see,
.g.,
North entral
egional
ducational
aboratory
the
Metiri
roup,
003;
Partnership
or 1st
Century
kills,
009),
butfew tud-
ieshave
ried o
operationalize
hose kills r
measure
heir chievement.n
spite
f
these
imitations,
eofferhis eview
n
the
pirit
fAmericantatistician
ohn
ukey(1962),whodeclared hat far etternapproximatenswer o the
right uestion,
which s often
ague,
han n exact nswero the
wrong
uestion,
hich an
always
be mademore
recise p.
62).
ACCESS
Notions f
technology
ccess ave
teadily
hiftedver he
past
1
5
years
rom
narrow ocus n the
physical
vailability
f
digital
media
o a
broader ocus n the
sociotechnicalactorshat nfluence hetherndhow
people
ccess
echnology
see,
e.g.,
Warschauer,
003).
We
adopt
hat roader
erspective
n
this
nalysis,
xam-
ining irsthephysicalvailabilityf nternet-connectedomputersndthen he
factorshat
upport
rconstrain
ccess,
oth
n
thehome nd chool nvironments.
Home
v
Although
eople
ccess
he nternetrom
variety
f
ocations,
omeaccess
allows
degree
f
flexibility
nd
utonomy
ifficult
o
replicate
lsewhere
see
discus-
sion
n
Dimaggio, argittai,
eleste, Shafer,004;
Fairlie
London,
009).
The
degree
f home
ccess
o
computers
y
diverse
emographicroups
as beenwell
documented
n
theUnited tates
hrough
even
eports
ssued
ver he
ast
1
years
by heNTIA (1995,1998,1999, 000,2002,2004,2008a).All even TIAreports
were ased n theCurrent
opulation
urveys
CPS)
ofabout
50,000
U.S. house-
holds
onducted
y
heU.S. Bureau fLabor tatisticsnd
the
U.S. Census ureau.
The CPS
surveys
ollect
eneral emographic
ataon a
monthly
asis
nd
supple-
ment hosewith
pecialized
ata
t differentimes.
upplemental
ata
on
computer
and
nternet
ccesswere ollected
n seven ccasions etween
994
and
2007
and
formed
he
asis f he
NTIA
analyses.
The NTIA
reports rovide
n excellent asisfor
valuating
he
overall
igital
divide
n
theUnited tates ndhow thas volved ver
ime. he
CPS data
hey
re
based
n
are
uperior
o
other
ources
f
data,
uch s those rom
he
widely
ited
telephoneurveysf he ew nternetAmericanife rojectseediscussionelow),
because f the
arge
CPS
sample
ize;
the
methodologicaligor
n
sampling;
he
in-personurvey roceduresy
theU.S. Census
Bureau,
hich chieves
response
rate fmore
han
0%;
and the
onsistency
f
questions
sked
ver
multiple ears,
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Warschauer,
atuchniak:
ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
183
thus llowingongitudinalnalysisU.S.Census ureau,006).Taken s awhole,he
reports
uggest
hat
teady
rogress
asbeen
made
n
extending
ome nternet
ccess
to
ow-income
nd
minority
ouseholds,
ut hat
aps
ased n ncome
nd
race till
remain
ubstantialndthat heres
a
long
way
o
go
to achieve niversalccess.
The most ecent TIA
study
eports
hat total f
61.7%
of U.S.
households
have ome
ype
f nternetccess t home.
he
argest aps
n
home nternetccess
areobserved etween
roups
withdifferentialncome
nd educational
ttainment
(see
Table
1).
Home Internetccess
by
ncome aries rom
5.5%
forhouseholds
earning
more han
$150,000
per
year
o
24.6%
forhouseholds
arning
etween
$5,000
and
$10,000
peryear.
Households
arning
ess
han
5,000
peryear
ave
a
slightlyigher
ate t31.9%,
perhaps
ecause f thenumber fstudentst this
income
evel.)
Home nternet
ccess
y
ducationalttainmentf
head
f
household
varies rom
8.5%
for hosewith n
elementary
ducation o
84.1%
for
hosewith
at east
bachelors
egree.
hese
gaps
by
ncome
nd education
re
furtherxacer-
bated
y
he act hat t s
precisely
hose ouseholds ith ittle conomic
r human
capital
hat re east
ble
o
provide
ther
dvantages
or
outh
n
the
evelopment
f
technological
r
academic
kills.
Differences
yrace/ethnicity
renot s
large
s
by
education r ncome
ut re
still
roubling.
ates f
home
nternetccess
by
race
vary
rom
5.5%
forAsians
to41.5% forNativeAmericans.igure , which howshome nternetccess or
Whites,
frican
mericans,
nd
Latinos
ver
10-year
eriod,
ndicateshe
persis-
tence
f
racial
ap
over ime.
The low rate f nternetccess
by
Latinos s
caused
o a
large
xtent
y
a lan-
guage
ivide. ased n his
nalysis
f
theCPS
2003
data,
which
ncluded
anguage
as a
variable,
airlie
2007)
reports
hat t that
ime
nly
13.1%
of
Spanish
nly
Mexican r MexicanAmerican amiliesn the
United tates
i.e.,
those amiliesn
which ll adults
poke
nly
panish)
ad
home
nternet
ccess,
s
compared
ith
home nternetccess ate f
40.1%
among
nglish-speaking
exican r Mexican
American amiliesn
theUnited
tates,
nd
that
much f this
ap
heldtrue ven
when ontrollingor ducation,amilyncome,mmigranttatus,nd other ac-
tors. airlie
oncluded hat he
digital
ivide
etween
White,
nglish-speaking
on-
Hispanics,
nd
Spanish-speakingispanics
n
the
United tates as on
par
with he
Digital
ividebetween
heUnited tates
nd
many
eveloping
ountries
p.
287).
More
recent ata
suggest
hat
non-English-speaking
atinos emain
group
with
alarmingly
owrates f
nternetccess nd use
Fox
&
Livingston,
007).
In
considering
ll of the
bove,
t s
important
o
keep
n
mind hat
ouseholds
with
hildren
end
ohave
reater
ccess o
computers
ndthe
nternethan he
en-
eral
population.
ccording
o
theCPS
data,
0.3%
of
family
ouseholds ith hil-
dren
ounger
han 8
years
ave nternet
ccess t
home,
s
compared
ith
7.4%
ofhouseholds ithouthildren.
study
ith hildrenatherhan ouseholdss the
unit f
nalysis,
onducted
y
theKaiser
amily
oundation,
nterviewednation-
ally
epresentativeample
f
2,032
8- to
18-year-old
hildrent
school nd
found
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184
Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
TABLE 1
Percentage
f
U.S. HouseholdsWith
nternet ccess
Percentage
fHouseholdsWith
Internet ccess
Broadbands
Percentage
f
TotalWith
ThoseWith
Access
Broadband
Dial-up
Access
Totalhouseholds
61.7
50.8 10.7 82.3
Family
ncome
$)
<5,000
31.9 26.7 5.3 83.6
5,000-9,999
24.6 18.4 6.1
74.5
10,000-14,999
26.1
18.9 7.1 72.2
15,000-19,999
35.5
26.9
8.5 75.9
20,000-24,999
40.7
28.8
11.8
70.9
25,000-34,999
50.9
39.7
11.2
77.9
35,000-49,999
65.7 51.0
14.4
77.7
50,000-74,999
80.1
66.0
13.8
82.3
75,000-99,999
88.6
76.8 11.3
86.8
100,000-149,999 92.1 83.7 8.0 90.9
>$150,000
95.5 90.3
5.0
94.6
Educational
ttainment
f
head
ofhousehold
Elementary
18.5
13.1
5.4 70.8
Some
econdary
28.2
20.5
7.4
72.7
High
chool
raduate
49.1 36.8
12.1
74.9
Some
ollege
68.9
56.5
12.1
82.0
BA+
84.1
74.2 9.7
88.2
Raceof
head
of
household
White 67.0 54.9 11.8 82.0
Black
44.9
36.4
8.4
80.9
Native
merican
41.5
29.8
11.2
71.9
Asian
75.5
69.1
6.1
91.5
Hispanic
43.4 35.2
8.0 81.1
Household
ype
With
hild
18
years
70.3 59.5
10.6
84.7
No children
57.4
46.4
10.7
80.9
Source.
ational elecommunicationnd
nformationdministration
2008b).
that
4%
of them
eportediving
n
houseswith
nternet
ccess,
with henumber
rising
o
78%
of
11-
to
14-year-olds
nd
80%
of
15-
o
18-year-olds
Roberts,
oehr,
&
Rideout,
005).
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Warschauer,
atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
185
Source.Fairlie
2008).
Conditions f
Access
Access o
technology
s not a
binary
ivision etween
nformationaves nd
have-nots;
ather,
here re
differingegrees
nd
types
f access
see
discussionn
Warschauer,
003).
People
withoutccess t
home
may
sethe nternett
ibraries,
community
enters,
riends'
ouses,
r
schools,
s willbe
discussed
hroughout
his
chapter.
nd
people
who
have ccess o the
nternet
t
homedo so
under
widely
varying
echnical
nd ocial onditions.
One of themost
mportant
echnicalonditionss
type
f nternetonnection.
Overall,
2.3%
ofthe
households ith ome
nternetccess ave
broadbandon-
nection
i.e.,
via
cableor DSL
[digital
ubscriber
ine]),
with
he
remaining
7.7%
connecting
ia
a
dial-up
onnection
see
Table
1).
Not
surprisingly,hough,ype
f
connection aries
y
household
ncome,
ducational
evel,
nd other
actors. or
example,
mong
Native
mericans,
1.9%
of nternet
ouseholds ave
broadband
connection,
hereas
mong
sian
Americans,
2%
of
nternet
ouseholdssebroad-
band.
Combining
he
differential
ercentage
f diverse
ouseholds ith
nternet
connections iththe
differential
ercentage
f
broadband se
among
nternet-
connected ouseholdsieldsven tarkerisparitiesftotal roadbandccess. nly
29.8%
ofNative
Americansave
broadbandccess
ompared
ith
9.1%
ofAsian
Americans;
nly
18.4%
of
households ith
ncomes etween
5,000
and
$10,000
have
broadbandccess
ompared
ith
0.3%
of
families ith
ncomesmore han
FIGURE 2
Home Internet
ccess
by Race/Ethnicity,
997-2007
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186
Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
TABLE 2
Percentage
f U.S. Broadband Versus
Dial-up
Users
Engaging
in
Online
Activities n a
Typical
Day
(and
Who Have
Ever Done the
Activity)
Typical
Day
(Ever)
All
Internet Broadband t
Dial-up
at
Usage Categories
Users Home Users Home Users
Use
a
search
ngine
49
(89)
57
(94)
26
(80)
Check weather
eports
nd
30
(80)
36
(84)
14
(75)
forecasts
Get news online
39
(73)
47
(80)
18
(61)
Visit a state r local
government
13
(66)
16
(72)
4
(55)
website
Look online for nformation
23
(55)
27
(62)
10
(37)
about the 2008
election
Watch a video on a
video-sharing
16
(52)
20
(60)
5
(29)
site
Look
online for
ob
information 6
(47)
6
(50)
4
(36)
Send instant
messages
13
(40)
16
(44)
6
(38)
Read someone else'sblog 1 1 (33) 15 (40) 3(15)
Use a social
networking
ite
13
(29)
16
(33)
7
(21)
Make a donationto
charity
1
(20)
2
(23)
0
(9)
online
Downloaded a
podcast
3(19)
4
(22)
1
(8)
Download or sharefiles
sing
3(15) 3(17) 2(15)
peer-to-peer
etworks
Create or workon
your
own
blog
5
(12)
6
(15)
3
(8)
Source.
orrigan
2008).
$150,000;
and
only
13.1%
of
householdsheaded
up
by
someonewith n
elementary
school
educationhave broadband ccess
compared
with
74.2%
of those
headed
up
by
someonewith bachelor's
egree.
Furthermore,
esearch
uggests
hat
people
who have home broadband connec-
tionsuse the nternet
n
markedly
ifferent
ays
han
people
who havehome
dial-up
accounts
Horrigan,
008;
see
Table
2).
For
example,
2%
of
adults
withbroadband
access ooked online for nformationbout
the
2008
election,
whereas
nly
37%
of
those with home
dial-up
access
did
so.
Although
no similar
omparative
ata
are
availableforyouth, newould imagine hat hetypes f bandwidth-intensiveppli-
cations hat re
considered
specially
aluable
for
young
people,
uch as
development
and distribution f
sophisticated
multimedia ontent
Ito
et
al.,
in
press),
would
be
rarely
arried ut
on a
dial-up
account,
both because of the slowerdownload
and
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atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
187
TABLE3
Number f
HouseholdMembers erHome
Computer
or
Students
n
a California chool
District
African
Americans
Hispanics
Asians
Whites
Mean number f
computers
1.56
1.22 2.48
2.27
per
household
Mean
household
ize
2.63
4.61
3.46
2.18
Meanhome
user/computer
1.68/1
3.78/1
1.40/1
0.96/1
ratio
upload
imes s well s theneed o tie
up
a
household
elephone
ine or
nternetse.
Although
ot s
thoroughly
nvestigated,
ther echnical
onditions
urely
hape
home ccess o the nternet.or
xample,
tudents
er
omputer
atiowas dentified
a
decade
go
as a
key
actor
nfluencing
owwell
omputers
re
deployed
or each-
ing
nd
earning
t
schools
Becker,
000a),
yet
householdmembers
er omputer
ratiohas not
yet
been
eriouslynalyzed
s a factor
ffecting
ome
omputer
se.
Unpublishedata from rimes nd Warschauers2008) recenttudy f a laptop
program
n
an
urban alifornia
istrict,
ombined ith
U.S. census
eports
f ver-
age
family
ousehold
ize
byrace/ethnicity
n
the chool
district's
ounty,
ndicate
dramatic ifferences
n
householdmembers
er computer y
racial/ethnic
roup,
withWhite
families
aving oughly
ne
householdmember
er computer
nd
Hispanic
amilies
aving
early
our
eoplepercomputer
see
Table
3).
Such dis-
parities
ill
ikely
ffect
outh's
pportunities
o
enjoy npressured
ime o
explore
learning
pportunities
ith
omputers.
According
o
analysis
f CPS
data
by
Fairlie
2007),
African mericans
nd
Latinos
end o own
omputers
hat reno
older han hose f
Whites,
et hey
re
more ikelyoreporthat heiromputersrenotcapable f nternetccess. his
could
perhaps
e
explained
y
omputers
alling
nto
disrepair
r their
wnersim-
ply
acking
hemeans o
purchase
nternetccess. s for
ther echnical
actorshat
likely
ffect
omputer
se,
uch s differential
ccess o softwarer
peripherals,
here
are ittle
ata vailable.
