Warriner's English Grammar and Composition Teacher's Manual Complete Course

TEACHER'S MANUALwith Answer Keys

COMPLETE COURSE

Warriner's

EnglishGrammarandComposition

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TEACHER'S MANUALCOMPLETE COURSE

Warriner's

EnglishGrammarandComposition

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TEACHER'S MANUALwith Answer Keys

COMPLETE COURSE

EnglishGrammarandCompositionHERITAGE EDITION

John E. Warriner

Francis Griffith

HARCOURT BRACE JOVANOVICHNew York Chicago San Francisco Atlanta Dallas and London

We do not include a teacher's manual automatically with each ship-

ment of a classroom set of textbooks. We prefer to send a teacher's

manual only when it is part of a purchase order or when it is requested

by the teacher or administrator concerned or by one of our representa-

tives. A teacher's manual can be easily mislaid when it arrives as part

of a shipment delivered to a school stockroom, and, since it contains

answer materials, we would like to be sure it is sent directly to the

person who will use it, or to someone concerned with the use or selec-

tion of textbooks.

If your class assignment changes and you no longer are using or

examining this Teacher's Manual, you may wish to pass it on to a

teacher who may have use for it.

John E. Warriner taught English for thirty-two years in junior and

senior high schools and in college. He is chief author of the English

Grammar and Composition series, coauthor of the English Workshop

series, and general editor of the Composition: Models and Exercises

series. His coauthors are all active in .English education.

COPYRIGHT © 1977 BY HARCOURT BRACE JOVANOVICH, INC.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means,

electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording,

or any information storage and retrieval system, without

permission in writing from the publisher.

Material from earlier editions: copyright © 1973, 1969, 1965, 1961

by Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc. All rights reserved.

printed in the united states of americaisbn 0-15-311917-9

Contents

Introduction vii

Section I

Suggested Course of Study

Section II

The Teaching of Composition 9

General Principles and Techniques 1

1

Motivation and Class Procedure 17

The Use of Models 30

Evaluation 3

1

A Sequence of Composition Assignments 37

Section III

Suggested Teaching Procedures 49

Part One: Grammar 51

Part Two: Usage 65

Part Three: Composition: Sentence Structure 86

Part Four: Composition 104

Part Five: Mechanics 130

Part Six: Aids to Good English 137

Part Seven: College Entrance and Other Examinations 149

Section IV

Model Lesson Plans 153

Answer Keys 173

Answer Key to Warriner's English Grammar and Composition,

Complete Course 175

Answer Key to Teaching Tests, Complete Course 240

Tab Key Index 257

INTRODUCTION

A basic text

The English Grammar and Composition series consists of six books for

use as basic texts in grades 7 to 12. Despite the proliferation of teaching

materials in English in recent years and the increasing use of media other

than the textbook, the basic text continues to hold its position as the center

of the instructional program in most English classes.

No teacher would wish to return to the days when students were

supplied with only one book from which to acquire competence in the use

of English. To do so would be to ignore the rich store of supplementary

teaching aids made available in the last twenty years. Specialized texts

designed to teach such subjects as language history, linguistics, creative

writing, journalistic writing, and the appreciation and development of style

enrich the English course. Materials adapted for particular groups are im-

portant additions to the modern teacher's resources. Films and filmstrips,

records, and tapes provide a desirable variety of presentation. All these

diverse materials and media, however, serve to emphasize the need for a

single, coordinated, basic language text as an indispensable base of opera-

tions in any program.

Content

In content and organization the English Grammar and Composition

series reflects the authors' belief that the primary function of an English

textbook is to provide the subject matter of English in a clear and flexible

arrangement. Each book contains separate sections on the following study

areas: grammar, usage, sentence structure, composition, library and refer-

ence tools, and mechanics. Also, a vocabulary program and a spelling

program run throughout the series. Each section, as well as each chapter

within a section, is an independent unit, a fact which enables the teacher to

use the books with any course of study and in any sequence.

Books in the series have been carefully graded to meet the language

needs of students at each level. For example, the number of chapters de-

voted to the construction of clear and smooth sentences increases from two

in First Course to ten in Complete Course. In First Course, instruction in

grammar is limited to simple and compound sentences. Second Course in-

troduces adjective and adverb clauses and one of the verbals—the partici-

ple. Third Course adds the noun clause and the other verbals.

Refinements in usage are added each year as the student becomes able

to understand them and employ them in speaking and writing. Work in

vii

viii INTRODUCTION

expository writing moves from simple explanations and reports in the early

books to the formal research paper and the logical presentation of argu-

ment in the later ones. In all areas, each book reviews what students have

studied in the preceding years and carries on the teaching in greater depth.

Presentation

Subject matter is the province of the textbook; method, however, is the

province of teachers. The texts are intended to aid teachers; they do not

usurp their proper role in motivation and method. A textbook which can be

taught by only one method and in only one sequence may easily get in the

way of teachers who prefer their own approaches or who wish to follow a

local course of study.

Although the presentation of material in the texts is straightforward and

deductive, the material can, and in many instances should, be taught induc-

tively, the teacher leading the class through specific examples to the formu-

lation of the principle underlying them. Then, in the text, the class will find

the principle fully explained and followed by practice exercises. The"Model Lesson Plans" near the end of this Manual, as well as the page-

by-page discussions in the "Suggested Teaching Procedures" section of

the Manual, show specifically how to employ the inductive method. (Note,

however, that for review, which is a basic process in each year of English,

the deductive method is usually more efficient than the inductive, and for

advanced classes it is often as effective and far less time consuming even

for the presentation of new skills.)

Everything taught in the English Grammar and Composition series has

a practical application to speaking and writing. Although addressed infor-

mally to the student, the instruction is concise and businesslike. It does not

strain to be entertaining, nor does it rely on decorative art and discursive

one-way chats with the student to make English study palatable. The sub-

ject matter of English is English. The authors are convinced that it cannot

be taught successfully by means of digressions and excursions into other

fields. The wide acceptance of the previous editions reinforced the authors'

belief that both students and teachers appreciate this serious, straightfor-

ward presentation.

A reference handbook

For most students, especially those in the upper grades, a basic English

textbook serves another useful function—that of a reference book. In order

to increase their effectiveness as reference tools, the English Grammar and

Composition books follow the handbook format. The organization by

subject-matter areas, the use of color for important definitions and rules,

the tab key index, and the omission of extraneous materials help students

to find with ease answers to their questions about English. This easy refer-

INTRODUCTION ix

ence feature of the books is especially appropriate in today's classrooms,

where students are encouraged to work independently, to do more study-

ing on their own. In such matter-of-fact areas as usage, punctuation,

capitalization, manuscript form, letter writing, and sentence structure, any

student can find the answer to a specific problem by referring to the text,

where all rules are clearly stated and typographically highlighted.

Composition

English teachers are keenly aware of the importance to their students of

achieving competence in writing. The written word affords no hiding place

for the unskilled, no means of coverup. Incompetence is obvious, often

glaring. Inability to express ideas adequately in writing handicaps the stu-

dent in all kinds of work. For this reason the major emphasis in all books in

the English Grammar and Composition series is on written composition,

with expository writing receiving the most attention.

In one sense, the ability to write well is acquired through the mastery of

a great many individual skills, and textbook exercises provide practice in

employing them. Through the teacher's guidance and insistence, students

learn to carry over into all their writing the skills they have learned from

their textbook.

In another sense, the ability to write well requires, among other things,

accurate observation, a stimulated imagination, strong interest in words,

and an awareness of logical thinking and clear organization. These are the

intangibles of the writing art. To a degree they are teachable. Each book in

the series deals with them. For the most part, however, they are acquired

through broad personal experience and through the analysis and emulation

of models of good writing.

The Composition: Models and Exercises series

Since space for models is necessarily limited in a general English

textbook, a companion series of texts, Composition: Models and Exer-

cises, has been prepared to reinforce the teaching in English Grammar andComposition. Composition: Models and Exercises consists of five books

paralleling First Course through Fifth Course. Advanced Composition: ABook of Models for Writing is recommended for use with CompleteCourse.

Grammar

The English Grammar and Composition series teaches grammar for two

main reasons—to provide a basis for instruction in usage and to facilitate

the teaching of writing. While it cannot be demonstrated that ignorance of

grammar ever prevented students from writing well, it is obvious that such

x INTRODUCTION

ignorance can prevent them from profiting from the teacher's instruction

and corrections. The experienced teacher knows that teaching composition

is a difficult job at best; without a vocabulary for discussing sentence struc-

ture, it is next to impossible. Similarly, the teaching of grammar will not in

itself necessarily change usage habits, but it does make possible the effi-

cient teaching of such broad concepts as agreement, pronoun reference,

and proper placement of modifiers.

For both of these purposes—the teaching of writing and the teaching of

usage—the authors believe traditional grammar to be particularly well

suited. Its vocabulary is already partly familiar to most students, even in

the earlier grades; its essential concepts can be taught in a fairly short time;

and its common sense statements, though sometimes unscientific, have a

direct and obvious bearing on matters of usage and composition. By ad-

vocating the use of traditional grammar in teaching usage and composition,

however, the authors are not suggesting that other linguistic approaches be

ignored.

Teaching Tests

A complete testing program accompanies the English Grammar andComposition series. The test booklets, Teaching Tests, are available from

the publisher at a small cost. Printed tests are usually more highly re-

spected than mimeographed tests prepared by the teacher, and they relieve

the teacher of a vast amount of work in preparing and duplicating tests for

class use.

Teacher's Manuals

A Teacher's Manual such as this one is available for each book in the

English Grammar and Composition series. The manuals contain a

suggested course of study, a section on the teaching of composition,

specific suggestions for teaching each chapter, model lesson plans, and

answer keys for exercises in the text and for the tests in the Teaching Tests

booklet.

SECTION I

Suggested Course

of Study

English Grammar and Composition: Complete Course is a flexible

textbook; with a few necessary exceptions, any chapter may be taught at

any time during the school year, independent of the chapters which pre-

cede or follow it. The book, therefore, may be used with any course of

study, taught in any sequence. Schools with their own courses of study will

have no need for the one suggested here. Teachers who do not have a

prescribed course to follow may find the one given here helpful in planning

the year's work.

In allotting the various chapters to specific quarters of the school year,

the authors have been guided by the considerations which are discussed in

the explanatory notes that follow the course outline. Admittedly, there is

more in the book than any one class could cover in a single year. Teachers

will select those chapters or parts of chapters they wish to teach. All chap-

ters, nevertheless, have been included in the outline for the suggested

course of study.

The first and second quarters are fuller than the third and fourth. This

crowding of the first semester is natural in any subject that contains as

much work on skills as does English. Skills should be taught early so that

students will have ample time to practice them during the rest of the year.

The skills the authors consider the most important are placed in the first

and second quarters. From the time you teach a skill, hold your students

responsible for it in all their writing.

The natural result of placing these skill chapters early in the year is that

the fourth quarter seems very spare. By this time, most of the teaching of

skills has been done, and the last part of the year, in many ways the mostindispensable part, should be devoted to much writing in which the stu-

dents are expected to display all the skills they have studied. The authors

assume that in most senior English classes one half of the work will be

devoted to composition and speech, the other half to literature study.

Since any senior course covers in review those things which were

taught in earlier years, many chapters may not be necessary in classes that

learned the subject matter in preceding grades. In the course outline such

chapters are labeled Review as needed. These chapters may be covered

rapidly in an individual "diagnosis-study-test" kind of procedure; or cer-

tain parts of the chapters which you know your students need to review

may be assigned and given classroom treatment; or the chapters may be

left entirely for individual students to refer to on their own as the need

arises.

4 SUGGESTED COURSE OF STUDY

Certain chapters and parts of chapters are intended for distribution over

several months rather than for concentrated study in one or two weeks.

These include the chapters on mechanics—Chapter 29, "Capitalization,"

Chapters 30 and 31, "Punctuation," and Chapter 36, "Spelling." Thematerial in Chapter 35, "Vocabulary," should also be distributed for effi-

cient study. Early in the year, start regular spelling and vocabulary testing

on the 300-word lists in these chapters.

SUGGESTED PLACEMENT OF CHAPTERSBY QUARTERS OF THE SCHOOL YEAR

FIRST QUARTER

Grammar

Chapter 1 The Parts of Speech (Review as needed)

Chapter 2 The Parts of a Sentence (Review as needed)

Chapter 3 The Phrase (Review as needed)

Chapter 4 The Clause (Review as needed)

Usage

Chapter 5 Levels of Usage

Chapter 6 Agreement

Chapter 7 Correct Use of Pronouns

Composition: Sentence Structure

* Chapter 11 Sentence Completeness

Chapter 12 Coordination and Subordination

Composition: Paragraphs and Longer Papers

Chapter 21 The Paragraph

Mechanics

Chapter 28 Manuscript FormChapter 30 End Marks and Commas (Review es needed)

Chapter 31 Other Marks of Punctuation (Review as needed)

* An advanced class may cover this chapter quickly or omit it entirely.

SUGGESTED COURSE OF STUDY 5

SECOND QUARTER

Usage

Chapter 8 Correct Form and Use of Verbs

Chapter 9 Correct Use of Modifiers

Chapter 10 Glossary of Usage


Chapter 13 Clear Reference

Chapter 14 Placement of Modifiers* Chapter 18 Sentence Variety

Chapter 19 Effective Diction


Chapter 22 Expository Writing

Aids to Good English

* Chapter 34 The Dictionary (Review as needed)

Chapter 35 Vocabulary

Chapter 36 Spelling

Mechanics

Chapter 29 Capitalization (Review as needed)

College Entrance and Other Examinations

Chapter 37 College Entrance and Other Examinations

THIRD QUARTER


Chapter 17 Sentence Conciseness


Chapter 24 Language and Logic

Chapter 26 The Research Paper



Aids to Good English

Chapter 32 Information in the Library

Chapter 33 Reference Books

FOURTH QUARTER


Chapter 15 Parallel Structure

Chapter 16 Unnecessary Shifts in SentencesChapter 20 Exercises in Sentence Revision


Chapter 23 Making Writing Interesting

Chapter 25 Exercises in Composition

Chapter 27 The Business Letter

EXPLANATORY NOTES ON THE COURSE OF STUDY

First quarter

Written composition is the most important study in a senior English

course. You can begin your teaching of composition with Chapter 21, "TheParagraph," and concentrate on paragraph writing during the first quarter.

You may, in the interests of class morale, prefer to start the year with one

or two general composition assignments based on personal experience (nar-

rative) or personal opinions (familiar essay), in which the only goal is to

interest the reader. Such composition assignments usually amuse the class

and help to alleviate prejudices against composition work. They do not,

however, teach anything specific about writing and so should be kept to a

minimum. Your systematic instructional program begins with "The Para-

graph." Before making the first writing assignment, teach Chapter 28,

"Manuscript Form."Sometime during the first weeks, use Chapters 30 and 31, "Punctua-

tion," for a review of the major uses of the comma, the apostrophe, etc.

This rapid review accomplishes two things. First, it emphasizes the seri-

ousness of careless mechanical errors. Second, it acquaints students with


SUGGESTED COURSE OF STUDY 7

the punctuation chapters so that they can use the chapters for reference

when they face punctuation problems in their writing.

A review of grammar, Chapters 1-4, should precede the study of the

usage and sentence structure chapters scheduled for the first quarter, since

the latter assume knowledge of the parts of speech and the parts of the

sentence. The amount of time you spend on Chapters 1-4 should be care-

fully limited, however, because grammar has an insidious tendency to take

up more time than it is worth.

Second quarter

The writing program in the second quarter carries the student from the

single-paragraph expository theme to the multi-paragraph expository themetaught in Chapter 22, "Expository Writing." At the same time, the work in

sentence structure should be continued so that students will become in-

creasingly competent in handling sentences, as well as in planning and or-

ganizing longer compositions. Early attention to capitalization (Chapter

29), which at this level should not be allowed to consume much time, and

to spelling (Chapter 36) will make it possible for you to insist on accuracy

in these subjects in all subsequent writing. Although study of the vocabu-

lary list should have begun in the first quarter, Chapter 35, "Vocabulary,"

is scheduled for systematic treatment in this quarter, as is Chapter 34,

"The Dictionary." The latter is best taught in connection with the wordstudy in the chapter on vocabulary.

Since most seniors will probably be taking their college entrance

examinations in December, you will wish to schedule Chapter 37, "College

Entrance and Other Examinations" for study before the date of these

examinations.

Teach the chapters on usage and sentence structure in the order in

which they are given in the course of study. Chapter 10, "Glossary of

Usage," may be an exception to this rule, because covering so manyusages at one stretch may prove both confusing and dull. However, you

should, early in the quarter, acquaint your students with the nature of the

glossary so that they can use it for reference when they face a usage prob-

lem.

Third quarter

The emphasis in the Complete Course is on expository writing, which is

thought of as including argumentative writing. Since many of the best com-position topics for seniors are expressions of opinion, Chapter 24, "Lan-

guage and Logic," is a natural chapter to follow the work on expository

writing done in the second quarter.

The suggested course of study reserves for the third quarter the research

paper (Chapter 26), with an accompanying review of library resources


(Chapter 32) and reference books (Chapter 33). Writing a research paper is

a major undertaking, requiring several weeks. In their papers the students

should demonstrate their control of all the skills of expository writing that

they have been taught during the first two quarters. If your local course of

study does not include a research paper, you can continue in its stead morework in exposition and argument.

While students are working in the library and preparing their research

papers, you might use class time for reviewing and applying the rules for

clear thinking which were taught in Chapter 24, "Language and Logic."

Fourth quarter

In the fourth quarter, students should be doing as much writing as you

can find time to handle. They should be held responsible for all skills

learned during the year. Chapter 20, "Exercises in Sentence Revision,"

and Chapter 25, "Exercises in Composition," which are both review chap-

ters, will keep them working on various kinds of writing and various sen-

tence structure problems.

Chapter 23, "Making Writing Interesting," deals with an aspect of

composition that is not treated specifically elsewhere in the composition

program in Complete Course. While it may be profitably taught earlier in

the year, it is scheduled for the fourth quarter because the teaching of

expository writing is of first importance and should logically precede it. In

other words, it provides instruction that is valuable, but not essential, in

teaching seniors the kind of writing competence they need most.

Two chapters on sentence structure, Chapter 15, "Parallel Structure,"

and Chapter 16, "Unnecessary Shifts in Sentences," should be taught be-

fore the chapter "Exercises in Sentence Revision." Chapter 27, "The Bus-

iness Letter," is a reminder of letter writing conventions that should prove

valuable after graduation.

Experienced teachers know that the fourth quarter of the senior year is

the least profitable time for teaching. The suggested course of study recog-

nizes this fact by placing most of the teaching in the first three quarters,

leaving the fourth quarter largely for review and practice.

SECTION

The Teaching

of Composition

Composition work should be a regular part of the class routine. If you

think you can manage the paper work, you may wish to begin the year by

telling your classes that they will write one composition a week, or one

every two weeks. (On pages Yl-M of this Manual, you will find a series of

eighteen suggested composition assignments that can provide the basis for

a year's program.) Tell the class that you will always let them know in

advance when each composition will be due. Although you may wish at

times to omit an assignment or to add an extra assignment, ordinarily youshould avoid such breaks in the routine.

Require themes to be handed in when due—with no exceptions. Return

the papers to the students after about the same interval each time, and

require that the papers be returned to you with the students' corrections on

the day following. Even when you are teaching a concentrated unit in liter-

ature, keep up the composition assignments, perhaps basing them on the

literature being studied. It is not necessary to be so rigid as to designate the

same day every week or every two weeks as composition-due day, but it is

advisable to keep the writing on a clearly regular basis.

A. GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND TECHNIQUES

The following principles of composition teaching hold true for all grade

levels.

PREPARE THE CLASS THOROUGHLY FOR EACH WRITINGASSIGNMENT.

The easiest but least effective way to assign a composition is merely to

say to a class, "Write a composition on anything you wish." Almost as

ineffective is simply providing a list of topics and asking students to choose

one and write a theme on it. The amount of preparation desirable varies

with the type of assignment and the ability level of the class, but it mayoften take an entire class period, and it may occasionally involve activities

extending over a period of one or two weeks.

Emphasize the learning purpose.

The suggested assignments for a year's program on pages 37-47 of this

Manual show the kind of specific writing goals that should be present in

each composition assignment. Explanation of the goals and of the language

11

12 THE TEACHING OF COMPOSITION

skills necessary to achieve them is the heart of the preparation lesson.

Here is a list of some typical learning purposes:

1. Development of a topic sentence by facts and examples

2. Development of a topic sentence by comparison and contrast

3. Using linking expressions

4. Using transitional devices between paragraphs

5. Outlining

6. Definition

7. Explanation

8. Logical development of an argument (syllogism)

9. Supporting an opinion with anecdotes and personal experiences

10. Using figurative language

11. Developing an informal essay

12. Writing a summary13. Writing a research paper

14. Writing a critical essay

15. Writing a courteous letter of complaint

Provide topics and ideas.

Although the specific subject matter which students use in a composi-

tion will usually be their own, you should decide on the kind of composi-

tion (story, essay, paragraph, etc.) and, during discussion, draw from the

class a number of specific ideas for the composition. Your main concern as

a teacher of English may be to improve the students' writing, but you can-

not evade the other responsibility of helping your students to find some-

thing to write about.

After you have taught the particular skill with which the assignment is

concerned, you may develop a composition in class. By questioning, you

can draw from the class details and ideas to be used in the composition.

List these on the board and then show the class how to group them and

arrange them in the right order. Since getting started is sometimes a prob-

lem, you may go so far as to help the class compose a number of opening

sentences and let each student choose the one with which he or she wishes

to begin. The compositions may turn out to be remarkably alike, but this is

not a fault, provided a fully developed theme results.

Such detailed assistance is not advisable for advanced students. With

them you may plan a sample composition in some detail, but you should

assign students to write on their own topics, using the same method of

preparation but not the same subject matter.

FOLLOW THROUGH AFTER EACH ASSIGNMENT.

Few writing skills can be mastered in a single assignment. Improvement

in writing requires regular review and frequent practice.

THE TEACHING OF COMPOSITION 13

Teach a remedial lesson the day the papers are returned.

The remedial lesson may be less than a class period in length, and it

need not be confined to the skills the class has been taught. Of course, the

first consideration should be given to those faults which prevented the

compositions from achieving the learning purpose for which they were

written. After this, take up any errors in technique which appeared often

enough to make them suitable topics for study by the entire class.

Make composition work cumulative.

During the preparation period, remind your class of the composition

techniques they have learned in preceding compositions. Hold them re-

sponsible, for example, in their fifth composition for the applicable

techniques learned in the first four. It may be advisable to assign two or

three compositions to teach the same skill; in this event, variety should be

achieved through different subject matter. The important thing is that

through your planning, students gain a sense of growth from composition to

composition. They should be aware of improving skills.

In the areas of mechanics and usage, concentration on a few recurring

errors is likely to be more effective than an attempt to explain all errors

found in the students' papers. Write two or three examples of such persis-

tent errors, with corrections or explanations, on the board and leave themthere for a few days as reminders to all classes using the classroom.

Many teachers find it effective to devote a few minutes daily, preferably

at the beginning of the class period, to one or two sentences taken from

student papers. The sentences are on the board when the class comes into

the room. You discuss them with the class and require all students to write

an improved version of each one. This method, of course, may be used to

teach any skills from punctuation and spelling to parallelism.

Have students keep a file of their compositions.

Composition work should give the writer a feeling of growth and real

accomplishment. This feeling can be fostered by making it possible for stu-

dents to see their writing accumulate and to have evidence of their im-

provement. If you have filing space in your classroom, have each student

keep a manila folder in which each paper is to be filed after it has been

corrected. Some teachers have the students keep their "old" compositions

in their notebooks. This is a second-best method because student

notebooks are too often messy accumulations of every kind of work donein all subject matter areas. They are carried about daily, battered by rain

and wind, lost on the school bus, and often left at home on the day you

wish to inspect them. Keeping compositions in your filing cabinet is also

insurance against their being loaned to friends in other classes.


Let students have an opportunity to look through their folders occa-

sionally. Ask them to note weaknesses or mistakes which have appeared

more than once. They should benefit from taking a good look at their latest

compositions before they start work on the next one.

Sometimes in teaching (or in the school magazine) you may wish to use

compositions written several weeks before. The file assures that these will

be available.

Remember that a student's folder is private property, and that this pri-

vacy should be respected by the rest of the class.

Require many short compositions rather than a few long ones.

Ideally, students should average one composition a week. Such an av-

erage is seldom possible, however, because of the enormous paper burden

it imposes on the teacher. Your chances of approaching the ideal are muchbetter if the compositions are short. Except for reports and research pa-

pers, which are necessarily rather long, your students will learn more by

writing short papers frequently than by writing long ones once a month.

Specify clearly how long the compositions are to be. Students, like

adults, wish to know the dimensions of a task when they undertake it.

Whether your answer is in an approximate number of words, paragraphs,

or pages, it should indicate clearly how long you expect the papers to be.

VARY YOUR TEACHING METHODS.

There are many devices you can use in teaching composition which not

only will provide variety in the class routine but also will put your points

across more effectively and will rouse greater student interest. The follow-

ing methods have been successfully used by a great many teachers.

Make frequent use of mimeographed examples.

Student examples of the following kinds can be reproduced on the

mimeograph or ditto machine:

1. Poorly constructed sentences from student papers. As you read a set

of compositions, copy occasional sentences that represent common weak-

nesses. Have some of these mimeographed and give them to the class for

discussion and revision. Sentences the students themselves have written

are more effective exercise material than sentences in a textbook exercise.

When you correct a sentence on a student's paper, only the writer sees

your correction. When you show the sentence to the whole class, all stu-

dents benefit. Student writing that is mimeographed for correction should,

of course, be anonymous.

2. Poorly constructed or inadequately written paragraphs from student

papers. Follow for paragraphs the procedure suggested above for sen-


tences, but in most instances use the paragraphs for discussion, not for

rewriting. Approaching another pupil's paragraph objectively, students are

more discerning and can more easily judge the merits or errors than they

can when they themselves have done the writing.

3. A complete set of compositions. Duplicating several papers is a for-

midable task, but if it can be managed just once, it will provide a forceful

lesson in the importance of clear writing. Have several papers reproduced

exactly as the students wrote them, omitting the names of writers. Distri-

bute a complete set to your class. When all the papers have been read, it

will be time to ask: "Do we have some things to learn about writing? Onwhat things do we need to concentrate?"

If you have time, extend the exercise into the realm of correction and

evaluation. Have the class pretend that they are English teachers. Theywill write comments in the margins and mark errors. No teacher commentcan be as effective as one that comes from the class itself.

Make use of an opaque or overhead projector.

If you are fortunate enough to have an opaque or overhead projector

available, you can use it to give object lessons in proofreading and correct-

ing papers. When students see you actually putting symbols and commentson a paper that a member of the class has written, your system of correct-

ing becomes real and meaningful to the viewers. The inexperienced teacher

should be warned, however, against using the projector for an entire class

period. The length of time that students will concentrate on a screen in

studying details of writing is limited.

Make frequent use of models.

The model is an effective teaching device because it is the clearest

means of showing a class what you are trying to teach them to do. Whether

the model is taken from professional writing or from student writing does

not matter so long as it will inspire students to equal or surpass it. Students

are almost always interested in the work done by former students. For

further suggestions, see "The Use of Models" on pages 30-31 of this

Manual.

Maintain a balance between compositions written in class and com-positions written at home.

In your eleventh-grade and twelfth-grade classes, you will probably

have the majority of your composition assignments written outside of class.

At this level, when the class has progressed beyond the one-paragraph

theme, compositions tend to run to longer papers than can be written well

in a class period. Furthermore, these themes require more time to plan and

to organize. As Lou LaBrant has said,


Good writing is not dashed off in fifteen or twenty minutes, and yet I have

seen teacher after teacher take fifteen minutes of a period to make a hasty

assignment, pass out papers, and give students twenty minutes tofcl

write

something. " Planning takes time; writing requires time for rereading, think-

ing, changing, discarding. Final revision takes even more. Good writing is

not a hasty, careless operation.*

Use the group method to provide an audience for compositions.

Writing is a form of communication. Compositions are written with an

audience in mind, and the very nature of the writing is determined by the

audience for which it is intended. Students show greater interest in writing

effectively when they know that what they write will be heard or read by

their classmates as well as by the teacher.

Divide the class into groups of five or six students each and have the

students read their compositions to their group. This works best when you

have movable desks and a room large enough to permit some separation of

the groups. Arrange the grouping yourself, announcing where in the roomeach group will sit and which students will be in each group. Have a nearly

equal number of boys and girls in each group. Appoint a group leader, whowill decide in what order the papers will be read and who will conduct the

discussion, if any, after each paper. If you wish, the group may select the

best composition for reading to the entire class. If two papers seem equally

good, have both read to the class.

Advise the class in advance that in selecting the best composition, they

should keep in mind the learning purpose of the lesson. This will help to

prevent the selection of a funny composition simply because it's funny,

even though the writer may have completely ignored the requirements of

the assignment.

After two or three of these group sessions, the class will accept them as

normal routine and will write with increased motivation to get the approval

of their classmates. When you find that the papers of the same talented

writers are being chosen time after time, change the groups, putting these

frequent winners together in the same group.

During the reading in groups, make a point of joining each group for a

few minutes. Always stay long enough with a group to permit a reader to

finish reading a paper. (Getting up and moving in the middle of a composi-

tion will seem rude to the reader.) Praise particular aspects rather than the

whole composition, but be aware that your praise may swing the vote.

Even if the class responds enthusiastically to the group method, use the

method sparingly. Some assignments—personal narratives, anecdotes, con-

troversial issues—are better suited to this kind of lesson than are others,

e.g., formal paragraphs, summaries, etc. If for any reason it seems better

to have the members pass their papers around the group to be read silently

* From "Inducing Students to Write," by Lou LaBrant, from Writing, Leaflet 2, 1958.

Reprinted by permission of the National Council of Teachers of English.


by each student, this affords a variation in procedure. In fact, such silent

reading may well follow the oral reading anyway, the students checking

one another's papers for mechanical faults.

B. MOTIVATION AND CLASS PROCEDURE

The teacher, rather than the textbook, is the key factor in motivation. Acomposition assignment should be adapted to a particular class at a particu-

lar time. You know your class, their abilities and their interests. If you

wish, you can make effective use of your students' recent experiences, of

current events in school and outside school, of the literature they are read-

ing, of controversial issues in which they are interested. The textbook pro-

vides the rules, teaching materials, and suggested assignments, but youmust provide the motivating spark and adapt the assignments to appeal to

your students.

MOTIVATING WRITING THROUGH CLASS DISCUSSION

In general, the compositions written by high school students are ex-

pressions of their experiences or their ideas. Except for the report and the

research paper, the compositions are not based on research or even on

materials hastily looked up in the library. The fact is that because high

school seniors have from four to six major subjects, they do not have time

to do much research on the subjects of their weekly themes.

The students gain points of view on a given topic by listening to a dis-

cussion of it and by turning the subject over and over in their minds. Their

compositions reflect what they themselves have experienced and what they

have heard others say. To be sure, class discussions are sometimes fruit-

less because they deal with subjects beyond the knowledge or experience

of the students. They may degenerate into heated arguments in which the

blind confidently lead the blind. It is your responsibility to prevent this

kind of discussion by presenting topics which are within the capabilities of

the students and by holding a fairly tight rein on the discussion itself. Bealert to curb arguments over matters of fact, and to point out the sweeping

generalization, the illogical deduction, the false analogy, the irrelevant

point, the personal prejudice. Insist that students back up their opinions by

giving valid reasons, pertinent facts, and appropriate examples.

The teacher-conducted discussion

The period devoted to preparation for a composition is usually con-

ducted by the teacher, the lesson proceeding by the customary question-

and-answer method. When you enter the classroom, you have in mind a

general topic on which you wish your students to write their next composi-

tion. You announce the topic, throw out a few provocative questions, get a


discussion or, better yet, an argument started if you can. As a result of this

lesson, you hope every member of the class will have acquired enough

ideas on the subject to write a respectable theme.

The panel discussion

A variation of the discussion motivation is that in which you, the

teacher, stay in the background while the students carry the lesson through

a panel discussion. Three or four days before the composition is to be

written, you announce the topic and the names of four students who will be

on the panel to discuss the topic, and you arrange a time for these four

panelists to meet, either during class or outside of class, to plan their panel

program. The panel should precede by one or two days the date the com-

position is due. Expedite the panel by giving each panel member a question

to answer as a starting point for contribution to the discussion.

Suppose, for example, that you are assigning a class of seniors to write

an evaluation of their high school education. After you have made clear the

dimensions of the composition and have taught the "learning purpose"

(careful organization, the use of transitions, supporting points by specific

details, or whatever you wish), you are ready to set up a period of discus-

sion on the subject matter of the composition. Each student will see this

topic from a particular point of view; each student's ideas will be colored

by particular experiences and tastes. But a thorough airing of the subject

in class will help each student to see new aspects to discuss in the paper

and, perhaps, to temper opinions. Those students who at first did not see

any possibilities in the topic will soon see a good many. You select your

panel of four, name one member as leader, and give to each member a

topic or question to discuss. The four questions might be the following:

1. Which academic subject have you found most satisfactory? Why?2. Which academic subject have you found least satisfactory? Why?3. Do you believe that the subjects you have been required to take should

have been required? Should other subjects have been required? Should

there have been more opportunity for electives?

4. What is your opinion of the activity (extracurricular) program as an edu-

cational force?

You may even break down the questions into some specific topics,

handing each panel member a slip of paper on which you have written your

suggestions. For instance, the first question could be broken down as fol-

lows:

1. Which academic subject have you found most satisfactory? Why?a. Which subject was best taught?

b. From which did you learn the most?

c. Which has proved most valuable to you?


On the day specified, the leader of the panel will take charge. Each

member will speak. Then the panel members will discuss the subject back

and forth, and finally, the entire class, the audience, will be permitted to

express points of view. Following a class period devoted to this sort of

activity, every student should have enough content for a composition.

The panel discussion for compositions based on literature

You can use the panel discussion to motivate compositions based on

ideas your students are encountering in their literature study. Set up a

panel to discuss aspects of a novel, an essay, a short story, or a poem.