Social
actorsre
quallymportant
s technical
actors
n
haping
ccess.nfluence
from
amily
embers
nd friendsan be criticaln
deciding
hethernd how
to
make
se
of
omputers
ndthe nternet.
study
f1
000
people
n
San
Diego
found
that
ocial ontact ith
ther
omputer
serswas a
key
actor
orrelatedith
om-
puter
ccess
Regional echnologylliance,001).
As the
tudyeports,
Although
most
espondents
tated hat
hey
now
people
who used
computers,
he
digitally
etached
(those
whodo nothavehome
ersonalomputers,
nternet
ccess,
r ccess o
the nternetutside f
he
home)
did not.
And when
ompared
ith
he
mpact
f
ethnicity,
ncome,
nd education
evel,
his
sentiment
that
hey
id notknow
thers ho
used
omputers
is far
more
ignificant,
p.
12)
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188 Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
Youth oday re not ikelyo be digitallyetached ;ndeed, s willbe discussed
below,
lmost ll
youth
se
computers.
owever,
ith
omputer
astery
epending
heavily
n social
upport,
oth from
eers
see,
e.g., Margolis,
strella,
oode,
Holme,
&
Nao,
2008)
and
family
embers
see,
.g.,
Barron, artin, akeuchi,
Fithian,
009),
many
ow-incomer
mmigrant
outh
illhave
ew
riends
r rela-
tives
ho re
ophisticated
sers
f
digital
media.
onditions
n
thehousehold
and
neighborhood)
uch s
relatively
ew
omputers,
esser
egrees
fbroadbandnternet
access,
ewer
eople
with
college
ducation,
nd
fewer
nglish
peakers
re
ikely
o
shape
hekinds
f
experience
outh
avewith
igital
media.We
will
return
o this
issue aternthe
hapter
henweexaminehe iverse
ays
hat
outh
se
echnology.
SchoolAccess
Given he
ngoing
iscrepancies
n
home ccess o
digital
media,
chieving
quity
of ccess t school akes
n
greater
riority.
here ave een
teady
ains
n
this
rea,
as more
ublic
chools f ll
types
et
more nternet-connected
omputers,
ut,
nce
again, aps
persist.
The National enter
or
Educational
tatistics
athered
ata on school ccess
through
urveys
f about
85,000
schools dministered
inetimes rom
994
to
2005,
nd
presented
hese ata
n two
ssue
riefsndfive
eports
ublished
etween
1999 nd2006, ach itledInternetccessnU.S. Public chools ndClassrooms.
The number f
public
chool tudents
er
nternet-connected
nstructionalom-
puter
n
diverse
ypes
f schoolswas calculated or ach
year
rom
998
to
2005,
except
or
005
(Wells,
ewis, Greene, 006;
seeTable
).
In
1998,
chools
with
50%
ormore
minority
nrollmentad
70.3%
more tudents
er
nternet-connected
computer
han
did schools
with ess han
%
minority
nrollment
with
atios
f
17.2:1
n
high
minority
chools nd
10.1:1 n
ow-minority
chools).
y
2005,
that
gap
had fallen o
36.7%
(with
atios
f4.1:1
in
high-minority
chools nd
3.0:1
in
low-minority
chools).
When
xamining
ccess
y
rate f
poverty,
s
defined
y
per-
cent
f
tudents
ligible
or ree r
reduced-price
unch,
he
ap
has lmost losed.
n
1998, choolswith 5% or more ftheir tudents
ligible
or reerreduced-price
lunch ad
58.5%
more tudents
er
nternet-connected
omputer
han id
schools
with ess han
5%
of
heirtudents
o
eligible
with
atios f 16.8:1
n
high-poverty
schools
nd
10.1:1
n
low-poverty
chools),
ut
n
2005
the
gap
was reduced
o
5.3%
(with
atios f .0:1
n
high-poverty
chools nd
3.8:1
n
ow-poverty
chools).
The
narrowing
f these
aps
s due
n
large
art
o
governmentunding,
ith he
federal-Rate
rogram
roviding
bout
2
billion
er
year
or elecommunications
and nternetccess
n
schools,
nd
many
chools
n ow-incomeommunities
sing
Title
funding
o
purchase
ducational
omputers.
As in home nvironments,hough,ociotechnicalactorsupportr constrain
use
of
computers
nd the nternet
n
schools,
ften
n
ways
hat
heighten
du-
cational
nequity. comparative
tudy
f
chool
echnology
se
n
high-
nd
ow-
socioeconomictatus
SES)
communitiesound
hat
he
ow-SES
neighborhood
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Warschauer,
atuchniak:
ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
189
TABLE4
Ratio
of PublicSchool
Students
o Instructional
Computers
With
nternet
ccess,
998-2005
Years
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003 2005
All
public
chools
12.1
9.1
6.6
5.4
4.8
4.4
3.8
Instructional
evel
Elementary
13.6
10.6
7.8
6.1
5.2
4.9
4.1
Secondary 9.9 7.0 5.2 4.3 4.1 3.8 3.3
Locale
City
14.1 11.4
8.2
5.9
5.5
5.0
4.2
Urban
ringe
12.4
9.1
6.6
5.7
4.9
4.6 4.1
Town
12.2
8.2 6.2
5.0
4.4
4.1
3.4
Rural
8.6
6.6
5.0
4.6
4.0
3.8
3.0
Percentage
inority
enrollment
<6
10.1
7.0
5.7
4.7
4.0
4.1
3.0
6-20
10.4
7.8
5.9
4.9
4.6 4.1
3.9
21-49 12.1 9.5 7.2 5.5 5.2 4.1 4.0
>50
17.2 13.3
8.1
6.4
5.1
5.1
4.1
Percentage
f tudents
eligible
or ree r
reduced-price
unch
<35
10.6
7.6
6.0
4.9
4.6
4.2
3.8
35-49
10.9
9.0 6.3 5.2
4.5
4.4
3.4
50-74
15.8
10.0
7.2 5.6
4.7
4.4
3.6
>75
16.8
16.8
9.1
6.8
5.5
5.1
4.0
Source.Wells, Lewis,and Greene 2006).
schools
ended o have
ess table
eaching
taff,
dministrative
taff,
nd
T
support
staff,
hichmade
planning
or
echnology
se
more
ifficult
Warschauer,
nobel,
&
Stone,
004).
As the
tudy
eported,
he
high-SES
chools
tended
o nvest
more
in
professional
evelopment,
iring
ull-time
echnical
upport
taffnd
developing
lines f ommunication
mong
eachers,
ffice
taff,
edia
pecialists,
echnical
taff,
and
administration
hat
romoted
obust
igital
etworks.
his,
n
turn,
encour-
aged
more
widespread
eacher
se of
new
technologies.
n
comparison,
the ow-
SES schools adachievedess uccessncreatinghekinds f upport etworkshat
made
echnology
orkable
p.
581).
Because eachers
n
ow-SES
choolswere
ess
confident
hat he
quipment
hey
igned
p
forwould
ctually
ork,
nd that
f t
did
not
work,
hey
wouldhave
vailable
imely
echnical
upport,
hey
weremore
reluctant
o
rely
n
technology
n
theiresson
lans.
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190
Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
Inaddition,venwhen eachersn ow-SES chools adconfidencen thehard-
ware
nd
oftware
hey
ere
sing,
he heer
omplexity
f heirnstructionalnviron-
mentsmade
t
more ifficult
o use
technology
ell.
Challenges
hey
aced ncluded
larger
umbers
f
Englishanguage
earnersnd
at-risk
tudents,
arger
umbersf
students ith imited
omputerxperience,
nd
greater
ressure
o ncreaseest cores
and dhere o
policy
mandates. s a
teacher
n
a low-SES alifornia
igh
chool
aid,
Time is
probably
he
biggest
problem]
Now it's
ven worse. Now thatwe're
hanging
ur curriculum
ig
time to make it a
standards-based
urriculum ..
we
really
ave to be efficiento coverthe stuff hat's
n
the
standards
n
one academic
quarter.
here's
not much time for other stuff .
.
Before,
f
somebody
pushedthecomputerab,great. coulddropsomething hatwe weredoing. t's not that ritical, ouknow,
it's
n
assignment
e
like,but,
okay,
et's
drop
t and let's
go
into
the
computer
ab. And now we're
dropping
something
hat's n the
[ state]
xam at
the
end
of the
year
nd our
API
scorethat
goes
n
the
news]
paper
then could
go
down because
of
having
more
emphasis
on
computers.
o,
that
s,
to
me,
time s an even
bigger
bstaclenow than t was the first
ouple
of
years.
Warschauer,
nobel,
et
al., 2004,
p.
582)
Access
romOther ocations
More han alf fU.S.
teenagers
ay hey
ave ccessed
he nternetromibraries
and
at
friends'
ouses
Lenhart,
rafeh,mith,
Macgill,
008; Lenhart, adden,
& Hitlin,005),thoughheres scant esearchocumentinghat eens o inthese
locations.n
contrast,
heres a wide
body
fresearch
eporting
outh's
ich
xperi-
enceswith he nternet
ndother
igital
media
t
community
enters
see,
.g.,
Hull
&
Katz, 006; Kafai,
eppier,
c
Chapman,
009),
yet
tudies
uggest
hat ewerhan
1 in 1
youth
eport sing
he nternett such
enters,
nd almost o
youth eport
such
enterss
the
main
lace
hey
o
online
Lenhart
t
l.,
2005).
Morediscussion
ofhow
youth
make seof
echnology
t
community
entersnd
the ole f uch en-
ters
n
addressing
quity
ssueswith
echnology
illbe discussedater
n this
aper.
USE
The most ecent ata n numberf
youth
house he nternets
provided
y
he
Pew nternet American
ife
roject,
hich
nterviewed
00
parent-
hild
airs
y
telephone
nd found hat
9%
of
youth
ged
12-17
years
se
the nternet
t home
and
94%
use t
from
ny
ocation
Lenhart,
rafeh,
t
al., 2008;
seeTable
5).
The
89%
figure
s
considerably
igher
han he
0.3%
Internetccess ate or ouseholds
with
hildren
eported
y
CPS
(NTIA, 2008b)
as
well s the
8-80%
rate fhome
Internet
se
for
eenagers
eported
y
heKaiser
amily
oundation
Roberts
t
al.,
2005).
The differences
ay
be because
f the
ater
ate
of the
Pew
survey
om-
pared
with heKaiser
amily
oundation
urvey,
s well s due to differences
n the
methodologyfthePew urveyompared ith heCPS. Pewreports25% rate f
response
o ts
elephone
urvey,
nd
lthough
he
esponses
re
weighted
or
ace nd
education,
hey
renot
weighted
or
ncome,
nd
arethus
ikely
o
underrepresent
low-income
amilies hoeither
ack
working
elephone
ine
or
do
notwish o
be
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atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
191
TABLE5
Percentage
f U.S.
Teenagers
Who Use the nternett
Differentocations
Anywhere
At Home At School At a
Library
All teens
94 89
77
60
Gender
Girls
95 91 76
59
Boys
93
86
78
60
Age
years)
12-14
92 89
71 58
15-17 96 89 82 61
Race/ethnicity
White
96 91
78 59
Black
92
80
83 69
Hispanic
87 85 69
53
Annual ousehold
ncome
$)
<30,000
86
70
75
72
30,000-49,000
93
86 88
63
50,000-74,000
96 87
72 55
>75,000
97 99 74
57
Source.
enhart, rafeh,mith,
nd
Macgill
2008).
interviewedor research
roject.
Most
mportant,
he
parent-childair
nterviews
were
nly
onducted
n
English,
hus
eaving
ut
Spanish-speaking
atino amilies
who are known o have
markedly
ower ates f nternetccess hando
English-
speaking
atinos
Fairlie,007).
Finally,
he ew
urvey
eports
n
teenagers,
hereas
the
NTIA
discusses ouseholds ith
ny
ge
children
ounger
han
years.
That
being
aid,
heres ittle
isagreement
hat he
trong ajority
f
youth
ind
a
way
o
get
nline
omewhere.ecause frican mericannd ow-income
outh
se
the nternetn
public
ibrariest
significantlyigher
ates han heirWhite r
higher
income
ounterparts
see
Table
5),
it
appears
hat
he
ibrary
erves,
t east o some
extent,
s an alternativeutlet or hosewithout ome nternet
ccess.
It is also the case that
youth
pend
considerablemount
f
time nline r
otherwise
sing omputers.
he Kaiser
Family
oundation
eported
he
average
amount f
time
pent
n
computers
y
ge group
s
37
minutes
er
day
for - to
10-year-olds,
hour nd
2
minutes
er day
for11- to
14-year-olds,
nd
1
hour
and
22
minutes
erday
for
5-
to
1
-year-olds.
heir
ata,however,
ere ollected
in
2004,
thusbefore he
rapid
growth
f
socialnetworkites hathave
proven
o
popularmong outh.
What, then,
do
youth
do
online?We will
consider oth out-of-school
nd
in-school
ractices.
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192
Review
f
Research
n
Education,
4
Out-of-School se ofDigitalMedia
A
recent
eport,
ased n
interviewsnd
observations
ithhundreds
f
middle
school- nd
high chool-aged
outh, rovides
n
n-depth
iew fhow
young
eople
in
theUnited
tates se
digital
media
oday
Ito
t
l.,
n
press).
to ndher
olleagues
identified
wo
primaryategories
f
online
practices,
hich
hey
abel
riendship-
drivennd
nterest-driven.
riendship-drivenractices
ssentially
nvolve
anging
ut
with heir
eers
nline nd
either
ake he
place
of
or
complement
ther
orms f
youth
ocializing,
uch
s
hanging
ut tthemall. outh
sually
ang
ut
nline
with
peers
rom
chool,
ut
lso
occasionally
ith riends
hey
meet
hrough
articipation
in sports,eligiousroups,rother fflinectivities.anging utrarelynvolves
people
hat
outh
o
not
already
now rom
heir real
ife,
xcept
n
the aseof
groups
ho
re
specially arginalized,
uch s
gays
nd
esbians,
ho
may
enture
out
more
roadly
nline
o seek ocial
ontacts.he
principal
ools or
anging
ut
are
ocial etworksites
specifically
ySpace
nd
Facebook),
nstant
essaging,
nd
computer
nd video
games.
ypical
riendship-driven
ctivities
nclude
hatting
r
flirting;
ploading, ownloading,
r
discussing
usic,
mages,
nd
video;
updating
profiles
nd
writing
n
friends'
alls;
nd
playing
r
discussingames.
The
majority
f
youth
o not
move
eyond riendship-driven
ctivities,
ut he
more
reativend adventurous
enture
nto nterest-driven
enres.
s with riend-
ship-drivenctivities,nterest-drivenctivitiesypicallynvolve ommunicating,
game
laying,
nd
haring
fmedia. ut
n nterest-driven
enres,
t s the
pecialized
activity,
nterest,
r niche
dentity
hat s the
driving
otivation,
atherhan
merely
socializing
ith ocal
peers.
his results
n
a much
deeper
nd more
ophisticated
engagement
ith
ew
media,
nd also
brings articipants
nto ommunication
nd
collaboration
ith
eople
fdiverse
ges
nd
backgrounds
round he
world,
ather
than
rincipally
ith heir
wn ocal
peers.
s to
etal.
in
press)
xplain,
Interest-driven
ractices
re
what
outh
escribe
s the omain f he
eeks,
reaks, usicians,
rtists,
nd
dorks,
hekidswho are
dentifieds
smart, ifferent,
r
creative,
ho
generally
xist
t the
margins
f
teen ocialworlds. ids find differentetworkfpeers nddevelop eepfriendshipshroughhese
interest-driven
ngagements,
ut
n
these ases
he nterestsome
first,
nd
they
tructure
he
peer
net-
work nd
friendships,
atherhan ice
versa. hese re
ontexts here ids
ind
elationships
hat enter
on their
nterests,
obbies,
nd career
spirations.
The
Digital
Youth
Project
dentified
wo
stages
f interest-driven
articipation,
which
hey
abel
messing
round nd
geeking
ut.
Messing
round
nvolves
arly
exploration
f
personal
nterests,
herein
oung
eople begin
o
take n nterest
n
and focus
n the
workings
nd
content
f the
technology
nd media
hemselves,
tinkering,xploring,
nd
extending
heir
nderstanding
Ito
et
al.,
2008,
p.
20).
Activitiesnthis egardncludeearchingornformationnlinendexperimenting
with
igital
media
roduction
r
more
omplex
ormsf
gaming.
eeking
ut
s the
next
tage,
nd nvolves
an ntense ommitment
o
or
engagement
ithmedia
r
technology,
ften ne
particular
edia
roperty,
enre,
r
type
f
technology
nd
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atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
193
learningonavigatesoteric omains fknowledgendpracticendparticipating
in
communitieshat raffic
n
these orms
f
expertise
Ito
et
al., 2008,
p.
28).
Examples
f
geeking
ut
nclude
reation
nd
sharing
f
animated ilms hatuse
computer
ame
ngines
nd
footage
machinima);
osting
nd
critiquing
f
creative
writing
elated
o
popular
ulture
fan
iction);
evelopment
nd
publishing
ideos
based
on
clips
from nime eries et
to
songs
anime
music
videos);
writing
nd
distributionf subtitlesf
foreign
ilms r television
rograms,specially
nime,
within
ours
fter
he ilms r
programs
re
released
fansubbing);
nd creation
nd
posting
f hort ramaticr
humorousilms n YouTube
video
roduction).
Learning
ndmedia
heoristsuch s Gee
2003,
2004)
and
Jenkins
2009)
make
a
compelling
ase that
youth's
ngagement
ithnewmedia
provides
ital
earning
experiences.
owever,
heir
writingsrincipally
ocus n
youth
who are
engaged
in
interest-driven
ctivities,
nd
especially
hose
who
geek
ut. Yetthe
to et al.
(2008)
study
eports
hat
nly
small
minority
f
youth
move
n
to this
eeking
out
stage,
nd also makes
vident hat ccess o additional
echnological
nd social
resources,
eyond
simple
omputer
nd nternet
ccount,
re
riticalo determin-
ing
whomoves n to these
more
ophisticated
orms
fmedia
articipation.
iven
the nature f
geeking
ut
activities,
echnological
esources
resumably
nclude
broadband
ccess,
elatively
ew
omputers
ith
raphics
nd
multimedia
apacity,
digital roductionoftware,ndequipmentuch sdigitalamerasnd camcorders.
Socialresources
nclude
community
hat
alues nd enables he
haring
fmedia
knowledge
nd
nterests,
hich an be found
mong
amily,
riends,
nterest
roups,
or
educational
rograms
uch s
computer
lubs
nd
youth
media
enters.
Ito et al.
(2008)
study
oesnot
ttempt
o
dentify
ho,
with he
help
fthese
resources,
ypically
oves
n
to the
geeking
ut
tage,
ndwho
does
not,
butother
studies ave
ddressedhis ssue.One ofthemost
ompelling
ccounts
s
provided
by
Attewell
ndWinston
2003),
who
pent
everal
onths
bserving
nd nterview-
ing
two
groups
f
computer
sers t home
nd school. he
first
roup
onsisted
ofAfrican merican
nd Latino hildren
ged
11
to
14
years
ho
attended
ublic
middlechool;most ame romoor ndworking-classamilies,nd ll cored elow
grade
evel
n
reading.
he
second
group
onsisted f
school hildren rom
more
affluentamilies ho
ttended
rivate
chools.
The
wealthier
ouths
tudied
y
Attewell
nd Winston
2003)
were
requently
engaged
n
interest-drivenctivities. or
example,
White
fourth-graderivate
school
tudent amed eke
was
political
unky
t
ten
years
ld
p.
124).
He
spent
his
nline ime
eading p
on the
residential
nauguration,
ownloading
ideo
lips
of
politicians,
nd
reading
andidates'
peeches.
o assist is
andidacy
or lass
resi-
dent an officehat
wasnot
anctioned
fficiallyy
he
eachersthis chool
Zeke
found free
website hat
llowed isitorso
construct
uizzes
nd modifiedt to
develop
n online
oting
ystem.
ith he
ooperation
fhisrival or ffice,e told
each
child
n
his
class o visit heWeb
page
for he
voting
ystem
oth
o read he
campaign
peeches
hat e
andhis
opponent
osted
nd
eventually
o vote.
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194
Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
The ow-SES rouplsopursuedheirnterests,ut nvery ifferentays. ypical
was
Kadesha,
13-year-old
frican merican
irl.
Kadesha nd herfriends
pent
much f heir
nline ime
hecking
ut
rappers
nd
wrestlers
whom
hey
eferredo
as their
husbands ),
ownloading
heir
ictures
s Screensaversnd
pastingmages
into
reports
Attewell
Winston, 003,
p.
117).
They
lso went
yber-
indow
shoppingogether,
hecking
ut
verything
rom otnew neakerso
skateboardso
Barbie
olls.
he
authors
xplained
owKadesha's
bility
o
exploit
he nternet as
greatly
estricted
y
her
imited
eading
nd
writing
kills:
As
image
after
mage
flashes
by,
.. it becomes noticeable how
rarely,
ow
lightly,
adesha settles n
printed ext.Likemanyof herfriends,he readsfarbelowgrade evel.So sheenergeticallyursues mages
and sounds on the
Web,
but
foregoes
ven news of her ove interest
f
that
requires
her to read.
p.
117)
Of course
orking,
ith
mages
nd
ounds anbe an
mportantart
f
geeking
ut,
but
AttewellndWinston's
escription
akes lear
hat,
n the aseof
Kadesha nd
many
f
her
riends,
ngagement
ithmultimedia as imited o
consumption,
ot
creation.
A
study
nalyzing
he
003
CPS data
provides
tatistical
vidence
f homeuse
divide
DeBell
&
Chapman,
006).
Among
hildren
n
grades
re-K
o
12
whoused
a
computer
t
home,
Whites
were
more
ikely
hanBlacks r
Hispanics
o useword
processing,-mail,multimedia,ndspreadsheetsrdatabases. heseapplications
were lso
more
widely
sed
by
hildren ho ived
n
high-income
amilies,
hosewith
well-educated
arents,
nd thosewith
nglish-speaking
arents,
s
compared
ith
children romow-incomeamiliesr whose
arents
id
not
graduate igh
chool
or
did
not
peak
nglish.
urthertatistical
vidence
omes rom recent
tudy
f
creative
omputing
articipation
n
twoCalifornia iddle
chools,
ne
in
a
high-
SES
community
nd
one n a
nearby
ow-SES
ommunity.
tudentst the
high-SES
school ad
greater
ccess o
diverse
igital
ools
including
omputers,
he
nternet,
printers,
canners,
andheld
evices,
igital
ameras,
nd video
ameras)
nd were
muchmore ikelyo havebothdepth nd breadth fexperiencendigitalmedia
production
Barron,
alter, artin,
C
chatz,
n
press).
Games
In
therealm
f
games,
esearch
uggests
hat here re lso
mportant
ifferences
associated ith ES and with
ender
s well.
Andrews
2007,
2008a,
2008b)
com-
pared
he
game-playingractices
f
133
students
iving
n
high-incomeeighbor-
hoods nd
attending
private
ollege
reparatory
choolwith hose f
95
students
living
n
low-income
eighborhoods
nd
attending
public
Title school
i.e.,
a
schoolwithmore han
40%
of its
students
ualifying
or ubsidized
unches).
Methods ncludedurveys,nterviews,ndpilesorts;he atternvolved anding
students
ame
boxes nd
asking
hem o sort
hem nto
various
ategories,
uch s
whetherhe tudents
ad
seenor heard f them
efore,
hetherhe
games
made
sense
o
them,
hat
ategories
f
games
hey
hought
hey
were,
nd whatkind f
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Warschauer,
atuchniak:
ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
195
TABLEÓ
Types
f
Video
Games
Played
by
Students
n Two
U.S.
High
Schools
Socioeconomic
tatus Gender
%)
High(%)
Low(%)
Male(%)
Female
%)
Casual
games
22.6
10
4.5
29.7
Computer
ames
noncasual)
19.4 4.5
14.3
1.1
Fantasy
ames
16.1
7.3
16.1
5.5
Sports
ames
19.4 44.5
47.3
15.4
Source.
ndrews
2008b).
people
hey
hought
layed
hem.
asedon the
pile
orts nd
nterviews,
ndrews
developed
our
ategories
f
games,
hich hecalled asual
e.g.,
puzzle,
word,
ard
games), omputer
oncasual
e.g.,
imulationnd
strategyames
uch
s
The
Sims
r
Grand
heft
uto)
fantasy
involving ythological
r
mystical
haracters,
ncluding
both
ndividual
ole-playingames
or
ideogame
onsoles uch
s the
Playstation
and
massively
ultiplayerole-playingames
MMORPG]
for
omputers
uch
s
World
f
Warcraft),
nd
portse.g.,
NBA
Live).
When skingtudentsoidentifyhe opthree ames hat tudents adplayed
over
he
past
year,
ndrews ound
major
ifferences
oth
by
SES and
gender
see
Table
).
High-SES
tudents
eremore
ikely
han
heir
ow-SES
ounterparts
o
play
every
enre
f
game
xcept
or
ports.
he difference
as
particularly
ronounced
in the noncasual
omputer ames,
which nclude
trategy
nd
simulation
ames
believed o be
important
or
earning
urposes
see
discussion
n
Gee,
2003).
In the
pile
sorts nd
interviews,
ow-incometudents
xplained
hat hese
more nvolved
computer ames
were too
complicated
r too
confusing
Andrews,
008b,
p.
207).
Boys
weremore
ikely
han
girls
o
play
very
ind f
genre
xcept
asual
games.
ndcombined
urvey
nd nterviewata
reportedy
Andrews
uggests
hat
by
he ndofher
tudy,
large
umber f
high-SES
tudentsere
laying
World f
Warcraft,
ut hat
ery
ew emalesr ow-SES
maleswere
laying
his
r
any
ther
MMORPGs
an
mportantindingiven
hat he
omplex
nd
highly
ollaborative
nature f
MMORPGs makes hem deal
or dvanced
earning
nd
iteracy
ractices
(see,
.g.,
teinkuehler,
007).
This ast
finding
s associated
ith broader
rend
dentified
y
Andrews:
igh-
SES students
ere armore
ikely
han ow-SES tudents
o
play
games
with ther
people,
nd
maleswere
imilarly
ore
ikely
hanfemales o do
so
(see
Table
7).
For
example,
igh-SES
tudents
ere
nearly
ive imes s
likely
o
play
games
with
strangersnline s ow-SES tudents,ndboysweremore han ightimes s ikelys
girls
o
do
so.
Boys
were lsomore
han ix imes s
ikely
s
girls
o
play
with riends
online.
inally,
isparities
ere
lsonoted
n
regards
o tudents'
elated
iteracy
rac-
tices utside he
games.
or
xample,
ales nd
high-SES
tudents
eremore
ikely
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196
Review
f
Research
n
Education,
4
TABLE7
Differences
n
Social Patterns
f
Gaming
Between
Students
n
Two U.S.
High
Schools
Socioeconomic
Status
Gender
High(%)
Low(%) Male(%)
Female
%)
With ne
friend
nline
37.0
16.2 24.6 4.1
With
many
riendsnline
39.1 17.6 26.3
4.1
With trangersnline 50.0 10.3 26.3 3.1
With
trangers
n
person
net
15.2 4.3
6.1 1.0
café,
tc.)
With
ne friend
n
person
57.9 6.7
With
many
riends
n
person
57.9
28.6
At a
friend'souse
58.6 37.8
At a relative's
ouse
40.5 23.5
At a
game
tore
17.2
2.0
Source.
Andrews
2008b).
than
irls
r
ow-SES tudents
o
read
magazines
bout
ames
raccess nlinewalk-
throughs
i.e.,
ites hat
rovide
rittenr llustratednstructionsn
optimal
ays
o
beat
game
r
evel).
Andrews's
2008b)
findings
re
upported
y
ther
esearch
n
youths
xperiences
with
game
playing.
he
2003
CPS data ndicate
hat,
mong
tudents ho have
home
omputers,
oys,
Whites,
hildren
rom
igh-SES
amilies,
hildren
ithwell-
educated
arents,
ndchildren hose
arents
peak
nglish
re ll more
ikely
o use
computers
or
ame laying
han
re
girls,
lacks nd
Hispanics,
hildrenromow-
SES
families,
rchildren hose
arents
idnot
graduate igh
chool rdo not
peak
English
DeBell
&
Chapman,
006).
The Pew nternet Americanife
roject
ur-
veyed
1
2
1 -
to
1
-year-olds
n
theUnited tates rom ovember
007
through
February
008,
and found
hat,
ompared
ith
irls,
oys
weremore
ikely
o
play
videogames,lay
more
ame enres,
lay
nline
ames,
nd,
by nearly
hree
o
one
margin,lay
massively
ultiplayer
nline
ames
Lenhart,
ahne,
t
al.,
2008).
The
Pew
study
lso found hat f thosewho
played
ames,
Whiteswere
lightly
ore
likely
han
Blacks,
nd more han wice s
likely
s
Hispanics,
o
play
s
part
f a
guild
r
group,
nd thatWhites remuchmore
ikely
hanBlacks o
play
massively
multiplayer
nline
games.
Other tudies
uggest
hatwhenmales
nd
females r
high-SESnd ow-SESyouth rBlacks ndWhites lay he amegame, heymay
experience
he
game
differently
ecause f their
ackgroundnowledge,
elief
ys-
tems,
r
sensitivity
o
racially
r
sexually
harged
material
see,
.g.,
Kafai,Heeter,
Denner, Sun,
008;
DeVane&
Squire,
008).