Sometimes a comparison of four selections which have something in com-

mon is rewarding. Each panel member presents one selection, summarizing

and analyzing its ideas.

COMPOSITION ASSIGNMENTS

Experienced teachers have their own bag of tricks and their own favo-

rite writing assignments. They know which assignments have produced the

best results in their classes. The inexperienced teacher, however, often

needs suggestions of composition assignments which have proved success-

ful with other teachers and which can be adapted for use in other classes.

On the following pages you will find descriptions of a number of such com-position projects.

SUBJECTIVE WRITING

Typical high school students are self-centered and self-conscious.

Faced with innumerable adjustments to confusing changes in physical,

emotional, and social development, they are constantly concerned with

their own adaptation to these changes. In their desire to be accepted bytheir peers, they develop strong personal and group loyalties. Some stu-

dents will aspire to sophistication and a crowded social life. Others,

plagued by lack of self-confidence, will display a tendency to withdraw

socially and rely on the consolation of a close friend or a sympathetic fam-

ily. Yearning for greater freedom and independence, adolescents are fre-

quently in conflict with parents and other adults as they seek at the same

time security and independence.

All these things contribute to their confusion, but the confusion is inside

them, not on the surface. Subjective writing need not be of the soul search-

ing variety, but it does turn the spotlight on the writer. Being so muchinvolved with personal problems, adolescents will be interested in writing

about these problems, sometimes solemnly, sometimes good-humoredly.

The teacher who can get them to write frankly and honestly about them-

selves helps them to adjust and to find composition subject matter of in-

terest to them.


The character sketch

Rather than first asking adolescents to write about themselves, you maybreak the ice by asking them to write about another person—their closest

friend, a member of their family, or someone they admire. You may wish

to permit them to be critical as well as laudatory in their characterizations.

This composition has the double advantage of appealing to the writer and

revealing the writer.

Like all themes, this one should be planned by preparing a brief outline,

a list of the things the writer likes or dislikes about the person chosen for

description. Tell the class that if the list seems too long, they should con-

centrate on only a few characteristics. Suggest that they include at least

one anecdote or incident which will illustrate a major characteristic.

Suggest, too, that they keep the friend's identity a secret by using a dif-

ferent name. You may get better results in compositions of a personal nature

if you do not have them read in class lest they embarrass their authors.

Reactions on returning to school in the fall

The subject matter for this assignment is suggested by such topics as

"Thoughts on Returning to School" or "Resolutions on the Opening of

School."

Students approach school in September full of good intentions and full

of memories, some pleasant and some unpleasant, of school in past years.

A first-of-the-year statement of these thoughts will make a good theme at

the beginning of the course. You may assign it as a one-paragraph theme,

especially in less-advanced classes, or as a multi-paragraph composition.

Leading questions may be helpful for those who have not done muchorganized thinking on the subject. "Were you satisfied with your school-

work last year? If not, what specific things can you do to improve your

work this year? What things did you not do last year that you wish you had

done? What sports, school activities, outside-of-school activities are you

planning to engage in? What personal qualities do you have which should

be either changed or developed?" If you do use leading questions, warn

your classes not to try to build a theme by simply writing brief answers to

such questions.

The personal essay

At some point in your literature program, you will teach the personal

essay. You will find it an easy and rewarding literary type to teach. One of

the best things about it is the way it will interest your students in writing

entertaining essays of their own. Seize upon this interest as motivation for

essay writing. Students enjoy imitating the style and the amused point of

view of such masters of the form as Christopher Morley, Stephen Leacock,


Robert Benchley, James Thurber, H. Allen Smith, and Art Buchwald, but

you should not make imitation of style a feature of your assignment. Dis-

cuss with your class the other qualities of these writers. Emphasize their

use of anecdote, their tendency toward exaggeration, their keen observa-

tion, their cleverness. Informal essays may be written on almost any topic.

These may be helpful as adaptable suggestions for your students.

The Day Begins at Our HouseMy Life with Animals

My Struggles with MathHigh School Sweethearts

The Piano and I

How to Get Along with Teachers

On Becoming an Actor

This Year's Styles

The New Automobiles

In Defense of Procrastination

Daydreaming

The one-paragraph description of a personal problem

High school students live in many worlds: home, school, school sports

and activities, activities outside of school, place of worship, and, in somecases, the world of work. Their reactions to what they find in each of the

worlds can provide subject matter for many one-paragraph themes, even

for multi-paragraph themes. Each world contains problems. You may as-

sign paragraphs on the problems faced in each world. Encourage your stu-

dents to suggest solutions to the problems. Insist that they make a problem

concrete by telling an incident to illustrate it. By the time you have taught a

few years, you should have in your file some excellent compositions to use

as models. Nothing you can do by way of motivation will be more effective

than reading to the class a frank, sincere, well-planned paragraph written

by a former student about life and its problems or its aspirations. A good

model will set the tone for your students1 own paragraphs.

MODEL

My biggest problem at home is to get my parents to trust me. They are

always asking questions about my homework, where I went after school,

whose car I came home in, who my friends are, etc. I wouldn't mind this so

much if they didn't always seem so suspicious. Last Thursday I went downto the Hamburger Shop after school with Betty. We had just come out of the

store when two boys we knew came along and stopped to talk. Mother drove

by and saw us. Well, when I got home I had to answer a dozen questions

about the boys and why we were on the street talking to them and how long

we'd been there. Mother said she wasn't going to have me spending after-

noons hanging around street corners with strange people. That's what I mean

by not being trusted.


The self-analysis

Like the brief description of a personal problem, the self-analysis

should not be assigned until you are sure you have your students' confi-

dence. You may suggest topics like "My Personality," "My Disposition,"

"What Kind of Person Am I?" "Things About Myself I'd Like to

Change," "My Problems Are My Own Fault," etc. Conduct your motiva-

tion good-humoredly, not with the solemn air of one who thinks all stu-

dents are facing deep, dark problems which you want to know all about.

Naturally, this set of compositions will not be read in class.

The philosophical essay

While the philosophical essay may seem beyond the ability of some of

your students, it is actually appropriate to most of them because they are

encountering, perhaps for the first time, some major philosophical prob-

lems. Properly motivated, the preparation of a composition setting forth a

personal philosophy of life can be a rich experience.

The question will be asked, " 'This I believe' about what?" You must

suggest the areas of a personal philosophy:

What should one strive for in life?

What is happiness?

What is success?

What is good and what is evil?

How can one tell right from wrong?

Are struggle and strife and suffering important and unavoidable?

To what extent is each of us responsible for others?

What role, if any, does destiny or fate play in our lives?

Are we immortal?

What answers do religions offer?

This assignment will be too difficult, too abstract, for many of your

students. Try to give them concrete problems to answer, problems of right

and wrong, of different versions of happiness and success, of honesty in

human behavior. You can easily make up instances or stories based on the

following situations which call for simple philosophical judgments:

A student cheats on a test and benefits by getting a high grade. Whyshouldn't you try the same thing?

Someone you know finds a sum of money and keeps it without telling anyone.

What's the matter with "finders keepers"?

You lose a textbook and cannot afford another. You steal Bill's and justify

your action by saying to yourself, "Bill won't mind; he has lots of

money."

A person who achieves fame and wealth by selfish actions says, "People have

to look out for themselves. This is a competitive world. The weak lose out."


As a member of a crowd, you disapprove of the crowd's actions, but you

keep quiet.

Should you report a dishonest act you have seen a friend perform?

A person who has never hurt anyone is suddenly crippled by an accident or

attacked by a terrible disease. How do you explain the unfairness of this?

Students sometimes write effectively about an experience which taught

them a philosophical truth. The experience may be a religious experience.

It may be a great sorrow. It may be a simple happening in school. You can

probably get some good examples through class discussion, which will, in

turn, lead other students to recall similar experiences they can write about.

The college application autobiography

Colleges often request that a brief autobiographical statement accom-

pany an application. You can help your students by requiring them to write

such a statement as a composition assignment. Perhaps your school's guid-

ance department can supply you with sample college applications contain-

ing specific instructions for the autobiography.

In discussing the assignment with your class, make the following points:

By reading your autobiography, the college will try to discover how well

you write, what your family background is, what your interests are, what

important experiences of value you have had in school and out, what your

personality is like. To reveal all these things in 300 to 400 words will re-

quire very careful planning and concise writing. Unless you write naturally,

you will give the impression that you are insincere or, at least, you will

give a false impression of your personality. Don't try too hard to make a

good impression, but don't underestimate yourself either. Certain basic

facts must be included: date and place of birth; places you have lived;

scholastic and extracurricular achievements; occupations of your parents.

Don't be unnaturally solemn; let your sense of humor come through, pro-

vided you can do so without straining.

OBJECTIVE WRITING

The divisions of writing called subjective and objective overlap. All ex-

pressions of personal opinion are in a sense subjective, even though the

writers are not writing about themselves. Yet there is a great deal of differ-

ence between a self-analysis, for example, which spotlights the writer as

the subject, and a personal definition of an abstract term, which is some-

thing outside the writer. The following composition topics are, in this lat-

ter sense, objective.

The one-paragraph definition

An assignment which will appeal more to your advanced students is the

paragraph which defines. The thing defined may be specific or vague. The


tone of the paragraph may be serious or humorous. The possible topics

are limitless. You may begin your discussion by writing on the board a few

items like the following: friendship; contentment; the American way; popu-

larity; conformity. Ask the class to give impromptu definitions of these

abstractions. Ask for suggestions as to how the definition could be madeclearer if developed or expanded into a paragraph. Make the point that a

complete definition is more than a dictionary-type statement. Development

may be achieved by examples and incidents. If your students prove inca-

pable of developing or explaining a definition of an abstract term, give them

more concrete topics: a successful teacher; a real scholar; a good book; a

true friend; a happy home; etc.

An informational essay

Writing a purely informational essay is excellent preparation for writing

essay answers on an examination. Before assigning an informational essay,

make some inquiries to find out whether there are class members who are

especially well informed on certain subjects. Star athletes know a great

deal about the sports in which they excel. Hobbyists can tell many interest-

ing things about their hobbies. The student who has an interesting after-

school job or who holds an interesting job during the summer probably has

expert knowledge of the job.

The essay developing a quotation or proverb

The use of quotations or proverbs supplied by the teacher is good moti-

vation for writing, provided the proverbs and quotations are not so familiar

("Honesty is the best policy") as to bore your students.

This kind of composition assignment is especially effective for composi-

tions to be written in class. It is frequently used in composition tests. If

you wish to motivate a composition of this kind, instead of merely giving

the quotation and directing the class to write their reactions, take time to

discuss a quotation in detail, showing how the idea may be supported or

opposed by the us .», of examples, incidents, facts, and reasons. You can,

with suggestions frcm the class, outline a composition on the board. Unless

you have a particular reason for doing so, do not let the students write their

compositions on the same quotation developed in the class discussion, but

give them a choice of several others. For the in-class composition, give

them only one or two quotations and tell them to use the quotation as the

topic sentence for a paragraph or an essay.

The following quotations, some of which are much more difficult than

others, may prove useful:

1. Literature is my Utopia.

—

helen keller2. No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.

—ELEANOR ROOSEVELT


3. It's but little good you'll do a-watering the last year's crops.

—GEORGE ELIOT

4. Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere.

—MARTIN LUTHER KING, JR.

5. Imitation is the sincerest form of flattery.

—

thomas paine6. Not to discover weakness is the Artifice of strength.

—EMILY DICKINSON7. Our life is frittered away by detail.

—

henry david thoreau8. The ways to enrich are many, and most of them foul.

—

francis bacon9. Poverty is the parent of revolution and crime.

—

aristotle

10. There never was a good war, or a bad peace.

—

benjamin franklin11. The beauty of the world has two edges, one of laughter, one of

anguish, cutting the heart asunder.

—

Virginia woolf12. I would rather discover one scientific fact than be King of Persia.

—DEMOCRITUS13. Insist on yourself; never imitate.

—

Ralph waldo emerson

The essay on a provocative or controversial statement

Also useful for in-class writing without much motivation is the essay

developing the students' ideas on a provocative or a controversial state-

ment.

The following provocative statements could serve as the bases of essays

which would be developed by giving specific examples or telling incidents

from one's own personal experience:

1. On some days, everything goes wrong.

2. My first attempt at (driving, skiing, hunting, mountain climbing, exploring

a cave, etc.) was nearly my last.

3. The way you say it can make all the difference.

4. Young people need as much patience as parents.

5. Religion is a way of life.

The best controversial statements are those which reflect a current con-

troversy in the school or the community, preferably one of a concrete na-

ture, such as a topic pertaining to school regulations which have proved

objectionable to the students. The following topics have often been used

and may not be suitable for this reason. Nevertheless, they will provide

suggestions.

1. Attendance at school assemblies should be voluntary.

2. High school students should be allowed to choose their teachers.

3. Making a varsity team requires more time and effort than it is worth.

4. Interscholastic athletics are taken too seriously in this school.

5. High marks should not be a requirement for honor society membership.

6. High school fraternities and sororities are undemocratic and should be

banned.

7. Television programs and movies should be more strictly censored.

8. Parents should practice what they preach.


9. The voting age should be raised to twenty-one.

10. Juvenile delinquency is caused by adult delinquency.

The essay on a topic in the news

Your more enthusiastic students may respond to the assignment requir-

ing them to select from the newspaper a story about a current event and

write a composition in which they tell what the event is, why it is signifi-

cant, and what they think about it.

The assignment lends itself well to treatment in three paragraphs. In the

first paragraph the students describe the event in their own words—

a

summary of the news story or stories. In the second paragraph they explain

the event, giving its background, stating why they selected it for their

theme and why it is important. In the third paragraph they write a brief

editorial, giving their opinion of the event, the people involved, the right or

wrong of it if it is controversial, etc. The news story selected need not be

one of national or international importance. It can range from a prominent

crime or a great sports event to the latest scientific advance or the latest

change in foreign policy. You may ask your students to attach the news-

paper stories to their compositions when they hand them in.

The best motivation for this kind of assignment is for you to read a

news story to the class and show them exactly how to deal with it accord-

ing to the requirements you have made.

The satirical essay

Advanced students sometimes enjoy trying their hand at satire, holding

up to ridicule, largely through exaggeration, the follies of their contem-

poraries, their parents, their teachers, etc. Motivation for writing satire can

come from selections in the literature text or from selections you read to

the class. The following will be fruitful sources: Pope, Swift, Addison and

Steele, Byron, Hardy, Sinclair Lewis, Marquand, Mary McCarthy, and

such modern light-verse writers as Arthur Guiterman, Ogden Nash,

Dorothy Parker, and Phyllis McGinley.

Frequently the cover picture and cartoons in the New Yorker magazine,

as well as many of the cartoons in other popular magazines, if displayed on

the bulletin board, will also help to stimulate a satirical point of view.

The short composition based on the connotations of one word

For a creative one-paragraph theme assignment, write a word on the

board and ask students to list briefly all the things which the word brings to

mind. Then ask them to write a paragraph on this word and all that it

suggests to them. Or, if the original word has been too completelyexplored, suggest another word. This assignment is especially good for the

theme written in class.

The following are good words for this assignment but no better than a


thousand others: spring, radiance, sky, discipline, impulsiveness, sick,

freedom, independence, love.

The composition based on literature

In the course of your teaching of literature, you give frequent written

assignments. These assignments afford many opportunities for you to teach

composition. It is important that you insist on your students' employing in

these literature assignments the composition skills you have been teaching.

It is important, too, that in judging these assignments, you apply the same

criteria you apply to the compositions written solely for composition pur-

poses. One great advantage of the topic based on literature is that the sub-

ject matter is usually there for the students to work with; they do not have

to dig it up from their own experience.

A description of the personality of the author of a personal essay, as gleaned

from the essay

An evaluation of the verisimilitude of a story

A personal reaction to a story, essay, poem, or play, supported by specific

reasons

A composition based on a literary selection, which at its best ap-

proaches literary criticism, should usually be prepared for by class discus-

sion. The students need the stimulation provided by listening to each other

discuss the selection. Without the advantage of such class discussion,

many students will never get beyond the "I liked it" or "I didn't like it"

kind of criticism. Everything you discuss about a piece of literature is pos-

sible subject matter for a written assignment either on the piece you are

discussing or on the next selection to be read.

Three kinds of reports may be assigned in connection with literature

study:

1. The report on a topic encountered in connection with literature

study.

The Fall of the Bastille (A Tale of Two Cities)

Plutarch's Lives (Brutus, Antony, Caesar) {Julius Caesar)

Whaling in the Nineteenth Century {Moby Dick)

American Colonial Life {The Scarlet Letter)

Small-Town America {Our Town)

Life on the Frontier {Giants in the Earth)

The War Between the States {The Red Badge of Courage, John Brown's

Body)

2. The report on the life and work of an author. Students will find help

in gathering material for this kind of report in Chapter 33, "Reference

Books."Biographical reports are likely to be dull because they are stereotyped

or because they are word-for-word copies of a reference book article. Warn


your students against these dangers. Urge them to begin in some other waythan the usual " was born in London, England, on January 1,

1920," perhaps by telling a revealing anecdote about the author or a start-

ling fact about the author's works. Emphasize that the class will be as muchinterested in learning what kind of person the artist is as in learning about

the events of an artistic career. Require the students to list their sources at

the end of the report.

3. The general critical review of a book or play. Often the bane of both

students and teachers, the general book report, usually written about a

book read to meet the "outside reading" requirement, is nevertheless a

composition. It should be assigned as an exercise in good writing as well as

an exercise in the interpretation of literature. As a demonstration of the

student's ability to write, it should be evaluated for its organization, para-

graph structure, and style, as well as for its content.

Another kind of critical review makes a good writing assignment. This

is the review of a television program, a movie, a play, or a school assembly

program.

Since each kind of entertainment medium must be judged according to a

set of standards, lead your class in a discussion of standards before having

them write their reviews. Careful analysis of the points made in a news-

paper or magazine review of a television program or a movie will be reveal-

ing, especially if the students have seen the program. The question for the

class to consider is "What kinds of things do professional reviewers dis-

cuss concerning a program, play, or movie?" Other questions for discus-

sion are "How does the nature of the audience for whom the reviewers are

writing affect the content?" "To what extent should reviewers' ownpersonal tastes enter into comments?"

The following questions, not all of which will pertain to every situation,

may be helpful bases for evaluation:

1. What was the purpose of the production? (common purposes: to enter-

tain, to inform, to persuade, to instruct.)

2. How effectively did the production achieve its purpose? What factors

made it effective? What factors detracted from its effectiveness?

3. How skillful were the performances of the actors?

4. How effective was the camera work?

5. Was the setting important? Was it vividly presented?

6. Was the story believable, convincing?

7. Were there dull moments?8. Were there trite or stereotyped elements?

GENERAL AREAS OF IDEAS FOR COMPOSITIONS

Many teachers find it possible to stimulate student thinking and writing

by presenting a number of general areas of ideas, holding discussions of the

ideas the class has in each area, and assigning one or two compositions in

each area. The following areas are typical:


A. Education1. Evaluation of my elementary school education

2. Evaluation of my secondary school education

3. Advice to a high school freshman

4. What a high school graduate should know5. How to choose a college

6. Education outside of school

7. How to study

8. Attributes of the educated person

B. Morals, ethics, and religion

1. Conformity and individualism in adolescence

2. How to tell right from wrong

3. A criticism (or a defense) of adolescent behavior

4. Causes of juvenile delinquency

5. Morality in modern advertising

6. The Ten Commandments in high school

7. Religious doctrine and today's world

C. Human rights

1. Equalization of opportunity in the United States

2. The denial of civil rights

3. What democracy means to me4. Totalitarianism vs. democracy

5. Can democracy work efficiently?

6. Censorship

D. Explanations of natural phenomena. Students who are taking ad-

vanced science or who have scientific hobbies respond to this kind of sub-

ject. When you assign this paper, you should have an alternate topic (or

allow freedom to choose their own) for those students who cannot write on

natural phenomena. Since the content for a paper of this kind is already in

the students' minds, they can concentrate on making the explanation clear

and interesting. Typical topics will deal with

1. The weather

2. Habits of an animal

3. Facts about space or phenomena affecting space travel

4. Control of erosion

5. The nuclear reactor

E. A personal experience. Everyone has had sobering experiences. High

school seniors can usually recall events which made a deep impression on

them and made them think: a serious accident, a death, a sudden stroke of

good luck, a severe disappointment, a visit to a place which was impres-

sive, a meeting with an outstanding personality, an especially satisfying or

happy moment. Contributing an experience of your own or using a mean-

ingful experience in fiction will help in motivation.


C. THE USE OF MODELS

Composition is taught in three stages: The first stage is instruction; the

second is example—the study of models; the third is practice—the writing

of a theme. English Grammar and Composition: Complete Course contains

ample instruction to accomplish the first stage; indeed, the purpose of the

book is to instruct students in writing skills. It also contains a great manyexamples, or models, to meet the demands of the second stage. Note, for

instance, the many model paragraphs in Chapter 21, "The Paragraph"; the

carefully worked out model theme in Chapter 22, "Expository Writing";

and the sample pages from a research paper in Chapter 26. To satisfy the

requirements of the third, or practice, stage, every composition chapter

contains a great many theme assignments, and, in Chapter 22, the student

will find an extensive list of topics to write about.

It is in the second, or example, stage, however, that teachers usually

want more material than can be supplied in the necessarily limited space

available in a general English text. This needed material is provided in

Advanced Composition: A Book of Models for Writing, which has been

designed as a companion text to English Grammar and Composition:

Complete Course.

Advanced Composition contains about fifty selections arranged under

the headings "Description," "Exposition," "Narration," and "ModelsWithout Analysis." Each section is introduced by a discussion of the type

of discourse covered, and each model is introduced by a brief essay which

points up the particular skills the model was chosen to demonstrate. Fol-

lowing each model in the first three parts of the book are an analysis to

guide the students in their study, and questions on content and techniques

which help them to analyze for themselves both the author's ideas and

their writing skills. These aids are followed by a number of suggestions for

themes.

The models serve two purposes. First, they provide interesting ideas for

class discussion and, naturally, for students to write about. Second, they

show the characteristics of good writing for students to emulate.

USING ADVANCED COMPOSITION: A BOOK OF MODELSFOR WRITING

The usual procedure in teaching from a book of models is to introduce a

selection briefly yourself in class and assign the reading as homework, un-

less the model is short. As part of their homework, students should prepare

themselves to answer the questions on content and technique which follow

each selection. These questions serve as a guide for discussion of the

model in class the following day. Finally, you will wish to summarize, or

ask the class to summarize, the characteristics of the writing that make the

selection not only good to read but also good to imitate—characteristics


which you can now ask the class to show in their own compositions. In the

course of just one year, no class could write a theme in emulation of every

one of the models in Advanced Composition, but students can read several

models in preparation for one theme assignment—all the models, of course,

illustrating the same kind of writing.

OTHER WAYS OF USING MODELS

Whether or not you use Advanced Composition as a source of models

to supplement the second stage in your composition teaching, you should

occasionally use student themes as models. Very often a successful student

theme, written in another class in fulfillment of the assignment you are nowmaking, will do more than all your instruction and any professional models

to make clear exactly what you expect of your students.

You will also use student models whenever you read to the class two or

three of the best themes in an assignment, even though this is "after-the-

fact" teaching. In the event that you are following one assignment with

another very much like it, these models from the first assignment will help

students to write the second. Point out the ways the writer successfully

met the objective of the assignment. Often those students who did not

catch on in the first assignment will do much better on the second, after

they have seen how their classmates handled the problem.

Your literature texts are fertile sources of models of good writing. Alittle time spent searching through an anthology, for example, should yield

a number of selections which you can use in making a theme assignment.

In this activity, of course, you must prepare your own analysis of the selec-

tion.

D. EVALUATION

In reading a student's composition, focus your attention on what the

student is trying to say, rather than on superficial matters like punctuation

or penmanship. Although usually you will want to mark some mechanical

errors for correction, your grade and your written comments should be

related chiefly to the content of the paper—not to its mechanical correct-

ness.

MARKING A COMPOSITION

You will usually find that it is easier to mark papers if you decide in

advance what you are looking for. For instance, when you are teaching the

paragraph, you will want to concentrate largely on the paragraph structure

in students' themes. You may decide in advance to limit your commentsentirely to remarks on topic sentences and paragraph development.


The grade on the composition

As explained on Manual pages 11-12, every composition assign-

ment should have a learning purpose. Aware of this purpose, the students

should strive to fulfill it. For example, if the learning purpose is to use

transitional expressions between paragraphs, one of your main concerns in

judging the composition will be the students' use of such expressions. Thecomposition which contains no transitions, interesting and well written

though it may be, should not receive a top grade. On papers which are well

written but ignore the purpose of the assignment, a few low grades will

show that you mean business.

Mechanical skills are important, but they are never as important as con-

tent. Some teachers keep the two matters distinct by using the double

grade—B/C+—the main grade representing content, the secondary one

representing mechanics. Whether or not you use a double grade, it is es-

sential to show the students that what they say—not how they spell it—is

your chief concern. Never give an "A" to a trite, dull composition which

happens to be free from mechanical errors.

Your written comments

Students are interested in your reaction to what they have written.

Encourage their eagerness to read your comments by making them as per-

sonal as possible, directed to a particular student as you have come to

know that student. Since one is always more interested in repeating a

pleasant experience than an unpleasant one, go out of your way to find

things to praise even in poor papers, provided you feel the student has

made a sincere effort.

Your comments in the margin should make the students think. Theywill appreciate this evidence that you have given their papers a careful and

appreciative reading. They will be helped by questions such as the follow-

ing: "Is this clear?" "Is this what you really mean?" "Can you prove

this?" "Your ending might be your beginning. Why?" "Would an ordinary

reader understand this?"

They will be encouraged by positive comments: "I agree." "You sup-

port your arguments well." "With such a beginning, anyone would want to

read on." "Neat phrase." "Good word."

Your corrections

Teachers frequently check every error they can find in a composi-

tion. At the senior level this may be a justifiable practice since students are

old enough to understand and benefit from all their mistakes. However,

there is something to be said for concentrating on serious errors and ignor-

ing the rare and almost harmless ones, especially during the early weeks of

the course.


Minimum standards are those requirements of good writing which you

can reasonably expect every student at the grade level of your class to

know; for example, the spelling of commonly used words; the correct use

of the apostrophe; the writing of complete sentences; inclusion of a topic

sentence in a paragraph; preparation of a neat, legible manuscript, etc.

Check errors which the class has been taught specifically to avoid. Assoon as you have taught a chapter in the text, hold students responsible for

the skills covered by the chapter. If all chapters on usage and sentence

structure are taught during the first half of the year, you will be at liberty to

call the students' attention to almost every kind of error in the composi-

tions written during the second semester. It is of utmost importance that

your students realize early that the skills they are learning in their textbook

must be demonstrated in their compositions.

Whether you are aware of it or not, you do weigh errors. The paper

which contains violations of minimum standards receives a low grade, as

does the paper which contains violations of sentence structure skills you

have already taught. Some errors naturally are far more serious than

others. You will be prejudiced against a composition which contains errors

in agreement or in the correct case of pronouns but not against the paper

whose errors are matters of smooth phrasing (for example, parallelism) or

in the punctuation of nonessential elements. Nevertheless, remembereach time you grade a paper, especially if you are using a separate grade

for mechanics, to ask yourself whether, in spite of the amount of red ink on

the paper, the errors were generally serious errors or minor ones. Grade

the paper accordingly.

Ordinarily you should insist that students correct all errors checked ontheir papers and revise all passages marked for revision. Unless students

are required to return to you all papers with corrections properly made,

your effort in checking the composition has been in vain. First, make sure

at the beginning of the year that students understand your correction sym-

bols. Go over the symbols in class, explaining what each one means and

how to make the correction called for. Second, when a student has cor-

rected a paper and returned it to you, read it over rapidly to see that all of

your suggested improvements have been made. If a student has omitted

any or "corrected" any incorrectly, reduce the grade on the paper and

return it to be corrected a second time.

Using checklists and evaluation sheets

Some teachers provide themselves with a rubber stamp that they use to

stamp a check-off form at the top of a composition. For example:

Ideas.3-

Organization Q^t

Mechanics Q+—Sentence Structure O


This procedure allows you to call attention to particular strengths and

weaknesses.

For student self-evaluation, develop with the students an evaluation

sheet to be submitted with each composition. Provide a space for students

to initial each item on the sheet and a space for comments at the bottom.

Duplicate the sheet. Such items as the following may be included:

INITIALS

1. I planned my paper carefully.

2. I divided my paper into paragraphs according to main ideas.

3. I used no run-on sentences.

4. I wrote no sentence fragments.

5. I proofread my paper for punctuation.

6. I proofread my paper for capitalization.

7. I proofread my paper for grammatical errors.

comments:

STEPS TO RELIEVE THE BURDENOF THEME CORRECTION

A few school systems have experimented successfully with using lay

readers to correct themes. In most schools, however, correcting themes is

still the task of the teacher. The following suggestions list some of the

methods that experienced teachers have developed for dealing with the

task more quickly and efficiently.

Use your time as efficiently as possible.

Stagger or rotate your composition assignments among your classes.

Instead of having all your classes write compositions on the same day,

have each class write on a different day. Some teachers rotate composition

work among rows, each row handing in its compositions on a different day

of the week. (For some assignments this may be practical, though of course

it would not work for compositions written in class immediately following

motivation.) Read a set of compositions the day you receive them, if at all

possible. Do not let papers pile up.

Insist on promptness in handing in assigned work. Make it clear to your

classes early in the year that late papers will not be accepted. Require

students who do not have their work ready to stay after school until it is

completed. Reduce the grade on such papers. Unless you are strict on this

point, you will find the papers dribbling in over several days, and you will

be burdened by having to read and correct these strays at every available

moment.


Use a number of simple symbols for indicating errors. The following

symbols will usually suffice for twelfth-grade papers:

ms error in manuscript form or neatness

cap error in use of capital letters

p error in punctuation

sp error in spelling

frag sentence fragment

ss error in sentence structure

k awkward sentence

nc not clear

ref unclear reference of pronoun

rs run-on sentence

gr error in grammar (usage)

w error in word choice

1f You should have begun a new paragraph here.

t error in tense

A You have omitted something.

At the beginning of the year, go over the symbols with the class, makingsure that students know what each symbol means and that they understandhow to make the correction which is called for.

Arrange personal conferences about composition work. Occasionally,

give your classes a period for in-class silent reading or work on exercises,

which will free you to have personal conferences with those who need this

extra attention. With the students' folders at hand, you can show themtheir weaknesses more effectively than can your notations on their papers.

Making clear what they must do to improve their writing will, in turn, re-

lieve you of some of the work in grading.

Enlist the help of your students in checking papers carefully before

you receive them.

Allow a few minutes for proofreading before you have the composi-

tions handed in. During this self-checking period, advise students to read

their papers aloud. This is an excellent way to uncover sentence fragments,

run-ons, and awkwardness. Develop with the class a chart of items to

check before submitting a composition (see the self-checking sheet on

Manual page 34). The list may be kept on a large wall chart where all maysee it or in the students' notebooks. As the year progresses, add new items

to the list.

Have students exchange papers with each other before handing themin. If errors are found, the partner-reader can call them to the attention of

the writer, who can then correct them. It may be advisable at first to limit

the students to correction of only one kind of error: fragments, spelling, or


capitals. As they study more things, students can be advised to look for

more in their proofreading.

Appoint or have the class elect an editorial hoard to read the composi-

tions before you read them. It should be composed of the best writers in

the class. With red pencils, the board members will check errors in

mechanics. When you read the papers, you can quickly note any mistakes

made by the board, but their work should leave you relatively free to con-

centrate on content and organization.

Whenever possible, forestall errors or prevent their recurrence.

Take your students through Chapter 28, "Manuscript Form," just

before they write their first composition. Then insist, beginning with the

first assignment, that they follow the chapter instructions exactly.

During the preparation period before writing, anticipate probable er-

rors. You can forestall many mechanical errors by anticipating them. For

example, if a composition is likely to contain dialogue, you can give a few

lessons in punctuating dialogue. If, by the nature of the topics for composi-

tion, you know certain words will probably be used, you can drill in ad-

vance on the spelling of these words.

Have students keep a notebook list of their errors. To prevent repetition

of the same errors in succeeding compositions, have students record on a

page in their notebooks, or on a sheet in their composition folders, the

errors made in each composition. As they find themselves making the same

kind of error in two different papers, they will concentrate on avoiding the

error.

Errors which it would be pointless to write out in full, such as frag-

ments, run-on sentences, and poorly organized paragraphs, should not be

copied but merely named in the notebook list to remind the student to

beware of making them again. Errors in mechanics and usage, however,

can actually be copied in corrected form into the notebook and appro-

priately labeled.

EXAMPLE

Composition 1 Sept. 15

1. Sentence fragment

2. Capital: Homestead ®chool3. Commas: my uncle, a truckdriver,

4.

5.

Apostrophe: boys' bicycles

Spelling: car(g)less

rec@vedcoll(eg)e


E. A SEQUENCE OF COMPOSITIONASSIGNMENTS

The following composition assignments, closely related to the instruc-

tion in English Grammar and Composition: Complete Course, constitute

an effective writing program for seniors. Although the eighteen assign-

ments vary in length and difficulty, they should be assigned at regular

intervals—an average of one every two weeks. They are assignments in-

tended purely to teach writing skills. They do not include the numerouswriting assignments you will be giving as daily homework or the essays you

assign in connection with the study of literature.

SUGGESTED SEQUENCE OF COMPOSITION ASSIGNMENTS

Assignment 1 A personal-experience narrative (300-500 words)

Specific objective: The first two compositions may be thought of as

"ice breakers." Capitalizing on the first-of-the-year enthusiasm of your

students, you use these assignments primarily to get the class started. Thewriting will be informal. The only important requirement will be that the

compositions be interesting.

Suggested topic: The personal-experience narrative is easy to write.

Make it clear that this is not simply another theme on "what happened

during my summer vacation." The students may choose to tell about any

experience that they think they can make interesting to the class, regard-

less of when it happened.

Presentation: A good way to motivate the work is to tell the class of

one of your own experiences—one that you are sure will interest them. Tell

it in enough detail so that your listeners will realize that specific details are

essential for interest. Your narrative should have enough suspense to

suggest that the narratives of the class should build toward a climax. Yourstory should be one that could be written in approximately five hundred

words, although you will undoubtedly use many more than five hundred

words in telling it.