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Warschauer,
atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
197
Communityenters nd Libraries
A
number
f tudies
uggest
hat
ommunity
echnology
entersnd
othernfor-
mal
digital
media
rograms
irected
t
youth
an
help
vercome
any
f
these is-
advantagesegarding
ccess nduse
of
echnology.
enter
rograms
ypically
eature
up-to-datequipment, igh-speed
nternet
ccess,
nd
access o
digital
eripherals
such s
printers
r camcorders.
qually
mportant,
hey
rovide
social ontext
or
learning
ith nd
throughechnology,
hether
n
courses,
orkshops,rop-in
lub-
house ours
with
mentors,
r nformal
nteractionith
eers.
range
f tudies ave
reported
he
ositivexperiences
or
outh
n such
enters,
hether
orking
n
digi-
tal torytellingHull& Katz, 006;Hull & Nelson, 005),media reationhrough
use
of
programminganguages
Peppier
Kafai,
007),
or
digital
ocumentaries
on
the ocial
eality
n ocal ommunities
Warschauer,003).
Yet
nly
%
of
youth
indicate
hat
hey
ave ver
one
online t a
community
enter,
outh
enter,
r
house
f
worship
Lenhart
t
al.,
2005).
There s thusmuch
oom o
grow
n
giving
youth pportunities
or hesemedia-rich
xperiences
n nformal
ettings.
Public
ibrariesremuch
more
widespread
han
ommunity
echnology
enters
and are much
more ommon
oint
f nternetccess
or
outh
Lenhart,
ahne,
et
al.,
2008).
However,
hey sually
ack the extensive
echnology
nstruction
r
expert
mentorship
vailable
n
community
enters,
nd thus se of
computers
nd
the nternetn ibrariessmore ifferentiatedy ES,as usersmust elyn their wn
unequal
ocial esources
or
upport.
or
xample,
study
n
Philadelphia
ound hat
introduction
fnew
echnology
n
the
ity's
ibraries
ctually
idened divide
n
the
quality
f
ibrary
se
Neuman
Celano,
006).
Children
n ow-incomeommuni-
ties eceived
ittle
arentmentoring
n
ibraries
nd,
fter
echnology
as
ntroduced,
spent
onsiderable
ime ither
aiting
or
omputers
o be free r
playing
omputer-
based
games
with ittle extual
ontent;
echnology
hus
isplaced eading
or hese
children.
n
contrast,
arents
n middle-incomeommunities
carefully
rchestrated
children's
ctivitiesn the
computer,
uch
s
they
id
withbooks
Neuman
&
Celano,2006,p. 193).
Children
n those ommunitieshus
pent
more ime
n
print-basedomputerpplications,
veraging
1 lines f
print er pplication
om-
pared
o
3.9
lines f
or he hildren
n
ow-income
ommunities.s
a
result,
children
n
middle-income
ommunities
oubled he mount
f ime
pent
n
read-
ing
following
he ntroduction
f
technology,
nd
the
iteracy
ap
between
ow-
nd
high-income
outh
ncreased.
In-SchoolUse
Discrepancies
n
whether
outh
se
computers
nd the
nternett school renar-
rowerhan t home. his s seen
n
both
hePew
tudy
iscussed
bove
Table )
as
well s inDeBell andChapman's2006) analysisf CPS data,which howed hat
85%
ofWhites
n
grades
re-K
o
12 in
2003
reportedsing
computer
t
school,
compared
ith
0%
of
Hispanics
nd
82%
of Blacks.
However,
hemost
mpor-
tant
echnology
iscrepancies
n
U.S.
schools renot
n whether
omputers
nd
the
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198
Review
f
Research
n
Education,
4
Internetreused, utforwhat urpose.he twowidest .S. studiesBecker,000c;
Wenglinsky,
998)
on
this
opic
were onducted
n the
1990s.
Both howed
harp
disparities
y
race nd SES
in
hownew
echnologies
ere
eployed
or
ducation.
Wenglinsky
1998)
analyzed
ata from he
1996
NationalAssessmentf
Educational
rogress
NAEP)
to describe
echnology
se
patterns
f
6,627
fourth
graders
nd
7,146
ighth raders
cross heUnited tates. f all
racial
roups,
frican
Americans eremore
ikely
o
use
computers
t east nce week or
mathematics
at
both
he ourth
rade
nd
eighth rade
evel,
ikely
ecause fthe
requent
seof
remedial
omputer-based
rills
n
math.
et,
aradoxically,
smaller
ercentage
f
African merican
tudents
han
ny
ther acial
roup
was
taught
math
y
eachers
whohadhadprofessionalevelopmentntechnologyse n thepreviousyears.
Wenglinsky
1998)
divided
p computer
se nto wobroad
ategories.
he first
involved
pplyingoncepts
r
developing
imulationso use
them,
ctivitieshat
are both
hought
f as
teaching igher
rder kills. he second nvolved rill
nd
practice
ctivities,
hich
y
nature ocus n ower
rder
kills. he
study
ound hat
substantialifferences
y ace/ethnicity,
chool unch
ligibility
nd/or
ype
f
chool
existwith
egard
o whethertudents
eported
heir eachers
rimarily
sing
hese
activities
see
Table
8).
Most
notably,
ore han hree imes s
many
sian tudents
as Black tudents
eported
heir eacherss
primarily
sing
imulationsnd
appli-
cations neighth rademathematicsnstruction,hereasnly bouthalf smany
Asians s Blacks
eported
heir
eachers
rimarily
sing
rill nd
practice.
englinsky
does
not
report
ow
much
f
his ifferentialasrelatedoAsians ndBlacks
aking
different
ypes
fmath lasses
n
eighth rade,
ndhow
much,
f
ny,
may
ave een
independent
f
hat.
In the
econdnational
tudy,
ecker
urveyed
representativeample
f
4,000
teacherscross he United tates.His
study
onfirmedhe differencesound
y
Wenglinsky,
nd
found hat
hey
pplied
more
enerally
atherhan
ust
n
math-
ematics
Becker,
000b,
000c).
He summarizedhe
indings
hus
Computerse n ow-SES chools ftennvolvedraditionalracticesndbeliefsbout tudentearning,
whereas
omputer
se
n
high-SES
chools ften eflected
ore
onstructivistnd
nnovative
eaching
strategies.
or
xample,
eachers
n
ow-SES choolsweremore
ikely
han hose
n
high-SES
chools o
use
computers
or remediationf skills nd
mastering
kills
ust
taught
nd to view
omputers
s
valuable or
eaching
tudentsowork
ndependently.
n
contrast,
eachers
n
high-SES
chools eremore
likely
o
use
computers
o teach tudents
kills
uch
s
written
xpression,
aking
resentations
o an
audience,
nd
analyzing
nformation.
Becker,
000c,
p.
55)
Beckerlso ound hat mountf
usage
y
chool ES differed
y
ubject
rea.
n math-
ematics
nd
English
subjects
n
which,
t east t that
ime,
rill nd
practice
oftware
predominatedcomputers
ere sedmore
requently
n
ow-SES
chools
han
n
high-
SES schools. owever,n ciencenstruction,hich endedo nvolve ore imulations
and
pplications,
omputers
ere
sed
more
requently
n
high-SES
chools.
Much
has
changed
n
computer
apacity
nd
usage
n
the time ince these
two
national tudieswere onducted.
nfortunately,
here
ave been no similar
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Warschauer,
atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
199
TABLE8
Percentage
f
U.S.
Eighth
GradersWhose
Teachers
eport
imulations/
Applications
nd
Drill/Practicess
Primary
omputer
ses
Simulations/Applications
Drill/Practice
Total
27
34
Race/ethnicity
Asian
43
27
Hispanic
31
30
White
25
34
Black 14 52
Family
ncome
School
unch
neligible
33
31
School unch
ligible
22
34
Type
f chool
Privatechools
30
10
Public chools
27
36
Source.
Wenglinsky
1998).
large-scaleuantitative
tudies one since o confirmr
challenge
hese
indings.
However,
numberf maller
ase tudies
onducted
y
he irst
uthor
f
his
hap-
ter
ave xaminedhe
ame ssuewith narrower
ens. hese
nclude
comparison
f
a
high-SES rivate
nd ow-SES
ublic
chool n
Hawaii,
oth
known or
ood
uses
of
educational
echnology
Warschauer,
000);
a
study
f20
mathematics,cience,
English,
nd social
tudies eacherst three
igh-SES
nd five
ow-SES
econdary
schools n
Southern
alifornia
Warschauer
t
al.,
2004);
and
a
multisitease
tudy
of 10
diverse chools n Maine
and California
ith ne-to-one
aptop
programs,
in
which ll
students
n
one or more
lassrooms ere
rovided
n
individualom-
puterWarschauer,006).Taken s a whole, hese tudies ave onfirmedmpor-
tant
iscrepanciesy
tudent
nd school
ES,
while
lso
uggesting
hat he
pecific
nature
fthese
iscrepanciesay
e
evolving
ver
ime. or
xample,
Warschauer
studies avefound
ifferencesot
only
n
constructivist
ersus ote
pplications
f
technology,
s
suggested
y
Becker,
ut rather
n
different
ypes
f
constructivist
activity,
ith hose
ccurring
n
low-SES choolsmore
ypically
ocused n
what
Scardamalia
nd Bereiter
2003)
called hallows
opposed
o
deep
onstructivism.n
these
nstances,
ndividualr
collaborative
tudent-centered
ork,
uch s
writing
newslettersr
finding
nformationn
Web
pages,
was often
arried ut with
ery
limited
oals,
uch
s the
development
f most
basic
computer
kills,
atherhan
the chievementfdeeper nowledge,nderstanding,ranalysishroughritical
inquiry,
s more
requently
ccurred
n
high-SES
chools.
The
California
tudy
arried ut
by
Warschauert al.
(2004)
illustratedn
part
why
eachers
n
low-SES chools eel
need
to
emphasize
omputer
kills.
urveys
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200
Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
in the choolsndicated hat 9% ofhigh-SEStudents adcomputerst home
and
97%
had nternet
ccess,
whereas
n
the
ow-SES
chools,
he
rates
were
4%
for
omputer
ccess nd
72%
for
nternetccess.
n
interviews,
eachers
ade lear
that
hey
were
keenly
ware f
these
ifferences,
nd
ndeed,
hey
ended o
exag-
gerate
hem;
while
eachers
n
high-SES
chools new hat
lmost ll their
tudents
had
computers
nd
nternet
ccess,
eachersn
low-SES chools
elieved hat
nly
a
minority
f their
tudents ad such
ccess.
However,
hetherheir
iewswere
exaggerated
r
not,
he
eachers
n
ow-SES choolswere orrecto
assume hat
ub-
stantial umbersf heir
tudentsidnot
ome o schoolwith he
equisite
ccess o
have
developed
asic
omputeriteracy.hey
hus sed
disproportionate
mount
of ime o teach ardwarend oftware
perations,
nd
they
ere eluctanto
assign
homework,
uch
s research
apers
r
projects,
hat
equired
ut-of-schoolccess o
the
nternet.
n
high-SES
chools,
eachers
orrectly
ssumed hat
hey
ould
forego
instruction
n
basichardware
nd software
perations,
ecause tudents ad
ikely
learnedhese t home
andthat
ssigning
ore
n-depth
esearch
hat
equired
ut-
of-school
omputer
nd nternetccess
wouldnot
unduly
urden
heir
tudents.
Finally,
he
more ecent
aptop
tudy
Warschauer,006)
carried
ith
tboth
ad
and
good
news
s to the
potential
f hese
rograms
or
lleviating
nequity.
n the
one
hand,
aptop
rograms
ere
more
hallenging
o
mplement
n
ow-SES chools
formany fthereasons ited hroughouthis hapter.tudentsn ow-SES chools
had lesshome
omputer
xperience,
nd thus ookmore
ime o
adapt
to
using
laptops.
eachersn
low-SES chools
ended o be less
experienced,
nd technical
support
nfrastructuresere ot
lways
s
good.
Parents ere ess
bleto
guide
heir
childrenn
effectivese of
technology.
any
ow-SES chools
were
n
high-crime
neighborhoods,
nd
there as thusmore oncern
bout
aptops eing
tolenwhen
taken ome.
And teachers
ad
difficulty
iguring
ut thebest
way
o
ntegrate
ap-
tops
n
situations
here here ere
arger
umbersf
English
anguage
earners
nd
students
t below-basic
eading
evels.
However,
n the
positive
ide,
here ere
number f chools
nd
programs
dentified
n the
tudy
hat
arried ut
exemplary
technology-enhancednstructionith ulturallynd inguisticallyiverseow-SES
students.
n
these
rograms,
ell-rained
nd
highly
ommittedeachers ere
ble
o
use
aptops
o
help
aise ow-SES tudents'
est cores hile
imultaneously
ngaging
students
n
more
pportunities
or ritical
nquiry
nd
in-depth
earning.
inally,
because ow-SES
tudents ere lso ess
ikely
o have
computer
t
home,
aving
take-home
aptops
llowed
hem
o
gain
opportunities
o earn
echnological
kills
that
hey
might
othave
therwisead.
One
example
iven
s Castle
Middle chool
pseudonym)
n
Maine,
where bout
half he
tudentsre
highlympoverished
hites rom
earby
ousing
rojects,quar-
ter fthe
tudentsre
refugees
nd
mmigrants,
nd
many
f
the
emaining
tudents
are rommiddle-classndupper-middle-classuburbs.reviously,he chool adbeen
highly
tratified,
ith even
istinctducational
racks,
ncluding
ne for he
highly
gifted,
nefor he
ccelerated
but
not
gifted),
nefor
pecial
ducation,
nefor on-
Englishpeakers,
nd everalthers
alibrated
y
bility.
n
the
1990s,
he
chool ad
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Warschauer,
atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
201
rejectedhe rackingpproachnddevelopedn ntegratedrogram,ithtudentsf
all bilities
including
s
many
pecial
ducationndESL studentss
possible) rouped
together
nto houses f bout 0 earnersith
main
eachers.
he
entireurriculum
for achhousewas
organized
nto hree - to 12-weekheme-based
earning
xpedi-
tions,
here
tudents orked
ollaboratively
n authentic
rojects.hough
he eform
had
predated
he chool's ne-to-one
aptop rogram,
he
development
fthe
aptop
program
mplified
he uccess f the
reform,
y
providing
hebest
ossible
oolfor
studentso
collaboratively
arry
ut
research;
resent
indings;
ndreflect
n,
critique,
anddocumentheir
ork,
hile
llowing
or
ndividualifferences
n
knowledge
nd
skills. s a
result,
astles ombined
est cores
n
writing,
athematics,
nd science
have xceededhe tateverage,nspite f he choolsarge umbersfEnglishearn-
ers nd ow-income
tudents,
nd
ll studentst the chool re
given
more
quitable
opportunity
o excel hanwould e
typical
n such
stratified
opulation.