By questioning, draw from the class some of the dos and don'ts of nar-

rative writing:

dos 1. Do get into the action immediately.

2. Do embellish the tale with vivid description.

3. Do be specific as to characters, setting, and action.

don'ts 1. Don't ramble, especially at the beginning.

2. Don't start with an essay-type opening: "The most interesting


thing that ever happened to me was ..." Rather, start withaction: "I had just finished breakfast when the telephone rang";or with dialogue:

ktI don't like the look of that cloud over

there.' Peggy said, as we began to hoist the sails."

3. Don't merely summarize what happened. Instead, show it hap-pening.

As a model for the class to read in preparation, you might assign "ALoud Sneer for Our Feathered Friends" by Ruth McKenney, which can be

found in Advanced Composition: A Book of Models for Writing. The story

is much longer than anything your students will write, but it is interesting

and amusing, and it is written as a personal experience (exaggerated, of

course).

Evaluation: In evaluating this composition you will be wise not to land

with both feet on the mechanical errors you find. In fact, to get the most

from this assignment, evaluate the paper entirely on how well it holds the

reader's interest. Tell the class in advance that this will be the sole basis

forjudging their work. To avoid discouraging your students so early in the

year, you may wish not to give a grade; simply write comments on the

paper. Praise from the teacher at this time, even if not fully deserved, will

do much to improve a student's attitude toward the next assignments.

Assignment 2 A personal (informal) essay (300-500 words)

Specific objective: Your goal in this assignment is the same as it wasin Assignment 1—to get your students started on the year's work in com-position without arousing their immediate resistance. The students' pur-

pose is also the same as it was in the personal-experience narrative—to

interest their readers. If the stories written for Assignment 1 were enter-

taining, and if you gave most of your students some feeling of success, youshould get willing responses to Assignment 2.

Suggested topics: You may wish to suggest for your less-imaginativestudents some typical subjects for informal essays. In the list "SuggestedTopics for Composition," text pages 368-73, you will find many topics that

can be treated informally.

Presentation: By questioning, draw the following facts from your stu-

dents:

1. A major difference between a personal-experience story and a personalessay is that an essay must express an opinion, prejudice, or point ofview. Whatever narrative it contains is included, not for its own sake, butto support the opinion.

2. A personal, or informal, essay differs from a formal essay in being inten-


tionally biased, exaggerated, and "unfair." It is not necessary to be con-

vincingly logical or reasonable. The goal of the personal essayist is to

entertain, not to persuade.

3. The personal essay requires development through specific examples, inci-

dents, and anecdotes.

4. Although loose in organization and rambling in style, the essay, no matter

how frivolous, must be unified— it must bring out and support one major

point or opinion.

Many city newspapers carry columnists whose columns are frequently

excellent examples of the informal essay. Art Buchwald and Russell Baker

are two examples. Suggest to your class that they look in the newspaper

for examples of informal essays. Such examples may serve as models for

this assignment.

Evaluation: Again, judge these essays solely on their interest and ability

to entertain. Ignore for the moment obvious weaknesses in the writing.

You may prefer not to give grades but rather to limit your evaluation to

comments, more favorable than unfavorable, on the papers. Later you will

have plenty of opportunities to discipline your weak or lazy writers. This

assignment should be enjoyable for almost everyone.

Assignment 3 An expository paragraph that begins with a clear

topic sentence

Beginning the year's work in composition with study of the para-

graph, Chapter 21, you will, for a period of several weeks, be reviewing the

writing of expository paragraphs. The one-paragraph theme demands mostof the same skills demanded by the longer composition, but because it is

short, it demands much less of your time in grading papers and of your

students' time in writing them. You should try to handle a paragraph a

week from your students. If these short themes are assigned only every

other week, there may be a serious loss of momentum.

Specific objective: The principal requirement in this assignment is that

the paragraph begin with a clear topic sentence. Make the use of a clincher

sentence optional. Although, as the text states, a topic sentence may comeat other places in a paragraph, insist in this first paragraph that it be the

first sentence and that it cover adequately the content of the paragraph.

Suggested topic: This first one-paragraph theme follows a quick review

of paragraph structure (text pages 309-12). Exercises 1 and 2, text page

312, are the assignment.

Evaluation: Assign grades primarily according to the effectiveness of

the topic sentence, secondarily according to the quality of the writing itself.


Assignment 4 An expository paragraph that is logically developed

Specific objective: The goal is to write a logically developed para-

graph.

Suggested topic: See Exercise 4, text page 325.

Presentation: To make the work as specific as possible, the text lists six

kinds of development and illustrates each kind with a model paragraph.

With brighter students, these methods may be most efficiently taught de-

ductively as in the text. If you wish, however, you may approach the sub-

ject inductively. Have the six models mimeographed without any mention

of the method of development of each. Then have the students study them

and try to tell by what means each is developed. With your guidance, the

class can thus formulate a list of the six methods and compare their list

with the six given in the text, which, up to this point, they have not seen.

Exercise 3, text pages 320-25, will reinforce the learning by emphasizing

these methods again.

Evaluation: Judge the students' papers primarily on how effectively

they have employed the method of development chosen. Whether students

use one of the suggested topic sentences or fashion one of their own, they

should be required to underline it in the paragraph. Below their paragraph

they should state which one of the six methods of development they used

or which combination they used: "I have developed this paragraph by

examples," or "by facts and examples." (Do not, however, quibble with

them over whether a particular detail is a fact or an example.)

Assignment 5 An expository paragraph that is logically developed

Specific objective: The student is to write a logically developedparagraph employing a different method of development from the one used

for Assignment 5.

Evaluation: Since this is the third expository paragraph, raise yourgrading standards accordingly.

Assignment 6 An expository paragraph that is both unified and fully

developed

Specific objective: Being able to employ the six methods of para-

graph development does not necessarily mean ability to write a fully de-

veloped paragraph. Even seniors need to be taught the difference betweenthin and adequate treatment of an idea. They need to be reminded, too,

that a common fault in paragraph writing is wandering from the topic,

which weakens the effectiveness of a paragraph by destroying its unity.


Suggested topic.' See Exercise 6, text page 329.

Presentation: As preparation for this assignment, take the class over

the material on text pages 325-27, and have them do Exercise 5, text pages

327-29.

Evaluation: To assist you in evaluating and to insure that students think

about the skills they are supposed to be demonstrating, have them continue

the practice of underlining the topic sentence and of following each one-

paragraph theme with a statement of the method of development used.

Primary considerations in evaluating this assignment are the fullness of the

development and the unity of the paragraph.

Assignment 7 An expository paragraph that follows a definite plan

of arrangement

Specific objective: One means of making a paragraph coherent is to

follow a definite plan of arrangement for the details in the paragraph. Four

such plans are described and illustrated on text pages 329-35. The fourth

type of arrangement, comparison and contrast, is the method to be dem-

onstrated in this assignment.

Suggested topic: See Exercise 7, text pages 335-36.

Evaluation: In addition to underlining the topic sentence and stating the

method of development, require students to add a statement telling which

of the four systems of arrangement they followed: "I have developed this

paragraph by examples. I arranged the details in the order of their impor-

tance." In this assignment, of course, all paragraphs had to be developed

by comparison or contrast, but two different methods of arrangement are

possible (see text page 333). Assign grades primarily according to the stu-

dents' success in meeting the specific objective of this assignment—logical

arrangement of a paragraph that is developed by comparison or contrast.

Assignment 8 A well-developed paragraph that uses linking ex-

pressions and connectives

Specific objective: Except in advanced classes of facile writers, six

one-paragraph themes are enough. This assignment is, then, the last in the

series and should demonstrate competence in all aspects of paragraph writ-

ing. On text pages 336-38, a final aspect is explained: the use of linking

expressions and connectives to improve coherence.

Suggested topic: The assignment is Exercise 8, text page 338.

Presentation: Tell the class that the paragraph written for this assign-

ment is the most important one they have written. It is a culmination of all

the work in Chapter 21. Require them to underline the topic sentence and


all pronouns and connectives that serve to strengthen «the coherence of the

paragraph. They should also state below the paragraph how they developed

it and in what order they arranged the details.

Evaluation: You will be justified in requiring that any poor paragraphs

written for this assignment be revised and rewritten.

Assignment 9 An expository composition that follows an outline

(300-500 words)

Specific objective: The objective is to write a well-organized ex-

pository composition that follows a preliminary outline.

Suggested topic: See the list of suggested topics on text pages 368-73.

Presentation: This assignment calls for the first full-length composition

of the year, with the exception of Assignments 1 and 2, which were written

before the formal study of writing had begun. It is essential that careful

study of pages 339-61 of Chapter 22, "Expository Writing," precede the

assignment. In their study of these pages, the students review the main

stages in planning and writing any whole composition.

Take your class methodically through those stages as described in the

text. Explain early in their study that they will be writing a full-length com-position for their next assignment, that they will be required to hand in an

outline with the composition, and that their papers will be judged according

to the standards described in this chapter. They should meanwhile be

selecting a topic and assembling their ideas on it. Before they attempt the

first draft, tell them that they will also be held responsible for good para-

graph structure. Rule out the personal-experience narrative and the personal

essay. Insist that the composition be serious and fully developed.

Evaluation: In your evaluation, you will be concerned primarily with

those aspects of composition which are presented in Chapter 22, emphasiz-

ing, in this first long assignment, outlining and organization. You will also

give some attention to paragraph development.

Assignment 10 An expository composition that defines a term

Specific objective: To write an "extended definition" of the kinddescribed on text page 333. The compositions should reflect study of the

material on text pages 361-63.

Suggested topic: The assignment is Exercise 7, text page 364 (or, if youprefer. Exercise 6 on the same page).

Evaluation: Evaluate the compositions first on the clarity and com-pleteness of the definition, second on the other writing skills covered so far

in Chapters 21 and 22. Students should understand that this assignment and


the two which follow are merely specific kinds of expository writing, em-

bodying all the characteristics taught in preparation for the writing of ex-

position in general.

Assignment 11 An expository composition that informs

(300-500 words)

Specific objective: The goal is to write a well-planned informational

composition.

Suggested topic: The assignment is Exercise 8, text pages 365-66.

Presentation: In preparation, students should study text pages 364-65.

The terms analysis and division, which are explained there, are merely

convenient names for processes that usually come naturally in the planning

of an informational article. An outline is essential for an effective article of

this kind, and you should require that an outline be handed in with the

paper. The following two essays, which appear in Advanced Composition:

A Book of Models for Writing, might serve as models for this assign-

ment: William L. Laurence, "Dawn over Zero," and Arthur C. Clarke,

"The Secret of the Sun."

Evaluation: Since the content of the composition will be entirely fac-

tual, judge the paper by the completeness of the information and the effec-

tiveness of the arrangement. Your evaluation, of course, should also take

into account all skills of expository writing covered so far.

Assignment 12 An expository composition that explains

(300-500 words)

Specific objective: The goal is to write a clear, well-organized explana-

tory composition.

Suggested topic: The assignment is Exercise 9, text page 367.

Presentation: As pointed out on text pages 366-67, planning an explana-

tion, like planning an informational paper, involves the processes of

analysis and division. If it is to be clear, an explanatory article must be

carefully planned; once again, you should require an outline. Tell your

students to assume that you, the reader, have little or no knowledge

of the subjects they are explaining. They must therefore write an explana-

tion clear enough to be understood by someone who knows nothing about

the matter.

The following two models from Advanced Composition: A Book of

Models for Writing, are suitable for use in connection with this assignment:

Margaret Mead, "Living with the Natives of Melanesia," and S. I.

Hayakawa, The Language of Reports.


Evaluation: Judge the success of an explanatory article by the degree to

which it makes the subject clear.

Assignment 13 An argumentative composition based on proposi-

tions and supported by evidence (300-500 words)

Specific objective: The student is to write an argumentative compo-

sition based on major and minor propositions and including appropriate

evidence.

Suggested topic: The assignment is Exercise 7, text pages 422-23,

which is based in turn on Exercise 2, page 405. A list of suggested topics

appears under Exercise 2. (If you wish to space out your argumentative

compositions instead of assigning them all in succession after study of the

entire chapter, you can give this assignment immediately after students

complete Exercise 2, before you take up the study of evidence, reasoning,

and clear thinking. However, if you do this, you will not be able to criticize

the composition so specifically for such weaknesses as flimsy evidence,

faulty reasoning, and unclear thinking.)

Presentation: As you introduce your students to Chapter 24, "Lan-

guage and Logic," which covers the writing of argument, explain that al-

though argument is singled out for special treatment, it involves the same

skills as exposition, plus a few additional skills. In an argumentative essay,

for example, it may be necessary to define, and it will certainly be neces-

sary to inform and to explain. In the planning stage, however, argument is

somewhat different from explanation. It requires the statement of the main

proposition, of the minor propositions, and of anticipated opposing argu-

ments.

Use text pages 400-22 as the preparation for this assignment. Take the

class through this material, assigning the exercises and highlighting the

steps in planning which are listed in the summary on text page 426. Theoutline for this composition should consist of the minor propositions.

Suggest to your class that if they have three or four of these, they maydevote one paragraph to each. Opposition arguments they may wish to

refute can be listed separately, as shown at the top of text page 404. (The

more detailed formal outline taught in connection with expository writing

may be used, of course, if you prefer. Use the outlines on text pages 346

and 347 as models.) The introductory paragraph of this composition should

not only state the proposition but should also explain why the subject is

important.

Evaluation: Grades will be assigned according to the students' success

in meeting the objectives of correct arrangement, logical reasoning, and use

of appropriate supporting evidence.


Assignment 14 An argumentative composition on a controversial

subject (300-500 words)

Specific objective: This assignment is an attempt to do better what

was tried in the preceding assignment.

Suggested topic: Use either Exercise 10 (text page 426) or Exercise 11

(same page). The exercises are identical in their requirements, differing

only in the nature of the subjects to be argued.

Presentation: One way to motivate this composition is to select a con-

troversial subject of interest to the class and have it discussed by a panel of

competent students. (See pages 18-19 of this Manual.) The panel membersmust be conscientious enough to prepare a good discussion and should be

given time, preferably outside of class, to get together and plan. Appoint a

reliable panel leader. You might let some students write their compositions

on the topic the panel discussed. Having heard the discussion, they will not

be at a loss for ideas. Your advanced students will probably prefer to

write on subjects other than the one discussed by the panel.

You might wish to give all members of the class experience on a panel.

By this means, every member of the class will hear a discussion of several

controversial topics. As a result, everyone should be able to get enough

ideas for a composition. This combining of your teaching of oral English

with your teaching of composition motivates both the oral and the written

work.

Evaluation: In evaluating this composition, pay particular attention to

the extent to which opinions are backed up by evidence. Warn your class,

for example, against stating an opinion without citing facts in support of it.

In both the panel discussions and the compositions, be on the lookout for

examples of the kinds of bad reasoning and unclear thinking described in

Chapter 24.

Assignments 15-17 A research paper(approximately 1500-2000 words)

The preparation of a research paper, which entails study of the

techniques described in Chapter 26, the reading of sources, note-taking,

careful organization, and the writing of a long paper, will occupy a class for

three or four weeks. Therefore, consider this assignment as the equivalent

of two or three full-length compositions. For detailed suggestions on the

teaching of the research paper, see pages 122-27 of this Manual.If your course of study does not call for a research paper, continue

assignments in expository and argumentative writing, as indicated in Alter-

native Assignments 15-17, below.


Alternative Assignment 15 Argumentative composition

(300-500 words)

Specific objective: A third argumentative composition will serve as

the culminating assignment in the study of Chapter 24, "Language and

Logic." Having corrected in the second argumentative paper the mistakes

they made in the first, the class should have one more chance to dem-

onstrate what they have learned about writing an argument.

Suggested topic: Assign Exercise 12, text pages 426-27, which lists a

number of suggested topics.

Presentation: If you used the panel discussion as your motivation for

the preceding composition, you will probably not wish to take the time to

use it again for this assignment. You can omit class consideration of argu-

ments for and against a specific proposition and let your students work out

their papers entirely on their own, which is, after all, the way they will

have to work in any life situation calling for presentation of an opinion.

Require an outline of some type, at least a list of the minor propositions

and the anticipated arguments of the opposite side.

Evaluation: Judge these papers on organization, clarity, and convinc-

ingness.

Alternative Assignment 16 An expository composition(300-500 words)

Suggested topic: Following the restricted and strenuous concentra-tion on argument, your students will be relieved to return in this assign-

ment to expository writing, which affords greater freedom in the choice ofsubject. Indeed, you may wish at this point to give them complete freedomto choose not only their subject matter but also the kind of writing: infor-

mal essay, formal exposition, or argument. The list of composition topicson text pages 368-73 can provide ideas.

Presentation: The class should by this time have had enough experiencein writing full-length compositions so that it will not be necessary to giveelaborate motivation or to go into much detail in the discussion of eithertechniques or subject matter.

Evaluation: Judge these papers according to how well the students havemastered all the applicable composition skills that have been taught up tothis point in the course.

Alternative Assignment 17 A one-paragraph factual report

Specific objective: The student is to summarize factual materialclearly and briefly in one paragraph.


Suggested topic: Either Exercise 3, text page 437, or Exercise 4, on

page 439, will give the student practice in condensing into one clear para-

graph the major facts revealed by a body of statistical information. In both

exercises, this information is given in graphic form. In Exercise 3, the em-phasis is on producing a written statement of the facts revealed in the

graph. In Exercise 4, the student is asked to go one step further and give an

interpretation of the facts. You may wish to ask for interpretation in Exer-

cise 3, too, but the directions for this exercise specify only that the writer

state the significant facts.

Presentation: If you plan to assign both exercises, you may wish to take

time to discuss with the class the facts shown in the graph for Exercise 3.

This will be an almost necessary procedure in teaching some students.

Then, in Exercise 4, let the class discover the facts and draw their conclu-

sions by themselves without any class discussion.

Some discussion of the problems the graphs deal with may well precede

study of the graphs. For example: What changes in job opportunities haveoccurred in recent times? In what field of work can one expect to find the

best future? After the students have considered such questions briefly andwithout factual data, have them turn to the graph (text page 438) for en-

lightenment and then write out their findings.

Evaluation: This assignment will be graded on the basis of accuracy,

clarity, and brevity.

Assignment 18 Three business letters

Specific objectives: These letters should exhibit (1) correct form and

(2) clear, courteous content.

Suggested topics: Include in this assignment at least three letters: a

letter of inquiry or request (text page 485), a letter of adjustment or com-plaint (text page 487), and a letter of application (text page 488). For

specific suggestions, see Exercises 4, 5, and 6, text page 490.

Presentation: In your teaching of business letter form, text pages 473-

83, emphasize the rigidity of the form. Just any approximation of the cor-

rect form will not do; this is one place in composition teaching where youcan say definitely "accurate" or "inaccurate." Insist, too, on the highest

standards in mechanical matters such as spelling, capitalization, punctua-

tion, and sentence structure. You will be doing your students a disservice if

you accept a business letter containing a single misspelling. Just as an of-

fice secretary must retype a letter containing one misspelled word, so must

your students completely rewrite such a letter to get credit for it.

Evaluation: In form and mechanics, a letter is either acceptable or un-

acceptable. You may give a grade on the content of the letter, but you will

mark the form simply acceptable or unacceptable, and you will require that

all letters be rewritten correctly.

SECTION

Suggested Teaching

Procedures

PART ONE

Grammarpages 1-69

Questions concerning grammatical concepts and terminology frequently

arise in English classes. An English textbook should provide answers to

these questions. Much of the material in Chapters 1-4, the grammar chap-

ters, has been included to strengthen the usefulness of the book as a refer-

ence grammar. Obviously, a general English text cannot be a complete

grammar, but the presentation here is complete enough to answer almost

any question likely to come up in a senior class.

In addition to their usefulness for reference, these chapters are designed

for class and individual study. They contain a great many practice exer-

cises to establish learning and to test understanding. Few teachers of high

school seniors will think it advisable to take their classes through all the

material in every chapter. Your students have probably been exposed to

traditional grammar since the seventh grade. If they have forgotten it, the

reason probably is that they have had little use for it. They will probably

have no greater need for it in their senior year.

The amount of grammar necessary for using this text properly is not

great, and most students at this grade level will not need a long or intensive

review. A clear understanding of the following terms will insure optimumuse of the book. You might take up the list in class near the beginning of

the year, asking students to give brief definitions and examples of each

term.

1. The parts of speech

2. The parts of the sentence

Subject and predicate

Complements

Direct object

Indirect object

Predicate nominative

Predicate adjective

3. The phrase

Prepositional

Adjective

Adverb

Verbal

Participial

Gerund

Infinitive

Appositive

51

52 GRAMMAR

The clause

Independent

Subordinate

Adjective

Adverb

NounKinds of sentences according to structure

Simple

CompoundComplex

Compound-Complex

Teaching average and advanced classes

Each of the four grammar chapters begins with a brief diagnostic

test. Students who can average 75-80 percent on the test will not need a

formal review of the chapter. You may be able to pinpoint specific areas in

which some review would be advisable, but extensive reteaching of gram-

mar would be a waste of time.

In reviewing, follow the deductive approach of the text. If your teach-

ing of grammar were the students' first experience with the subject, you

would teach inductively, leading the class through many examples to the

rule or definition to be taught. At the grade level of the Complete Course,

however, grammar teaching is almost certainly review, and the deductive

approach, proceeding from definition and rule to illustrations, is more effi-

cient and less time consuming than the inductive method.

The alternative to the formal review is to omit study of Chapters 1-4 at

this point but use them later as the need arises for knowledge of specific

grammatical terms. For example, in studying Chapter 7, "Correct Use of

Pronouns," students will find it helpful to know the meaning of subject,

verb, predicate nominative, object, and subordinate clause. Students whoare not familiar with some of these terms will need to look them up in the

grammar chapters. This method has two advantages over the formal review

of grammar: (1) it gives the students a practical reason for their grammarstudy; (2) it saves the time of those students who already know the terms

and do not need a review. Your decision as to which method to follow

should be made on the basis of the ability level of your class. For advancedstudents the second approach is preferable.

Teaching a below-average class

Students who, after years of study of English grammar, still do not

know the parts of speech are probably incapable not only of learning them,but also of making much application of grammatical knowledge in their

writing and speaking. Such students had better proceed directly to the

study of usage and sentence structure, making their way as best they can

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 53

without a complete background in grammar. Certainly they should not be

required to spend weeks studying material they have already found to be

too abstract for them.

CHAPTER 1

THE PARTS OF SPEECH(pages 3-22)

You will probably wish to introduce this chapter by giving the class the

diagnostic test on page 4 of the textbook. This diagnostic test may be han-

dled in several ways. It may be given without preliminary review; for your

better classes, this is undoubtedly the most efficient method. A second wayis to introduce the test with a ten- or fifteen-minute review of parts of

speech—definitions and examples. This procedure will help the student

who has temporarily forgotten, over vacation, the names or functions of

the various parts of speech, and it will not affect the reliability of the test as

a diagnosis. A third way of using the test is to make it a means for indi-

vidual review. Permit students to use the rest of the chapter for reference,

thus making the test an "open book" test. The test will still have diagnos-

tic value, and students who are uncertain about their grammar will learn

something by looking in the chapter for help.

Note: Before assigning the test, call attention to the second paragraph

of directions preceding the test. Tell the class whether you wish them to

label words like my and our as pronouns or as possessive adjectives. If you

have no strong feeling about this matter, advise students to call them pro-

nouns, which is the term used in the text.

The Noun and the Pronoun (pages 4-8, rules 1a and 1b)

Like many of the other grammatical terms given in the Complete

Course, the various classifications of nouns (common, proper, etc.) are

introduced for reference purposes rather than for formal study or memori-

zation. At some point in the year's work students who have forgotten the

meaning of the term "proper noun" may wish to look it up if they run

across the term in connection with a capitalization rule, or they may wish

to look up the term "collective noun" in connection with a problem in

agreement. They will then be able to find these terms defined on text pages

4-5. Most students are already familiar with the terms, however, and no

purpose will be served at this point by requiring the class to memorize

noun classifications. The work in this chapter requires only that a student

know what a noun is, and be able to identify nouns in a sentence.

What has just been said about the classification of nouns applies also to

the classification of pronouns. Be satisfied if students can recognize pro-

54 GRAMMAR

nouns, regardless of whether they can classify them as "reflexive, " "rela-

tive," "demonstrative," and so forth.

The same word as adjective and pronoun, page 9

Tell students who have difficulty distinguishing adjectives from pro-

nouns that if the word is followed by a noun, it is probably an adjective. If

it is not followed by a noun, it is probably a pronoun.

These books are heavy. {These is an adjective.)

These are heavy books. (These is a pronoun.)

Throughout the chapter review, take advantage of opportunities like this

one to emphasize that function determines part of speech.

The Verb (pages 10-14, rule 1d)

This definition of a verb represents an attempt to get away from the

words "state of being," which usually are meaningless to high school stu-

dents. Students understand the function of a non-action verb better whenthey understand that such a verb does help the predication; usually, it

helps to make a statement by linking the subject and the rest of the sen-

tence.

Two facts about verbs may require special attention. The first is that a

verb in the passive voice is transitive, even though it does not have an

object. Since an active verb is transformed into a passive verb by making

the object of the active form the subject of the passive form, only transitive

verbs can have passive voice. A more complete but also more complicated

definition of a transitive verb, therefore, is, "A transitive verb is a verb

that acts either on an object (active voice) or on the subject (passive

voice)."

The above explanation is included for your benefit should you need it.

If the problem of the passive form of a transitive verb does not arise, youneed not bring it up.

A second fact which may require special attention is explained in the

footnote on text page 12. The footnote makes the point, often misun-derstood, that unless the verb be links a noun, pronoun, or adjective to the

subject, it is not a linking verb. If the verb is followed only by an adverbial

construction, it is not a linking verb.

The Adverb (pages 14-16, rule 1e)

The adverbial function is an important one, and if any part of speechshould be carefully reviewed at this grade level, it is the adverb. Since

modification is an important concept in grammar and will be referred to in

later study of both phrases and subordinate clauses, spend enough time in

THE PARTS OF SPEECH 55

review of the adjective and adverb to re-establish this concept. The con-

cept will be involved functionally in Chapters 7, 9, 11, 14, 17, and 18, as

well as in parts of Chapters 30 and 31.

Nouns used as adverbs, page 15

Students sometimes wonder about the part of speech of day, month,

and hour in a sentence like the following: "One day last month I waited an

hour for him." The simplest explanation is that these words are nouns used

as adverbs. As nouns they are modified by adjectives

—

one, last, an—but

they function in the sentence as adverbs, modifying the verb waited. Analternate explanation, that the words are noun objects of understood prep-

ositions, is tenable but unnecessarily complex: (On) one day (during) last

month I waited (for) an hour for him.

Review Exercise, page 21. Like the diagnostic test at the beginning of the

chapter, this review exercise plays a key role in your grammar review.

With a class of less than average ability, you will have reviewed all the

parts of speech before assigning this exercise. The results will indicate the

effectiveness of your teaching. Since this is a long exercise, you may wish

to take up the first paragraph in class. The discussion will help some stu-

dents to do better on the rest of the exercise. Note: A mastery test on this

chapter can be found in Teaching Tests, the test booklet that accompanies

English Grammar and Composition: Complete Course.

less-advanced students As explained at the beginning of the section

on grammar in this Manual (pages 51-53) students who have already

been exposed to grammar for a number of years without learning it will

rarely profit from going over the ground again. To determine whether it

will be worth your time to teach this chapter to a below-average class,

you might spend twenty minutes or so reviewing the eight parts of

speech and then give the class the diagnostic test on page 4 of the

textbook. If the majority of the students make scores of about 50% or

better on this test, this probably shows that their level of ability is high

enough so that they can benefit from a little further grammar training and

review. Even so, however, grammar should never become the main sub-

ject of study in English class. Do your grammar teaching in small doses;

introduce only one or two concepts in a period, and do not devote morethan ten or fifteen minutes of a period to grammar.

advanced students An advanced class will ordinarily have already

mastered the material in this chapter and will need no further review

after the diagnostic test. If the results on the diagnostic test are not satis-

factory, however, you can assign the chapter and give the students a day

or two to study it outside of class, before assigning the review exercise

on page 21 of the textbook.

56 GRAMMAR

CHAPTER 2

THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE(pages 23-35)

If you introduce this chapter by having students take the diagnostic test

on pages 23-24, you will probably find that the class has little difficulty in

identifying subjects and verbs. They may also be able to pick out the com-

plements, but it will often happen that they are not able to identify the

different kinds of complements. If the diagnosis turns out this way, you can

skip pages 23-27 and begin your review with "Complements," page 28.

How to find the subject of a sentence, page 26

If you find it advisable to teach pages 23-27, place your emphasis on

this material, which gives specific techniques for locating the subject. Eventhough your class seems to understand subject and verb fairly well, you

may still wish to assign Exercise 1, page 27, as a checkup, following a

quick review of rules 2b-2f.

Complements (pages 28-33)

Point out to students that complement is simply a grammatical term for

"completer." The complement completes the sentence idea which begins

with the subject and the verb. The general concept that most sentences

have a base consisting of the subject, the verb, and the complement is an

important one. It is essential for understanding the structure of sentences.

Sentence diagraming is particularly helpful in explaining the four kinds

of complements. Sample diagrams are given in the textbook on pages

29-32. If you wish to give the class some practice in diagraming, have

students write sentences of their own and diagram them.

Direct and indirect objects, pages 28-30 (rules 2g and 2h)

When you teach students that the direct object answers the question

"What?" or "Whom?" after an action verb, be sure to emphasize the wordaction. Subject complements (predicate nominatives and predicate adjec-

tives) also answer the question "What?" or "Who?" but only after a link-

ing verb.

action verb Mrs. Solsky saw the principal. (Principal answers the ques-

tion "Whom?" after the action verb saw; it is the direct

object of the verb.)

i inking verb Mrs. Solsky is the principal. (Principal answers the question

"Who?" after the linking verb is; it is a predicate nomina-tive.)

THE PARTS OF A SENTENCE 57

Indirect objects are included here as part of traditional grammar, but

there is no functional value in pressing the distinction between direct and

indirect objects of the verb. Both take the objective case.

Similarly, the objective complement (pages 30-31) is included simply to

make the presentation complete. Objective complements occur relatively

infrequently, and even when they do occur they do not cause any special

problems in usage or sentence structure.

Subject complements, pages 32-33 (rules 2i and 2j)

Since predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives occur only

after linking verbs, some teachers ask their students to memorize the

common linking verbs (text page 12), including the forms of be (text pages

144-45). To be sure, memorized lists do not stay in the memory indefi-

nitely, but a knowledge of the kinds of verbs used as linking verbs can be

impressed on the students through memorization.

Summary of Sentence Patterns, page 34

This list of the seven common sentence patterns summarizes the

content of the chapter. One important reason for teaching the parts of a

sentence is to give the students a feeling for the basic structure of anysentence. English-speaking people, of course, use these patterns uncon-

sciously, but for anyone working on sentence structure in written English,

consciousness of these patterns probably has value. After going over the

list with your class, you may wish to write the patterns in letter symbols on

the board and (books closed) have your students write a sentence illustrat-

ing each pattern. When you put the following pattern on the board, for

example, your students can write a sentence to fit it.

S V D.O. OBJ. COMP. (ADJ.)

We kept the children quiet.

Review Exercise, page 35. You can use this exercise either as a test at

the conclusion of the chapter or as a preliminary exercise for the chapter

test in the Teaching Tests booklet.

less-advanced students If you are teaching this chapter to a less-

advanced class, you will probably want to concentrate on identification

of subject and verb, and on the distinction between an object of the verb

and a subject complement. To avoid introducing too many difficult

grammatical terms, you may not wish to make the further distinction

between a direct and an indirect object or to teach the terms predicate

nominative and predicate adjective. Further, the class may skip the sec-

tion on the objective complement (pages 30-31).

58 GRAMMAR

advanced students With an advanced class, you may wish to em-

phasize the list of sentence patterns on page 34 and to have students

make up sentences of their own illustrating each pattern.

CHAPTER 3

THE PHRASE(pages 36-51)

Students who have studied grammar in previous grades will probably

have little difficulty identifying prepositional phrases and appositive

phrases. The most difficult part of this chapter is the section on the kinds

of verbal phrases and their functions. If students do well on Part A of the

diagnostic test, which covers prepositional phrases, but do not do so well

on Part B, you can begin your review with the section "Phrases Containing

Verbals," which starts on page 41.

The Prepositional Phrase (pages 37-40, rules 3b, 3c, 3d)

If your students have trouble identifying prepositional phrases, begin

your review by establishing the nature of a preposition. Refer students to

the list of prepositions on pages 17 and 18 of their textbooks. Go around

the class asking each student to give a prepositional phrase. Then go

around again asking each student to repeat the phrase and asking the next

student to place the phrase beside a word it can modify and to name the

kind of phrase.

first student "By the door."

next student "The desk by the door—adjective phrase. At home."next student "Stay at home—adverb phrase. In the house." Etc.

The oral drill will enliven the class period and help students to see howprepositional phrases are used as modifiers. This kind of teaching, how-ever, will usually be unnecessary at this grade level; resort to it only with

classes who are very insecure in their grammar.Note: For convenience, the textbook uses the terms adjective phrase

and adverb phrase in this section to refer to the two different functions ofthe prepositional phrase. These terms emphasize the fact that prepositional

phrases are normally used as modifiers. (The rare use of a prepositional

phrase as a noun is noted briefly in the text. Here is an example of the

noun use: "Before breakfast would be much too early for me.") However,students may occasionally be confused by this terminology after they dis-

cover that other types of phrases are also used as adjectives or adverbs

—

that, for instance, all participial phrases function as adjectives. To avoidsuch confusion, make it clear to the class that adjective phrase and adverb

THE PHRASE 59

phrase are simply kinds of shorthand expressions used in this section for

"prepositional phrase used as an adjective" and "prepositional phrase

used as an adverb." These shortened forms are not used in the textbook

outside of this chapter.

Phrases Containing Verbals (pages 41-49)

Verbal phrases prove difficult for many students. Less-advanced stu-

dents should ordinarily skip this section. The participial phrase is referred

to frequently later in the text in work on sentence fragments, dangling mod-ifiers, and comma rules, but one can master these things without being able

to distinguish participles from gerunds.