OUTCOMES
Measuring
utcomessthemost
omplex
spect
f
nalyzing
echnology-enhanced
learning,
n
part
ecause he
goals
f
eaching
ith
echnology
re o
diverse,
nd
n
part
ecause
many
fthose
oals
do nothave
learly
perationalized
utcomemea-
sures.We
begin
by
discussing
cademic
utcomes,
hich re somewhatasier o
measure,ndthenmove n toexamining1st enturyearningkills.
Academic utcomes
In
testimony
efore
Congressionalearing
n
educational
echnology,
hris
Dede
(1995)
wisely
ointed
ut
the
problems
ithwhathe termedhe firemeta-
phor
f nformation
echnology.
ust
s
a fire
adiates
eat,
many
eople xpect
computer
o
radiate
earning.
nfortunately,
hat's
ot
the case.
Rather,
s Dede
noted,
information
echnologies
re more ike
lothes;
o
get
benefit,
ou
must
make hem
part
f
your ersonalpace,
ailoredo
your
eeds
p.
10).
The most ersuasivevidence hat ccess ocomputersaises tandardcademic
outcomes,
uch s
grades,
est
cores,
nd
graduation
ates,
omes
rom ome ather
than
chool
ettings.
t
may
e the asethat
t
home
people
re
more ble to make
computersart
f
heir
ersonalpace
nd
tailor hem o their
eeds.
One of he
argest
ndmost
igorous
tudies
f
he
elationship
fhome
omputer
use
to test core utcomesn the
United
tateswas
conducted
y
Beltran,
as,
and
Fairlie
in
press).
hey
used nformation
rom wonational ata ets o
explore
he
causal
elationship
etween
omputerwnership
nd
high
chool
raduation
ates.
The
data sets
were he
Computer
nd
Internet
se
Supplements
f the
CPS
for
2000-2003
discussedbove),
nd
theNational
ongitudinal
urvey
fYouth
997
(NLSY97).The latternvolved our-longnterviewsf a representativeample f
9,000
U.S.
youth
nd their
arentsnnually
rom
997
to
2002,
and also ncluded
the
gathering
f
educationalata uch s
youths'
chooling
istory,
erformance
n
standardized
ests,
ourse
f
tudy,
nd
the
iming
nd
types
f
degrees
arned.
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202
Review
f
Research
n
Education,
4
Theyfound dramaticelationshipetweenome wnershipfcomputersnd
high
chool
graduation
ate,
with differential
n
graduation
etween
omputer
ownersnd
nonownersf
24.3
percentage
oints
ccording
o
the
NLSY97
data nd
16.6
percentage
oints
ccording
o theCPS
data.
They
note hat he 16.6
point
difference
ttributed
o
owning
computer
ound
n theCPS data s
arger
han he
White/blackifference
13.4
points)
nd
comparable
ith hedifferences
etween
teenagers
ho
have
ollege-educated
nd
high
chool
ropout
athers
19.7
percent-
age
points),
hohave
ollege-educated
nd
high
chool
ropout
mothers
20.7
per-
centage
oints),
nd
who
ive n families ith
ncomes f
$75,000-$
00,000
ersus
$20,000-30,000
19.2
percentage
oints)
ound
n the ame ata.
Part f he eason his ifferentials sohighs that omputerwnershiporrelates
with numberf ther
actorsssociated
ith
outh's
ducational
chievement,
uch
as
family
ncome, ace,
r
parents'
ducation.
owever,
hen
ontrolling
or
hese
and
other
ndividual,
arental,
nd
family
haracteristics,
t
was found hat
eenag-
erswhohave ccess o
home
omputers
re6 to 8
percentage
oints
more
ikely
o
graduate
rom
igh
chool
han
eenagers
ho do not
havehome
omputers.
hey
noted hat his
mplies larger
ifference
n
graduation
robability
han hediffer-
encefrom
aving college raduate
arent
elativeo
a
high
chool
ropout arent.
Using
imilar
ontrolss
above,
he
tudy
ound
hat
aving
computer
as
ssoci-
atedwith 0.22point ositiveifferencengrade oint veragebased n a 4-point
grade
cale,
hus
oughly
/3
hevalue
fa
+
or
-
grade),
nd a decline
f2.8
per-
centage
oints
n the ikelihoodf
being
uspended
romchool. he
study
oes
not
reveal he easons or ll these
enefits,
ut
he uthors
peculate
hat se
of home
computer
or choolwork
s a
principal
ne,
iting
ata
from heCPS
that
3.4%
of
youth
ith
ome
omputers
se
them or chool
ssignments.
One
question
hatBeltran
t al.
(in
press)
id
not
nvestigate
as the
possible
differential
ffectfhome
echnology
ccess
y
SES or
gender.
imply ut
do
the
benefitsfhome
omputer
se accrue
qually
cross
emographic
roups?
sing
previous
terationf he
National
ongitudinal
outh
urvey
NLYS88),
nd
based,
this ime,n standardizedests, ttewellndBattle1999)foundhat, ithoutther
controls,
aving
home
omputer
ascorrelated
ith bout
12%
increase
n
both
reading
ndmath est
cores.When ES
andother
actors ere ontrolled
or,
aving
a home
omputer
aised
est cores
y
3%
to
5%
of he
verage
core.Most nterest-
ingly,
hey
lso tudied
he
differential
ffect
y
ES,
andfound
hat,
ontrolling
or
other
ossible
actors,
ow-SES
tudents
ho had
home
omputers
eceivedmuch
lessbenefitrom hem
n
raising
heir
est cores
handid
high-SES
tudents
ho
had
home
omputers.
able
9
shows he ffect
izeon math
nd
reading
cores
or
high-SES
tudents
1
standard
eviation
SD]
above he ES
average),verage-SES
students,
nd
ow-SES tudents
1
SD below
he ES
average.)
he numbers
n the
table ndicatehe hangesnreadingrmath coremeasurednstandardeviation
units ssociated ith SD
increase
n home
omputer
wnership
y
families
t that
SES
level.
hey
ndicate
hat
mong
amilies
ith
ome
omputers
nd
controlling
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atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
203
TABLE9
Size of Home
Computer
ffect
y
Socioeconomic tatus
SES)
Effectn Math
Scores Effect
n
Reading
cores
High
SES
2.77
1.55
Average
ES
1.69
1.08
Low SES 0.60 0.61
Source. ttewellnd Battle
1999).
for ll other ossibleariables,hildrenrom
igh-SES
amiliesompared ith ow-
SES
familieseceivemore han our nd a half imes hebenefit
n
increased ath
scores
nd more han wo nd a half imes hebenefit
n
increased
eading
cores.
Substantial
iscrepancies
urtherxist hen
omparing
ales ersus
emales,
hites
versus
ispanics,
ndWhites ersus
lacks;
n
eachcasetheformer
roup
chieved
greater
enefitn school est cores rom
aving
home
omputer
han idthe atter
group
when
ontrolling
or ther ariables.
In
sum,
ccording
o this
tudy,
ot
nly
were frican
mericans,
ispanics,
nd
low-SES tudents
ess
ikely
o have home
omputer,
ut venwhen
hey
idhave
a computernthis tudy,hey,s well sfemales,eceivedess cademic enefitrom
having
ne
compared
o
White,
igh-SES,
nd
male
tudents.
ttewell
nd
Battle's
(1999)
study
rovides
o data s to
why
his
may
e the ase.
They
peculate
hat t
may
e
due
to the
ocial
nvelope
Giacquinta,
auer, Levin,
993)
that urrounds
children's
omeuse of
computers
nd includes hekinds f
technology
esources
(e.g.,
ducational
oftware)
nd social esources
scaffolding,
odeling,
nd
support
from
arents)
hatwe have
iscussed
arlier.
hey
onclude hat
Home
computing
ay
generate
nother Sesame treet ffect
hereby
n innovationhatheld
great
promise
or
oorer
hildreno catch
p
educationally
ithmore ffluenthildrens
n
practice
ncreasing
the
ducational
ap
betweenffluentnd
poor,
etween
oys
nd
girls,
ndbetweenthnicminorities
nd
Whites,
ven
mong
hosewith ccess o the
echnology.
Attewell
Battle, 999,
p.
1)
Attewellnd Battle's
tudy
s basedon data that re some 20
years
ld,
and the
amount fhome
omputers
nd
the
ways hey
re
used
have
xpanded ramatically
during
his ime.
However,
recent
olloquium
aperby
three uke economists
reports
imilar esults rom
study
n
North
arolina,
ith ace
nd SES
strongly
mediating
he ffectn academic chievementfhome
omputer
nd
nternet
ccess
(Clotfelter,
add,
&
Vigdor,
008).
If
theDuke
findings
old
up
under
crutiny
f
peer
eview,
hey
re venmore
isheartening,
s the
tudy
ndicatesn overall
ega-
tive ffectnmath ndreadingest cores or ow-SES nd African mericantu-
dents
with
omputer
nd nternet
ccess,
resumably
ecause f
unproductive
ses
of
echnology
hat
may
ot
nly
rowd ut
productiveomputer
ime,
ut
may
lso
crowd
ut
offline
tudying
p.
37).
As with he
Philadelphia
ibrarytudy
iscussed
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204 Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
above,uch indingsupporthenotion hat he socialnvelope urroundingom-
puter
se s more
mportant
han
omputer
ccess
tself.
Academic utcomes
rom chool Use
Studies f cademic
utcomes romchool
seof
echnology
remixed
see,
.g.,
discussion
n
Kulik,
003).
Many
tudies rebased
n
very
mall
ample
izes nd
take
lace
n
schools r classrooms
here ndividualducators
re
highly
xpert
n
particular
ses f
echnology,
nd
thus hese tudies
may
otbe
generalizable
oother
contexts.
Largertudies,hough,uggesthat he drill ndpracticectivitiesavoredn
low-SES
chools end o be
ineffective,
hereas heusesof
technology
ispropor-
tionately
sed
n
high-SES
chools chieve
ositive
esults.
he best
vidence
f his
discrepancy
omes rom
Wenglinsky
2005),
who
analyzed
ata
from he
NAEP in
1996, 1998,
nd
2000.
Overall,
Wenglinsky
ound
consistently
egative
nterac-
tion etween
requency
f
echnology
se nd
test core utcomes
n
mathematics
at
both he ourthnd
ighth rade),
cience
at
both
he
ourthnd
eighth rade),
nd
reading
at
the
ighth
rade;
eeTable
10).
This
ppears
o
be because f he
negative
effectsfdrill nd
practice
ctivities
hat reused
predominately
ith ow-SES tu-
dents.
n
contrast,
hemore onstructivistducational
echnology
ctivities
ypically
usedwith igh-SEStudentsere orrelatedith igherest core utcomes.
For
example,
n
mathematics,
englinsky
ound hat he use
of simulations/
applications
n
eighth rade
nd
games
n the
fourth
rade
ositively
ffectedest
scores,
hereas rill nd
practice
t the
ighth rade
egatively
ffected
he cores.
In
science,
ames
fourth
rade),
ord
rocessing
fourth
rade),
imulations
fourth
and
eighth rade)
nd data
nalysis
fourth
rade)
ll
positively
ffectedest cores.
And
n
eighth rade
eading,
seof
omputers
or
writing
ctivities
ositively
ffected
test
cores,
utuse of
computers
or
rammar/punctuation
r for
eading
ctivities
(which
sually
nvolve rill
r
tutorials)
egatively
ffected
est cores.
n each f he
three
ubject
reas,
tudentES
wasthe
trongest
actor
redicting
hether
echnol-
ogy
sewould e
positively
r
negatively
ssociated ith est core utcomes.
Morerecent
arge-scale
tudies ffer
upport
or
Wenglinsky'sindings
s
to the
ineffectiveness
f
drill-and-practice
oftware.he U.S.
Department
f Education
recently
ontracted national
xperimental
tudy
o
analyze
he
effectsf educa-
tional oftware
se on
reading
nd
mathematics
est cores.
total f 16 software
products,
llofwhich nvolved
utorialnd
practice
ctivities,
ere
arefully
elected
from ecommendations
ade
by
xpert anels;
2
ofthe
16 have ither
eceivedr
beennominatedo
receivewards romrade
ssociations, edia,
arents,
nd
teach-
ers.The
comparative
tudy
nvolved
,424
students
aught
y
428 teachers
n
132
schools crosshe ountryDynarskital.,2007).Teachers ere andomlyssigned
to use
1 of 16 software
roductsesigned
or
eaching
eading
nd
math
treatment
group)
r not
control
roup)
nd students
ere
iven
re-
nd
posttestsuring
he
first
ear
fuse.
Overall,
here
as
poor
lassroom
mplementation
y
eachersf he
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atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
205
TABLE 10
Links Between
Technology
Use
and Test Scores
Subject:
Grade
Test Scores
Math:
Fourth
grade
Frequency
f school
computer
se
-.06
Use:
games
.03
Student ES
.59
Math:
Eighthgrade
Frequency
f school
computer
se
-.06
Use:
simulations/applications
.04
Use: drill
nd
practice
-.06
Student ES
.39
Science: Fourth
grade
Frequency
f school
computer
se
-.21
Use:
games
.07
Use: simulations
.08
Use: word
processing
.09
Student ES
.25
Science:
Eighth
grade
Frequency
f school
computer
se -.12
Use:
data
analysis
.04
Use: simulations
.07
Student ES
.54
Reading: Eighthgrade
Frequency
f school
computer
se
-.02
Use:
writing
.06
Use:
grammar/punctuation
-.05
Use:
reading
-.05
Source. englinsky2005).
software
as
is
apparently
ften he case with
tutorial
oftware;
or nother
xample,
see Llosa &
Slayton,
009)
and no
significant
ffect f the software
se
on
reading
or math est
cores
f
treatment
tudents
s
compared
with he
control tudents ven
when
fully
mplemented.
In
contrast,
more
constructivistses of
technology
re
often
ound
n
one-to-one
laptop
schools,
where
tudents'
aily
ccess
provides
he
opportunity
or
reater
mas-
tery
f
computers
nd
their
eployment
or
writing,
esearch,
ollaboration,
nalysis,
andpublication seeWarschauer,006). Studentsn laptopprogramsreamongthe
most
frequent
sers f
technology,
nd several ecent
tudies how a
positive
orrela-
tion between
aptop
program
articipation
nd
test
core outcomes
see,
e.g.,
Suhr,
Hernandez,Grimes,
&
Warschauer,
n
press;
exas
Centerfor
Educational
Research,
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206 Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
2008;additionaltudieseportingositiveest core ffects,houghither ithout
control
roups
rwith elf-selectionnto
aptop
roups,
nclude
ulek&
Demirtas,
2005; Silvernail,007;
Jeroski,
008).
Only
neof hese tudies
pecificallynvestigated
he ifferential
mpact
f
aptop
program
articipation
n test cores
y
ES
orrace.
hat
tudy
f
ixth,eventh,
nd
eighth raders
ound hat
eing
African
merican,
ispanic,
r ow-SES
negatively
affected
ow
much
est core enefitn
reading
nd
mathematicstudentseceived
from
articipating
n
the
aptop
rogram,
hus
upportingindings
rom ther
tud-
ies on thedifferentialcademic enefitsf
computer
ccess nd use.
t
should
e
noted, owever,
hat
nly
n
some ombinationsf
grade
evel,
ubject,
nd demo-
graphic roup id thedifferentialffectsise o the evel fstatisticalignificance
(Texas
enter
or
ducational
esearch,
008).
In
another
tudy
hat ooked t
test
score utcomes
n
both
high-
nd ow-SES
chool,
cores
or
aptop
tudents
ctu-
ally
ell n
both chools
uring
he
first
ear
fthe
aptop
rogram
mplementation
(compared
ith cores or
non-laptop
tudentslsewhere
n
the
district),
nd
then
bounced ack o
equivalency
ith
on-laptop
tudents
y
he ndof he econd
ear
(Grimes
Warschauer,
008).
The
first-year
ip
was
greater
n the ow-SES chool
compared
ith he
high-SES
chool consistent ith he
finding
iscussed
arlier
that
aptop
rograms
re
more
hallenging
n
ow-SES chools
but,
t east
n
this
study,he econd-yearest core eboundnthe ow-SES choolwas lsogreater.
The ack f
positive
esults
ay
e
possibly
xplained
y
poor mplementation
f
the
programs,
ikely
eightened
y
hefact hat eachers ere
ssigned
o use
a
pro-
gram
atherhan
mpowered
o choose ne
themselves,
s well s too
early
esting;
technology-enhanced
eform
s somewhat
isruptiveinvolving
ew
quipment,
ew
ways
f
teaching,
tc.)
nd thus
ositive
est core esults
ay
not
ppear
ntil he
second
r
ubsequent
ear
see,
.g.,
Grimes
Warschauer,
008).
Twenty-Firstentury
earning
kills
The
types
f
tandardizedducational
ests ited
n
the bove
ection over
nly
a smallfractionf theknowledge,kills,nd attitudesouth eed to learn o be
successful
n
todays
nformation
ociety
see,
.g.,
Gee,2003, 2004;
Jenkins,
009;
Levy
&
Murnane,
004,
2005).
This
uggests
he imitationsf
overly
mphasizing
basic
tandardsnd standardized
ests.
n
an
erawhere
verything
tandardized
an
be
outsourced
o another
ountry,
nd the
eal
remium
hus omes rom
reativity
and
nnovation
see,
.g.,
Levy
&
Murnane,
004),
t s
counterproductive
o focus
all our
ducational
ffortsn
teaching
o
basic tandards.
The broaderet of
knowledge,
kills,
nd
attitudeshat re needed
or uccess
in
todays
world re
typically
abeled
1st
century
kills.
number
f efforts
ave
beenmade odefine ndcategorizehesekillsfor nexample,eeNorth entral
Regional
ducational
aboratory
the
Metiri
Group,
003;
for n overviewf
international
fforts,
ee
Leu, Kinzer,
oiro,
&
Cammack,
004),
with he
most
widely
ecognized
hat
f
he
artnership
or
1st
Century
kills.
he
Partnership
a
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atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
207
FIGURE 3
Twenty-Firstentury
kills
Information, edia,
and
Technology
Skills
•
Information
iteracy
•
Media
Literacy
•
ICT
Literacy
Learning
nd Innovation
kills
•
Creativity
nd Innovation
•
Critical
hinking
nd Problem
Solving
•
Communication
nd
Collaboration
•
Flexibility
nd
Adaptability
•
Initiative nd Self-Direction
Life nd Career Skills
•
Social and Cross-Cultural kills
•
Productivity
nd
Accountability
•
Leadership
and
Responsibility
Source.
artnership
or
1st
Century
kills
2009).
broad oalition feducationalroups e.g.,National ducational ssociation,he
Association
or
upervision
ndCurriculum
evelopment,
heAmerican ssociation
of School
Librarians,
ducational
esting
ervice),
echnology
irms
e.g.,
Apple,
Adobe,Cisco,Dell, ntel,
Microsoft),
nd content/media
roviders
e.g.,
McGraw-
Hill,
Pearson,
cholastic,
ego,
Blackboard,
esame
Workshop)
describes
hreeets
of kills hat reviewed s built n a
foundation
fcore
ubjects
e.g.,English,
rts,
mathematics,
cience,
istory)
nd
nterdisciplinary
hemes
e.g.,global
wareness,
civic
iteracy)
These hreekills ets
in
nformation,edia,
nd
technology;
earn-
ing
nd
nnovation;
nd ife nd career reas
see
Figure
)
are
ntimately
ied
up
withophisticatedses fnewdigitalmedia.
Though
here
s
widespread
greement
n thevalueof these
ypes
f skills
n
today's
orld,
he
ack f
commonly
ccepted
metricsor
measuring
chievementf
these killsmakes t
difficult
o assess he xtento which
hey
re
being
mastered
n
diverse
ettings.
ase
study
ata
provide
ome
vidence,
hough
hey
o not llow
for
uantifiableomparison.
In
school
ettings,
iscussionf such kills
requently
rises
n
researchn one-
to-one
aptop
chools.
Many
chool
aptop
programs
ere stablished
pecifically
with uch kills
n
mind,
nd substantive
ody
f
research
uggests
hat
well-imple-
mented
aptop
rograms
acilitate
cquisition
f
uch
kills.n
Maine,
or
xample,
where heresa statewide iddle chool ne-to-onerogram, ore han ne-third
of
students
eport
sing aptops
rom nce a week o
several imes
aily
o
gather
datafrom
multiple
ources o solve
roblems,
ather
ata boutreal-life
roblems,
evaluate
nformationbtained n the
nternet,
riticallynalyze
ata r
graphs,
olve
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208 Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
complex roblemsy nalyzingndevaluatingnformation,xplain roblem-solving
processes
nd
thinking,
nd
visually
epresent
r
investigateoncepts
Silvernail,
2007).
Interviewsith
eachers,tudents,
nd
parents;
bservationsf
classrooms;
and
analysis
f student ork
uggest
hat hese
ind f activitiesre
yielding
osi-
tive esults or
cquisition
f
2 1
t
century
earning
kills n
Maine and
elsewhere
(Warschauer,
006).
There s nsufficient
ata
o
assess
ny
differential
earning
f21st
entury
kills
n
schools
y
ace, ES,
or
gender,
ut he nformationiscussedbove
bout
tratifiedses
of
educational
echnology
s worrisomen this
egard.
he
types
f
drill nd
practice
programs
hat re
disproportionately
sed
with
ow-SES tudentsre
generallyeared
narrowly
n
acquisition
f cademicontentrbasic
iteracy
nd
numeracy
kills,o t
is unrealistico
assume hat
hey
ould ontributeuch o
broader1st
entury
kill
development.
n
contrast,
he
imulationsnd
applications
sed
disproportionatelyy
high-SES
tudents
re ften
eployed
ith
recisely
hose kill ets n
mind.
In
addition,
he
general
cademic limate
n
schools
ubstantially
hapes
how
media re
used,
with
echnologyerving
o
amplify
chools' bilities
o achieve heir
preexistingoals
atherhan o transformhe
oals
hemselves
see,
.g.,
Warschauer,
1999,
000).
Therefore,
chools hat re
lready
ocused
n
thekinds f
nformation
literacy,
ritical
hinking,
nd self-directionssociated ith 1st
century
earning
skillswillfindnewmedia powerful ayto achieve hese,whereaschools hat
do nothave uch
focus
willnot
ikely
uddenly
iscovert
through
diffusionf
computers.
arschauers
2006, 2007b)
comparativetudy
f
nformation
iteracy
practices
n
diverse
chools
n
Maine
provides
stark
xample
f this.
n
a
high-
SES suburbanchool
grades
-8),
sophisticated
nformation
iteracy
ractices
re
begun
n the
ifth
rade,
year
efore
tudents
eceive
heir
aptops.
tudentsttend
library
orkshops
here
hey
earn o access
iverseources f
nformation,
riti-
cally
valuate
hem,
nd
integrate
he
nformation
ppropriately
nto
variety
f
products.hey
re ater
aught
o
use
computers
o
access nformationrom
nline
referenceorks
nd
primary
ource ocuments.hese kills re
ventually
ut
o use
inchallengingnterdisciplinaryesearchrojects.n contrast,na low-SES chool
in
an
impoverished
ural
ommunity,
o
special
raining
n
information
iteracy
s
provided.
hough
he chool
ubscribes
o the ame
onlinedatabase f reference
works
nd
primary
ources,
either
tudents
or
teachersxhibit
ny
warenessf
it. Most
typically,
tudents
rab
hefirstource hat omes
p
in
a
earch,
without uch
ritical
hought,
nd everalf he chools'
eachers
xpect
ittlemore.
Studentsre
bserved
pending
ubstantialime
utting
nd
pastingmages
ndtexts
into
ow-levelowerPoint
resentations.
he
study
s carefulo
point
utthat hese
kinds f
practices
renot
found t
all
ow-SES
chools,
resenting
counterexample
withmore
ositive ractices
nd
results.
owever,
asedon
analysis
f
data
from
1
elementary
nd
secondary
choolsnCaliforniandMaine, he
tudy
oncluded
that teachers
n
high-income
ommunities
ere
more
ikely
o
expect
nd
promote
critical
nquiry
nd
information
iteracy
hanwere
eachers
n
low-incomereas
(Warschauer,
007b,
p.
2537).
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atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
209
Out-of-Schoolevelopmentf21stCenturykills
There s ittle oubt hat ntensivese
of
digital
media
n
out-of-schoolnviron-
ments ancontribute
o the
evelopment
f21st
entury
earning
kills. s at
chool,
access oanduseofnewmedia re
necessary
ut nsufficientonditionsor he evel-
opment
f such kills. ut at east ome
youth,
uch s those hat to
and
her ol-
leagues
ound re
geeking
ut
n
nterest-driven
ctivities,
re
undoubtedly
aster-
ing
ophisticated
killsn each f he hreereas
elineated
n
Figure
.
Consider he
example
f
Max,
14-year-old
oy
who
hopes
obe a
director
r
filmmaker,
ndthus
decides o set
up
a
video-productionompany.
ax
and hisfriend
roduce
umor-
ous nddramaticideoshatheyost nYouTube,t east neofwhich asreceived
2
million iews nd more han
,000
text ommentsnd has been ired n ABC's
Good
Morning
merica. axalso
regularly
eceivesanmail
nd
has
received
fferso
purchase
ome fhisvideos or nline dvertisements.ho
would oubt
hatMax's
use of
digital
mediahas enhanced he
development
fhis media
iteracy,
reativity
and
nnovation,
ommunicationnd
collaboration,
nd nitiativend elf-direction?
One controversial
rea fhome
media se
s
game laying,
ith
ome oncerned
that tdivertsime rommore
roductiveursuits,
ndothers
rguing
hat
uch
lay
is
productive
or
earning
ew skills.
ne
study
ttempted
o assess heattitudes
developed
hroughame
play
ia a
survey
f
2,500 Americans,
rincipally
usiness
professionals,ho included ongamers, oderate amers,nd frequentamers
(Beck
&
Wade,
004).
The
survey
ethodologyimply
hows
orrelationsithout
the
power
o demonstrate
ausation;
evertheless,
he
findings
eveal ome nterest-
ing
differences.
mong
he
young
eople
urveyed,
requent
amers
remore
ikely
than
nongamers
o
value
isk
aking,
ay
for
erformance,
nd
connecting
ith he
right
eople
o
get hings
one;
hey
re lsomore
ikely
o
value he ate f he
rga-
nization
hey
ork or
see
Table
11).
Therehas
ong
been concern hat
irls
re not
gaining
he ame
knowledge,
skills,
nd attitudesbout
echnology
hat
oys
re,
because f differentialsesof
new media t home
see, .g.,
AAUW
Educational
oundation,000).
The most
recent esearch
uggests
hat
oys
nd
girls
pend
bout he ame ime n
computers
at
home,
ut that
oys
pend
ubstantially
ore ime han
girls laying
omputer
games
Roberts
t
al.,
2005).
Boysmay
lso be
engaged
more
requently
n
certain
types
f
geeking
ut ctivities
escribed
y
to et
al.
2008)
such s media
roduc-
tion,
hough irls
ppear
o be more
ngaged
n
other
ypes
f
geeking
ut,
uch s
those
nvolving
reative
riting
M.
Ito,
personal
ommunication).
here re still
substantialifferences
t
the
far nd of the
pipeline,
oth
by
gender
nd
race,
s
measured
y
numbersf
people
whoenter dvanced
tudy
nd careers
n
computer
science,
ngineering,
nd related
ields,
o
be
discussed
elow.
Finally, e note hat lassesnd nformalnstructiontcomputer edia enters
havebeen hown o
be
a
particularly
ffective
ay
of
developing
outh's
1stcen-
tury
earning
kills.
ull and Katz
2006),
for
xample,
escribehe
aseof
Darà,
13-year-old
irl
f
Guatemalan
eritage
ho
ttendedn after-school
edia
rogram
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210
Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
TABLE 11
Percentage
f
YoungNongamers,
oderate
Gamers,
and
Frequent
amers
Who
Agree
With
Statements
Moderate
Frequent
Nongamers
Gamers
Gamers
The
best
ewardsome
o those
hat
45.7
50.1
60.7
take
isks
Taking
measurediskss thebest
52.9
54.6
59.7
way
o
get
head
I preferay ndbonuses ased n 34.6 36.5 47.1
actual
erformance
ather
han
set
alary
The best
way
o
get
hings
one
s to
72.1
70.6
77.5
connect ith
he
ight
eople
I
really
are
bout he ate f
the
39.4
41.0
44.0
organization
work or
Source. eck
ndWade
2004).
called
USTY
(Digital
Underground
torytelling
or
outh).
heir
rticle,
ased n
field
otes fDaras
participation
t
the enter
ndat school ver
Vi
years
nd
tory
scripts
nd
digital
tories
reated
y
Darà
during
his
ame ime
eriod,
ocuments
the
hanges
hat arà
experienced
hrough
articipation
t the
enter,
oth n
terms
of
media kills
masterednd
n
her
ense f elf nd
relationship
o the
world. s the
authors
xplain,
Not
only
idboth
Darà and
Randy
a
young
dult t the
chool]
masterhe
echnological
kills
ecessary
to create
igital
tories,
ut
they
lso
paid
ncreasingly
lose
ttention
o
thetechnical
spects
f an-
guage to ts ound, ogenre,o tspoetic imensions,ndtotextualmagessmessagesf notherort.
And
they
masterfully
ombined
mage,
ound,
nd text nto
powerful
nd
personally
eaningful
ulti-
media
arrativeshat lso
learly
nd
movingly
poke
o
others. hese thers
ncluded
heir
USTY
peers
and
friendss well s
a
larger
ocial
world hat
might
ot therwiseave
istenedowhat
hey
adto
say;
thefresh ature f
the
multimodality
nd multimediatself
ppeared
o
end heirdeasboth
urrency
and
urgency,p.