The participle and the participial phrase, pages 41-44 (rules 3e and3f)

The only problem in teaching the participle is to get students to see its

adjectival function—the fact that it modifies a noun or pronoun. They un-

derstand easily that the participle is a verb form. To clarify the adjectival

function of the participle, put on the board several examples like the fol-

lowing, which are similar to the "developing storm" example on text pages

41-42.

1. the laughing girls 1. the defeated player

2. the girls, laughing 2. the player, defeated

3. laughing, the girls 3. defeated, the player

The third item in each group is the construction that usually puzzles

students. You should try to establish the fact that an introductory participle

or participial phrase modifies the noun or pronoun following it. "Defeated

decisively, the player congratulated his opponent" expresses the same idea

as "The decisively defeated player congratulated his opponent." Under-

standing the adjectival function of the participial phrase will prove useful in

correcting dangling modifiers (text pages 233-36).

The gerund and the gerund phrase, pages 45-47 (rules 3g and 3h)

Since gerunds end in -ing, they are easily confused with present parti-

ciples, especially when the gerund is the object of a preposition.

Receiving the invitation, I answered it at once. {Receiving is a partici-

ple.)

Upon receiving the invitation, I answered it at once. {Receiving is a

gerund, the object of upon.)

Since knowledge of the difference between the gerund and the present

participle has no particular value in learning to speak or write better

60 GRAMMAR

English, you need not be unduly disturbed if your students mistake gerunds

for participles in such constructions.

The infinitive clause, pages 48-49

Unless this construction is called to the students' attention, they will be

likely to think of the subject of an infinitive as the object of the preceding

verb. In the example "I asked him to help me/' the entire infinitive clause

is the object of the verb.him

\o help '

I asked I

The Appositive (page 50, rule 3k)

Appositives should present no trouble to your students. Most of themshould remember what an appositive is, from their English studies in ear-

lier grades. It will be worthwhile to refresh their memories on the point,

however, since appositives will come up again in connection with pronoun

usage, sentence structure, and punctuation.

Review Exercise B, pages 50-51. If your class has skipped the material onverbal phrases, pages 41-49, you can use the following exercise, whichcovers only prepositional phrases, as the final exercise for the chapter.

Exercise. Directions to the class: Copy in a column on your paper the

prepositional phrases in the following sentences. Circle the preposition in

each phrase.

1. Who was standing in the front of the room?2. On the following morning we hunted for the lost wallet.

3. Under the circumstances we excused Jerry for his tardiness.

4. The car with the whitewall tires belongs to my aunt.

5. The sum of these numbers is the answer to the problem.

Note: A mastery test on Chapter 3 can be found in the test booklet,

Teaching Tests, which accompanies English Grammar and Composition:Complete Course.

less-advanced students A less-advanced class can usually learn to

identify prepositional phrases, but it is not very important that they be able

3k4b-c

THE CLAUSE 61

to distinguish between adjective phrases and adverb phrases. Verbal

phrases will often prove too difficult for some, and for these you should

ordinarily omit that section. Do, however, teach the brief section on the

appositive, page 50.

advanced students An advanced class has, in all likelihood, already

mastered prepositional phrases and appositives, but you may need to

give some class time to a review of participial phrases, gerund phrases,

and infinitive phrases and clauses.

CHAPTER 4

THE CLAUSE(pages 52-69)

This chapter is the most important of the four grammar chapters, be-

cause the rhetorical concept of subordination figures prominently in the

improvement of sentence structure.

Before giving the diagnostic test, remind your students that the differ-

ence between a clause and a phrase is that a clause has a subject and a

verb. A phrase may contain a verbal, but it does not contain a main verb

and its subject. A few examples of subordinate clauses put on the board

will remind your students of this fact and enable them to give on the test a

truer picture of what they know about clauses than they will give if you

assign the test without any preliminary reminder.

Exercise 1, page 54. This is a simple exercise designed to make clear the

difference between independent and subordinate clauses. Your better classes

can skip it.

Subordinate Clauses (pages 53-65)

Teaching the subordinate clause is not an end in itself. It is one meansof helping students to write sentences in which one idea is subordinated to

another. The functional application comes later in the book. The main ob-

jective in Chapter 4 is to remind your students what a clause is and how it

functions in a sentence.

The adjective clause; relative pronouns, pages 55-58 (rules 4b and 4c)

One simple way to teach the adjective clause is to have students memorizethe words that introduce most adjective clauses: who, whom, whose, which,

and that. Emphasize that in an adjective clause, these words not only intro-

duce the clause but also play a part (subject, object, etc.) in the grammatical

structure of the clause. The real test of an adjective clause is not the word

62 GRAMMAR

which introduces it but the function of the clause—it modifies a noun or

pronoun.

Ask students to create their own sentences containing adjective clauses.

They will soon discover that all they need do is get a "who clause" or a

"which clause" into the sentence. Ask them to explain how the clause is used

and how its parts are related.

example I spoke to Ana, who always knows the best solution. (The clause

modifies Ana. Within the clause the verb is knows; the subject is

who; and the object is solution.)

Some students may turn in sentences beginning with "who clauses,"

forgetting that an adjective clause must modify another word in the sentence.

These students will produce sentences containing noun clauses rather than

adjective clauses because noun clauses may also begin with who, whom,whose, which, and that. This circumstance will provide a natural transition to

the study of the noun clause in the next section.

The noun clause, pages 59-61 (rule 4d)

The noun clause used as an appositive has been omitted from the text

because it is difficult for students to distinguish this kind of clause from an

adjective clause and because no harm is done if they call such a clause

adjectival.

The fact that the book was so long discouraged me. (The clause is a nounclause, in apposition with fact.)

The fact that she revealed was damaging to the defendant. (The clause is an

adjective clause modifying fact.)

If you should find it necessary to explain this distinction, tell your students

that if the clause can be substituted for the preceding noun without chang-

ing or destroying the meaning of the sentence, then the clause is a nounclause used as an appositive. "That the book was so long discouraged me"makes sense; the noun clause has been substituted for the noun fact as the

subject of the sentence. "That she revealed was damaging to the defendant"does not make good sense; that she revealed is an adjective clause and

cannot be substituted in the sentence for the noun that it modifies.

The adverb clause; subordinating conjunctions,pages 62-64 (rules 4e and 4f)

Students sometimes have difficulty identifying the word that an adverbclause modifies. This is particularly true in the case of adverb clauses that

modify adjectives or adverbs. For example, in the sentence "She sang

louder than he did," the adverb clause than he did modifies the adverb

louder; but in the sentence "She sang more loudly than he did," the adverb

4d-g

THE CLAUSE 63

clause than he did is considered to modify the adverb more (which in turn

modifies the adverb loudly). Both clauses, however, clearly tell to what

extent she sang louder or more loudly. Therefore it is usually simpler for

students to identify an adverb clause by what it tells {how, when, where,

why, to what extent, or under what conditions) than by finding the word in

the sentence that the clause modifies.

Assign students to write sentences containing adverb clauses, using the

subordinating conjunctions in the list on text page 63 to introduce their

clauses. Ask them to state after each sentence what the clause tells.

The elliptical (incomplete) clause, pages 63-64

There are several other types of elliptical clauses besides those de-

scribed in the textbook. For instance, both the subject and the verb may be

completely omitted in an elliptical adverb clause:

If [it is] possible, I will finish my paper tonight.

An elliptical adverb clause can be identified by the fact that it regularly

begins with a subordinating conjunction. This distinguishes the clause from

a prepositional phrase: words like if, whether, and though are never prep-

ositions.

Elliptical noun clauses and adjective clauses are also found occasion-

ally. As the text note on page 61 of the textbook explains, the introduc-

tory word is sometimes omitted in a noun or adjective clause. Less fre-

quently, other grammatically essential words may be omitted:

Tetuan, [which was] once a pirate stronghold, is now a busy commercial

port. (Once a pirate stronghold is an elliptical adjective clause. The sub-

ject which and the verb was are understood.)

They did not call me, although they had promised that they would [call me].

{That they would is an elliptical noun clause. The direct object me and part

of the verb phrase, call, are understood.)

It is not necessary, however, that students learn to identify these kinds

of elliptical clauses. The only type of elliptical clause that presents any

problem in usage is the incomplete construction after than or as. This prob-

lem is taken up on page 1 17 of the textbook.

Sentences Classified by Structure (pages 65-67, rule 4g)

Because identification of these four types of sentences is not easy,

teachers occasionally waste time in extended efforts to teach everyone in

the class to identify them unerringly. With average and advanced students,

it will be enough to go over the definitions and assign Exercise 5, on page

68.

64 GRAMMAR

Some classes should probably omit this section. The functional value of

knowing the four types of sentences is limited. Perhaps you may wish at

times to say to a student, "You have too many compound sentences. Try

using some complex sentences." But you can say the same thing in other

ways: "You have too many and's and but's. Use some subordinate

clauses," thus accomplishing your purpose without spending hours of drill

on identification of the various kinds of sentences.

Sentences Classified by Purpose (pages 68-69, rule 4h)

Students in an average or advanced class are probably already familiar

with the terms declarative, imperative, interrogative, and exclamatory.

Have the class simply read over these definitions before doing Exercise 5.

Some teachers prefer to use the more familiar terms statement, com-mand, question, and exclamation for these four classifications. It is proba-

bly not necessary to do direct teaching of this section with some classes,

however. The classifications are important only in connection with end

punctuation, but a less-advanced student at this grade level who has not yet

learned to punctuate a question with a question mark is not going to be

helped by being told to memorize the names of the four types of sentences.

Note: The booklet Teaching Tests contains a test on Chapter 4, as well as a

mastery test covering the entire grammar section.

less-advanced students Perhaps the most important point to put

across is that a subordinate clause by itself is not a sentence. In teaching

the class to recognize subordinate clauses, emphasize the fact that these

clauses usually begin with "key" words

—

who, whom, whose, whoever,

which, that, what, whatever, whichever, or one of the subordinating con-

junctions listed on text page 63. You may wish to use the exercises in the

chapter simply for identification of subordinate clauses, without asking

the class to distinguish between adjective clauses, noun clauses, and ad-

verb clauses. You may feel free to omit the material on sentence classifi-

cation, text pages 66-69.

advanced students An advanced class will sometimes get involved in

prolonged quibbling over minor details of sentence analysis. The teacher

should remember, however, that the chief purpose of this chapter is sim-

ply to equip the class with a knowledge of technical terms that will be

useful in teaching them to improve their writing. The chapter is not in-

tended to make professional grammarians out of students. Try to movethrough the material quickly, spending only as much time on each point

as is necessary to make sure that the class grasps the concept. If stu-

dents wish to pursue some of the points further, you might refer them to

a full-length treatment of grammar—such as Pence and Emery's AGrammar of Present-Day English—rather than spending class time dis-

cussing minor technical details.

PART TWO

Usagepages 71-194

This section begins with a brief chapter titled "Levels of Usage,"

which describes the differences between standard and nonstandard English

and then explains the two large subdivisions of standard English: formal

and informal. The purpose of this chapter is to lead students to see that

different kinds of English are appropriate to different situations—that for-

mal written English follows one set of conventions, for instance, while in-

formal spoken English follows a different set. Slang, sentence fragments,

and so-called ungrammatical expressions like "It's me" are fine in informal

conversation among friends. In fact, a formal expression like "It is I"

would usually sound pompous in ordinary conversation.

You might point out to students that they already know what kind of

English is appropriate for talking with their friends and that therefore they

do not have to study this kind in class. But students who may use a numberof nonstandard expressions in their private conversation (e.g., "we was,"

"it busted") will need to study the standard expressions if they are going to

be able to use appropriate language in situations like employment inter-

views or business correspondence. And even students who speak "cor-

rect" informal English will discover that there are a number of informal

expressions which are not suitable in written reports or formal speeches.

The succeeding chapters in this section aim chiefly at teaching the kind

of usage which is appropriate for clear, correct written English. Chapters

6-9 take up problems in agreement and in use of pronouns, verbs, and

modifiers. Chapter 10, "Glossary of Usage," lists alphabetically a numberof individual usage items, with explanations and examples. Throughout

these chapters, instances where formal usage and informal usage differ are

thoroughly discussed (see, for instance, the usage note that begins at the

bottom of page 92, with examples on page 93). Since the purpose of these

chapters is to teach correct written usage, the textbook exercises ask stu-

dents to follow the conventions of formal English, but the book makes it

clear that informal usages are not "wrong"; they are simply inappropriate

when a speaker or writer is attempting to achieve a serious, formal tone.

The teaching of usage

Chapters 6 through 10 cover the problems in usage which come up most

frequently in high school English work. Fortunately for the teacher, no

individual student—and usually no individual class—will have trouble with

all these problems. Concentrate on correcting the most important mistakes

65

66 USAGE

in your students' own speaking and writing. It is a waste of time to drill a

class on a form which the great majority of them already use correctly.

If your students make relatively few mistakes in usage in their written

work, you can use diagnostic testing to find out which problems the class

as a whole has mastered and which ones need to be taught or reviewed.

The review exercises which appear at the ends of Chapters 6, 7, 8, and 10

are suitable for use as diagnostic tests (pages 101, 120, 158, 192).

Most teachers use mistakes which have actually appeared in recent

spoken and written work as a basis for much of their teaching. The best

time to introduce corrective work is the day that a set of compositions is

handed back, or the day after the class has finished giving oral reports. Put

on the board a number of sentences taken from the compositions or reports

which show similar errors and have the class find the errors and tell youwhy and how to correct them.

Some teachers have their students keep individual "improvement rec-

ords" listing the mistakes in usage, spelling, and punctuation that were

made on each theme, with corrections. A glance at student records will

show which usage problems they have overcome and which ones they still

need to work on. Several times during the year the teacher can go through

the records and make lists for the students of rules to be studied. As their

homework assignment, they will then find these rules in the textbook and

do the accompanying exercises.

In addition to this piecemeal teaching of usage, however, you will prob-

ably also want to take a period or two for solid review of each of the usage

chapters. As shown in the sample lesson plans on Manual pages 155-160,

the usage rules in a chapter may be approached inductively even though

the text method is deductive, giving first the rule, then the explanation.

However, since most of the material in the usage chapters will be review

for seniors, you will save time, without any loss in effectiveness, if youteach your average and advanced classes deductively. Mature students will

grasp the rules quickly and, after a review (more often than not a reminder

of what they already know), they will be able to apply them in the exer-

cises.

Require every student to do all items in the exercises. Unless otherwise

specified in the instructions, the exercises in the text are written exercises.

Each student should do the entire exercise on paper. Going through anexercise orally by "reading around" the class is far less effective than mostteachers realize. During the "reading around," each student does only oneexercise problem. While theoretically the rest of the students are listening

and benefiting from the work, the chances are that most of them are not

thinking about English at all. The time to go over an exercise orally is after

every student has completed the exercise on paper. Not only will instruc-

tion be better, but interest will be greater as each student receives an ex-

planation of incorrect answers.

LEVELS OF USAGE 67

Unfortunately, it is inevitable in a class of heterogeneous ability that

some students will be doing exercises or parts of exercises they do not

need to do. Instead of worrying about these students, relax in the assur-

ance that you are not doing them any harm in requiring them to do the

exercises. In fact, even your most advanced students frequently pick up a

few valuable points in what is for them an otherwise very easy exercise. Bythe same token, do not worry about the less-advanced students who have

difficulty grasping some of the refinements of formal usage, and will proba-

bly never need to know them. Put them through the exercises even though

some of the usages being tested are beyond them. Your teaching will be

more efficient, and you will save them the embarrassment of being excused

from certain parts of the chapter.

A homogeneous class of bright students, however, may be relied on to

review the usage rules in these chapters on their own. One approach is to

assign an exercise and tell the class to look back in the chapter for an

explanation of any sentence they find difficult. If they follow instructions,

they will thus review any rules they need to study.

CHAPTER 5

LEVELS OF USAGE(pages 73-84)

Students who do not yet understand that there are levels of usage and

that "correct" usage may differ according to the formality of the occasion

should study this chapter carefully because it provides necessary

background for much of the instruction in Chapters 6-10. Although your

better classes may already have grasped this concept, it will be worthwhile

to take them through the chapter quickly and to assign the exercises.

You can lead up to the chapter by raising a few questions about usage.

The following will serve to get the discussion started:

What is the standard by which we determine "good English"?

How can the rule-makers who write our textbooks find out whether a par-

ticular construction is good English or poor English?

How does it happen that there are exceptions to grammar rules? Why can't

logical grammatical rules be the basis for deciding whether an expression

is good English?

When you are talking with your friends in the school corridor, do you use the

same kind of English you use in class discussions? How do these two

kinds differ?

When you write an English composition, do you use the same kind of Eng-

lish you use in talking with your friends or in class discussion or in writ-

ing a friendly letter? How does the English in the composition differ from

the English used in the other three situations?

68 USAGE

Appropriate Language (pages 73-74)

Make it clear to the class that the doctrine of appropriateness operates

only within standard English—in deciding whether formal or informal Eng-

lish is appropriate in a specific situation. They should not get the idea that

one should speak nonstandard English when talking with people whohabitually use it. Some students might actually think that appropriateness

should be carried this far unless you explain otherwise.

The Varieties of English (pages 74-81)

In teaching this material, emphasize the two kinds of standard

English—formal and informal (pages 77-79). Students easily recognize the

difference between standard and nonstandard English, but they often find it

more difficult to recognize the finer distinctions within standard English.

You can give concrete examples of these distinctions by referring the

class to points in their textbook where differences between formal and in-

formal usage are discussed. The usage notes on the following pages will

serve this purpose: pages 92-93 (plural verb with a singular subject); page

101 (plural pronoun with a singular antecedent); page 107 ("It's me," "It's

us," etc.); pages 113-14 (who as an interrogative pronoun).

less-advanced students Less-advanced students may not show very

much interest in the general concepts presented in this chapter, but they

are usually interested in what is correct English. Go through the chapter

with them, bringing out the following major points: (1) Good English is

the kind of English most widely recognized as acceptable. (2) Written

English is more precise and careful than spoken English. Our writing

should not be just a word-for-word transcription of our speech. (3) Eng-lish which is appropriate in one situation may be inappropriate in

another. (4) A language does not develop logically. Hence, good English

cannot be wholly reduced to rules. There are bound to be exceptions.

advanced students These students may be assigned additional workrelated to usage concepts. The following activities may provide sugges-

tions:

1. List usage "errors" heard around school and try to label them, dis-

tinguishing acceptable informal usage from nonstandard usage.

2. List a few usage problems which you would like explained. Lookthem up in a standard reference on usage, such as one of those

listed at the bottom of text page 83.

3. What usage levels other than standard (formal and informal) andnonstandard are mentioned in other books on the English language?

Explain them.

AGREEMENT 69

4. Make a list of five idioms and five pronunciations which are charac-

teristic of only one section of the country: the South, New England,

etc.

5. Find, in a history of the English language, five examples of changes

in English grammar (as distinct from changes in vocabulary or in

individual words) since Anglo-Saxon times. Explain them.

6. Write an essay comparing the grammar of Latin (German, French,

or some other language) with the grammar of English. Consider

such matters as word order, cases, inflections, etc.

7. Borrow copies of other English textbooks from your teacher or library

and compare usage rules.

8. Look up each of the following words in two or three different dic-

tionaries: ain 't, bigwig, chicken (adjective), irregardiess, jiffy . Whatinformation do the dictionaries give about each word? Do the dic-

tionaries agree in all cases?

CHAPTER 6

AGREEMENT(pages 85-103)

Teaching this chapter immediately after teaching Chapter 5 will makeboth chapters clearer. Chapter 5, for example, defines standard usage anddescribes the levels of usage: standard formal, standard informal, and

nonstandard. Chapter 6, a usage chapter, provides many examples or il-

lustrations of how an understanding of levels functions in the use of stand-

ard English. In fact, all the usage chapters (Chapters 6-10) contain fre-

quent references to the distinction between formal usage and informal

usage and to the more exacting usage requirements of written English. Byconstantly calling attention to these distinctions, you make clear the ideas

presented in Chapter 5, and you show your students how these ideas apply

to their own speaking and writing.

Students are quick to challenge textbook rules and examples which

teach a usage that, they insist, is different from the way "everybody says

it." Your regular answer to such challenges is that ihe students are learning

a more formal level of usage than the informal oral usage to which they are

accustomed. It is on this formal level that they will be expected to do muchof their writing in college and, frequently, in business.

Agreement of Subject and Verb (pages 85-99)

Intervening phrase, pages 86-87 (rule 6c)

Your students have been taught for years that the subject of a verb is

never in a prepositional phrase. Remind them of this fact as they study this

rule. Advise them in all exercises involving agreement of subject and verb

70 USAGE

to ignore the prepositional phrases. Doing so will enable them to spot the

subject accurately.

Exercise 1, page 87. If, in order to save time with an advanced class, you

prefer to rely on the text to do the teaching, you may do this most effi-

ciently by assigning Exercise 1 without any previous instruction on the

rules, advising the students to look back at the rules whenever they en-

counter a problem that puzzles them. Students learn best when they have

to look up the rules themselves in order to solve a specific problem.

Indefinite pronouns as subjects, pages 88-91 (rules 6d-6f)

Even mature students find it difficult to accept some of the words listed

here as singular; e.g., everyone, everybody, nobody, anyone. You can

show the students that they do habitually think of these words as singular

whenever they use a verb immediately after them. Few of your students

would say "Everyone are here" or "Everybody were present."

To bring out the singular nature of each, either, and neither, advise

your students always to think of these words as modifying "one": each

one, either one, neither one. There cannot be any argument about the

number of one.

Exercise 3, page 90. This exercise and Review Exercise B, page 103, are

important because they are a type frequently used in standardized tests on

usage. This type is more interesting and challenging than the other kinds of

exercises in the chapter. Warn students to work with special care.

Exercise 4, pages 90-91. It may be advisable to explain to the class the

reason for the exercise instructions "Read each of the following sentences

aloud." Here again the aim is to sensitize ears and tongue. All teachers

know how capable students are of correcting an error in writing one minute

and then making the same error in speaking the next. Reading aloud will

help to prevent this, for the students will eventually "hear" the errors be-

fore they make them; they will not do this if they never read their exercise

sentences aloud. Ear training is also furthered by occasionally giving oral

tests. If you wish to use Exercise 4 as an oral test, tell students to numbertheir papers 1-20 and to write + after a number if the sentence you read is

correct, if it is wrong. Students will have to think rapidly as you pace

your reading to five sentences a minute. The automatic response is whatyou are working for in correcting oral usage.

Compound subjects, pages 91-95 (rules 6g-6i)

Take time in class for discussion of the usage note on pages 92-93,

which provides a specific example of the difference between informal and

AGREEMENT 71

formal usage. Emphasize the concluding paragraph on page 93, which tells

students to follow formal usage in doing the textbook exercises.

Exercise 5, text pages 93-95. This exercise, which calls for correct-in-

correct responses, may be given orally, the teacher reading the sentences

at a rate of about five a minute.

Other problems in agreement, pages 95-98 (rules 6j-6s)

The only rule here which is likely to cause difficulty is rule 6r. Students

may insist that in the example the relative pronoun refers to one, not to

remarks. You can easily show them that the antecedent is remarks by re-

arranging the sentence to read, "Of those remarks that are intended to start

arguments, that is one." Similarly, the second example would read, "Ofthose people who go out of their way to be helpful, Joan is one."

The rule specifies, "In formal English . . .." Although not as logical

as a plural, a singular verb is not considered an error in informal English.

Supplementary Exercise. You may use this oral exercise as a summarytest on agreement of subject and verb. Have the students number their

papers from 1-20. Tell them that if you read a sentence in which the verb

does not agree with its subject, they are to write after the proper number;

if the sentence is correct, they are to write + . Of course, if you wish to

have the test duplicated, you may give it as a written test. This may be

preferable for a less-advanced class since it allows more time for them to

figure out the correct answers. There is value, too, in giving the test this

way first, then, after correcting it, giving it as an oral test. Having been

over the sentences once, less-advanced students will be able to answer with

the speed required in oral testing.

Our victory in both games were due to luck.

Neither of your suggestions is practical.

The conclusion reached by both speakers was the same as mine.

Every one of my answers were wrong.

The judge, together with the lawyers, have been trying to settle the case

out of court.

Neither Jean nor her parents want to move away.

The bridge, with four traffic lanes, have recently been widened to six lanes.

One of the men looks heavier than the other.

Where's Fred and Bill?

The cause of the fire, which destroyed three homes, haven't been deter-

mined.

Five dollars seems like a fair price.

There's more students than desks in this room.

Not one of my younger sisters look like me.

There's bound to be objections to any proposal.

Some of the teachers live near the school.

1.

+ 2.

+ 3.

4.

5.

+ 6.

7.

+ 8.

9.

10.

+ 11.

12.

13.

14.

+ 15.

72 USAGE

+ 16.

+ 17.

18.

19.

20.

Each of the checks bears your signature.

A squadron of fighter planes is based here temporarily.

The effect of the drugs are unpredictable.

Have Fran or Barbara been here?

One of my books have disappeared.

Agreement of Pronoun and Antecedent (pages 99-101,rule 6t)

Most of the specific rules covering agreement in number of subjects and

verbs apply also to agreement in number of pronouns and their antece-

dents. There is no need to repeat those rules in this section, but you mayhave to call attention to the fact that a subject which takes a singular (or

plural) verb will logically also require a singular (or plural) pronoun. For

instance, rule 6m on text page 96 pointed out that the name of a country,

even when plural in form, takes a singular verb. A pronoun referring to

such a country should also be singular:

The United States has faithfully kept its agreement with Canada, (not "their

agreement with Canada")

The three specific subrules that are given on pages 100-01 all deal with

cases where formal usage requires stricter attention to agreement than does

informal usage. Call particular attention, therefore, to the usage note at the

bottom of page 101 and the examples following it.

Supplementary Exercise. The following exercise may be used as an oral

test on this chapter. Directions to the class: Number your paper in a col-

umn from 1 to 20. If I read a sentence in which there is an error in agree-

ment of subject and verb or pronoun and antecedent, write after the

proper number. If I read a correct sentence, write + .

1. The result of their efforts were unsatisfactory.

2. Neither of the candidates were willing to commit themselves on the farmproblem.

+ 3. Pat, as well as her two brothers, has not been in school today.

+ 4. Not one of the speakers said what he really believed.

+ 5. He bought one of the cars that were on sale.

6. The sum of these five numbers are your answer.7. Is there any of my books in your locker?

+ 8. Neither performer was at his best.

9. Two thirds of the magazine consist of advertisements.

10. When your guidance counselor asks you a question, tell them the truth.

11. Only one of us have a perfect record.

+ 12. Either Alice or Joan is bringing her record player.

+ 13. One out of four students participates in after-school sports.

14. If you ask one of your teachers, they will probably help you.

CORRECT USE OF PRONOUNS 73

+ 15. Each of the new teachers gave her opinion of our school.

+ 16. Jack is one of the players that were injured.

17. Where's the golf balls you bought?

18. Are your mother or father at home?+ 19. Only one of the thieves would admit his guilt.

20. Every student who works up to their capacity will receive a passing grade.

Note: A mastery test on this chapter will be found in Teaching Tests,

the test booklet that accompanies Warriner's English Grammar and Com-position: Complete Course.

less-advanced students These students may concentrate on the oral

drills in the chapter, thus learning by imitation what they may not be able

to learn by grammatical analysis. A less-advanced class that has muchdifficulty in mastering correct usage should concentrate first on overcom-

ing glaring errors such as "Sue and Julia is," "we was," "he don't."

Much oral practice, followed by frequent reviews and reminders, may be

the best approach with such a class. You may not wish to spend class

time on rare or minor points such as those covered in rules 6h, 6i, and 6r.

advanced students You may let the agreement errors found in stu-

dents' compositions be your guide in deciding which rules to emphasize

in Chapter 6. Or, you may assign Review Exercise A or B (pages 101-03)

as a diagnostic test and then select appropriate sections of the chapter to

teach. If your class has little trouble with agreement, the oral drills alone

may in some cases be adequate review.

CHAPTER 7

CORRECT USE OF PRONOUNS(pages 104-22)

Before turning to the book, find out by questions what your students

know about pronouns and pronoun usage. The chances are that they have

been taught in each year of high school most of the material in this chapter.

While a step-by-step, systematic study of the chapter will do no harm, it

will surely waste time if the class already knows the material.

Ask students whether they know the personal pronouns. As they

suggest pronouns, write them on the board. Ask them to explain the differ-

ences in forms: for example, the different forms /, me, my; he, him, his;

they, them, their. In this way you can reproduce on the board the tabula-

tion of personal pronouns given on text page 105.

Having listed the nominative, objective, and possessive forms, ask

when we use the nominative forms and when we use the objective forms.

At this point you will discover how much teaching you will have to do. (Donot be misled, however, by two or three unusually competent students whoalone know the answers to your questions. Most students may not.)

74 USAGE

Make this diagnostic lesson concrete by asking students to explain their

answers to specific usage problems. Write the following on the board:

1. Jim and (I, me) were absent Monday.

2. That is (she, her).

3. Do you remember Helen and (she, her)?

4. Has anyone heard from Lou and (he, him)?

Students may give the correct answer but be unable to explain the

grammar involved. If, however, you can get the class to formulate for you

the rule involved in each of these four examples, you will have presented

Rules 7b-7e. Study of these rules in the text (pages 106-11) will be easier

after this diagnostic review.

Nominative and Objective Forms(pages 106-11, rules 7b-7e)

Students can usually determine the correct pronoun to use in a com-

pound subject or a compound object without having to resort to grammarrules. This fact is pointed out on page 106, and also on pages 108 and 111 in

connection with rules 7d and 7e. However, grammar is a valuable aid in

problems covered by rule 7c, the predicate nominative, and rule 7f, whoand whom. Exercise 6, pages 111-12, requires that the students know the

grammar of correct pronoun usage.

Ordinarily you need not spend much time on rule 7c, "A predicate

nominative is in the nominative case." The pronoun as a predicate nomina-

tive appears rarely in writing. Discuss with your class the usage note onpage 107, relating it to what they learned about usage levels in Chapter 5.

Exercises 1 and 2, pages 107-08 and 109. When you assign these exer-

cises, take a few minutes to go over the directions in class. Once students

grasp the idea, they should have little difficulty with the sentences that call

for a first person pronoun.

Exercise 4, page 1 10. This kind of creative exercise is often more valuable

than an exercise in which the student merely inserts correct forms in pre-

pared sentences. You may assign similar exercises at any point in the study

of the chapter. Some teachers then use these student-made sentences for

class drill.

Supplementary Exercise. To make sure that the study of pronoun usageis carrying over into your students' habits of speech, test their sensitivity

to spoken errors by giving oral tests. The following sentences will serve as

a test on rules 7b, 7d, and 7e. You can easily write other tests of this kind.

Directions to the class: Number your paper 1-20. After each sentence is

CORRECT USE OF PRONOUNS 75

read, write if the sentence contains an error in pronoun usage; write + if

the sentence is correct.

You and I are taking the same bus.

There is no disagreement between you and I.

Show Dorothy and her what you showed me.

You can't believe either Stan or they.

I saw Allan and he at the game.

Her and her brother are giving a party.

Get the homework assignment from Gail or her.

Dad brought Pam and I a present.

Are you and him in the same grade?

Was the essay written by you or he?

Are you sure the invitation is for you and me?Invite their guests and them.

If Carol and her don't call, you can change your plans.

Is the letter addressed to you or me?

You should have gone with Robert and us.

We girls qualified for the basketball team.

It was midnight when Jack and me came home.

Just between you and me, I think you could have done a better job than

Valerie did.

Leave the heavy work to we boys.

He's always teasing my sister and me.

Uses of Who and Whom (pages 112-17)

Less-advanced classes should ordinarily omit this section. The process

of determining which form is correct often requires more knowledge of

English grammar than these students can manage. However, if students

sprinkle their speech and writing with well-intentioned but incorrect

whom's, you may wish to give them the rule "When in doubt, use who."

You might also point out that who is acceptable in almost any construction

in informal usage.

Who and whom as interrogative pronouns, pages 113-14

Although informal usage does not require whom as the objective form in

most instances, call attention to the fact that whom is required when the

interrogative pronoun immediately follows a preposition (page 114).

nonstandard For who was the phone call?

standard Who was the phone call for? (Informal usage)

standard For whom was the phone call?

Who and whom in subordinate clauses, pages 114-17 (rule 7f)

If you are going to teach who and whom at all, teach them for mastery.

When high school seniors are asked what usage problem puzzles them

+ 1.

2.

+ 3.

4.

5.

6.

+ 7.

8.

9.

10.

+ 11.

+ 12.

13.

+ 14.

+ 15.

+ 16.

17.

+ 18.

19.

+ 20.

76 USAGE

most, they often name the who-whom distinction. Too frequently, teachers

hurry over the problem without insisting that their students go beyond the

guessing stage or the "trick" method of determining correctness described

in the second paragraph on text page 1 13. But if you take up the use of whoand whom in subordinate clauses, go all the way. Insist that students learn

and use the three-step formula described on pages 114-15.

Exercise 7, pages 116-17. To make sure that your students do follow the

three-step formula, you may wish to require them to write on their paper

the entire subordinate clause in which the pronoun appears. Then require

them to write after the clause the way the pronoun is used in the clause,

using the symbols (a, b, c, and d) explained at the beginning of Exercise 6,

text pages 111-12.

Minor Problems in the Use of Pronouns(pages 118-120, rules 7h-7j)

Perhaps the most important rule in this section is rule 7i, "An apposi-

tive is in the same case as the word with which it is in apposition." Since

the problems covered in this section do not come up very frequently in

written work, however, you may wish to omit the entire section when you

are teaching a less-advanced class. Average classes are capable of learning

all the rules in the section. If you do skip some or all of these rules, it will

be necessary to adapt the review exercises and the test in the Teaching

Tests booklet accordingly.

Review Exercise B, pages 121-22. You may wish to use this exercise and

the following supplementary exercise as oral tests on pronoun usage.

Supplementary Exercise. Directions to the class: Number your paper

1-20. After each sentence is read, write a zero if the sentence contains anerror in pronoun usage; write a plus if the sentence is correct.

1. Let George and I in on the secret.

2. Mother said she will need you and I at home.+ 3. It was he who suggested it.

+ 4. Bill and I know the way to the airport.

5. She caught John and I passing notes.+ 6. Do you know who he is?

7. Someone's telling lies about you and she.

8. I met the girls, Sue and she, in the lobby.

9. He was annoyed at us being late.

+ 10. The two halfbacks, Ted and he, won the game.11. Did Larry tell you for who he voted?

+ 12. I didn't do as well as she.

13. This is a secret between you and I.

+ 14. We found them and the boys in the drugstore.

CORRECT FORM AND USE OF VERBS 77

+ 15. She is a girl whom, I think, you know.

+ 16. We sent our winners, Carmel and her, to the state contest.

17. No one knew whom was at the door.

18. As far as Jeannette and me are concerned, you may do as you please.

+ 19. I can't remember whom you appointed.

20. Harold gets better grades than him.

less-advanced students A class that still has some trouble using cor-

rect pronouns in compound subjects and objects should concentrate on

rules 7b, 7d, and 7e. You may wish to supplement the oral drills in the

textbook (Exercises 1 and 4) with additional oral drills that you make up

yourself. The other rules in this chapter will probably prove difficult for

these students, since most of these rules call for grammatical analysis of

constructions involving pronouns. Use your own judgment in deciding

which (if any) of these rules to present to your less-advanced class.

advanced students Advanced students have probably already mas-

tered the rules in the first section of this chapter (rules 7a-7e). It will

usually be worthwhile, however, to take class time for a careful review

of who and whom, of pronouns in incomplete constructions, and of the

minor problems explained on text pages 118-19.

CHAPTER 8

CORRECT FORM AND USE OF VERBSPrincipal Parts; Tense, Voice, and Mood(pages 123-160)

This chapter begins with a brief review of action verbs and linking verbs

(which were taught in Chapter 1) and then takes up problems involving the

correct forms of irregular verbs. The three troublesome pairs lie-lay, sit-

set, and rise-raise are then discussed in turn. The final sections of the

chapter take up problems involving tense, voice, and mood.Note: The special problem of making verbs agree with their subjects is

treated separately in Chapter 6, "Agreement."

The Principal Parts of a Verb (pages 124-35)

The information given on pages 124-25 about the four principal parts of

verbs and about regular verbs provides a brief explanation of how the Eng-

lish "verb system" works. Most students are better prepared to study the

problems caused by irregular verbs if they know in advance that (1) the

overwhelming majority of English verbs are regular and (2) the handful of

78 USAGE

verbs that are not regular usually have only one or two irregular forms

—

the past and the past participle. Although students at this grade level are

probably already familiar with these ideas, it may be well to review the

concepts briefly before taking up the specific usage problems treated in the

chapter.

Irregular verbs, pages 125-35 (rule 8a)

How much time you will wish to devote to irregular verbs will probably

depend upon the kind of English spoken by your students. It is a knownfact that about three fourths of all usage errors are errors in the use of

irregular verbs

—

it don't, has broke, he swim, we drunk, has went, and

those perennial nuisances lie and lay. But irregular verbs have been taught

so frequently in earlier years that many juniors and seniors regard the prob-

lems they present as childish. Students of average ability can often makeperfect scores on the exercises even though they may carelessly misuse

some of the verbs in informal speech.

With fairly good students, you might begin by assigning Exercise 7, text

pages 133-35, which covers the verbs that are most often misused. Theresults will show you whether your students need to study the irregular

verbs listed on pages 125-31. You may find it advisable to skip this mate-

rial in some classes.

The fact is that concentration on a dozen of the most commonly mis-

used irregular verbs will remove most verb errors: do, give, drink, go, ride,

run, see, speak, swim, take, throw, write.

Lie and lay, pages 135-39

Like the three-step method of learning who and whom as relative pro-

nouns, the two-question method of learning lie and lay should be forced

upon the students. The possibility of passing a test on guesswork is very

real, and students who have been guessing their way for years should nowbe forced, if possible, to buckle down and really learn how to use these

verbs.

Note: An inexperienced teacher is sometimes embarrassed to find that

students snicker over sentences containing the verb lay. A serious,

businesslike attitude on the teacher's part will save trouble. It is often ef-

fective to squelch the first snicker with a reminder not to be childish. (The

teacher may, of course, assign these verbs for home study and avoid class-

room discussion of them.)

Exercise 8, page 1 37. In the first exercise on lie-lay, the students may beallowed to use their books to get help in using the two-question formula.

Looking up the principal parts will be a help to those students who havenot yet memorized them.

PRESENT PAST

PARTICIPLE PAST PARTICIPLE

(is) lying lay (have) lain

(is) laying laid (have) laid

CORRECT FORM AND USE OF VERBS 79

Exercise 9, page 138. In doing this second exercise, the students should

not look back in the book for help, but you should have the principal parts

of lie and lay written on the board so that the class can refer to them:

PRESENT

lie (to rest, recline)

lay (to put down)

Exercise 10, pages 138-39. This exercise should be done with no help

from the book and without the forms on the board.

Supplementary Exercise. Directions to the class: Number your paper

1-20. After each sentence is read, write if the sentence contains an error

in the use of lie and lay; write 4- if the sentence is correct.

1. Someone had lain her coat over my books.

+ 2. After laying their books down on the sidewalk, the boys started to talk.

+ 3. Rex was lying on the doormat.

4. Who's been laying down on my beach towel?

5. A tray of cookies was laying on the kitchen table.

+ 6. The cat can lie there if it wants to.

7. Yesterday workers were lying a new floor in the playroom.

+ 8. Mrs. Swenson carefully laid the cake on the shelf.

9. Mildred lay her sweater on the grass to dry.

+ 10. Wade lies down every afternoon for a nap.

11. Please don't leave your books laying on my desk.

+ 12. He laid the injured child down gently.

+ 13. I'm going to lie down to get rid of this headache.

14. The welders lay their tools down when the whistle blew.

+ 15. I was just lying there waiting for the alarm clock to ring.

+ 16. Several boats lay at anchor in the creek.

17. Some dogs like to sleep laying on their backs.

18. Lay down, Rover!

19. Penobscot Bay lays to the north of us.

+ 20. Aretha lay on the floor, watching a television program.

Sit and set, pages 1 39-40

The confusion between sit and set seems to be a common error in somecommunities but not in others. If your students' speech and writing showthat they do not have trouble with these verbs, you should skip this sec-

tion. When a sit-set problem appears in a review exercise or a test, stu-

dents who already use these verbs correctly should naturally give the

proper answer, without corrective training.

80 USAGE

Rise and raise, pages 1 40-41

The use of raise for rise is a more widespread error than the use of set

for sit. At this grade level, however, many students have already learned to

use rise correctly.

Tense and Tense Usage (pages 142-53, rules 8b-8h)

The complete conjugations of go and be on text pages 142-45 are in-

tended for reference. Certainly nothing is to be gained by requiring

English-speaking students to conjugate verbs in their own language. Stu-

dents should, however, be reminded of the names of the perfect tenses so

that they will understand the text rules for correct use of tenses.

Most juniors and seniors have little trouble using tenses correctly. Theprincipal teaching point is rule 8d (page 148). This rule, which concerns

tense sequence, is not difficult to teach so that students will do well on a

test, but the error will probably persist in their compositions. Rule 8e cor-

rects an error common in speech in some areas but rarely found in writing.

Rules 8f, 8g, and 8h are definitely fine points and need not occupy muchteaching time. You will probably not wish to teach them to slower classes.

Active and Passive Voice (pages 153-57, rule 8i)

Students should know what is meant by active and passive voice. Theoveruse of the passive is fairly common in the writing of some students,

and the teacher should warn against it and mark it whenever it leads to

awkwardness in a composition.

The retained object (page 154) is explained here only to answer ques-

tions that students sometimes raise about passive sentences. You need not

teach this point. Retained objects do not cause any special problems in

usage.

The Subjunctive Mood (pages 157-58, rule 8j)

The subjunctive is included in the text principally for reference, but rule

8j is not difficult and should be taught to classes of average ability.

Review Exercises A and B, pages 158-60. If you have not taught all the

chapter rules, you may wish to go through these exercises and delete sen-

tences relating to the rules you did not teach. The revised exercise maythen be mimeographed or put on the board for use as a test on the chapter.

Note: Do not simply read the sentences aloud and have the class write +or on their paper. Some of the errors covered in these sentences are

considered faults chiefly in written—not in spoken—English.

CORRECT USE OF MODIFIERS 81

less-advanced students If your slower class still has trouble using

correct forms of irregular verbs, this is the point on which to concentrate

in teaching this chapter. Take up separately each of the four groups of

verbs listed on text pages 129-33; use Exercises 1-7 first as written as-

signments, then as oral drills. A less-advanced class may omit the sec-

tions on tense, voice, and mood.

advanced students In some communities, even advanced students will

need corrective drill with irregular verbs. Ordinarily, however, they will

already have mastered these forms and can concentrate on the finer

points of usage presented in rules 8d-8j.

CHAPTER 9

CORRECT USE OF MODIFIERS(pages 161-70)

The first section of this chapter takes up problems involving confusion

between adjectives and adverbs. The second section explains the concept

of comparison and covers specific problems that arise in statements of

comparison. Other errors involving particular adverbs and adjectives (e.g.,

"anywheres," "nowheres," "can't hardly," "this here") are treated in

Chapter 10, "Glossary of Usage." Correction of dangling or misplaced

modifiers is covered in Chapter 14, "Placement of Modifiers."

The average student is probably already familiar with the basic con-

cepts presented here in Chapter 9. Students who still use expressions like

"that car runs good" or "the most friendliest remark" will need corrective

drill, however, if they are to master standard English usage. The other

usage problems covered in the chapter are minor and are included in the

text mainly for reference. After examining them, you may decide to select

only a few points to teach, ignoring the others.

Adjective and Adverb Forms (pages 1 61 -66, rules 9a and 9b)

If you teach the chapter straight through, begin with a few usage prob-

lems. Students are more interested in usage than in abstract grammatical

principles. Before having the class look at the chapter, write on the board a

few example sentences like those on text pages 162-63. Ask students to

explain why the adjective is correct in some examples and the adverb in

others. If the better students can answer your question, you will have pre-

pared the class for study of the rules. If they cannot, give the explanation

yourself and then have the class read pages 161-63 and do Exercise 1.

A slightly different approach to the material would be to begin with

Exercise 1, permitting students to look back in the chapter for help in solv-

82 USAGE

ing these specific problems. Check their answers and discuss the rules after

the class recognizes the necessity for knowing them.

Bad and badly, page 164

The point covered in the text is the misuse of badly for bad after a

linking verb ("feels badly," "smells badly"). As the book indicates, this

distinction between bad and badly is observed chiefly in formal English

and is not necessarily followed in conversational English.

Do not let students get the idea, however, that bad and badly need

never be distinguished in informal English. In sentences that call for an

adverb, badly is still the only correct standard form:

The team played badly, (not "played bad")

Good and well, pages 164-65

The only common error involved here is the misuse of good as an ad-

verb ("She sings good"). There is no need for you to teach the adjectival

uses of well. The various uses of well are explained here simply so that

students will not get the impression that well is always an adverb.

Comparison of Adjectives and Adverbs(pages 166-69, rules 9c-9f)

Your students are probably already familiar with the concept of com-

parison and with the terms positive, comparative, and superlative. You maywish to have the class read over the material on text pages 166-69, but donot expect them to memorize the four subrules or to be able to give in-

stantly the correct comparative and superlative forms of every adjective in

the language.

Uses of comparatives and superlatives, pages 168-69

Of the three errors covered in this section, only one—doublecomparison—is of major importance. Most of your students, however,have probably long since outgrown the use of double comparisons. Do not

take up rule 9f unless the class genuinely stands to benefit from the correc-

tive work involved.

Rules 9d and 9e are technical points which are usually observed in for-

mal written English, although they are not necessarily observed in speech.

Note: If you have taught the entire chapter, you may use the chaptertest in the Teaching Tests booklet as a final check.

less-advanced students These students should learn to avoid the fol-

lowing nonstandard usages: (a) the use of an adjective for an adverb,

GLOSSARY OF USAGE 83

including the use of "good" for well, and (b) the use of double compari-

sons. The drill approach to correct usage will probably be more success-

ful than the grammar approach, however. A less-advanced class need not

learn the grammatical principles and terms taught in this chapter, and

these students need not be held responsible for the formal usages taught

in rules 9d and 9e.

advanced students An advanced class has probably already mastered

most of the material in this chapter. It may be worthwhile, however, to

take up in class those points on which formal usage sometimes differs

from informal usage: bad and badly, slow and slowly, and rules 9d and

9e.

CHAPTER 10

GLOSSARY OF USAGE(pages 171-94)

A glossary is a reference tool. At the beginning of the year, explain to

your students what the glossary contains and encourage them to refer to it

for answers to common usage problems. Most of the items listed are not

covered elsewhere in the text. \

Familiarize yourself with the glossary so that you can refer your stu-

dents to it whenever they make an error that is explained on these pages.

For example, when you find a student has written affect for effect in a

composition, you need simply write "glossary" or "gl" or "10" (Chapter

10) in the margin of the paper. The student will then be able to look up the

error and correct it.

Included in the glossary are several usages which are followed only in

formal English. Call to your students' attention the frequent use of the

words formal and informal in the rules. If you teach certain expressions as

forbidden in informal English when in fact they are commonly used in the

speech of cultivated people, your students will lose respect for your teach-

ing of usage in general. Examples of usages acceptable in informal but not

in formal English include such items as reason is because; can't help but;

data as a singular form; less for fewer; in for into; these kind.

The following comments on a few of the glossary items may be helpful.

amount, number, page 173

and

fewer, less, page 179

The clue to correct standard usage is the same for both pairs. Numberand fewer are used with plurals.

84 USAGE

examples She bought a large number (not amount) of books.

She read fewer (not less) books than I did.

between, among, page 176

Many students have acquired the mistaken idea that between should

never be used if more than two things or persons are referred to. Actually,

between is correct no matter how many things are referred to if they are

considered as individuals. Among is the correct form when they are re-

ferred to as a group.

The following quotation from Robert C. Pooley may clarify this point:

It is clear from the evidence that between has two legitimate uses in mod-

ern English for which the present rules are inadequate. The first use (and the

more common one) is that involving two persons or things in which between

denotes a division into two, or a position in space interior to the designated

objects or persons: "Divide the cake between Mary and John," "Sit between

Mary and John," "The bush was planted between the two trees." The sec-

ond use is that in which between denotes a distinction in several persons or

objects considered individually: "The five diplomats settled the question be-

tween them," "Distinguish carefully between the five uses of the subjunc-

tive"; the underlying psychology is that of distinguishing between any two of

a larger number. On the other hand, when a group of more than two is

treated as a group, or collectively, the preposition among is regularly used:

"Divide this among the members of your class," "Plant this among the

shrubs." It is incorrect, therefore, to state arbitrarily that between maynever be used with more than two. 1

emigrate, immigrate, page 178

Just as you taught your students to relate bring to come and take to go,

tell them to relate immigrate to come into and emigrate to go out of.

like, as, page 184

Teach your students that they should use as if a subject and verb fol-

low; otherwise, use like. This approach is not infallible, but it is helpful in

most instances.

shall, will, page 188

Some teachers are reluctant to abandon the old distinction between

these words. The following statements by authorities on usage will explain

the position taken in the textbook:

1 From Teaching English Usage by Robert C. Pooley, © 1946 by the National Council of

Teachers of English. Reprinted by permission of Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.

Page 137.

GLOSSARY OF USAGE 85

The use of shall and will as future auxiliaries, and to a lesser extent the use

of should and would, have long engaged the attention of textbook writers.

Much space has been devoted to a discussion of their "correct" use and

many pages of exercises follow the discussions. In view of the evidence nowavailable concerning these forms both from the standpoint of their history

and their contemporary usage it seems advisable for textbooks in the elemen-

tary and junior high-school levels to . . . omit any discussion of "correct"

usage for shall, will, should, or would. Textbooks designed for the senior

high school and college should either omit all reference to "correctness" or

else give the whole story: traditions, rules, facts of past usage, and facts of

present usage. Only by so doing can they pretend to any approximation to

current usage. 1

But for most Americans, shall always means an order and should usually

means an obligation. In this country will is used as the future auxiliary in all

persons and in all types of sentences .... In current American speech will

occurs 217 times for every shall; and would occurs nine times for every

should. Etymologically speaking, we are a very vW//ful people. 2

less-advanced students With a less-advanced class you should not

try to cover all the items in the chapter, but should concentrate instead

on the serious errors most frequently made in students' oral or written

work. Ordinarily it will not be worthwhile to spend time on the moreformal distinctions.

advanced students Unless these students have unusual difficulty mas-

tering standard usage, they ordinarily can use this chapter for reference,

and they need not study it as a unit.

1 Pooley, Teaching English Usage, p. 55.2 From A Dictionary of Contemporary American Usage, by Bergen Evans and Cornelia

Evans. Copyright © 1957 by Bergen Evans and Cornelia Evans. Reprinted by permission ofRandom House, Inc. Pages 448-49.

PART THREE

Composition: SentenceStructure

pages 195-305

One reason students often dislike the composition part of their English

course is that they feel insecure because they do not know good writing

from poor writing. They find that it is not very helpful to receive a "D"and no other marks on a composition. Effective teachers indicate on the

paper specific weaknesses in content, organization, sentence structure, and

mechanics. They force the students to show that they understand their er-

rors in sentence structure by requiring the students to correct them. They

hope that the students, as a result of this requirement, will eventually learn

to avoid these errors as they write. But before teachers can mark structural

errors, they must teach the exact nature of each error.

It is a significant truth that stylistic "do's" of good writing cannot be

taught without also presenting the "don'ts." Telling students to place mod-ifiers near the words they modify, for instance, is of little value until you

show them some of the confusing or amusing sentences that can result

from the misplacement of modifiers. Similarly, telling them to use clear,

direct language is not likely to be effective unless you show them a few

passages that are weighted down with jargon or cliches.

In an effort to make the characteristics of good and bad writing specific

rather than vague, teachers of writing have over the years listed the stylis-

tic weaknesses common in student writing. They have isolated these weak-

nesses for teaching purposes. Once they have taught a particular structural

fault, they are able to mark it, often with a symbol, on the students' pa-

pers, and be fairly certain that the students will then recognize the error

in their writing and remedy it.

You realize, of course, that these sentence-structure chapters are not a

substitute for themes. The chapters are only means to an end, the end

being well-written compositions. As the teacher, you are responsible for

the carry-over into your students' compositions of the material covered in

the chapters. For example, when you find, after teaching Chapter 12, that

students have written sentences containing faulty coordination, underline

the sentences and write in the margin "Subordinate" or "Faulty coordina-

tion." Require students to correct all such errors that you have covered in

your teaching; instruct them to look up the error in the textbook if their

memories need to be refreshed.

86

COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION 87

CHAPTER 11

SENTENCE COMPLETENESS(pages 197-205)

This chapter provides a quick review of the most elementary—but most

serious—errors in sentence structure: the sentence fragment and the run-on

sentence. Consider the chapter a reminder rather than a skill builder. Theonly way to eliminate fragments and run-ons from your students' papers is

to keep pointing them out and requiring correction. Textbook exercises are

only mildly effective aids because when fragments and run-ons are massed

in exercises, they immediately become obvious and their correction be-

comes routine. Errors will still continue to appear, however, even in the

compositions of students who score 100 percent on the exercises. There-

fore, once fragments and run-ons have been clearly explained, the only

effective place to work on them is in the students' papers.

Note: If you have a class of fairly able writers, it may not be necessary

to teach this chapter formally. Instead, require any student whose writing

contains many fragments or run-ons to study the chapter at home and to

write out the exercises. A less-advanced class should probably study this

chapter in detail and do all the exercises.

advanced students Advanced students, who are accustomed to getting

top grades for the "ideas" in their compositions, are sometimes slovenly

about sentence structure and mechanics. Requiring them to proofread

their papers before turning them in may be the best attack on careless

fragments and run-ons.

CHAPTER 12

COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION(pages 206-21)

With average classes the most effective way to review coordination and

subordination is through board presentation and class discussion, before

the students turn to the chapter in their textbooks.

Coordinate Ideas (pages 206-10, rule 12a)

You might introduce this concept by writing the following sentences on

the board:

The soccer game will be in the morning, and the football game will be in the

afternoon.

The soccer game will be in the morning, but the football game will be in the

afternoon.

88 COMPOSITION: SENTENCE STRUCTURE

The soccer team must win, or the football team will have the better record.

The soccer game will be in the morning; therefore, the football game will be

in the afternoon.

By questioning and discussion, establish the following points:

1. In all these sentences the two ideas receive equal emphasis and are of

equal importance; hence they are coordinate.

2. The relationship between the coordinate ideas is shown by the connec-

tives which join them.

3. Four kinds of relationship are illustrated: addition, contrast, choice,

and result.

4. Other connectives might also be used to express these relationships

(ask students to suggest these-, see text page 207):

addition also, besides, etc.

contrast however, yet, etc.

choice either . . . or, etc.

result accordingly, etc.

Having thus reviewed coordination, ask students to study pages 206-08;

then assign Exercise 1, which, although it is a very easy exercise, will

clinch your teaching point.

Subordinate Ideas (pages 210-18)

One of the most distinctive marks of mature writing is the use of subor-

dination, which at a single stroke serves to (a) combine related ideas and

(b) express the exact relationship between the ideas. Many high school

seniors, however, have not yet made the transition from a childishly simple

writing style (long series of simple sentences, or long series of independent

clauses strung together with and, so, but) to the more adult style. The use

of subordination will be taken up again in Chapter 18, "Sentence Variety,"

on pages 265-74. The material here in Chapter 12 teaches students to rec-

ognize ideas which should be subordinated and to express the subordina-

tion clearly and correctly.

Adverb clauses, pages 210-15 (rule 12b)

Approach the adverb clause in the same inductive way you approachedcoordination—by board work and discussion of subordination. You might

put the following sentences on the board:

1. The postponed game will be rescheduled whenever the coaches decide ona date.

2. Because rain had made the field too muddy, the game was postponed.3. The field was so slippery that playing would have been hazardous.4. If the Held is dry, the game will be played Saturday.

COORDINATION AND SUBORDINATION 89

Point out that each sentence contains two ideas, one in an independent

clause and one in a subordinate clause. Establish that the main (and usually

the more important) idea is expressed in the independent clause. Ask stu-

dents what purpose the subordinate clause serves in each sentence. Elicit

the following answers:

Sentence 1 The subordinate clause tells when (time).

Sentence 2 The subordinate clause tells why (cause or reason).

Sentence 3 The subordinate clause tells result.

Sentence 4 The subordinate clause tells under what condition.

Bring out the fact that it is the subordinating conjunction introducing

the subordinate clause that makes clear the nature of the relationship be-

tween the clauses. Ask students to suggest other connectives (list answers

on the board) that might be used in these sentences.

Sentence 1: When, as soon as, after

Sentence 2: Since, As

Sentence 3: (no alternatives)

Sentence 4: Provided

Then have students read pages 210-12 and do Exercise 2, pages 212-13.

Note: When the class comes to the list of subordinating conjunctions ex-

pressing condition (pages 21 1-12), emphasize that, although the meaning of

many of these conjunctions (though, although, and even though, for exam-ple) is quite different from the meaning of if and provided, they still express

a condition governing the idea in the independent clause. Some gram-

marians prefer to say that the words express concession, which is true,

but high school students usually grasp the idea of condition more easily

than they grasp the idea of concession.

Exercise 3, pages 213-15. Although relatively easy, this is the kind of

exercise which most closely approximates actual composition. Given twoideas to include in a single sentence, the students must decide on the rela-

tionship of the ideas to each other and select accordingly the most effective

subordinating conjunction, just as they would have to do if the two ideas

were their own and they were writing an original composition. Insist onstudents' doing this entire exercise. Make a point of the fact that the posi-

tion of the adverb clause may vary and that there may be more than one

acceptable conjunction for the same sentence. Warn students particularly

not to join the two ideas by means of a coordinating conjunction. For

example, the first item in the exercise will not be accepted if written as

follows: "It is obvious that you learn to do by doing, and so it is obvious

that you learn to write by writing.' ' To save time in a class of advanced

students, ask students merely to list on their papers the subordinating con-

junctions they would use in these sentences, and then have them read

aloud the complex sentences they create.


Faulty coordination, pages 216-19 (rule 12d)

You will probably find that it is not easy to pick out overt examples of

faulty coordination in your students' compositions. This error is more sub-

tle than other sentence structure faults such as poor reference or violations

of parallelism. Nevertheless, insist that your students study faulty coordi-

nation and do Exercises 5 and 6, because these exercises give valuable

practice in subordinating ideas.

Note: A test on this chapter appears in the Teaching Tests booklet that

accompanies English Grammar and Composition: Complete Course.

less-advanced students If you teach this chapter to a less-advanced

class, concentrate on the examples and exercise sentences rather than on

the grammatical explanations. Slower students can learn through prac-

tice to write good compound and complex sentences, even when they do

not understand the technical terms that describe what they are doing.

advanced students These students may find the exercises easy and

obvious. It is worthwhile, however, to take class time to review the con-

cepts presented in the chapter and to assign some of the exercises. The

material presented here is basic to further work in sentence structure.

CHAPTER 13

CLEAR REFERENCEPronouns and Antecedents

(pages 222-29)

Remind your classes that you are dealing here with written English,

which must be more precise than spoken English. In writing, ambiguity is

more noticeable than it is in speech. Writing which unnecessarily confuses

the reader even for a moment is not good writing. Make it clear to the class

that the excuse, "But you know what I mean," is not acceptable.

This chapter has been divided into sections—based on four kinds of

faulty reference—merely for convenience in teaching and studying. Em-phasize the general concept, rather than identification of the kinds of

faults. In checking students' compositions, circle a pronoun which does

not have a clear antecedent and write ref in the margin. The concept of bad

reference rather than the kind of bad reference is your teaching point.

The practice of covering part of an exercise orally in class and assigning

the remainder of the exercise as written work is suggested in teaching this

chapter. The reason for this recommendation is that in a great many of the

exercise sentences the only change necessary is the replacement of the

unclear pronoun with a noun or a noun phrase. Copying an entire sentence

to make a one-word change comes dangerously close to busywork.

PLACEMENT OF MODIFIERS 91

Like other errors in sentence structure, errors in reference are fre-

quently amusing. It is easy, when you are grading themes, to copy exam-

ples of unclear pronoun reference, entertaining and otherwise. From time

to time, write these on the board to show the class that this error is not

something dreamed up by teachers and textbook writers.

Exercise 4, pages 228-29. You can use this exercise as a test for mastery

or as a preliminary exercise before giving the chapter test in Teaching

Tests. Less-advanced students may be taken through the chapter in class,

reading aloud the rules and examples before they undertake the exercises

individually. Follow the chapter through step by step.

advanced students An advanced class can study this chapter entirely

on their own. The concepts are easy to understand. Each of the four

definitions is followed by several examples. These examples do the

teaching. Because of the relatively obvious nature of reference errors

—

once they have been called to students' attention—you may assign the

chapter for study and mastery without class discussion.

CHAPTER 14

PLACEMENT OF MODIFIERS(pages 230-38)

This chapter covers three specific errors in placement of modifiers—the

misplaced modifier, the dangling modifier, and the two-way ("squinting")

modifier. Knowledge of these three terms is not, however, of any great

importance. The main point you will make in teaching this chapter is that a

phrase or clause modifier should clearly modify another word in the sen-

tence and should be placed so that its modifying function is clear.

Misplaced Modifiers (pages 230-33, rule 14a)

The surest way to establish the general concept that a modifier should

be as near as possible to the word it modifies is to show students some of

the absurd meanings that result when modifiers are not so placed. How-ever, beware of giving the impression that misplaced modifiers are always

funny. The kinds which you are likely to find in your students' composi-

tions are the kinds whose distortions of meaning are not immediately appar-

ent to writers when their attention is called to them.

In Exercise 1, for example, the first three sentences are not amusing

and therefore may seem to be less important, but in actuality they are morerealistic and more valuable for teaching than some of the others.

Exercise 1, pages 232-33. Since the placement of modifiers is a written


skill, you may wish to require students to write out the last half of the

exercise after they have done the first half orally.

Dangling Modifiers (pages 233-36, rule 14b)

Many students will not understand that a dangling modifier actually

does modify. Usually a dangler comes at the beginning of a sentence and

falsely appears to modify the first noun or pronoun following it. You can

clarify the function of introductory modifiers by writing on the board a

number of introductory phrases and asking the students to complete the

sentences, beginning always with the modified subject of the sentence.

Leaving in a hurry, . . .

Wearing an old straw hat, . . .

Driving the car for the first time, . . .

Hidden at the bottom of my locker, . . .

While listening to the radio, . . .

The exercises in the placement of modifiers are especially valuable be-

cause, in addition to sensitizing students to a common error, they illustrate

the flexible arrangements possible in a sentence. Students will benefit from

understanding that some modifiers may occupy several positions in a sen-

tence, and that they should try them in various positions before deciding

which one is clearest and smoothest.

Collect and mimeograph examples of misplaced modifiers found in stu-

dents' compositions. Textbook examples and exercises are useful in teach-

ing, but nothing strikes home so pointedly as examples culled from the

students' own papers. Keep a file of these and have them mimeographedfor use in an additional exercise.

Exercise 3, page 237. You can use this exercise as preparation for the

chapter test in Teaching Tests.

less-advanced students With a less-advanced class, use examples of

misplaced modifiers taken from students' own compositions. These

examples will be more meaningful to the class than examples in a

textbook. You may have to remind the class frequently about errors in

the placement of modifiers, even after you have taken them through the

chapter. Do not devote an excessive amount of time to this matter, how-ever, in a class where students are still struggling with more basic prob-

lems in written expression.

advanced students After you have taught this chapter, check all errors

in written work that involve placement of modifiers, and require students

to turn in corrections.

PARALLEL STRUCTURE 93

CHAPTER 15

PARALLEL STRUCTURE(pages 239-45)

In introducing this chapter, discuss with your students the distinction

between clearness and smoothness in sentence structure. Chapters 12, 13,

and 14 emphasized clarity, which, of course, is an essential quality of good

expository prose. Chapters 15-18, while in part concerned with clarity, are

concerned primarily with smoothness or general felicity of expression. This

concern represents a definite advance in the study of good writing. Impress

upon your students that after studying these chapters, they will be ex-

pected not only to write clearly, but to demonstrate a smoother, more ma-ture style. Many students, flattered or challenged by this forward step in

the study of writing skill, will take the work seriously and respond to the

fine points presented in these chapters.

Kinds of Parallel Structure (pages 239-41, rule 15a)

Rule 15a refers to "same grammatical form," and you will naturally

need to use grammar terms in teaching the similarity of form required in

parallel construction. Several terms are involved: gerund, infinitive, coor-

dinate, correlative, phrase, and clause. However, your students do not

need absolutely accurate knowledge of these terms in order to understand

what is meant by similarity of form. They can easily get the point of paral-

lelism without being able to name every construction involved. For exam-

ple, in the sentence, "Running on ice is easier than to walk," they can see

that to walk is not similar in form to running, without knowing that running

is a gerund and to walk is an infinitive. They can also see that coordinate

ideas are parallel without identifying them as coordinate. Therefore, do not

make too much of the terminology here, but concentrate on the rather sim-

ple concept that parallelism calls for similarity of form.

If your students studied parallelism during the preceding year, you can

save time by teaching this chapter deductively, letting the rules and exam-

ples serve as review. Begin by asking the class if they know what is meant

by parallelism or parallel structure in the sentence. Ask for a few examples

and write them on the board. Then turn to the text and read through with

the class the description of the three kinds of parallel constructions, letting

the examples clarify the instruction.

If, on the contrary, your students are studying parallelism for the first

time, approach the chapter inductively. Write on the board a few paired

expressions that are not grammatically similar and ask the students to

change one expression in each pair to make it similar to the other.


swimming to play {playing)

interested pays attention (attentive)

his name where he lives (his address)

Then write on the board some sentences which contain obvious viola-

tions of parallelism, representing all three kinds of parallel structure.

1. The prisoners were accused of robbery, assault, and forging checks.

(robbery, assault, and forgery)

2. The forecast was for rain in the morning and that it would be sunny in the

afternoon. (and sunshine in the afternoon)

3. Few of the workers were as interested in increasing production as they

were in how much more pay they could get. (in getting more pay)

4. They say they can raise the money by either mortgaging their home, or

they will persuade their friends to contribute. (persuading theirfriends

to contribute)

You may call attention to the fact that sentences 1 and 2 contain coordinate

constructions, that sentence 3 is a comparison, and that sentence 4 is cor-

relative. However, if you think these terms will not mean much to your

class, you can get along without them.

After you have completed your explanation and discussion of the board

examples, turn with the class to the text, and go over pages 239-41.

Completed Parallelism (pages 241-44)

The three rules in this part of the chapter cover instances where the

sentence has to be reworded, or where additional words have to be

supplied, in order to carry out the writer's intention of making parallel

statements. Students may raise the objection that some instances of faulty

parallelism "sound natural." You can point out that they sound natural

—

when spoken aloud—but they do not "read" naturally. In our everyday

speech, we do not have time to think out each sentence in advance. Weoften shift constructions in mid-sentence; but we can usually count on our

tone of voice to convey the right meaning. In writing, on the other hand, an

incomplete parallel statement has no tone-of-voice clues to tell what the

writer means. Sometimes readers will have to reread the sentence to get

the right meaning; at other times (for instance, in the first two sets of

example sentences under rule 15c), they may actually get a wrong meaningfrom the written sentence.