70)
As a
resultf hese
ew
kills,
arà
found
ays
o
reposition
erself
hroughigital
storytelling
oth
n
relationo the
people
he
oved nd
admired,
nd n
relation
o
institutions,
ike chool.
he
ccomplished
his not
nly
hrough
er
igital
tories
but lso
through
er social
elationships
ith
USTY
peers,
mentors,
nd
facilita-
torswhohelped uildDarasperceptionfherselfs anexpertigitaltorytellernd
a
skilled riter
ossessing
echnological
avvy
ho ould ssist er
riends
n
creating
digital
tories. n the
nd,
young irl
who
had
a
meek nd discontentedchool
identity
hus ecame
confidentuthornd ctive
ommunity
articipantp.
61).
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Warschauer,
atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
211
This sonly neperson,noneprogram,ut t s illustrativefthe hangeshat
youth
an
experience
hen
hey
master
owerful
ymbolicystems
o
express
hem-
selves n issues f
high
ersonal
nd social elevance
see,
.g.,
to et
al.,
2008;
Kafai
et
l.,
2009).
t also
helps
lluminate
hat
gency
is-à-visew
media
ntails,
nd
why
community
entersanbe such
mportant
ites
n
the
evelopment
f uch
gency.
s
discussed
y
Baummannd
Briggs
1990,
nd
cited
n
Hull
&
Katz,
006),
the con-
structionnd
assumption
f
uthority
p.
77)
with
se
oftexts ests n four actors:
access,
egitimacy,
ompetence,
ndvalue.
ommunity
edia
entersan
provide
a)
access
o the
equisiteechnology
nd culturalrtifactsor
roduction
fmultimodal
texts;
b)
legitimization
f earners'
ntry
nto heworld f newmedia
hrough
he
support
f a
community;
c) themeans o
acquire
nowledge
nd
competence
ith
newmedia
hrough
nstruction,
pprenticeship,
nd
practice;
nd
d)
the
valuing
f
youths
multimodal
roducts
y
mentors,
eers,
nd
community
embersn
everyday
interactionnd
n
special isplays
r
performances.
lthough
ome
youth
re bleto
find
his
ccess,
egitimacy,
ompetence,
nd value
hrough
nline
ctivity
n
home
environments,
ot llwill e able
o,
nd
ommunity
entershus
rovidepotentially
rich lternativeenue or he
evelopment
f
uthority
hrough
edia se nd
mastery.
FROM ACCESS TO OUTCOMES:
THE COMPUTER SCIENCE PIPELINE
Although,
or he
purposes
fthis road
eview,
e
have
divided
ccess, se,
nd
outcomesnto hree
ections,
hey
re,
f
course,
losely
ntertwined.
o
illustrate
this nterconnection
e
take,
s
an
example,
he
omputer
cience
ipeline,
hat
s,
he
long-term
rocess
hrough
hich hildrenearn
bout
omputer
cience nd
pursue
advanced
tudy
nd
careers
n
the ield.
A
fascinating
xaminationf this
ipeline
omes rom heLos
Angeles
nified
School
District,
here researcheam t UCLA carriedut n
ethnographic
tudy
f
computer
ciencenstructiont three os
Angeles
rea
high
chools rombout 00
1
to
2004
Goode,
strella,
Margolis,
006;
Margolis
t
l.,
2008).
The sitesncluded
a 98%Latino chool nEastLos
Angeles, magnet
cience choolna
mostly
hite
neighborhood
utwith
4%
African merican
tudents,
nd
school n the
wealthy
hillsnear hePacific cean with mix fWhite
43%),
African merican
24%),
Latino
24%),
and AsianAmerican
tudents
8%).
Many
f theAfrican merican
andLatino
tudents
t the
wo
atter
chools raveled
ong
istances
y
bus o
attend.
Atthe irstwo
chools,
hichwere
redominately
atino ndAfrican
merican,
noAdvanced lacement
AP)
classes
n
computer
cience ere
ffered.
he
few om-
puting
ourses hatwere ffered
ocused
rincipally
n
computer
iteracy
nd basic
applications.
single
xception
as
programming
lass
t
the
mostly
atino chool
taughty n nstructorithout ormalrainingnthe ubject.he researchersoted
that
ssignments
ocused
n narrow
nput-outputroblems
ndtrivia
ames,
nd
that
none . .
features
he
roblem
olving
nd
cientific
easoning
hat s the oundational
knowledge
f
omputer
cience
Margolis
t
al.,2008,
p.
32).
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212
Review
f
Research
n
Education,
4
Incontrast,he choolnthewealthyeighborhoodad an extensiveomputer
curriculum,
eading p
to
AP
Computer
cience.
Nevertheless,
he
dvanced
om-
puter
lasses,
nd
especially
heAP
class,
were
hemselves
ighlyegregated,
ith
the
majority
f tudents
n
themWhitemales. he
researchers
oted
hat twas
pre-
dominately
hitemaleswho
had
the
xtensive
xperience
ith
omputers
t home
that
ave
hem
he onfidenceo take hese lective
ourses,
nowing
hat
hey
ould
succeed nd
getgood
grades
n
them.
hese
White
male
youth
ften
wnedmore
than ne
computer,
ad thefinancialesourceso
buy
he atest
ardwarend soft-
ware,
nd had extensiveome
xperience
n
programming
nd
gaming,
upported
by
networkffriends
nd
by
heir
arents, any
f
whomworked
n
technologyindustries.hese tudents ere ble to
play
with heirwn
computers,
ake hem
apart, ut
hem ack
ogether,
ry
utdifferent
oftware,
nd
earn
rom riends ho
were
oing
he
ame.
Many
f themwere
fully
apable
notof
not
only
rouble-
shooting
heir
omputers
ut
also
building omputers
from cratch'
(Margolis
t
al.,2008,
p.
80).
Few
minoritiesr femalest the chool
had
had
such xtensive
xperience
ith
computers
t home nd
many
were eluctanto take
hallengingomputer
cience
electiveourseshat ould
bring
own
heir
rade-pointverage
nd thus arm heir
chancest
college
dmission.
he
handful
f
femalesnd
minority
tudents ho ook
advancedomputercienceoursesften eltntimidatednclasswhenWhitemale
techies
Margolis
t
al.,
p.
83)
dominatediscussionsndmade un f hework f
other tudents.s a
result,
ery
ew emalesr minoritiest
any
f hree
chools
ot
the
ypes
f
xperiences
hatwould ead
them
o careers
n
computer
cience.
These
atterns
re ommon
eyond
hese hreechools.
n
California,
or
xample,
though
frican mericans
nd
Latinos
made
up
49%
of
the chool
opulation
n
2004,
hey epresentednly
%
of hose
aking
he
AP
computer
cience xamination
that
ear.
emales,
ho
imilarly
ade
up
49%
oftheCaliforniachool
opulation,
representednly
8%
of hose
aking
he xam
Margolis
t
l.,
2008).
High chieving
high
chool emalesremuch ess
ikely
o have
omputer
rogramming
xperience
than rehigh chievingigh choolmalesBarron,004).
Not
surprisingly,
omen
nd
minoritiesre
underrepresented
n
college
tudy
f
computer
cience nd
n
careers
n
the ield. ndfor
women,
he ituations
steadily
worsening
ver ime.
n
1985,
womenmade
up
49%
of U.S. students
eceiving
associate
egrees
n
computer
cience nd
37%
of hose
eceiving
achelor's
egrees.
By
2005,
the
ercentages
ad
dropped
o
30%
of ssociate
egrees
nd
only
2%
of
bachelors
egrees
National
cience
oundation,008;
see
Figure
).
As for
ace/ethnicity,
he
precipitous
all ff s not o much ver
ime,
utrather
according
o
degree
evel.African
mericans
eceived
4.4%
of their ssociates
degrees
n
computer
cience,
hus
eflectingstrong
nterest
mong
hat
opulationin
pursuing
his ield. uttheywere nly bleto receive1 6% of thebachelor
degrees,
.7%
of themasters
egrees,
nd
2.6%
of thedoctoral
egrees
National
Science
oundation,009;
seeTable
12).
For
Latinos,
henumbersre venworse.
Thus Blacks nd
Latinos,
ho made
up
a total f more han
quarter
f
the
U.S.
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Warschauer,
atuchniak:
ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
213
FIGURE 4
Bachelor's nd
Associate's
egrees
Awarded
n
Computer
ciences,
y
Gender:
985-2005
Source. ational cience oundation
2008).
population
n
2006,
receivedombined
ust
3.8%
of the
doctoral
egrees
warded
in
computer
cience.
DISCUSSION: OVERCOMING
THE
NEW
DIVIDE
Nearly
ll
youth
ccess
omputers
nd
the nternetomewhere.
hus,
whatwas
consideredhe
riginal igital
ivide
s
argely
esolved,
t east
n
the
United
tates.
Today
he
digital
ivide esides
n
differential
bility
o use newmedia o
critically
evaluate
nformation,
nalyze,
nd
interpret
ata,
attack
omplex roblems,
est
innovativeolutions, anagemultifacetedrojects,ollaborate ith thersnknowl-
edge
production,
nd communicate
ffectively
o diverse
udiences
in
essence,
o
carry
ut thekinds f
expert
hinking
nd
complex
ommunicationhat re t the
heart f henew
conomy
Levy
Murnane,
004).
Whereas hefirst
igital
ivide ouldbe solved
imply y
providing
computer
and n nternet
onnection,
his
igital
ivide
resents
greater
hallenge.
he
above
review
uggests
ive
teps
hatwe can take o
help
meet his
hallenge,
elated
o
individual
ccess,
urriculumnd
nstruction,
tandardized
ssessment,
ut-of-school
media
rograms,
nd research.
Ensuring egular
nd
Flexible
Access
First,
e need o
provide
chool-aged
outh
with
ndividualccess o
computers
with
roadband
nternetonnections.
hereas
weekly
rip
o a school
omputer
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214
Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
Table 12
Degrees
Received
y
U.S. Citizens
nd Permanent
esidents
in
Computer
cience
by
Race/Ethnicity
n
2006
Percentage
Whites
Blacks
Latinos Asian
U.S.
population
ge
18-24
years
61.4 14.2
17.5 4.3
Associate
degrees
63.1
14.4
9.8
5.0
Bachelor
degrees
60.7
11.6
7.2
11.0
Masterdegrees 55.0 7.7 4.8 18.4
Doctoral
egrees
70.3
2.6
1.2
21.8
Source.
ational cience oundation
2009).
lab will
ufficeor
earning
asic
computeriteracy
r for
doing
reading
r math
drills,
egular
ndflexible
ccess
s
required
o facilitatehe
evelopment
f
dvanced
knowledge
roduction
kills
sing
echnology
and,
s this
eview as
hown,
uch
regular,
lexibleccess s far rom
eing
chieved
ymany
f
odays
outh,
specially
thosewho
re
lready
ost t risk or
ailuret school.
here re
variety
f
ways
o
increasendividualccess o
computers,
uch s
by
providing
ax reditsofamilies
who
buy
omputers
or chool
hildrent home.
However,
he
implest
nd most
direct
ay
s
through
ne-to-one
aptop
rograms
t school.
When uch
programs
also llow
tudentso
bring
aptops
ack
ndforth rom
ome,
he
programs
imul-
taneously
ddress
roblems
elated
o
school
ccess,
ome
ccess,
nd school-
ome
connections.
Until
now,
he
arge
osts nvolved for
hardware,nsurance,oftware,
echni-
cal
support,
nternet
onnections,
nd
professionalevelopment
made uch
pro-
grams
ery
ifficulto
mplement
or
inancially
trapped
chool
istricts.
owever,
the ontinuingall f aptop rices with ome mall netbook omputerslready
dropping
ear
200
will
bring
ownhardwarend nsurance
rices onsiderably,
and
the
ightweight
f netbooks ill
ncreaseheir
ortability
othfrom ome o
school
ndwithinhe chool
nvironment.t he ame
ime,
he
rowth
ffree
pen
source oftware
nd educationalesourcesan
facilitateheuseof ess
powerful
nd
inexpensive
etbooks,
hile lso
substantially
educing
hecosts f
both oftware
and technical
upport.
inally,
he
generational
hift f
teachers,
ith
more
eople
now
entering
eaching
areers
ith ubstantial
omputing
xperience,
an result
n
improved
edagogical
se of
computers
nd
thus urther
mprove
he ost-benefit
ratio.
A crucialdvantagefone-to-oneaptop rogramssthat hey otentiallyllow
all
studentsowork n
technology-based
esearch
ssignments
nd
projects
t
home,
thus
elping
xtend
earning
ime or ll
beyond
he
30-hour
chool
week,
major
goal
for
ducational
mprovement
Time,
Learning,
nd Afterschool
ask
Force,
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Warschauer,
atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
215
2007).However,hiswillbe difficulto achievef tudentsackbroadbandnternet
access thome.
A
second
olicymplication
hen s the
need
or
niversalroadband.
Schooldistricts
nd educational
olicymakers
an consider number fmodels or
expanding
ome roadband
ccess,
rom
municipal
ireless
lans
for
ublic
ccess)
to school istrict-
rivate roviderartnerships
for
ubsidizedndividual ousehold
access).
Teaching
the
Word and
the
Vfä>rld
Second,
s shown
hroughout
his
eview,
ccess lonewill
not vercome
nequity
inuse and outcomes. criticaltep owardhat ndwillbetransformingeaching
and
earning
n
schools.
mong
chool
aptop
rograms,
or
xample,
hemost uc-
cessful
n
achieving
ositive
utcomes or ll
students
ave lear
nd
well-designed
learning
nd
iteracy
bjectives;
hey
re ducationaleform
rogramsnvolving
ap-
tops,
atherhan
echnologyrogramser
e
see
discussion
n
Warschauer,
006).
Whether
n
laptop
rograms
r other nstructional
nvironments,
chools
eed
to move
way
rom narrowocus n
teaching
hebasics o a broader
pproach
hat
emphasizes
oth asic nd 21st
entury
kills,
ith he atter
ncluding
he
kinds
f
expert hinking
nd
complex
ommunicationoted
yLevy
nd Murnane
2004).
Fortunately,
xcellent odels xist n how o
promote
hese
roader
kill ets n
tech-
nology-intensivelassrooms,hetherngenerale.g.,Kozma, 003; Means, enuel,
&
Padilla, 001; Sandholtz,
ingstaff,
Dwyer,
997;
Wenglinsky,
005)
or
in
particular
ays
hat
ddress
he
needs
f
Englishanguage
earnersnd at-risktu-
dents
e.g.,
Brown, ummins,
Sayers,
007; Cummins,008; Warschauer,006,
2007a;Warschauer,rant,
el
Real,
&
Rousseau,
004).