Placement of correlative conjunctions, page 241 (rule 15b)

Rule 15b may need fuller explanation than the text affords. Referring to

the first example, explain that if the sentence begins, "Mrs. Sayers is not

only president," this opening must be followed by naming some other posi-

tion she holds: "Mrs. Sayers is not only president of the National Bank, but

also secretary of the Chamber of Commerce," thus paralleling president

15b-c

UNNECESSARY SHIFTS IN SENTENCES 95

and secretary. The words immediately following not only and but also

should be parallel. To make the meaning clear, since Mrs. Sayers is presi-

dent ofboth institutions, the sentence should begin, "Mrs. Sayers is president

not only of the National Bank but also of the Chamber of Commerce."Similarly, in the second example both precedes /W/, so and must pre-

cede a word parallel with felt; for example, suffered. "The team both felt

the satisfaction of victory and suffered the disappointment of defeat." Use

the following sentences as additional examples, if necessary:

1. When he was in high school, Mr. Douglas was not only captain of the

football team but also of the track team. {captain not only of)

2. The audience not only applauded the soloist but also the orchestra con-

ductor, (applauded not only)

3. You should not either believe him or his brother. (believe either)

4. Every member promised both to bake a pie and a layer cake. (to bake

both)

5. I was not only disturbed by the traffic but also by the crowds of pedes-

trians, (disturbed not only)

Repetition of a needed word, pages 241-42 (rule 15c)

Here the problem is one of meaning. You may wish to teach this mate-

rial inductively, writing the ambiguous examples (page 242) on the board

and asking the class to discover the errors, before turning to the textbook.

Exercise 1, pages 242-43. This is a long exercise. To make sure your

students understand what they are to do, go over the first few sentences

orally with the class; then assign the rest of the exercise. Since parallelism

is important only in writing, the exercise should be done in writing. Note:

Advanced students, however, may grasp readily the various rules in this

chapter. Save time by asking them to write out only one half of each exer-

cise. Correcting a sentence often involves much copying.

Exercise 3, pages 244-45. You can assign and correct this exercise as a

preliminary test before giving the test in the Teaching Tests booklet.

advanced students Once the necessity for writing clear, correct paral-

lel statements has been demonstrated to these students, they should be

held responsible for using correct parallelism in their compositions.

CHAPTER 16

UNNECESSARY SHIFTS IN SENTENCES(pages 246-52)

The purpose of this chapter is to call to the student's attention the fact

that unnecessary shifts in construction often result in clumsy sentences.


Emphasize the avoidance of needless passives—rule 16b(l)—which ac-

count for a great many awkward sentences in high school writing.

Since most of the concepts presented in this chapter are probably newto the class, approach them inductively at the board before turning to the

text. Begin with a reminder that you are continuing instruction in smooth

sentence structure and that you are taking up more advanced skills.

Write the following sentences on the board:

1. When someone spends a whole weekend fishing, you want something to

show for it.

2. The committee members discussed the idea at length, but it was not voted

on.

3. Diplomats of twelve nations met for a month in Paris, and a new trade

agreement was prepared by them.

Ask students whether any of these sentences seem awkward. Be grate-

ful if your students think all the sentences are awkward. Ask the class to

suggest improvements. Write some of the suggestions on the board and, if

and when you get the one you want, point out that the sentence has been

improved by maintaining the same simple subject throughout. Explain that

it is sometimes necessary to shift the subject, but when it is not necessary,

as in these examples, a shift should be avoided.

Now have the students turn to their books and read pages 246-49 as a

summary of what you have just explained.

Exercise 1, page 249. This is a long exercise. To save the time required to

do so much copying, the instructions suggest that the exercise be done

orally, even though the shift error is important only in writing. It may be

advisable, however, to have part of the exercise written to make sure that

every student in the class understands needless shifts and knows how to

correct them.

Exercise 2, text pages 249-50. (An advanced class may omit this exer-

cise.) Call on four students to read the exercise aloud, each reading one

paragraph, after the class has been allowed a few minutes to read it through

and decide in which tense it should be written.

Exercise 3, pages 250-52. Have students do the first ten sentences or-

ally in class. Assign the rest of the exercise to be written.

advanced students One common fault in the writing of bright students at

this grade level is the tendency to overwrite—to use unnecessarily elabo-

rate language to convey even the simplest idea. In introducing this chapterto an advanced class, the teacher can emphasize the fact that simplicity andclarity are characteristic of the very best modern writing. You may wish to

present overuse of the passive voice as one mark of the "gobbledygook"style, taken up in more detail on text pages 262-63 and 278-80.

17a-b

SENTENCE CONCISENESS 97

CHAPTER 17

SENTENCE CONCISENESS(pages 253-64)

This chapter, which is designed to correct wordiness and overwriting,

may be omitted with classes which are unlikely, because of limited vo-

cabularies, to aspire to a "literary" style. Of course, compositions may be

"wordy" in the sense that they are repetitive and are extended merely to

meet a word-length requirement, but study of this chapter is not very likely

to solve either of these problems.

Superfluous words and unnecessary repetition,

pages 253-57 (rule 17a)

With average students, the point to emphasize here is that we do not

write the way we talk. Out of a desire for emphasis or out of sheer

thoughtlessness, all of us in speaking use expressions like "a tiny little

house," "an uninteresting, boring speech," "floated on the surface of the

water," "rose upward," etc. But you should make your students aware of

these redundancies and teach them to spot them and remove them from

their writing.

The idea that writing should be free of unnecessary verbiage is not dif-

ficult to teach. Students learn quickly to spot the unnecessary words in

exercise sentences. They do not, however, learn so easily to note the pres-

ence of unnecessary words and phrases in their own compositions. It is

your responsibility, after making your students aware of this stylistic fault

through the text exercises, to show them as you mark subsequent composi-

tions where they can put this knowledge to use.

You can arouse interest in this topic by asking your students to con-

tribute examples of redundant expressions common in our daily speech.

List the expressions on the board and leave them there for a few days

as a reminder.

Exercise 2, pages 256-57. An efficient way to handle this exercise is to

have the paragraphs mimeographed, double- or triple-spaced, so that stu-

dents can improve them by simply drawing a line through superfluous

words and, where necessary, writing changes above the line. This will

make extensive copying unnecessary.

Conciseness through reduction, pages 257-62 (rule 17b)

With its rather heavy dependence upon grammatical terms {participial,

gerund, appositive, etc.), this section may tax the understanding of the


average student. You can relieve the burden somewhat by suggesting the

usefulness of words ending in -ing, rather than clinging to the terms present

participle and gerund. Students will get the point that a group of words not

containing a subject and a verb is usually shorter than a group of words

containing a subject and a verb, without your taking them through a long

review of the distinction between a phrase and a clause.

Exercises 3 and 4, pages 259-62. With many classes it will not be profit-

able to require writing these exercises. Exercise 4, for example, can be done

orally.

Exercise 5, pages 260-62. This exercise is important. Make it a written

assignment. The process of combining several ideas in one clear, smooth,

uncluttered sentence is the best kind of practice in improving sentence

structure. Advanced students can handle the entire exercise in one assign-

ment. For average students, who will find it long, divide the exercise into

two assignments. In class, after the exercise has been completed, send a

few students to the board for each exercise item and have these students

write their versions of the item; then compare their versions.

The overwritten style, pages 262-64 (rule 17c)

Here the writing problem is actually a problem of taste in word choice.

In general, your more advanced students are the ones most likely to over-

write, because they are aiming high, and they have the "fancy" words in

their vocabulary.

Do not be surprised to find that some students think the overwritten

selection "Harbor Fog" is beautifully written. Let the most talented stu-

dents, who have better taste, carry the argument here. Students are more

sensitive to the criticism of their peers in a matter of this kind than to that

of their teacher.

Exercise 6, pages 263-64. Once the point has been made, there is little to

be gained by much rewriting of overwritten sentences like the ones in this

exercise. Go over the first five exercise items orally, having students

suggest changes. Make the rest of the exercise a written assignment.

less-advanced students A less-advanced class should omit this chap-

ter.

advanced students This chapter is particularly important for students

who do have some writing ability but who tend to write in an overformal

or flowery style. Now is the time to make it clear to these students that

directness and simplicity are essential to a good prose style.

SENTENCE VARIETY 99

CHAPTER 18

SENTENCE VARIETY(pages 265-74)

The instruction in this chapter is aimed at students who still write in an

immature, monotonous style—those students who write long series of short

subject-first sentences, or long series of stringy sentences connected by

and's and so's. Since these writing faults have probably been treated often

in earlier grades, the work in the chapter will be review for many students.

A class of good writers can ordinarily skip the chapter.

Avoiding monotony, pages 266-71 (rule 18a)

The material in this section will be most useful with a class of average

ability, who are capable of writing varied sentences but who may fall back

on short subject-first sentences simply because they are sure they can write

such sentences correctly. To encourage these students (after you have pre-

sented the material in the chapter), mark monotonous paragraphs in their

compositions with "Revise the paragraph to include one or two sentences

that do not begin with the subject—see pages 265-67." You may then wish

to avoid marking off for comma errors or other minor mechanical faults in

their revised sentences. It is precisely the fear of committing such errors

that keeps many students from attempting to use varied sentence patterns.

You can, however, teach the use of the comma after introductory elements

(text pages 528-29) in connection with this section, and you may find that

your students are more willing to use varied sentence openings if they

know how to handle the punctuation.

There is no need to emphasize the grammatical terminology in this sec-

tion. The terms will be helpful to those students who have a good under-

standing of English grammar, but for many students the example sentences

will be more meaningful than the explanations. Teach by use of examples

here.

Exercises 1 and 2, pages 267-69. The first half of each exercise may be

done orally. A class that does well on Exercise 1 can omit Exercise 2.

Since both exercises serve chiefly as reminders, it is the teacher's job to

see to it that students actually apply in their own compositions the princi-

ple that has been reviewed here. If your class does the exercises with care,

you need not hesitate to ask students to use varied sentence openings in

their English papers.

Exercise 3, page 271. If students have trouble using proper subordina-

tion in this exercise, you may wish to review the work on subordinate ideas

in Chapter 12 (pages 210-19).


Avoiding "stringy" style, pages 272-74 (rule 18b)

Since correction of "stringy' ' sentence structure is undoubtedly review,

approach this rule deductively. Assign study of pages 272-74, conduct a

brief discussion, and assign Exercise 4.

Exercise 4, pages 273-74. This exercise involves a good deal of writing.

You may wish to break it into two assignments.

less-advanced students Less-advanced students are particularly liable

to make the errors treated in this chapter. With a slower class, you can

approach the material inductively, perhaps giving the class a few clear

examples of choppy writing or stringy writing taken from students' owncompositions, and then asking for criticism. You can write the examples

on the board or project them on a screen. Have members of the class

suggest revisions; if they cannot, suggest revisions yourself, and explain

each revision carefully. In marking choppy or stringy sentences on stu-

dent papers, you may also have to indicate clearly how students are sup-

posed to revise their sentences.

advanced students Although an advanced class will ordinarily omit

this chapter, you may find that questions about "choppy" or "stringy"

style will arise at some point in the year. You might point out that both

styles are occasionally employed by professional writers to create par-

ticular effects. You can call attention, for instance, to the short staccato

sentences in James Ramsey Ullman's description of mountain climbing

in his essay "Kilimanjaro!" (The essay appears in Advanced Composi-

tion: A Book of Models for Writing.)

CHAPTER 19

EFFECTIVE DICTION(pages 275-95)

The purpose of this chapter is to call attention to word choice in writ-

ing. The five parts of the chapter are independent of one another. There-

fore, you may teach any one of them at any time as the need arises. For

example, when you find you have a class whose writing is full of cliches,

you may wish to call their attention immediately to Rule I9a, even though

you do not intend to teach the entire chapter until later in the year. Most

classes will benefit, however, from systematically going through the chap-

ter fairly early in the course.

Trite expressions, pages 275-78 (rule 19a)

This rule may be taught quickly by simply having the students read the

list of trite expressions on text pages 27t>-77. You can arouse interest and

18b19a-f

EFFECTIVE DICTION 101

provide some amusement for the class by asking the students to suggest

other trite expressions. Many of us have pet peeves in this regard, and

your students will enjoy voicing theirs. Ask them to listen to cliches used

by their friends and teachers and to compile a list. Sensitivity to triteness is

the whole point.

There may be some value in broadening the discussion of triteness by

consideration of trite ideas. Like trite words, trite ideas are perfectly good

in themselves, couched, as they usually are, in proverbs, but they do not

indicate any original thinking on the part of writers who use them as though

they were contributing important thoughts. You are sometimes tempted to

write on a student's paper, "commonplace ideas." Your discussion of

triteness may help to clarify what you mean by this comment.

Exercise 1, pages 277-78. You may wish to have the class go through this

exercise orally, merely listing the trite expressions that appear. If you ask

them to rewrite the sentences, you might encourage them to use their im-

agination to supply specific details in place of vague or meaningless

cliches.

Jargon, pages 278-80 (rule 19b)

The use of jargon is not likely to be a fault of less-advanced learners.

Omit this section in teaching classes of less than average ability.

If you have already taught Chapter 17, "Sentence Conciseness," you

can effect an easy transition from the idea of wordiness and overwriting to

the notion of jargon. Emphasize that the writer of jargon (unless it is "pro-

fessional jargon" that really serves as a kind of shorthand among profes-

sionals in some fields) not only uses more words and fancier words than

necessary, but also obscures the meaning behind vague or "fuzzy" lan-

guage. Advanced students, especially, having picked up some of this kind

of language from their reading of literary criticism and scientific articles,

may start using jargon without fully realizing it. Many students are also

quick to adopt the jargon of the sportswriter or the political campaigner.

Once you have taught this part of the chapter, you should call attention to

jargon when it appears in student themes.

Exercise 2, page 280. You might make a kind of competition out of this

brief exercise to see who can come up with the simplest, clearest revision.

Figurative language, pages 280-83 (rules 19c-19f)

You can introduce this section by questioning the class on their knowl-

edge of simile, metaphor, and personification. From their study of litera-

ture, most seniors will be familiar with these three figures of speech.

Recognizing and appreciating an effective metaphor in a poem, how-ever, is a quite different thing from being able to use one in a piece of


expository writing. You may wish to make the point that it is not only

writers of fiction and poetry who use figures of speech. All good writers

use them, even those engaged in such special kinds of exposition as the

newspaper editorial. You can assign some of your students to hunt for

figures of speech in sports-page descriptions of athletic events. Encourage

your class to use similes and metaphors in their next composition. Com-mend them whenever they try, even though their efforts may not prove

very professional.

Hazards of figurative language, pages 283-87 (rules 19g and 19h)

A less-advanced class should probably skip this section. Some students'

figures of speech are likely to be cliches, and the mixed metaphor will not

be a fault worth marking in compositions which are barely literate.

One practical consideration in teaching the mixed metaphor to average

and advanced classes is the fact that standardized tests in English composi-

tion often contain a section testing the student's ability to spot mixed

metaphors.

Slang and informal English, pages 287-90 (rule 19i)

Although this section contains no written exercises (hence students maythink there is "nothing to do" here), the point made here is so important

that classes should study it carefully. One approach is to collect from your

students a list of their own ephemeral slang terms. Admit the colorfulness

of these and their usefulness in daily conversation, but make it clear that

they are usually inappropriate to the formal tone of a serious essay.

Students may enjoy compiling a dictionary of high school slang or look-

ing up articles on current slang. The entry for jargon in Fowler's Diction-

ary of Modern English Usage can form the basis for a class discussion.

(This entry may be found reprinted in Chapter 3 of Advanced Composi-tion: A Book of Models for Writing.) Fowler's distinctions between such

words as jargon, cant, dialect, lingo, slang, etc., will also make students

more sensitive to word choice.

Meaning and connotation, pages 290-95 (rule 19j)

The study of semantics is too big a subject for presentation in a text of

this kind, but this section will at least introduce students to several impor-

tant semantic concepts.

Subrules (1) and (2) emphasize precision, the selection of the most ef-

fective word for the writer's purpose. If you have time, assign students to

make up additional exercises like Exercises 8, 9, and 10. The task will be

challenging and will emphasize the importance of using exact words.Chapter 3 of Advanced Composition: A Book of Models for Writing

provides additional practice in defining abstract words (subrule 3).

19g-j

EXERCISES IN SENTENCE REVISION 103

In studying denotation and connotation—(subrule 4)—ask your students

to find examples of loaded language in magazine and newspaper advertise-

ments and in political articles or speeches.

less-advanced students A less-advanced class will ordinarily omit

formal study of this chapter. You may, however, wish to take up indi-

vidual points in the chapter (such as the inappropriate use of slang, text

page 292) if your students' compositions show that they need the work,

and if you think the class will be able to benefit from it.

advanced students Time spent on this chapter is well worthwhile for

these students. If you are teaching a class of mixed abilities, you might

encourage the best students to pursue some of the matters on their own.

The "Suggestions for Writing" at the end of Chapter 3 of AdvancedComposition: A Book of Models for Writing, can provide ideas for indi-

vidual reports.

CHAPTER 20

EXERCISES IN SENTENCE REVISION(pages 296-305)

In the "Suggested Course of Study" (Manual pages 3-8), this chapter

is scheduled for the fourth quarter. The reason for its being placed there is

that it provides an excellent end-of-the-year review of many of the skills

covered during the course and will serve to re-emphasize them.

However, you may prefer to use these review exercises immediately

after completing the other chapters in Part Three, to summarize what you

have taught to date. Still another way to use the exercises is to assign them

at intervals during the third and fourth quarters to keep students alert to

common errors.

less-advanced students In Exercises 1 and 2, less-advanced students

may find it very difficult to match the names of the errors (listed above

each exercise) with the errors in the exercise sentences. Be satisfied if

they can correct the sentences, even though they cannot give a technical

name to each fault. If you plan to use Exercises 3, 4, and 5 in a less-

advanced class, you may wish to select only the easier items in each

exercise for the class to work on.

advanced students If you wish to provide additional exercises in sen-

tence revision for a more-advanced class, you can mimeograph sets of

poorly constructed sentences taken from student themes.

PART FOUR

Compositionpages 307-489

Before planning your composition program for the year, you may wish

to read the section on "The Teaching of Composition," pages 11-36 of

this Manual. There you will find a great many suggestions concerning

teaching techniques, motivation, and evaluation of student papers, as well

as a list of eighteen suggested assignments which can provide the basis for

a year's composition work.

At the beginning of the school year, it will be wise to lay out a composi-

tion program for your classes similar to that suggested on Manual pages

36^7. Explain the program in general terms to your students so that

they will understand what will be expected of them. They will cooperate

more willingly if they know that the composition assignments are coming at

regular intervals and that each assignment will represent a specific advance

in the gradual accumulation of skills necessary for competence in writing.

Ideally, you should start your composition program the first week of

school. Take full advantage of your students' first-of-the-year willingness

to work. Make clear the stricter standards you expect to apply at this grade

level.

CHAPTER 21

THE PARAGRAPH(pages 309-38)

You should decide at the start how many one-paragraph themes youwill assign during the weeks that you are working on this chapter. Work onthe chapter should be spread over five or six weeks, but during these

weeks you will also be teaching material in other chapters.

If you plan to assign one paragraph a week for five weeks, you can use

the following five exercises for your assignments: Exercises 2, 4, 6, 7, and8. If you have time for more than five themes, you can require your stu-

dents to write paragraphs illustrating several additional methods of para-

graph development. (See Exercise 4, text page 325, and Assignment 5 onpage 40 of this Manual.) Unless you are teaching advanced students, how-ever, you had better not plan an excessively ambitious program. Six or

seven one-paragraph themes may be as many as most classes can handle,

although, of course, you may find it advisable to continue assigning one-

104

THE PARAGRAPH 105

paragraph themes to your less-advanced classes frequently throughout the

year.

Time spent in concentrated study of the structure and development of a

paragraph is time well spent. The paragraph of 150 words is not a formida-

ble assignment even for your slower students. It requires close attention to

basic composition problems. Its brevity makes a careful reading by the

teacher practical. Even in a senior class, devoting the first six or eight

weeks solely to paragraph writing is often a sound practice.

Note: Do not wait until the class has studied the entire chapter before

you assign the first composition. The first exercise calling for writing

(Exercise 2) can be assigned almost at the beginning. Student performanceon this first one-paragraph theme will indicate which points you will needto stress in teaching the rest of the material in the chapter.

The Topic Sentence (pages 309-27)

For most classes you will not need to explain what a "topic sentence"

is; simply ask students to define the term and to explain why a topic sen-

tence is important. Have the three sample paragraphs read aloud in order

to emphasize the function of a topic sentence, but do not make a big point

of the fact that its position in the paragraph may vary. Most students will

write better if they write paragraphs in which the topic sentence is the first

or second sentence. Although good paragraphs can be written with the

topic sentence coming in the middle or at the end—or with no topic sen-

tence at all—there is no point in trying to teach students to place it any-

where but at the beginning.

Do not emphasize the clincher sentence. If students become too con-

scious of it, they will try to add a clincher to every paragraph, a practice

which invariably results in artificial or awkward writing.

For additional practice in paragraph analysis, send students to specific

essays in their literature text or to articles in magazines, preferably

magazines like Harper's and the Atlantic Monthly. Newspapers, newsmagazines, and digest magazines are poor places to study paragraphing

because their articles tend to use many very short paragraphs, some of

which consist of only one or two sentences. (Narrative writing is, of

course, of no use for this purpose, because the paragraph-breaks in a story

or novel usually reflect a shift in the action or a shift of speaker—not a shift

to a new "topic" which will be defined and discussed.)

If your students are using Advanced Composition: A Book of Models

for Writing, you will find excellent paragraphs for analysis in "Bird of

Freedom" by Edwin Way Teale.

Exercise 1, page 312. Since this exercise comes early in the chapter, you

should not be so strict in grading as you will be with the fifth or sixth

one-paragraph theme. Judge a paragraph on the effectiveness of the topic

sentence and on the amount and quality of the support given to it. Require

106 COMPOSITION

students either to make the topic sentence the first sentence in the para-

graph or to underline it.

Development of the topic sentence, pages 312-25 (rule 21 d)

Emphasize the statement on text page 313, "The kind of detail [in a

paragraph] is not especially important, but the details themselves are all-

important." Your biggest task in teaching paragraph writing is to make it

clear that to develop an idea, one must have many specific details to use in

support of the topic sentence.

Take time to analyze the first model paragraph on text page 313, which

is developed by facts. Ask the students to list the facts Rachel Carson gives

in support of the topic sentence. A good list might include the following

points:

1. The liver provides bile for the digestion of fats.

2. It keeps blood sugar at a normal level.

3. It builds body proteins.

4. It maintains cholesterol at a proper level.

5. It inactivates some hormones when they reach excessive levels.

This analysis should impress upon the students the important point that a

good paragraph must be rich in content. One or two facts would not makeso successful a paragraph as five, for example.

As the text says (page 313), an example is simply one kind of fact. The

same may be said of a reason or of almost any other piece of information

used in a paragraph. The seven ways to "develop" a paragraph are not

mutually exclusive; they are listed here simply to assist you in your teach-

ing. Without them, your one-paragraph theme assignments would tend to

be repetitious; that is, every paragraph might be developed in the sameway. With the seven methods, however, each different assignment can re-

quire a different method, and the weakness of writing "one paragraph sev-

eral times" gives way to the more valuable and interesting writing of sev-

eral different kinds of paragraphs.

Exercise 3, pages 320-25. The purpose of this exercise is to reinforce what

has been said about various methods of paragraph development. Be willing to

accept more than one answer for the same paragraph. Do not let the lesson

descend into hairsplitting arguments as to whether the paragraph has been

developed by facts or by examples, for instance.

Exercise 4, page 325. In this exercise, as in all exercises requiring a one-

paragraph composition, permit students to use a topic of their own choice

instead of one from the text list, provided they get your approval. Somestudents, especially the better ones, will write more successfully on topics

they know a great deal about than on textbook topics which may not ap-

peal to them.

21d-h

THE PARAGRAPH 107

Adequate development of the topic sentence,

pages 325-27 (rule 21 e)

Too many student paragraphs, instead of developing the topic, merely

repeat over and over in different words the idea in the topic sentence.

Emphasize the meaning of "thinness" in writing. Be alert for it whenevaluating student compositions, and mark down for it. You are probably

familiar with the bewildered reaction of students who find low grades on

their mechanically and structurally perfect paragraphs. Prepare students to

understand what you mean when you grade them down for thinness or

repetition.

Unity in the Paragraph (pages 327-29, rule 21 f)

Your students were probably introduced to the concept of "paragraph

unity" as early as the sixth or seventh grade. Nevertheless, many students

in senior high school still make the mistake of including irrelevant facts in

their written paragraphs. It will usually be worthwhile to go over this sec-

tion and to assign Exercise 5, pages 327-29.

Coherence in the Paragraph(pages 329-38, rules 21 g and 21 h)

You will hardly have time to require your students to write four para-

graphs, each arranged according to a different method; but you may wish to

require two paragraphs, one arranged to bring out a comparison or contrast

(see Exercise 7, pages 335-36), and one arranged according to the order of

importance. It is not so important that students be able to name the kind of

arrangement used in a particular paragraph as that they understand the

need for having a clear plan.

Exercise 8, page 338. By making the following requirements for this one-

paragraph composition, you can ensure that students keep in mind the

skills you are teaching:

1. Underline the topic sentence.

2. State in a sentence following the paragraph: I have developed this para-

graph by (facts, examples, anecdotes, arguments, etc.).

3. State in a sentence following the paragraph: I have arranged this para-

graph in the order of (time, space, importance, comparison or

contrast).

4. Underline linking expressions.

You may even require each paragraph to be preceded by a simple list of the

ideas included in it.

108 COMPOSITION

less-advanced students With a less-advanced class, concentrate on

the topic sentence, the use of specific details and examples, and logical

arrangement. Whenever possible, have the class work together to de-

velop a sample paragraph exemplifying the particular skill you wish to

teach, before you assign students to write paragraphs of their own. (See

page 12 of this Manual for suggestions about developing sample com-

positions in class.)

advanced students If an advanced class already writes well-organized

and coherent paragraphs, you may wish to skip some of the remedial

work on pages 327-38.

CHAPTER 22

EXPOSITORY WRITING(pages 339-73)

This chapter deals with the full-length (300-500 words) expository com-

position. The first part of the chapter takes students step by step through

the general process of planning and writing a composition. The last part

treats the techniques appropriate to specific kinds of expository writing

—

defining, informing, and explaining. At the end of the chapter is a list of

more than two hundred suggested composition topics of different kinds.

Planning the Composition (pages 340-48)

Since the material here is review work, there are no specific theme

assignments given in this part of the chapter. You should, however, plan to

teach the material at the time that you assign the first full-length theme.

This section and the next one ("Writing the Composition") demonstratethe steps in composition writing by showing step-by-step development of a

sample student theme. The subject of the theme—television

commercials—is introduced in the sample "statement of purpose" at the

top of text page 341. Ideas for a composition on television commercials are

listed on pages 341-42; ways of outlining this composition are demonstrated

on pages 342^47, and the final draft is given on pages 356-61.You may wish to begin work on this chapter by having students read

over the final draft, so that they know what the instruction is leading up to.

When you take up the planning of a composition, you can then have stu-

dents check both the preliminary list of ideas and the sample outlines

against the final version of the theme. Ask questions like "Which ideas onthe preliminary list do not actually appear in the final version? Which ones

do? How closely does the final version follow the outline? Which sentences

or paragraphs correspond to particular outline topics?"

Note: For other specific suggestions about teaching this material, see

the model lesson plans in Section IV of this Manual. Model Lessons 7 and

22c-d

EXPOSITORY WRITING 109

8 (Manual pages 168-70) are for an average or above-average class; Model

Lessons 9 and 10 (Manual pages 170-72) are for a slower class.

Outlining, pages 342-48 (rules 22c and 22d)

All students at this grade level should be able to master the basic prin-

ciples of outlining. They should be able (1) to show in an outline the logical

relation between main ideas and subordinate ideas, and (2) to use correct

indention and correct numbering and lettering.

Some students, however, may not be able to grasp the technical distinc-

tion between a topic outline and a sentence outline (page 343), or to use

grammatically parallel statements in a topic outline (subrule 8, page 345). Aless-advanced class might omit study of these refinements.

Whether or not you believe in requiring a formal outline to be handed in

with every composition, you will be wise to require one for the first two or

three full-length papers. Many teachers do require a formal outline for all

themes. The practice may seem extreme, but it ensures that the students

follow a plan in writing. The fact that some especially capable members of

the class may be able to outline themes logically after writing them

—

instead of before—does not mean that the class as a whole will not benefit

from practice in outlining.

Exercises 1 and 2, pages 347^8. Exercise 1 can be done in class. Have a

few students write their outlines on the board, and ask for comments or

corrections. If class performance on Exercise 1 shows that most of the

students need additional practice, you can assign Exercise 2 as homework.Since the items in Exercise 2 can be arranged satisfactorily in several dif-

ferent ways, be willing to accept answers that vary from the outline given

in the Answer Key, provided the arrangement is logical and the form correct.

Supplementary Exercise. The following two problems will provide addi-

tional practice in outlining. The first problem is most suitable for a class

that needs practice with technical outline form; the second problem is mostsuitable for a class that needs work in arranging items logically. Put one

problem on the board, and tell students to refer to the textbook whenever

necessary in writing their answers. (Do not use both problems with the

same class, as the answer for both is the same.*)

* Correct form of outline:

Disadvantages of Our Modern Desire for SpeedI. In education

A. Addition to the curriculum of academic courses that are too advancedB. Elimination from the curriculum of valuable nonacademic courses

II. In travel

A. By plane

B. By automobile

III. In industry

A. Unemployment due to automationB. Unemployment due to overproduction

110 COMPOSITION

l

Directions to the class: The following outline contains many errors in out-

lining techniques. Rewrite it correctly.

DISADVANTAGES OF OUR MODERN DESIRE FOR SPEED

A. Introduction

B. Educational

I. Addition to the curriculum of academic courses that are too advanced

II. Valuable nonacademic courses are eliminated from the curriculum

C. In travel

1. by plane

2. automobiles

D. In industry

a. Unemployment1. due to automation

b. Due to overproduction

Directions to the class: Arrange the topics in the following list in a correct

outline. The title is included in the list.

in education

by plane

unemployment due to automation

addition to the curriculum of too advanced academic courses

in travel

unemployment due to overproduction

disadvantages of our modern desire for speed

in industry

elimination from the curriculum of valuable nonacademic courses

by automobile

Writing the Composition (pages 348-61)

Your students already know that a composition should have a goodintroduction, effective paragraphing, and a logical conclusion; but theyprobably still have trouble applying these principles to their own writing. It

will be worthwhile to go over this section in class while the students areworking on their first multiparagraph compositions. Later, in preparing the

class for their second, third, or fourth such composition assignment, youmay want to take up some of these matters again in greater detail.

You can then use examples from students' own papers to illustrate par-

ticular points. For instance, you can mimeograph several opening para-

22e-f


graphs from student themes and ask the class to evaluate them and to

suggest specific improvements. Merely telling the class "Be sure to write

good introductory paragraphs" will have little effect unless the reminder is

backed up by demonstration and practice.

The introduction, pages 348-49 (rule 22e-1)

In teaching the introduction, you may wish to make the point that

sometimes an introduction should not be written until after the rest of the

theme has been completed. Certainly, the introduction will frequently need

revision as the theme itself takes shape.

If you wish to take the time, you can go deeper into the matter of a

good introduction. For instance, you might have the students hunt through

old copies of magazines like Saturday Review and the Reader's Digest for

examples of effective opening paragraphs. They will discover that profes-

sional writers often arouse interest by telling a brief incident or making a

startling statement. The important point is to say something that will touch

the reader directly.

Transitions between paragraphs, pages 350-54 (rule 22e-4)

Require your students to underscore the transitional devices they use in

their themes (as has been done in the model on text pages 356-61), at least

for the first two or three multiparagraph compositions. In this way, you

force them to think about the transition to a new paragraph.

Examples of the four kinds of transitions between paragraphs can prob-

ably be found in the essays in the literature text your students are using.

The following selections in Advanced Composition: A Book of Models for

Writing will also provide good examples of transitional devices: "Celestial

Navigation by Birds" by E. G. F. Sauer and "Robert Frost: The Way to the

Poem" by John Ciardi.

The transitional paragraph, pages 354-55

Since the transitional paragraph is rarely necessary in compositions of

300-500 words, you may wish to ignore this section for the present and

return to it when you teach the research paper (Chapter 26).

Revising the first draft, page 355 (rule 22f)

Although this matter is treated very briefly in the text, revision of the

first draft is an essential step in the preparation of any worthy piece of

112 COMPOSITION

writing. You should emphasize its importance and, if possible, elaborate onthe statement in the text. You may wish to point out that revising is muchmore than proofreading, which usually means just the correction of

mechanical errors. Revision involves such overall considerations as or-

ganization, emphasis, and clarity, as well as sentence structure andmechanics.

Specific Kinds of Expository Writing (pages 361-68)

After the class has studied the first part of the chapter, you will wish to

assign a series of expository compositions in which students put into prac-

tice what they have learned. The specific assignments given in this section

of the chapter are designed to provide variety in the composition work, as

well as to teach particular types of exposition. For suggestions about pre-

paring the class for these assignments and for evaluating the compositions,

see pages 31-34 of this Manual (Assignments 10, 11, and 12).

Exposition that defines, pages 361-64 (rule 22h)

You can introduce this section by asking your class to define an every-

day object—a pencil, a classroom, a station wagon. Make them see that a

good definition must be expressed in the two stages described on pages

361-62 and that the differentiating characteristics must effectively exclude

ambiguities and facts which could apply to many other objects. In Chapter

3 of Advanced Composition: A Book of Models for Writing, you will find

models both of the limited and of the extended definition.

Exposition that informs, pages 364-66 (rule 22i)

In a sense, all expository writing is informative. A definition, for in-

stance, is a piece of information. Nevertheless, the separation of writing

that defines and writing that informs provides a shift in emphasis. Note:

The terms analysis and definition are merely convenient names for natural

mental processes. They are used here only to help make students con-

scious of their thinking procedures. There is no point in giving the terms

more than passing attention.

Chapter 5 in Advanced Composition: A Book of Models for Writing

contains models of informational writing which can be used in connection

with this section of the textbook.

Exposition that explains, pages 366-68

In a scientific age, the ability to write a clear explanation of scientific

phenomena and processes is invaluable. Whether the explanation tells howa computer works or how to perform a chemical experiment, clarity in

writing and in organization is important. The two explanatory articles in

22h«i


Chapter 4 of Advanced Composition: A Book of Models for Writing will

help you to teach the elements of a clear explanation. The articles are

longer than anything your students will write, but they will demonstrate

how to handle the compositions assigned in this section.