Studies
f
highly
uccessfulnstruction
f
t-riskearners
n
technology-intensive
environmentsave
ed
the first
uthor
f this
hapter
o summarizeuch a dual
approach
n basic
nd dvanced
kills s
teaching
hewordndtheworld
Warschauer,
2006,
2007a).
These
tudies evealed
ow
nternet-connected
omputers
an
become
powerful
ools or
elping
earners
nderstandnd
manipulate
ext,
hat
s,
to
grasptheword.With
ppropriate
nstructional
pproaches,
mages
nd video an scaffold
texts
nd
provide
lues or
eveloping
eaders.
ypertext
nnotations
an
offerur-
ther
caffolding
nd
encourage
ppropriate
eading trategies.raphic
rganizing
softwarean
help
tudents
nalyze
exts r
plan
heir wn
writing. ord-processing
software
llows tudents o achieve more terative
riting
rocess.
omputer-
mediated lassroom
iscussion
rovides
tudents
way
o
communicate
n
written
form,
hus
roviding
urther
pportunities
or earnerso notice
thers' rittenan-
guage
nd
hone heir wn
writing.
The same
tudies ave hown
nternet-connected
omputers
o be a
potent
ool
for ringinghewiderworldnto he lassroomnd thus or othmotivatingnd
contextualizing
iteracy
ractices.
tudentsanusethe nterneto
discoveruthentic
reading
materialn almost
ny
opic
nd be
introduced
o
up-to-date
nformation
and
perspectives
rom
eoples
nd culturescross he
globe.
They
can
gather
he
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216 Review
f
Researchn
Education,
4
resourceseededocriticallyonsider iverseocial ssuesonfrontingheir ommu-
nity,
ation,
r
world.
tudentsan then
evelop
nd
publish igh-qualityroducts
about hesessues hat anbe shared ith nterlocutors
r he
ublic,
hether
n
their
community
r
nternationally.
nd,
hrough
hese
roducts,
tudents
an not
only
learn bout he
world,
ut analso
eave heirmark n t.
One
potent xample
f
eaching
oth
he
word
ndtheworld s
Project
resa
the
Strawberry
roject),
arriedut
mong
panish
ilingual
lementary
chool tudents
in
California
Warschauer,
007a,
Warschauer
Ware,
008).
Through
onduct-
ing
echnology-enhanced
esearchn the onditions
ffarm orkersn
neighboring
strawberry
ields,
nd
ssessing
nd
cting
n their
indings
n
ight
f tate
nd
global
contexts,atino hildrennvolvedntheproject orked owardmeetingasic tan-
dards
while
lexing
heir ritical
hinking
nd
communicationkills.
nfortunately,
though,
hen ne ofthemain eachersnvolved
ecame n
administrator,
he
was
unsuccessful
n
getting
ther eacherso continue
roject
resa ue to their ears
that uch
heme-based
rojects
oulddistract
rom heir ffortso raise est cores
(Warschauer
Ware,
008).
Measuring
What
We Value
As
seen
from he bove
xample,
hemain
mpediment
o
improvingeaching
with echnologyaynotbe ack f deas n how o reformurriculumnd nstruc-
tion,
utratherack f ncentiveo do
so,
because f
estingegimes
hat ewardhe
achievementf
only
basic nd
not
advanced
kills. s
Levy
nd Murnane
2005)
explain,
Perhaps
he
biggest
otential
bstacle
o
ncreasing
tudents'
astery
f
Expert hinking
nd
Complex
Communicationre
mandatory
tate ests
assessments)
hat
mphasize
ecall f facts atherhan hese
criticalkills.Most tates
ow
require
ll tudentso
complete
andatory
ssessmentss
part
f
programs
to increase ducational
ccountability.
n
many
tates,
hese ssessmentsave been
designed
oward
minimizing
osts
while
roducing
umericalcores hat
anbe
compared
cross istricts
r over ime.
n
a
subject
ike
history,multiple-choice
est s
more
ikely
o meet hese riteria
han n
essay
eeded
o
demonstrateomplex ommunication.n an area ikemath,multiple-choiceest s much ess xpensive
to
grade
han n
examwith
pen-endedesponses
hat
sks tudentso describe
heir
hought
rocesses
and to demonstratehe nature
f their
xpert
hinking.
n the drive or ducational
ccountability,
teachersave
trong
ncentiveso
teach o the est nd
o it s
particularly
mportant
hatwe
get
he ests
right,
p.
23)
If
this s the
ase,
how then an we
begin
measuring
hatwe value ather
han
simply
valuing
hat
we measure
Hersh,
006)?
The answer
s
through
n
ncrease
in
performance
ssessment,
ncluding
oth he
highly
nterpretive
inds
erformed
by
eacherst
the lass r chool evel
e.g.,
ortfolio
ssessment)
ndthe
more tan-
dardized inds hatwill ntail evelopmentf new arge-scaleests. n increasen
theuse of classroom
erformance
ssessmentill
necessitate
roviding
eachers ith
the
training,
esources,
dministrative
upport,
nd
incentives
o reorientheir
instructionnd
valuationf tudentso
focus n
the
evelopment
f
xpert
hinking.
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Warschauer,
atuchniak:
ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
217
An ncreasentheuseof tandardizederformancessessmentill equirehe unding
and
commitmento
develop
nd
deploy
ew ests
hatmore
ccurately
easurehe
kind f kills
eeded
or
he21st
century.
nd
assessmentsf
both
ypes
ill
need
to
nvolve se of
digital
media
ecause
aper-based
xaminations
annot
ccurately
capture
he
earning
hat
ccurs
hrough
seof
digital
media
see
study y
Russell
&
Piati, 002,
nalysis
f he
ssue
y
ilvernail,
005,
nd
discussionf
modal
alid-
ity
y
Luke,
009).
A
number f
recent
evelopments
elated
o
assessing
1st
century
kills re
worth
oting.
irst,
ducational
esting
ervice
2009)
has
developed
n
informa-
tion
nd
communication
echnologyiteracy
est
alled
Skills,
hich
laims o
assess
critical
hinking
nthe
digital
nvironment
para
). Second, heCouncil orAid
to
Education
2009),
a
nonprofit
ffshootf
Rand
Corporation,
as
developed
College
ndWork
Readiness
ssessment
hat
equires
pen-ended
esponses
o
con-
structedasks o
purportedly
easure
an
ntegrated
et f
critical
hinking,
nalytic
reasoning,
roblem
olving,
nd written
ommunication
kills
Council
or
Aid to
Education, 009,
fourth
aragraph).
hird,
he
National
Assessment
overning
Board
2008),
which
ets
olicy
or
he
NAEP,
as
ontractedith
WestEd o
recom-
mend heframework
nd test
pecifications
or
Technologicaliteracy
ssessment
thatwill
ombine
with he
urrent
ests f
reading,
riting,
athematics,
nd
sci-
encetobecome art ftheNation's eport ardbeginningn2012. Fourth,he
Programme
or
nternational
tudent
Assessment
as
developed
n
Electronic
Reading
ssessments
part
f ts
new
battery
f
tests
Haldane,
009).
And,
fifth,
Cisco,
ntel,
nd
Microsoftave
recently
unded team
f
researchersn
Australia,
the
United
tates,
nd
Hungary
o
develop
nd
pilot
CT-based ssessments
f21st
century
kills
Kozma,
009).
Though
one
f hese
nitiatives
ave
esulted
n
replacement
or
he
tate-specific
tests
hat
arry
o
much
weight
nder heNo
Child
Left
ehind
Act,
hey
re
wel-
come
fforts
oward
eveloping
oth
he
ntellectual
nd
policy
rameworkor
new
orientation
oward
tandardized
ssessment.
ithout
eform
f
ssessment,
eachers
andadministratorsnpublic chools andespeciallyn ow-SES chools hat re o
frequently
ubject
o
test
core
ressure
are
unlikely
o
focus n
the
broad
ommu-
nication
nd
thinking
kills
equired
or
uccess
n
todays
world.
Expanding
ut-of-School
edia
Learning
Improved
ndmore
qual
resources,
nstruction,
nd
ssessmentn
school
annot
in
andof
hemselves
ompletely
vercome
nequal
mounts f
physical,
uman,
nd
social
apital
n
youths'
ut-of-school
nvironments.
his s
especially
o
in
relation-
ship
o
earning
f
nd with
echnology,
o
much f
which
ccurs
utside f
chool
time.Providing ore qualhome ccess o individualomputersndbroadband
Internet,
s
discussed
bove,
will
be one
mportant
tep
owardhis
nd.Yet
without
enhancing
ocial
upport
or
earning
o
use these
esources,
hemere
rovision
f
equipment
ould
mplify
he
Sesame
treet
ffect
iscussedarlier.
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218
Review
f
Research
n
Education,
4
Initial videncendicateshatommunityechnologyentersndyouthmedia ro-
grams
an
provide
dvanced
echnology
earning
xperiences
or
outh.
n
particular,
such
enters
nd
programs
an
help
ow-income
outh
ransition
rom
eing
assive
consumersf
media omore
ctivend ritical
roducers
f
digital
ontent.
ey
othis
transitions the
ocial
upport
ound
n
such
enters,
here
ow-SES
outh
an
gain
access o
the inds f
mentors,
xemplars,eers
ith
ommon
nterests,
nd
pro-media
production
orms
hat
many
igh-SES
outh
xperience
n
their
ome
nvironments.
Yet
nly
small
ractionf
youth
ttendshese
rograms.
he
expansion
f
unding
or
youth
media
rograms
nd the
nhanced
ntegration
f
technology
nto xtantfter-
school
rograms
hould hus e
on the
genda
f
ducational
olicymakers.
Unfortunately,
he urrentconomic limate
may
ead tate r
private
linderso
turn
way
rom
inancing
outh
media enters. ith
home ccess o
computers
nd
the nternet
lowly
ut
teadily
ncreasing,olicymakersay
lsobelieve
hat
outh
will
earnwhatever
hey
eed to know
bout
technology
n
home
environments,
under he
myth
hat ll
youth
re
digital
atives
see
Prensky,
001)
whocan
effort-
lessly
bsorb
dvancedmedia kills n their wn
or from
riends,
hus
making
om-
munity
enters edundant. e
hope
that his
eview as
demonstratedhe
naïveté
of
uchbeliefs
nd
the
necessity
f
providing
nhancedocial
upport,
uch s that
offered
n
youth
media
rograms,
fwe are
o
seriously
ackle
nequity
n
use
of
ech-
nologyndthe utcomesssociated ith uchuse.
Researchingechnology
nd
Equity
Finally,
hat
ind
f
researchs
required
o ncreaseur
understanding
f echnol-
ogy
nd
equity?
t
a national
evel,
he
most
horough
ources
f
tatisticalata
on
computer
nd
nternetccess ndusehave
ome rom he
ederal
overnment,
ither
viathe
Current
opulation
urveys
f heU.S.
CensusBureau r from he
National
Center
or ducation tatistics
fthe nstitutef
Education ciences
IES).
Yet he
gathering
f dataon
this
opic
by
both he
CensusBureau nd IES
slowed own
during
he
Bush
dministration,
hich
ownplayed
he
mportance
f he
ssue, nd,
as ofthis
writing,
as
yet
o be resumed
y
theObamaadministration,hich as
hadother
ressing
conomicmatters
o address.
resumption
f
regular
ederalata
gathering
n this
ssue s vital.
Second,
cholars
ddressing
he
relationship
f
technology
nd
earning
eed o
continueo
nclude ssues
f
equity,
oth
n
quantitative
nd
qualitative
tudies.
n
quantitative
esearch,
hemost
widely
ited tudies n differential
echnology
se
n
schools
renow decade
ld
e.g.,
Becker,
000c;
Wenglinsky,
998).
Quantitative
research
sing
more ecent
ata sets an reveal ow earlier
rends
may
have
per-
sisted r
changed
ourse.
n
qualitative
esearch,
here asbeen
tendencyymany
scholarsf echnologyndnew iteracieso examinemodel atherhan ypical rac-
tices,
with
heresultant
ublications
resenting
n idealized otion f how
diverse
groups
might
xperience
ew
echnologies
see
discussion
n
Warschauer,
n
press).
Ethnographers
oulddo
well
o
replicate
n
the
digital
ealmHeaths
1983)
study
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atuchniak: ew
Technology
nd
Digital
Worlds
219
oftypicalommunicationatternsnd iteracyracticesn twodiverseeighboring
communities,
s such
omparativethnography
an
richly
ortray
he ocial ontexts
that
hape
nequity.
CONCLUSION
There
s a
widespread
eliefhat he
alling
ost f
omputers
nd
nternetccess s
rapidly arrowing
digital
ivide
n
U.S.
society.
owever,
s this
eview
hows,
aps
inhome ccess
o
digital
edia
re till
ubstantial,
nd
nequalities
n
technologysage
and outcomes
re ven
reater.
nfortunately,
any
fthemeasures ost
requently
usedfor nalyzingechnology-relatedccess, se, ndoutcomesre nsufficient.or
example, hone-based
urveys
nvestigating
ome ccess
isproportionately
xclude
marginalized
roups,
uch s those
who do
not
peak nglish
r
thosewho cannot
afford
hone
ervice.
nd,
most
mportant,
tandardized
ests,
hich
ave ecome he
sine
ua
nonfor
measuring
chool-based
utcomes,
o not ven
ttempt
o assess he
broad
hinking
nd
earning
kills
ssociated
ith
dvanced
ses f
digital
media.
Though echnology-related
ccess, se,
and outcomes
re difficult
o
measure,
all
available vidence
uggests
hey
re
criticallymportant
actors
n
shaping
ocial
futures.
s we rethink
owto measure vidence
f
equitable
esources,onditions,
andoutcomes
f tudent
earning,
ontinued
lose ttentiono
the ole f
echnology
inboth chool ndout-of-schoolnvironmentssurgentlyeeded.
NOTES
Although
echnology
nd
equity
s an
important
ssue
acing
outh
hroughout
he
world,
space
imitations
revent
s
from
nalyzing
esearch
n this ssue
rom
ountries
ther han
theUnited tates. hose
nterested
n
nternational
erspectives
n
technology
ccess nd use
may
wish o consult
Warschauer
2003),
Matuchniak
ndWarschauer
2010),
Hull,Zacher,
and
Hibbert
2009),
Plomp,
Anderson,
nd
Law
(2009),
or the Centre orEducational
Researchnd
nnovation
2009).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We re
rateful
o
Robert airlief he
University
f
California,
anta ruz or har-
ing
with s
his ecent
nalyses
fhome ccess o
omputers
nd
ssisting
swith
nterpre-
tation
f
CPS data.
We re lso
grateful
o
he
ditors
fReview
f
esearchn
Education,
Allan
uke,
udith
reen,
nd
Gregory
.
Kelly,
nd
developmental
ditors,
ichole
Pinkard
ndVivian
adsden,
or heir
xtremelyelpful
uidance
nd
feedbacknour
outline nd
multiple
rafts
f his
hapter.
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