Suggested Topics for Composition (pages 368-73)

This list is intended to serve throughout the year as a reservoir of ideas

for composition. Do not, however, confine your motivation to simply say-

ing, "Choose a topic and write 350 words on it." (See "The Teaching of

Composition," on Manual pages 17-29.)

Explain to your class that these topics are not necessarily titles. En-

courage students to create their own titles. Emphasize also that many of

the topics may be treated either formally or informally; for example, "OnSaving Money" could be the subject of a serious expository essay or of a

humorous informal essay. In some assignments, of course, you must

specify the kind of treatment you expect.

Supplementary Exercise. If you want your students to make more use of

literature as a subject for composition, you may wish to assign some of the

following essay questions adapted from past New York State Regents

examinations. Within limits, the questions permit the students to choose

the particular literary selections they use. If you wish to give greater

latitude, you can allow your students to apply the general idea in a question

to a type of literature different from the one specified.

1

Often in literature characters may be faced with a serious conflict. In some

cases, they have a conflict with other characters whose ideals or ideas are

different from their own. In other cases, they have a conflict within them-

selves. From the novels and full-length plays you have read, choose a total

of two books. For the first book, show by definite references that a character

in that book had a serious inner conflict. For the second book, show by

definite references that a character in that book had a serious conflict with

another character. Give titles and authors.

In books, as in life, we meet people who face problems. From the novels

and full-length plays you have read, choose a total of two books. For one

book, show by definite references that a problem of a character in the book

was chiefly the result of the character's own actions or attitude. For the sec-

ond book, show by definite references that a problem of a character in that

book was chiefly the result of the actions of others. Give titles and authors.

In books, as in life, some people possess the kind of character that enables

them to have a great influence upon others. This influence may be for good

114 COMPOSITION

or for evil. From the novels and full-length plays you have read, choose a

total of two books and in each case show by definite references that a person

in the book strongly influenced, for good or for evil, the life of another per-

son. Give titles and authors.

In literature, as in life, we may meet an individual who rebels against one

or more of the following: authority, tradition, injustice, an intolerable way of

life. From the novels, full-length plays, and full-length biographies you have

read, choose a total of two books in each of which such a person appears. In

each case, using definite references, describe what caused the person to re-

bel, and indicate specific actions in doing so. Give titles and authors.

A poet or an essayist may give the reader a new insight into an ordinary

situation or may reveal some commonplace object in a new light. From the

poems and essays you have read, choose a total of four selections (using at

least one poem and one essay), and in each case show by definite references

how the selection helped you to see an ordinary situation or a commonplaceobject in a new light. Give titles and authors.

In literature, as in life, people may make an error in judgment, such as in

their estimate of another person or in their decision to take a certain course

of action. From the books you have read, choose one novel and one full-

length play. In each case show by definite references that a person in the

book erred in estimating another person or in deciding to take a certain

course of action. Give authors and titles.

less-advanced students Model Lesson Plans 9 and 10, on pages

170-72 of this Manual, suggest a way of presenting this chapter to a less-

advanced class. Note: Such a class will, as a rule, write fewer full-length

compositions than other classes do. They may, however, use topics

suggested in this chapter for one-paragraph themes or for compositions

not exceeding two or three short paragraphs.

advanced students An advanced class will probably need only a

brief review of the steps involved in planning and writing a composition.

Insist, however, that these students follow the steps conscientiously and

do a thorough job on each composition assignment. Set standards high

enough to be a real challenge to the class.

CHAPTER 23

MAKING WRITING INTERESTING(pages 374-99)

Teachers of high school seniors are frequently so deeply involved in

teaching their students to write clearly that they fail to teach them how to

MAKING WRITING INTERESTING 115

write interestingly. From a purely practical point of view, clarity is the

most important writing virtue. That writing, aside from stories, should be

interesting and that it can be made interesting by means of a number of

simple devices often comes as a new idea to students. This chapter affords

an opportunity to consider the secondary but nevertheless important skill

of arousing and holding the reader's interest.

Although it is a self-contained unit that can be inserted at any point in

the course, this chapter probably should not be taught until the class has

been through Chapter 21, "The Paragraph," and Chapter 22, "Expository

Writing." It can be made the subject of concentrated study for a week, or

it can be taught one section at a time and distributed over a longer period.

Make Writing Interesting by Using Narrative

pages 374-88

A good way to introduce the chapter is to initiate a discussion of what

makes writing interesting before the students look in the book. Such a dis-

cussion may be started by asking the class the following question: Twostudents use the same subject matter, the same ideas, in a composition.

One writes an interesting composition; the other writes a dull one. Whatmeans might the former have used to make the writing interesting? In other

words, what are the characteristics of interesting writing? When a numberof suggestions have been received and evaluated, have the students opentheir texts and look through the chapter to see whether any of their ideas

are corroborated by the text. Then have them read the introduction to the

chapter and the model "The Scary, Sappy Life of Ski Maniacs."

If you prefer, you might begin with a discussion of the physical dangers

in some of our popular sports. Lead the discussion to skiing. Most stu-

dents, even in the warmest climates, will be familiar with the sport from

their TV viewing. Ask the class whether they think an interesting article

could be written about the dangers of skiing and the stubborn persistence

of thousands in pursuit of such a bone-breaking sport. Then have the class

read the article by Mr. Smith. Discuss the ways Mr. Smith made his article

interesting, even entertaining, and emphasize his wise use of narrative as a

means of holding the reader's interest.

When you have established the high interest value of narrative, you will

want to give a writing assignment in which the students will use narrative

(an incident or two) as an interesting means of supporting an idea. Since an

article the length of Mr. Smith's is out of the question, you should workwithin a smaller compass—the single-paragraph composition. Discuss the

text examples of paragraphs developed by narrative, emphasizing that this

method of paragraph development is effective because it is interesting.

To make clear the basic point—narrative adds interest to the other

forms of discourse—this chapter provides examples of narrative in descrip-

tion (the character sketch), narrative in exposition (the informal essay), and

narrative in argument.

116 COMPOSITION

The treatment of narrative as a means of making writing interesting oc-

cupies almost two thirds of the chapter, not because it is twice as important

as the other techniques that follow, but because the models are long.

Make Writing Interesting with Attractive Introductions

pages 388-92

Beginning a composition is often a difficult problem for young writers.

The discussion of three ways to begin should help the students not only to

stir their readers' interest but also to solve the problem of getting started.

Make Writing Interesting by Using Specific Language

pages 392-99

One may generalize that vague, very general writing is dull, whereas

specific writing is interesting. Writing may be specific in several ways: in

word choice, in the use of examples, in the use of concrete images. The

Updike selection provides an excellent summary of the work on specific

writing, for what makes his writing interesting is the abundance of detail.

Through his use of the specific, he is able to make the reader fully experi-

ence the automobile ride. Take your class through the almost sentence-by-

sentence analysis of the Updike passage. Point out, if they seem unaware

of it, his keen eye for the exact descriptive detail:

"listened, head cocked, to the starter churn the stiff motor"

"frantically scraped at the windshield frost with his fingernails"

"heaving together on opposite doorframes"

"With a faint rending noise the tires came loose from . . . the barn ramp.''''

"We both hopped in, the doors slammed, and the car picked up speed."

Point out the revealing images:

"the pink straightaway between a pale green meadow and a fallow flat field"

"in the center it had a mane of weeds"

"Our gallant black hood sailed into the sharp little rise of road, gulped it

down, stones and all, and spat it out behind us."

"Silas Schoelkopfs mailbox saluted us with a stiff red flag."

"the stuccoed cube where we had slept"

"ducks the color of old piano keys"

24a-c

LANGUAGE AND LOGIC 117

"Jesse Flagler's high whitewashed barn seemed to toss a mouthful of hay."

Point out his careful selection of adjectives and verbs:

adjectives dignified acceleration, shivering gasoline, gallant black hood,

fading side of the valley, purple woods, lop-limbed apple tree

verbs churn, skidding, were gliding, purred, spat

In all subsequent compositions written by your students, look for and

commend examples of the skills presented in this chapter on various

methods of making writing interesting.

CHAPTER 24

LANGUAGE AND LOGIC(pages 400-27)

The first parts of this chapter explain how to formulate a proposition,

how to plan an argumentative essay, and how to use evidence to support

an argument. The last part of the chapter describes inductive and deductive

reasoning, and teaches students to recognize and avoid a number of com-

mon fallacies in reasoning.

Since much of the material presented here is important in debating as

well as in argumentative writing, the teacher may wish to take up this chap-

ter at some time particularly suited to the schedule of the school's debating

club. This kind of blending of curricular and extracurricular activities

often generates additional student interest, and is profitable in many ways.

For a discussion of the composition assignments in this chapter, see

Assignments 13 and 14, and Alternative Assignment 15, Manual pages

44-46.

The Proposition (pages 400-05, rules 24a-24c)

The term "proposition" has long been used for the statement of the

position to be supported in an argumentative essay. Students should not

get the idea that there is something new and mysterious about a proposi-

tion. It is only a clear topic sentence for the essay. Minor propositions are

the equivalent of the major topics in the outline of any expository essay.

Students should learn, however, to think of their argumentative essays as a

series of propositions fully supported by evidence and clear reasoning.

Exercise 2, page 405. Tell your students that in a few days they will be

required to write an argumentative composition (See Exercise 7, pages

422-23) and that in Exercise 2 they are to select the subject for this com-

118 COMPOSITION

position. The study of the next part of the chapter will be more meaningful

if students can relate the material to the composition they are planning.

Evidence (pages 405-08, rule 24d)

Learning to support arguments with facts is an important part of a

student's training in composition, and at this grade level all students

should be held responsible for supplying accurate and sufficiently detailed

factual evidence.

Learning to use authoritative opinions as evidence is of somewhat less

importance, simply because an opinion—no matter whose—is never as

weighty as solid facts. The point to emphasize in teaching the material on

pages 407-08, therefore, is that if students do wish to quote someone's

opinion as evidence, they should make certain that the person quoted is a

genuine authority. The teacher of less-advanced classes may want to omit

entirely the study of this kind of evidence.

Reasoning (pages 408-27)

Fearful of going over the heads of your slower students in a discussion

of inductive and deductive reasoning, you may be tempted to teach this

section of the chapter to your more advanced classes only. This would be a

mistake, because it is the slower students who all their lives are likely to be

most easily taken in by false reasoning. Your more-advanced students will

be quick to recognize spurious arguments and muddy thinking; your slower

students need the kind of help provided here.

Inductive reasoning, pages 409-13 (rules 24e and 24f)

Before turning to the text, discuss with your class the fact that we often

arrive at general truths by observing particular instances—that, in fact, a

great many of the things we "know" represent knowledge that we arrived

at in this fashion. Give a specific example: for instance, you might ask the

class, "What color are daffodils?" When they tell you that daffodils are

yellow, ask, "How do you know?" Lead the class to see that they "know"this because they have seen hundreds of daffodils and have noticed that in

each case the daffodil was yellow. A generalization or truth arrived at in

this way is the result of inductive reasoning.

After you have thus introduced the concept and the term "inductive,"

have the class open their texts and read pages 409-10. You might then

continue to use the daffodil example to start a class discussion of hasty

generalizations. Tell the class that it happens that some daffodils are not

yellow: professional gardeners have bred specimens which range from al-

most pure white to deep reddish orange. Lead students to see that, if a

generalization based on hundreds of true instances can turn out to be not

true in all cases, a generalization that is based on only two or three in-

24d-i

LANGUAGE AND LOGIC 119

stances seems much less likely to be true. Such a preliminary discussion

will prepare students to understand better the weakness of a hasty

generalization.

Deductive reasoning, pages 413-17 (rule 24g)

The transition from inductive reasoning to deductive reasoning is easy,

because in deductive reasoning one really begins with a generalization

which has been arrived at inductively. If you have had a course in logic,

you will probably find the treatment of the syllogism on pages 413-15 over-

simplified. This oversimplification is deliberate. Your purpose is to makethe simple point that to reason clearly, one must reason from statements

which are true and draw conclusions which are logical.

An argumentative composition may, as a whole, be the expansion of a

syllogism. Require your students to write at the end of a composition of

this kind a syllogism which expresses the argument they have presented.

The following will serve as examples:

composition subject The United States should support the United Na-

tions

Major premise The United Nations is and has been an important

preserver of international peace.

Minor premise The United States desires the preservation of inter-

national peace.

Conclusion (Therefore) The United States should support the

United Nations.

composition subject Our school should try to develop a strong school

spirit

Major premise Schools with strong school spirit are successful in

interscholastic competition.

Minor premise Our school desires success in interscholastic com-petition.

Conclusion (Therefore) Our school should develop a strong

school spirit.

When you receive the papers, have the syllogisms mimeographed in a

form similar to the preceding examples. (If the entire class has written onthe same subject, it will not be necessary, of course, to repeat the subject

with the syllogisms.) Then give the mimeographed sheets to the class andask them to study each syllogism and criticize its soundness or validity.

Very likely some will prove to be illogical or based on false or disputable

premises. Some may be irrelevant, and these can provide the motivation

for your teaching of the irrelevant point, page 419.

Clear thinking, pages 417-23 (rules 24h and 24i)

In Advanced Composition: A Book of Models for Writing, you will find

additional instruction in clear thinking. All the articles in Chapter 9,

120 COMPOSITION

"Argument and Persuasion," are excellent for the study of the various kinds

of reasoning.

Argument and propaganda, pages 423-26 (rule 24j)

Exercises 10, 11, and 12, pages 426-27. These exercises provide a numberof specific suggestions for composition assignments that will require goodreasoning and clear thinking. Warn students particularly to avoid the vari-

ous kinds of errors in reasoning that have just been covered in this chapter,

and tell them that you will evaluate their papers chiefly according to the

skill shown in reasoning logically and in giving ample supporting evidence

for their argument.

less-advanced students Instead of asking these students to memorize

the official designations for different types of errors in reasoning—such

as "hasty generalization" and "false syllogism"—it might be wise to ask

the students to explain, in their own words, what it is that is wrong with

particular examples of poor reasoning given in the chapter. Encourage

students to take a critical attitude toward the arguments that are used by

television speakers, by newspaper and magazine writers, and by adver-

tisers. (Note: Some teachers of less-advanced classes may find it more

productive to use this chapter in connection with a class study of the mass

media, rather than in direct connection with students' own compositions.)

advanced students An advanced class will have little difficulty in un-

derstanding the various kinds of errors in reasoning that are covered in

this chapter. Make it clear to the class that you will expect them in their

own argumentative essays to use good logic and clear thinking to presenttheir arguments.

CHAPTER 25

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION(pages 428-39)

This chapter covers three specific types of brief composition assign-

ments—rewriting garbled (or poorly written) paragraphs, writing precis oflonger articles, and writing paragraph summaries of factual information. All

of these assignments are designed to provide training in writing clear, con-densed, and logically organized expository prose.

Do not try to teach the chapter through in one concentrated period of

study. Dip into it occasionally, selecting an exercise now and then to keep

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION 121

your students alert to the mechanical and structural characteristics of good

writing and to test their growth in writing competence. You should also

alternate the kinds of composition assignments you make instead of first

assigning a series of garbled paragraphs for correction and then a series of

precis.

The precis, pages 429-37

Take class time to read and discuss the four characteristics of a precis

(pages 429-30) and the four steps in writing a precis (page 430). Stress the

fact that a precis is written in the student's own words. Warn students

specifically against merely copying the topic sentence and then adding one

or two key sentences in the words of the original. Point out to the class that

the skill involved in writing a precis—the ability to pick out the main facts

and present them in one's own words—is the same skill that is involved in

mastering any body of knowledge. The head of a work crew has to be able

to give a verbal precis to new workers in order to tell how to do the job; a

club committee chairperson has to be able to summarize the essential facts

in giving a report on the committee's work.

Go over in class the four precis which appear on pages 431-33. Youmay wish to use the first passage in Exercise 2, pages 433-37, as a trial run

to be written and evaluated in class.

In evaluating your students' precis, recognize that while the content of

all precis of the same passage should be the same, differences in style and

arrangement are to be expected. Penalize only for failure to grasp the sense

of the passage, for overlength, for poor sentence structure, and for using

too many of the words of the original passage.

The one-paragraph factual report, pages 437-39

The paragraph that summarizes the facts revealed by a chart is no dif-

ferent in structure from any expository paragraph. It ordinarily begins with

a generalization (the topic sentence) and proceeds to support the generali-

zation by facts. The generalization, of course, may be a fact or an interpre-

tation. Note: A student may object that the assignments in Exercises 3 and

4 are a little unrealistic, since few of us are ever called upon to write one-

paragraph summaries of material presented in graphic charts. You canpoint out that the information for the exercise paragraphs was given in

chart form merely for convenience. In a more realistic situation, the writer

would have to dig up the statistical figures and then try to condense theminto a brief summary of facts. You can also point out that this is exactly

what takes place when, for instance, a club secretary is asked to take notes

on the attendance at each club meeting and make a brief report at the endof the year.

122 COMPOSITION

Exercise 3, page 437. With some students, it might be a good idea to

make the interpretation of the graph a subject for class discussion before

the planning and writing of the paragraph. Advanced students will be able

to draw their conclusions without class discussion. After they have written

their paragraphs, have them share their papers and compare their conclu-

sions.

Exercise 4, page 439. Having completed Exercise 3, with or without your

help, all students should be required to do Exercise 4 on their own.

less-advanced students Teachers should use their own judgment in

deciding which sections of this chapter to present to a less-advanced

class. While the skill that is emphasized here (the ability to write a coher-

ent summary) is important for slower students, some of the exercises in

the chapter may prove too difficult for most of the class. Exercises 4 and

5, however—if preceded by class discussion—may be valuable. A teacher

with a little imagination can also provide assignments that will ask these

students to give summary reports on material that is well within their

grasp. For instance, the class can be divided into groups to undertake

specific projects (such as a group in charge of inviting outside speakers

to address the class), and each member of the group can be assigned to

turn in "progress reports" at stated intervals on the work that the group

has been doing.

advanced students Advanced students will probably realize that the

assignments in this chapter are "corrective work." If these students al-

ways took the trouble to read over their written work objectively and to

rewrite their rough drafts to meet high objective standards, there wouldbe little need to give the assignments.

CHAPTER 26

THE RESEARCH PAPER(pages 440-71)

In this chapter (text pages 462-71) there appears a sample student re-

search paper on the subject "Have Our Federal Indian Policies BeenSound?" As your first assignment in the chapter, you may wish to ask

students to read through this paper quickly. They will then be able to relate

the examples given earlier in the chapter to this finished product.

The work in Chapter 26 reinforces the instruction that was given in

Chapter 22 on choosing and limiting a subject, making a preliminary out-

line, writing a first draft, and preparing the final draft. For students whohave never written full-length formal research papers before, much of the

rest of the material in Chapter 26 may be new: making a "working bibliog-

THE RESEARCH PAPER 123

raphy"; using note cards; and learning the conventional forms for footnote

citations and for bibliography entries.

You should teach Chapter 26 only after you have taught or reviewed, as

necessary, Chapter 32, "Information in the Library," and Chapter 33,

"Reference Books." Knowledge of the card catalogue, the Readers'

Guide, and the vertical file is essential, and acquaintance with major refer-

ence books will be helpful.

As you embark upon the research paper project, find out whether your

students have written research papers in other years and other classes.

There is a good chance that they have written a library paper in English in

their junior year, and you may find that junior and senior classes in science

and social studies have a term paper requirement. The class time you will

have to spend on technical matters such as research techniques and foot-

note form will be appreciably reduced if your students are already familiar

with the research paper.

Begin by giving an overall view of the task ahead. A preliminary scan-

ning of the entire chapter is especially important for students who have

never written a research paper, and it will serve as a timely reminder for

those who have. Read with the class the introductory material on text

pages 440-42 and emphasize the seven steps listed on page 442. If you have

a file of old research papers written by other classes, pass these out and let

the students examine them. This is the best way to show the class what is

to be done. Incidentally, be sure to collect all the old papers you passed

out, lest some student carry one off and thus in one act escape weeks of

work. After the unit has been completed and students have seen their owncorrected and graded papers, you should collect and file these papers also.

For obvious reasons you do not want several dozen successful papers float-

ing around the school.

Because vagueness is always frustrating, make your requirements for

the paper as specific as you can. Specify the number of sources you expect

students to use: for example, a minimum of six and a maximum of twelve.

Specify the length of the paper: for example, a minimum of 1,500 wordsand a maximum of 2,000. Specify the amount of time allowed for comple-

tion of the work. You will probably find it necessary to allow from three to

four weeks for this unit. Since so much of the work must be done outside

of class, students should be allowed these weeks fairly free of other Eng-

lish homework. Since you will not need to devote every class period dur-

ing this time to the research paper, you will be able to intersperse other

work which can be done in the classroom.

To make sure that the work will proceed in an orderly fashion, give

your students a time schedule and check their work at each stage. Assign

each phase of the work to be completed on a certain date. In class on that

date, while the students work quietly either on their paper or on another

assignment, inspect the work done. It may be the working bibliography

cards, the preliminary outline, the note cards, the final outline, etc.

124 COMPOSITION

Sample Schedule For a Research Paper

(total time: Four weeks)

Monday, March 1 Overall view of the research project. Skim the

chapter. Give suggested list of topics.

Tuesday, March 2 Discuss topics. Students select topics. Work on

limiting a topic. Teach form of working bibliog-

raphy card.

Wednesday, March 3 Class in library. Review, preferably by librarian,

of library tools and appropriate reference books.

Thursday, March 4 Class in library. Begin working bibliographies.

Monday, March 8 Teach preliminary outline.

Tuesday, March 9 Working bibliography due on cards.

Wednesday, March 10 Teach note-taking.

Thursday, March 11 Preliminary outline due.

Tuesday, March 16 Inspection of note cards written to date (at least

five different sources).

Thursday, March 18 Final outline due (rough form).

Friday, March 19 Teach footnoting.

Monday, March 22 Teach final bibliography.

Thursday, March 25 Paper due.

At least two class periods in the school library are usually essential to

the study of this chapter. If you can do so, enlist the librarian's help in

teaching students how to find and use resource materials. Periods spent in

the library, except for time given over to instruction, should be working

periods; therefore, it is desirable that students know what subjects they are

going to write on before the class goes to the library.

Note: Never undertake a research paper unit without having first

cleared it with the librarian and with other teachers who are also planning

to teach such a unit. Library resources are limited. If too many classes

descend upon the library at the same time, there is bound to be a severe

shortage of books and magazines. The librarian, who is your invaluable

partner in the project, will be harassed beyond endurance. Since the library

is involved in research papers written in all grades and all subject areas,

you must follow the librarian's wishes in scheduling your unit.

Finding the Right Subject (pages 442-45, rule 26a)

You may wish to correlate the research paper with literature study. If

your literature course is a survey of English literature, you will be able to

prepare a list of suggested topics for research based on English history,

political or social, or on the history of English literature. General areas are

suggested in the lists on text pages 443-44.

You may wish to correlate the research paper with the work students

are doing in other classes—social studies, science, foreign languages. The

26a, c

THE RESEARCH PAPER 125

teachers of these other subjects will probably welcome this procedure and

assist you in preparing a list of good subjects.

You may wish arbitrarily to rule out certain kinds of subjects. Bio-

graphical papers, for instance, tend to be summaries ofencyclopedia articles

or of single books, and on the high school level they do not require re-

search in many sources. They are almost invariably routine and dull. Thecritical paper on an author's work, however, is permissible, especially for

your more advanced students. They will quite possibly learn more by

studying the work of one writer in depth than by studying a literary move-ment or period superficially. Rule out also papers on juvenile subjects on

which students may have written reports in junior high school—the ponyexpress, knighthood and chivalry, or life on the frontier, for example.

Research (pages 445-51)

If you are teaching a less-advanced class or a class of non-college-bound

students, you may simplify the research procedure described in the

textbook. For instance, if your students are writing reports based on only

four or five sources, there may be little need for a working bibliography

presented on note cards. You may ask the students instead to turn in a list

of sources on a sheet of notebook paper. You might also allow them to

take their notes on ordinary paper instead of on cards—one sheet of paper

for each source. This kind of training is probably more valuable for these

students than training in the methods of preparing a scholarly or profes-

sional research paper.

The preliminary outline, page 448 (rule 26c)

Emphasize the statement in the text that the preliminary outline is only

a guide for use in note-taking. The final outline of a paper is often not

complete until the final draft has been written.

The note card, pages 448-51 (rule 26d)

Emphasize the importance of taking notes in one's own words. As you

know, students are inclined to copy their sources word for word without

using quotation marks. Warn them against this practice, which may stem

from their earliest use of reference books in elementary school when they

copied information from the encyclopedia. The principal reason why col-

leges frown upon high school research papers is that too often the papers

are either a mere collection of quotations or a collection of passages copied

from sources and passed off as the student's own writing. You can avoid

both of these errors by warning your students against them and by care-

fully checking their note cards. Explain the seriousness of plagiarism.

126 COMPOSITION

Advise your students not to make sweeping generalizations or to draw

conclusions on matters about which they could not possibly be informed.

The average high school student who writes, for example, "Leonardo da

Vinci's skill in painting women has never been surpassed," is obviously

not qualified to pass such a judgment and should footnote the statement.

Encourage the students to develop a personal shorthand for taking

notes but not to use it when quoting verbatim. Some students who have

already been developing a personal shorthand will be able to make helpful

suggestions.

Writing the Research Paper(pages 452-61, rules 26f and 26g)

The teacher will note that the suggested forms for footnotes and for

bibliography entries which are given in the textbook may differ from the

forms used in certain other publications. This is because there is no one

form—either for footnotes or for a bibliography—that has ever been gener-

ally adopted by American writers or publishers. The important thing is that

the footnotes and bibliography in a paper (a) give all the necessary informa-

tion about a source—author, title, place and date of publication, page num-bers, etc.—and (b) follow the same style consistently throughout the paper.

The style recommended in the textbook has the advantage of being fairly

easy for students to use, but teachers who wish to require some other form

may certainly do so, although they should take care to consult with other

teachers in the school before setting their own specific requirements. If youdo want your students to use a different form, you should give them a

mimeographed list of requirements and examples at the time they start

work on their research papers.

Again, the teacher of a less-advanced class of students will probably not

want to set rigid technical requirements about the form of a footnote or a

bibliographical entry. It is usually sufficient for these students to list the

sources they have consulted and to footnote ideas directly borrowed from a

source. As long as the citation adequately identifies the source to the

reader of the paper, it may not be very important whether the style of a

footnote is formally correct down to the last detail.

Footnotes, pages 454-57

You will save yourself and your students a great deal of unnecessarywork and confusion if you take them through this material very slowly andcarefully. Require them to do Exercise 1, page 457, and correct their exer-

cise papers before they start the final drafts of their papers.

Note that the text (page 454) leaves to you the decision as to whetherfootnotes should be numbered beginning on each page or numbered con-

secutively through the entire paper. The text teaches the former method,

26f,g

THE BUSINESS LETTER 127

but the latter seems to be a growing practice. One way holds no important

advantages over the other.

A common footnoting procedure is to give complete bibliographical in-

formation for a book (place of publication, publisher, and date) in the first

footnote reference to the book, but to give only author, title, and page

number in subsequent references. You may wish to teach this method in-

stead of the one in the text. However, on the grounds that such information

is superfluous in a paper with a complete bibliography, the text does not

recommend complete information for any footnote of a book.

Perhaps the best way to answer the puzzling question of when to foot-

note is to refer to the sample pages of a research paper, pages 462-71.

The bibliography, pages 457-59

Again, go over this material carefully. Assign Exercise 2, page 459, and

correct and return it before students write their final bibliographies. Call

attention to the bibliography of the student paper, pages 470-71, and

suggest that it may help to answer questions that arise about details of

bibliographical form.

less-advanced students Such a class may omit this chapter. Manyteachers of less-advanced classes do, however, assign papers requiring

library research. As a rule, these papers will be based on only a few

sources and will not be much longer than an ordinary composition (300-

500 words).

advanced students Learning to write a research paper will prepare

your college-bound students for the term papers they will have to write

in college. Since plagiarism is an extremely serious offense in college

work, emphasize to these students the importance of footnoting not only

direct quotations but also facts and ideas that are borrowed from a

source.

CHAPTER 27

THE BUSINESS LETTER(pages 472-90)

Your students have been taught letter writing since they were in

elementary school. They have been writing friendly letters for years. The

rules for the friendly letter, therefore, are not included in the text. Since it

is unrealistic to expect seniors to write anything but artificial friendly let-

ters for class exercises, this chapter concerns business letters only.

Impress upon your students the fact that a business letter should con-

tain no errors at all. There is no place in the business world for a letter

128 COMPOSITION

which violates standard practice or which in content is either unclear or

offensive. A poor letter picture, an incorrect salutation or closing, a mis-

spelled word, unsatisfactory content, all mean an unsatisfactory letter.

There can be few acceptable gradations. A business letter is done either

properly or improperly, and you should give a failing grade to every letter

which violates the rules. Require all failing letters to be rewritten, even if

to the student the faults seem to be minor.

Form in Business Letters, pages 473-83 (rule 27a)

Begin by ascertaining what your students know about business letter

form. You can send two students to the board and tell them to regard a

panel of the board as a piece of business stationery. Have them write the

heading they would use if writing a business letter. Dictate the inside ad-

dress and have them write it in its proper place and with correct punctua-

tion. Have them write the appropriate salutation, draw two lines to repre-

sent the body of the letter, and then write an appropriate closing and signa-

ture. From the students' work and the criticisms of the class, you will learn

how well your students remember business letter form and how much time

you must spend reviewing. Actually, this activity may in itself provide

enough review.

Following discussion of the board work, have students read text pages

473-83 and do Exercises 1 and 2, pages 489-90.

Kinds of Business Letters, pages 483-89 (rule 27b)

A good way to handle this section is to require each student to prepare

a sheaf or folder of the four kinds of business letters with their envelopes.

Having reviewed the standard form for a business letter, discuss each of

the four kinds of letters in turn and assign Exercises 3, 4, 5, and 6, page

490, at appropriate times. The most important of the four kinds is the letter

of application.

With some classes you may wish to extend the unit on the business

letter. The following activities may prove interesting:

1

.

Ask students to get from their parents copies of business letters illustrat-

ing a variety of styles, letterheads, and purposes. Have a committeeselect the most interesting and arrange a bulletin board display.

2. Send some students to the library and to the teachers of commercial sub-

jects for books which teach business correspondence. Have the students

give oral reports on what the books say about form, content, style, etc.

3. Have each student invent an imaginary business firm of which the student

is president and prepare an effective letterhead for the firm's stationery.

Each student will then write two or three imaginary letters—on the firm's

stationery—illustrating characteristics of good business letters. Suggested

subjects: answering a question or a complaint about the firm's products,

THE BUSINESS LETTER 129

making a sale, telling a representative of the firm how to handle a cus-

tomer problem, registering a complaint with one of the firm's suppliers,

etc.

advanced students An advanced class should be able to work through

this chapter quickly, reviewing the formal requirements and then concen-

trating on the different kinds of business letters.

PART FIVE

Mechanicspages 491-556

The four chapters of Part Five, "Mechanics," present aspects of writ-

ten English which, unlike many other aspects of composition, are specific.

For this reason they can be taught and tested, and they can be easily

checked in student work. Another important characteristic of these chap-

ters is that most of the material they cover has been taught before. In the

"Suggested Course of Study," Manual pages 4-8, the chapters on punctu-

ation are placed in the first quarter of the year, and the chapter on capitali-

zation is placed in the second quarter. The course of study suggests "re-

view as needed" for these chapters. You should recognize that for average

and above-average classes the mechanics chapters are in the text for refer-

ence rather than for page-by-page teaching. Nevertheless, many teachers,

eager to establish standards early in the year, will think it desirable to re-

mind their classes of mechanics. This early reminder permits the teacher to

demand that students demonstrate a high level of competence and at the

same time shows students where in the text they can find answers to

mechanics problems.

Although there is some value in conducting a formal review of capitali-

zation and punctuation early in the year, the most effective time to teach

these skills is the time when students show a need for them. Every com-

position is an exercise in mechanics, and students will learn a particular

usage best when they have violated it and had the violation called to their

attention.

A common fault of English teachers is their tendency to assign too

much importance to mechanical errors in student themes. This is not to

suggest that you should use your red pencil any less freely. Mark every

error if you wish and require your students to make corrections, but avoid

the fault of weighing mechanical errors too heavily. They are rarely impor-

tant enough to be weighed more heavily than the ideas in the theme, its

diction, and its organization.

You should try to adopt a liberal, but not permissive, attitude towardrules of capitalization and punctuation. As pointed out on page 503, customvaries in the use of capital letters. You will save hours of quibbling andarguing with students if you are prepared to admit that there may be morethan one correct way to handle an expression calling for a capital. Therules in the text reflect good current usage, and many notes are given in

explanation. Nevertheless, do not be led into extended arguments aboutthe capitalization of southern in "southern cooking," northern in "north-

ern California," Mother in "Where's Mother?" or whether a title like

130

MANUSCRIPT FORM 131

mayor or superintendent, when used alone, is as worthy of capitalization as

Secretary of State or Senator. Where there can be a plausible reason for

either capitalizing or not capitalizing, accept the reason.

Similarly, in checking a student's punctuation, recognize that not all

uses of the comma can be covered by hard-and-fast rules. The comma rep-

resents a pause in speech. The writer knows where the pauses should comeand inserts commas accordingly. Be willing to accept commas not covered

by textbook rules, provided the commas can be defended as aids to accu-

rate reading and interpretation.

CHAPTER 28

MANUSCRIPT FORM(pages 493-502)

This chapter is primarily for reference. It contains no exercises. It is

important that you take your class through the chapter at the beginning of

the year, just prior to the first composition assignment. Read the chapter

through with the students so that they will understand exactly what is ex-

pected of them as far as the form of their papers is concerned and so that

they will know that rules concerning abbreviations, numbers, and hyphe-

nated words are in the text and may be referred to at any time.

Revising the first draft, pages 495-98

The checklist on page 495 may well form the basis for your evaluation

of student writing through the year. One of the reasons students sometimes

dislike composition work is that too often they do not understand by what

standards they are being judged. A careful perusal of this list should help

them to realize which specific factors in their papers will enter into the

teacher's evaluation.

Correcting compositions, pages 499-502

Your red-ink markings on student papers will accomplish nothing un-

less you require the student to do something about them. An indispensable

part of the routine you establish for the handling of compositions is student

correction of errors. It is important that the students know exactly what is

expected of them. Each symbol on their papers should mean that they must

make a correction. It is your responsibility to explain just how and where

the corrections should be made. The list of symbols on pages 499-500 gives

this information in detail.

Note: You may have another system—another set of symbols with dif-

ferent instructions—which you are accustomed to or which you prefer for

good reasons. If so, ignore the material in the text and hand your students

132 MECHANICS

a mimeographed sheet detailing your own system and giving instructions

for theme correction.

For further suggestions concerning the evaluation of themes, see Man-ual pages 31-36.

CHAPTER 29

CAPITALIZATION(pages 503-16)

Students at this grade level have been taught capitalization many times.

Most of them are able to pass a test on the subject. If they are uncertain

about a specific usage, they can easily look it up in this chapter. However,

in order to be able to insist with reason that your students use capital let-

ters according to the textbook rules, you may wish to conduct a quick

review of Chapter 29 early in the year.

With a class of less-advanced students, the simplest approach is to read

with them the rules and examples, following each set of rules by assigning

the exercises which cover it. Or you may prefer the inductive approach in

which you write a number of capitalization problems on the board and ask

for volunteers to insert capitals and explain them. Through discussion the

class can then formulate rules before looking at the rules in the text.

Good classes may well start with the Review Exercise on pages 514-15,

using this exercise as a diagnostic test. From the results, you can decide

which parts of the chapter you need to teach.

Summary style sheet, page 516

You may use this style sheet to review the rules of capitalization. Goover the various items orally in class, asking students to explain the

capitalization in the left-hand column and the reason why corresponding

items in the right-hand column are not capitalized. In addition to affording

a review, this will also call attention to the style sheet so that students will

refer to it whenever they encounter a problem in the use of capital letters.

CHAPTER 30

PUNCTUATIONEnd Marks and Commas(pages 517-36)

In most classes it will not be necessary to conduct a formal tour through

Chapters 30 and 31. The most effective way to teach punctuation is to point

out the need for it in the students' own writing, requiring them to look up

30a~e

PUNCTUATION 133

in the text those usages which they have ignored or handled incorrectly. In

teaching less-advanced classes, however, you may wish to take the stu-

dents through this chapter rule by rule, in a formal review.

A sound approach to review material is to assign an exercise to be writ-

ten before the class has reviewed the rules. Check the exercise in class,

asking for explanations of the punctuation the students have used.

Wherever arguments arise, refer to the text. This approach makes the

learning concrete because it presents specific problems. It is therefore

more meaningful than the rule-to-exercise method.

A similar but simpler method is to write on the board the sentences

used as examples under the rules and then ask students (before they open

their books) to go to the board and insert punctuation. After class discus-

sion, refer to the text for clarification if necessary.

Require your students to write sentences illustrating important rules.

Students are engaged in a more realistic activity when they are punctuating

their own sentences than they are when punctuating ready-made sentences

in a textbook exercise. For example, you might assign your class to write

sentences illustrating all the rules for the use of the comma that are sum-

marized on text page 536. Require a separate sentence for each rule—if one

sentence illustrates several rules, you will find it nearly impossible to check

the papers accurately.

Nearly every set of compositions will yield sentences which are confus-

ing because they are improperly punctuated. Take time to copy such sen-

tences, and when you have collected twenty-five or thirty, have themmimeographed to be used as a punctuation exercise.

Another activity often used by experienced teachers is to have students

clip newspaper and magazine examples of punctuation marks correctly (or

incorrectly) used. The best motivation is a sheet of pasted clippings you

yourself have prepared to show the possibilities in the assignment. Occa-

sionally one finds punctuation errors in print, especially errors in the use of

the apostrophe. Urge students to keep an eye out for these, too.

On the day a composition assignment is due, have students exchange

papers and check punctuation. This method benefits the persons doing the

checking as well as the persons whose papers are being checked. Any stu-

dents finding errors should be asked to support their judgments by refer-

ence to the text.

End Marks (pages 518-21, rules 30a-30e)

Few classes at this level will need a review of end marks. You may

wish, however, to call attention to a few subrules which you think not all

students will remember; for example, rule 30c(2) and rule 30d(2).

Exercise 1, pages 519-21. Assign this exercise to classes of less-advanced

students only.

134 MECHANICS

The Comma (pages 521-36)

As suggested on Manual page 133, a good way to begin a punctuation

review is to assign a punctuation exercise and when correcting it review

the appropriate rules. You can begin your review of the comma by assign-

ing Exercise 2, page 524. Have all students do the exercise on paper, look-

ing back at the rules on the preceding pages if they wish. Then give them

the correct punctuation in class orally.

Nonessential elements, pages 525-28 (rule 30i)

This rule for use of the comma is the one which is most likely to cause

difficulty for high school juniors and seniors. Emphasize the statement at

the end of the first paragraph on page 525: "Clauses which modify proper

nouns are nearly always nonessential." Awareness of this fact will enable

students to punctuate correctly more than half of their nonessential

clauses. Since it is frequently a matter of interpretation whether or not a

clause is essential, you must be prepared to accept students' interpreta-

tions of sentences they have written. Avoid haggling over a sentence which

has two possible interpretations.

CHAPTER 31

PUNCTUATIONOther Marks ofPunctuation

(pages 537-56)

The thoroughness of your punctuation review will depend on the needsof your class. With the exception of the apostrophe, which seems to trou-

ble the best of students, the marks of punctuation covered in this chaptermay well be left for students to study on their own. Taking a class ofseniors of average ability in lockstep through the uses of semicolons, co-

lons, quotation marks, hyphens, dashes, parentheses, and brackets wouldbe a waste of time. The chances are that such students know the commonuses of the semicolon, colon, and quotation marks. Unusual problems that

may arise in connection with the use of these punctuation marks are cov-ered in the many subrules to which the student may refer whenevernecessary. To trouble students who have not yet learned to write completesentences with punctuation marks they rarely have to use would be equallywasteful and unrealistic.

For average students, a few minutes in class thumbing through this

chapter will be enough to call attention to the fact that any help students

30i

31g-h

PUNCTUATION 135

will need in the use of these punctuation marks is readily available. Urge

them to use the chapter for reference.

One way to give your average classes a quick review of punctuation is

to assign one or more of the paragraphs in the Review Exercise, pages

554—56. These paragraphs require knowledge of the important uses of the

most commonly employed marks of punctuation. Tell your class that in

doing the exercise they can show their ability to use Chapters 29-31 for

reference. When you have corrected the papers, require each student to

look up the rule covering each error made and to copy the rule, with exam-

ples, on paper.

Underlining (italics), pages 541-42 (rules 31g and 31 h)

Students are sometimes confused about whether to use underlining or

quotation marks for titles of literary pieces appearing in anthologies. As a

general rule, titles of full-length plays and novels should always be under-

lined, even when the work in question occupies only a part of a longer

book:

For tomorrow's assignment we are supposed to read Act I of Hamlet,

which starts on page 8 of the book Five World Plays.

Titles of one-act plays are also usually underlined, as are titles of book-

length poems (or poems which are long enough to be subdivided into units

such as cantos):

Laura can recite long passages from The Rime of the Ancient Mariner byheart.

Note: Many publications use quotation marks, rather than italics, for

titles of art works and names of ships. Either way is correct, but students

should be warned to choose one method or the other and follow it consis-

tently.

incorrect The Queen Elizabeth 2 was docked close to the "France"

and the "Christoforo Colombo."

correct The Queen Elizabeth 2 was docked close to the France and

the Christoforo Colombo.

also correct The "Queen Elizabeth 2" was docked close to the

"France" and the "Christoforo Colombo."

The apostrophe, pages 547-51 (rules 31 1-31 n)

Of all marks of punctuation, the apostrophe is the most difficult to

establish in students' writing habits. Even advanced seniors will show un-

certainty about its use in plural possessives, compound words, and expres-

136 MECHANICS

sions of joint ownership. Although many of their errors are due entirely to

carelessness, the study of the section will be a valuable means of making

them think again about this mark of punctuation.

Exercise 5, page 550. Less-advanced students are usually inaccurate in

their use of the possessive apostrophe because they do not think first of the

nonpossessive form of the word. This type of exercise will help them to see

that they can increase their accuracy by always thinking of a possessive in

terms of a phrase which contains this nonpossessive form.

32a-b

PART SIX

Aids to Good Englishpages 557-659

CHAPTER 32

INFORMATION IN THE LIBRARY(pages 559-73)

This chapter covers the arrangement of books on the library shelves,

the use of the card catalogue, the parts of a book (title page, copyright

page, bibliography, index, and so forth), and the use of the Readers' Guide

and of the vertical file of pamphlets. The use of library reference books is

taken up in the following chapter. Note: If you are planning to have your

class write a research paper (Chapter 26) as part of their year's composi-

tion work, you should plan to teach or review Chapters 32 and 33 just

before students begin work on this assignment.

You can easily discover how much your students know about the li-

brary and the principal library tools by simply asking questions about the

Dewey decimal system, the card catalogue, the Readers' Guide, etc. It is

possible that by continuing your questioning, you can draw from the class

all the essential information in the chapter.

Arrangement of books in the library, pages 560-61 (rule 32a)

Do not require your students to memorize the Dewey decimal system.

Few English teachers and practically no adults except professional libra-

rians have accurate knowledge of the numerical divisions of the Deweysystem, and such knowledge would be of little value to the average user of

a library. For instance, the fact that books on science have call numbers

from 500 to 599 does not help one to locate a particular book on a scientific

subject. The library probably has hundreds of books in this broad classifi-

cation, and the way to locate a particular book is to look up its exact call

number in the card catalogue.

The card catalogue, pages 561-65 (rule 32b)

You will probably discover that your students are familiar with the

three kinds of catalogue cards and know how to use the catalogue to look

for a book by author, title, or subject. It is less likely that they will be

familiar with all the kinds of information given on a catalogue card. Have

137

138 AIDS TO GOOD ENGLISH

the class examine the sample cards reproduced on text page 562 and ask

them questions such as "How many pages does this book have?" "What is

the name of the publisher?" "What is the date of publication?"

Exercise 1, page 565. This kind of exercise is important but difficult to

handle. Since sending the entire class to the card catalogue at the same

time will only produce chaos in the library, you can assign this exercise in

one of three ways: (1) Make it an assignment to be done outside of class,

with students going to the library on their own time, perhaps in a study

period. (2) Assign each student only one of the ten questions. (In a class of

thirty, each question must be assigned to three students.) (3) If you have

time, write additional questions, so that every student will have a different

question. For example, question 1 may be varied: "A history of English

literature" or Irish or French. Question 2 may call for a book about Af-

rica, China, India, etc. In all assignments in which students are required to

look up answers to the same question, you must expect some exchanging

and copying of answers. Giving a different question to each student will

effectively prevent this.

The parts of a book, pages 566-69 (rule 32c)

Before you have your students turn to this section, ask the class to

name the parts of a book. Unless they have studied these in earlier years,

their knowledge will be limited to the obvious parts such as title page,

preface, table of contents, and index.

Advanced students can learn on their own the parts described in the

text if you assign Exercise 2 and let them use the text to find the answers

to the questions. This will require them to study the text material. With

good students an exercise or test may occasionally be used in this way as a

sound teaching device. With an average class, reverse the procedure, going

over text pages 566-69 and illustrating the various parts in books selected

ahead of time from your classroom shelves. Then assign Exercise 2. Em-phasize the following with all classes:

1. The distinction between a printing date and a copyright date

2. The distinction between a table of contents and an index3. The meaning of appendix, glossary, and bibliography

Point out the correct spelling offoreword, which is sometimes incorrectly

written "forward."

The Readers' Guide, pages 569-72 (rule 32d)

Your students have probably been using the Readers' Guide for several

years. A brief period of questions and answers will enable you to reviewthe principal facts about its use.

32c-d

REFERENCE BOOKS 139

Call to students' attention the fact that by using back issues of the

Readers' Guide they can find articles on noncurrent subjects. While this

use is greatly limited by the difficulty of finding magazines from five or ten

years ago, students in cities with public libraries can probably find a great

deal of useful material which is not in their school library.

Exercise 3, pages 571-72. Consult the librarian before assigning this exer-

cise, since it may cause considerable trouble in the library if a whole class

descends upon the Readers' Guide and the librarian for information. Ques-

tions 1, 2, and 3 might be assigned to three individuals who will then report

to the class on the answers. All students should write answers for the rest

of the questions, however. Since the library will have only one copy of each

issue of the Readers' Guide, give students several days so that they will not

all try to use the Readers' Guide at the same time.

Exercise 4, page 573. Good students who have been using the school li-

brary for years will not need this exercise, but you may wish to take a few

minutes in class to go through it orally. Some classes should be required to

get the answers on their own and then write them in class as a test.

less-advanced students You may wish to arrange with the school li-

brarian to have your class spend one or two periods in the library going

over the instruction in this chapter under your direction. Less-advanced

students will learn more readily from demonstration lessons in the library

than from classroom instruction.

advanced students In an advanced class, Chapter 32 may be either

omitted or assigned for out-of-class study. These students are usually

regular users of the library and are already familiar with the material in

the chapter.

CHAPTER 33

REFERENCE BOOKS(pages 574-90)

The purpose of this chapter is not so much to teach the titles and uses

of specific reference books (although this is an important function) as to

make students aware of the many kinds of reference books available in a

good library. Students frequently want more synonyms for a word than the

dictionary gives. They want to know certain facts such as the source of a

quotation, the author of a poem, the meaning of a literary term, the latest

population figures, or the story of a major event of the preceding year. It is

important that they know there are reference books specifically designed to

supply information of each kind.


This broad purpose of the chapter is achieved by dealing with specific

titles. Therefore, insist on your students* learning the names of the refer-

ence books described in this chapter and the exact nature of the contents of

each. Although in time the titles may be forgotten, the knowledge that a

reference book of a certain nature exists will be enough to send the student

to the library in search of it.

The best way to teach the nature of a particular reference book is to

give an assignment in the book. Since it is obviously impractical to give

every member of your class an assignment in every one of the books de-

scribed in this chapter, however, you will have to follow a different

method. Students should be "exposed" to the various books through

studying the descriptions in the text and listening to (and taking notes on)

reports by students who have been assigned a book to report on. Students

giving reports on reference books should, if possible, bring the books to

class to show what they look like. They should include in their reports

additional details not given in the text description, as well as information

about the books' principal uses. Advise students to study the prefaces of

the books in preparing their talks. Naturally, you will check in the school

library first to be sure the library has the books you are assigning.

Have students list the reference books and give the principal facts about

each one in outline form. Making their own summaries of the books in this

way helps the students to remember the books and to note and rememberdistinctions between them. For example, items in the students' outlines

may appear as follows:

Biography Index

Contains no biographies

Index of books and articles on prominent people in the past and the

present

Published quarterly

Current Biography

"Who's news and why"Useful only for people prominent nowMonthly

Dictionary of American Biography

Americans no longer living

More complete than encyclopedia biographies

If your class has studied reference books in other years or if, as in manyschools, they have had a unit on the library taught by the librarian, you will

probably want to approach this chapter as review. You might, for example,

begin by asking students to suggest the correct book to consult for specific

items of information such as the following:

l. The name of the Secretary of Agriculture (World Almanac or Information

Please Almanac): the person's occupation before appointment (Who's

Who in America)

THE DICTIONARY 141

2. A biographical article concerning a person who has become prominent in

the news during the past year (Current Biography)

3. Identification of a literary character such as the Artful Dodger, AmyDorrit, etc. (Reader's Encyclopedia, New Century Cyclopedia of

Names)4. The source of a quotation (Bartlett's Familiar Quotations)

You will probably get varied and vague answers to most of these ques-

tions, a fact which can provide motivation for your review. From this in-

troductory question period, you can move into the study of the books de-

scribed in the text.

Exercise 2, page 587, and Exercise 3, pages 588-89, may also be used

diagnostically, if you wish.

Exercise 1, pages 586-87. If you have had your students make the anno-

tated lists suggested on Manual page 140, they will be well prepared for

this exercise. Going over the answers orally in class will enable students to

add to their lists any information they may have omitted.

Exercise 2, pages 587-88. This exercise highlights the special function of

each reference book and emphasizes how it differs from other books in the

same category. If your students find it impossible to keep in their heads the

distinguishing characteristics of so many titles, you may wish to assign the

exercise as an open-book quiz, permitting students to look up the answers

in the text or in their own annotated lists.

Exercises 3 and 4, pages 588-90. Give these exercises as class tests to be

done from memory.

less-advanced students Even though these students do not learn all

about each book and do not do well on the exercises, take them through

the chapter. Terminal students need an awareness of the resources of a

public library even more than do your college preparatory students, whowill be using libraries regularly for the next few years.

advanced students If your advanced classes are writing research pa-

pers on literary topics, they may find useful some of the reference books

listed under "Literature" on text page 585. You might assign individual

students to report on these or others of the reference books named on

pages 585-86.

CHAPTER 34

THE DICTIONARY(pages 591-605)

This chapter is intended primarily for teaching to less-advanced

classes and non-college-bound students. For such students, the dictionary

will be not only a necessary reference book all their lives but often the only


reference book they will have in their homes. It is important that they ac-

quire the "dictionary habit" and that they know about all the kinds of

information to be found in a dictionary.

Classes of average ability can also benefit from a quick trip through the

chapter. It will impress upon them the full extent of information available

in a dictionary of the college type.

Note: You can get additional material for use in teaching the dictionary

by writing to the publisher of the dictionary your class is using. Such free

material may take many forms: pamphlets explaining the dictionary, arti-

cles on how a dictionary is made, wall charts, exercises or tests on the

dictionary, pronunciation exercises, interesting word histories, and so

forth. Publishers are generally quick to supply attractive and informative

materials of this kind for their reference works.

Kinds of Dictionaries (pages 592-93, rule 34a)

If your students do not already have dictionaries of their own, urge

them to buy college dictionaries rather than small paperback dictionaries.

You might take time in class to compare a college dictionary with a paper-

back dictionary. Some points of contrast to emphasize are the relative

number of entries, the length of entries, the number of synonyms and an-

tonyms, the distinctions made between words fairly close in meaning, the

illustrations, and the front and back matter.

You are fortunate if you have a class set of college dictionaries. Al-

though it is possible to teach this chapter even if every student is using a

different dictionary, it is far better to have copies of the same dictionary in

the hands of all students.

Content and Arrangement of Dictionaries(pages 592-603, rule 34b)

To make the point that dictionaries differ somewhat in arrangementand content, you should have copies of two or three dictionaries different

from those in the classroom set. Give these to selected students as they dothe exercises, and have the students report on ways these books are differ-

ent.

Note: Exercises in the use of the dictionary should be done in class to

prevent opportunists from dividing up the work with friends or simply copy-ing the homework from a friend's paper.

Exercise I, pages 594-95. The purpose of this exercise is to familiarize the

student with a dictionary. A student using a poor dictionary will soon dis-

cover its shortcomings while doing the exercise.

Exercise 2, page 595. The directions ask for page numbers, to insure that

the student actually looks up in the dictionary the answer to a question.

34a-c

THE DICTIONARY 143

Even if students know the answers to some of the questions, they should be

required to look them up. Only in this way will they learn where in the

dictionary different kinds of information are to be found. Of course, if your

class is using a number of different dictionaries, you will not be able to

check the accuracy of the page numbers, but make the requirement any-

way.

A dictionary's information about a word, pages 595-602

You may wish to require your students to memorize and write from

memory the eight kinds of information the dictionary usually gives about a

word. Go over the material on these pages, section by section, having the

class read each section silently. Then question them on the content. Besure the students understand the meaning of all terms used in the chapter:

for example, etymology, restrictive labels, synonym, antonym. Emphasizehow many things one can learn from a dictionary.

Pronunciation, page 599. With some classes you may wish to take up

the interpretation of diacritical marks to be sure that the students are able

to learn from these symbols the correct pronunciation of a word. Select a

number of words commonly mispronounced and ask the class to look them

up and then pronounce them correctly. The following words will serve this

purpose:

admirable blackguard genuine preferable

antipathy comparable infamous reputable

archives deaf mischievous superfluous

auxiliary docile posthumous vehicle

If you wish, you can test the class, after they have learned the pronun-

ciation of these words from the dictionary, by having them number their

papers in a column from 1 to 16 and then listen as you pronouce the words,

some correctly and some incorrectly. The class will mark a plus for eachcorrectly pronounced word, a zero for each incorrectly pronounced word.

Encyclopedic entries, pages 602-03

People often forget that much information about famous persons and

important places can be found in a dictionary. Emphasize the extent of the

information a dictionary packs into one brief entry.

Special Dictionaries (pages 603-04, rule 34c)

If possible, you should have copies of these three synonym books to

show the class. Some students may not make much use of these books, but

they should know that books of this kind are available in the library.


Exercises 3 and 4, pages 604-05. Although these exercises do not cover

the same material, you may wish to Omit one of them if your class shows

signs of becoming bored with dictionary work.

less-advanced students If these students clearly understand that they

can find abbreviations, correct spellings, information about people and

places, and much other useful information in a dictionary, they will see

the reason for learning to use it. To encourage students to form the

dictionary habit, keep a dictionary on your desk at all times and refer to

it frequently or have students refer to it whenever questions about words

or their meanings come up in class.

advanced students Since advanced students are probably already ac-

customed to using dictionaries, an above-average class can usually omit

this chapter.

CHAPTER 35

VOCABULARY(pages 606-36)

This chapter is designed to help students accelerate the growth of their

vocabularies. First, the chapter tries to make students conscious of the

way they acquire new words from their reading and listening (context

clues, use of the dictionary, and word analysis—prefixes, roots, suffixes).

Second, the chapter suggests specific words for addition to the students'

vocabularies, nontechnical words in general use which they are sure to

encounter often in their reading.

You should start work on the vocabulary list, pages 634-36, at the be-

ginning of the year. Give vocabulary lessons based on the list at regular

intervals throughout the year. You may wish to designate one day of eachweek as "vocabulary day." In class on vocabulary day you will devoteabout twenty minutes to testing the words assigned for that day (plus some"surprise words" gleaned from previous lessons) and to preparing stu-

dents on the words to be assigned for the following week. At this level the

most efficient way to give these weekly tests is simply to dictate the

words—not in the order they appear in the text list—and require the class to

write them, correctly spelled, and to give a synonym or brief definition for

each. Some teachers require their students to write a sentence for eachword illustrating its use, but you may find that this takes more time thanyou can afford.

You should also have your students start the vocabulary pages in their

35a, d

VOCABULARY 145

notebooks at the beginning of the year (see rule 35c, text page 615). Onthese pages they will list the words of each vocabulary assignment, giving

parts of speech and synonyms or brief definitions. To make sure that the

synonyms and definitions on their vocabulary pages are the right ones, you

will probably wish to dictate the information yourself. As you dictate, you

can explain the meanings in detail and give example sentences using the

words.

On the notebook vocabulary pages students should also list all newwords they encounter in the vocabulary chapter, including those they did

not know on the diagnostic test, all words learned in the chapter exercises,

and those missed in Review Exercise B, which concludes the chapter. Un-less you are having students keep a separate vocabulary list of new words

encountered in their literature study, have them add these words to their

vocabulary pages, too.

Note: Although the skills taught in the chapter will be useful to manystudents, the vocabulary words may in general be too difficult for a less-

advanced class. If you are teaching slower learners, you may wish to use

instead the vocabulary list from an earlier book in the English Grammarand Composition series, or some other vocabulary list prepared for stu-

dents in earlier grades.

Diagnostic Test, pages 606-08. When you announce the class results on

this test—the curve, not the scores of individuals—thefstudents will be able

to tell about where they stand in relation to their classmates. This knowl-

edge should have some motivating force. Note: If your class as a whole

scores notably above or below the standard score (65-70%, or about 16-18

right out of 25), you may want to modify your approach to the material in

this chapter accordingly.

Context clues, pages 608-14, rule 35a

Seniors know about context clues, which have been a part of their train-

ing in reading since the primary grades. The various clues may be worth a

quick review, but the main thing is the exercises which call for their use.

Require students to do the exercises and to record in their notebooks any

words which are new to them. Note that in most of the exercises the direc-

tions suggest checking with the dictionary, an indispensable step in vocabu-

lary development.

Word analysis, pages 615-31, rule 35d

Within the limitations explained on pages 615-16, word analysis is often

a useful technique for figuring out the meaning of an unfamiliar word. It is

a technique which can be used far more accurately by a student who has


learned prefixes, roots, and suffixes in Latin class than by the student whohas learned them only in an English class. Nevertheless, students whohave not studied Latin can still benefit from studying the more commonroots and affixes.

The rather formidable lists of prefixes, suffixes, and roots given in this

chapter are included for reference only, not for memorization. Students

who have studied the vocabulary chapters in earlier texts in the English

Grammar and Composition series will recognize a great many of these

word parts, but no student can be expected to know them all. You maywish, of course, to select twenty-five or thirty of the most common items

and require memorization of this smaller list.

Note that every prefix, root, and suffix listed is accompanied by one or

two English words in which it appears. These example words in themselves

constitute a useful vocabulary list from which you may assign unfamiliar

words.

Review Exercise A, page 629. This is a rather difficult and time-

consuming exercise. You may wish to assign it only to your better classes

and to assign only ten items at a time. Do not insist on absolute accuracy in

giving the meanings of roots and affixes. If the student gives a meaning

taken from a list in the text, accept it whether or not it is the most logical

meaning for a particular word. Tell the class to use the dictionary for any

roots or affixes not in the lists in the book. Numbers 2 and 9: Do not

expect students to separate the -y as a meaningful suffix.

Review Exercise B, pages 633-34. This exercise may be used as a mas-

tery test on the work done in the body of the chapter. It does not, of

course, cover more than a few of the words that appear in the vocabulary

list on pages 634-36. An additional mastery test on the chapter can be

found in Teaching Tests, the test booklet that accompanies English Gram-mar and Composition: Complete Course.

less-advanced students Such a class might benefit from the instruc-

tion given in the first section of this chapter—

"Context Clues," pages

608-14. The rest of the chapter is probably too difficult for these stu-

dents, however. One of the best ways to teach vocabulary to a less-

advanced class is to take time frequently to discuss the meanings of

words that appear in the class reading assignments. Show students howto use context clues to figure out these words, then have a student look

up the words in the classroom dictionary. If you wish to give the class a

vocabulary list, use a list meant for an earlier grade.

advanced students These students are usually highly motivated to in-

crease their vocabularies, especially if they are preparing to take verbal

aptitude tests for college entrance. You may have to curb their tendencyto concentrate on only rare and unusual words, however, if their per-

SPELLING 147

formance on some of the tests and exercises in this chapter shows that

they have not thoroughly mastered more ordinary words.

CHAPTER 36

SPELLING(pages 637-59)

After you have read a few sets of compositions, you will be able to

decide how much time you should give to the teaching of spelling. Seniors

who are poor spellers are well aware of their shortcoming. Those who are

good spellers will quite reasonably resent being put through a spelling-

improvement program which they do not need. Since spelling is largely an

individual problem, many teachers prefer to handle it on an individual

basis. Most teachers, however, will want, even at the risk of wasting the

time of their competent spellers, to give their classes regular spelling as-

signments and tests.

At the beginning of the year, take part of a class period to discuss the

spelling problem. Students who were once poor spellers but have managedto improve may provide helpful suggestions for others. The material on

pages 637-38 will make a good starting point for discussion of ways to

improve. Students who never really tried to improve their spelling in other

years may at this level begin to work at it. Of the suggestions made in the

text, the one in which you can play an important role is the suggestion that

students keep a notebook list of all words they misspell in their composi-

tions and other papers. Most students, even though they have a strong

desire to improve their spelling, will not go to the trouble of maintaining

such a list unless you require them to do so. Check their lists frequently.

From the students' individual lists, compile a list of the most commonlymisspelled words and incorporate the words in the weekly spelling test.

Emphasize the futility of preparing for a spelling test by merely reading.

Spelling is a written skill; it can be studied effectively only by writing the

words. The only sure way to prepare for a spelling test is to have someonedictate the words following a period of study.

Exercises l and 2, page 638. An average or above-average class may omit

these exercises, although you may wish to assign the exercises on an indi-

vidual basis to the poor spellers in the class.

Spelling rules, pages 639-45 (rules 36a-36i)

The value of spelling rules has often been questioned. However, since

many students do find a few simple rules useful, you should review the

rules for the sake of those who will make effective use of them.

The rules will probably be familiar to most of your students. If the class

seems to have forgotten them, or if you think that students never really


mastered them in earlier years, require memorization of rules 36a through

36g and give a test in which students must write the rules with several

examples of each and with mention of exceptions. Rule 36h is so compli-

cated that quite possibly only above-average students will be able to grasp

and apply it.

Whether or not you require memorization of the rules, do require stu-

dents to do Exercises 3, 4, and 5 (pages 639-42). The exercises, in fact,

may well be assigned without any formal consideration of the rules in class.

Students will have to refer to the rules while doing the exercises.

The plural of nouns, pages 642^5 {rule 36i). Go over with the class

these facts about the formation of plurals, but do not require memorization

of the rules. Your purpose is to alert students to some of the problems that

plurals present so that they will use these pages for reference when they

encounter a problem in spelling a plural. Subrules 3, 4, 6, 9, and 10 are

more useful than others and should receive special emphasis.

Words that sound alike, pages 645-54

Students have probably studied most of these words in earlier years.

You may wish to use the review exercise on text pages 654-56 as a diag-

nostic test for this section, before you decide how much class time to de-

vote to the words listed on pages 656-59. Students who miss words on the

diagnostic test can be required to enter in their spelling notebooks both the

correct words and the sound-alike forms.

Commonly misspelled words, pages 656-59

The three hundred words listed here are meant to provide the basis for

a year's work in spelling. Starting early in the year, you can assign the list

at the rate of ten words a week. One way of managing these regular as-

signments is to give the assignment on Monday, dictate the ten words as a

practice test on Wednesday or Thursday, and give a final test on Friday.

On the final test you should also include frequently misspelled words from

student compositions and troublesome words from previous tests.

PART SEVEN

College Entranceand Other Examinationspages 663-89

CHAPTER 37

COLLEGE ENTRANCEAND OTHER EXAMINATIONS(pages 663-89)

The best way of preparing students specifically for college entrance

examinations is to give them experience in answering the types of ques-

tions usually asked on these tests. The purpose of this section of the text-

book is to familiarize students with the common types of questions and

show them how to go about answering them. If you are using the Teaching

Tests booklet, you can follow up the text exercises with a test devoted to

questions of the particular type you have been discussing. The Teaching

Tests booklet contains eighteen pages of sample college entrance tests on

the material in this chapter. All this work should be done in the classroom

under supervision, in order to approximate a real test situation.

One danger is that conscientious teachers, eager to have their students

do well on standardized tests, will teach for the tests only, spending far too

much time taking their classes through sample test after sample test all year

long instead of devoting the necessary time to teaching students to read

and write. Ideally, all your teaching should contribute to your students'

success on examinations. The vocabulary program in the English Grammarand Composition series—or any other carefully planned program which

runs through all years of the secondary school—will prepare students for

the tests in verbal aptitude. The students' wide reading and their study of

literature should prepare them for tests in reading comprehension and in

taste and sensitivity. Your work in composition, especially in mechanics,

sentence structure, and paragraphing, will enable your students to do well

on questions testing these skills.

Tests of word knowledge or vocabulary, pages 665-72

If your college preparatory seniors took the Scholastic Aptitude Test in

their junior year, they will already be familiar with ways of testing verbal

149

150 COLLEGE ENTRANCE AND OTHER EXAMINATIONS

aptitude. While this means you will not have to spend much time on the

text explanations of the types of questions, you should have your students

do the exercises in the book and the tests in the Teaching Tests booklet if

they are going to take the SAT a second time. The greater their familiarity

with the various types of questions, the more easily they will be able to

handle a long and fairly complicated test.

If you have not yet taught Chapter 35, "Vocabulary," you may wish at

this time to teach the parts of the chapter which treat context clues (pages

608-14) and synonyms (pages 631-32).

Only three types of questions are included in this section of the chapter,

but they are chosen to represent as fully as possible the spectrum of

question-types which will confront the students. They are Word meanings

(pages 666-67), Synonyms and antonyms (pages 667-69), and Verbal

analogies (pages 669-72). All of these formats are designed to test the samething, knowledge of words as opposed to larger units of language. Whatdiffers is only the type of question format involved. One of the most impor-

tant things you can do for the students is to help them to experience the

importance of relaxing—not getting upset and nervously tense—while they

answer such questions. Perhaps this can best be done by duplicating the

examination procedures in class: having a timer, creating the same serious

atmosphere which surrounds actual testing procedures, etc. Students whoneed or feel they want additional practice in taking questions like these

might welcome being allowed to make up their own sample questions, ex-

change them, and answer them in class time. However, booklets are read-

ily available containing such sample exercises if you feel the students need

more practice.

Reading achievement, pages 672-76

Here, too, additional materials for further testing are readily available

and can probably be purchased through a bookstore. Advanced students

will need far less practice than others in the reading comprehension sec-

tions of aptitude and achievement examinations.

There is an answer key to all the exercises in this chapter (page 689).

Students can work through the exercises on their own and be quite certain

of exactly where and how they made their mistakes by referring to the key.

You might wish to point out to the students early in the year, referring

specifically to this section, that the best preparation possible for suchexaminations is a good grammar and composition course. This motivation

should certainly not be overlooked in teaching students planning to go onto college, as you know. This motive plays a more and more major role in

their study from the beginning of the year on. The particular value of this

chapter is that it offers the students practice in answering the same kinds of

questions, in the same visual formats, as will be required of them on their

entrance examinations. You might point out to them, though, that answer-

COLLEGE ENTRANCE AND OTHER EXAMINATIONS 151

ing such questions correctly depends entirely upon whether they have

studied throughout the course as a whole.

advanced students This section, of course, should only be taught to

college preparatory classes. If only a handful of your students are apply-

ing to colleges requiring tests, you may not wish to spend the class's

time on the section. But you should encourage individual students whowill be taking a variety of aptitude tests to study this section and do the

practice exercises provided here and in the Teaching Tests booklet.

SECTION IV

Model Lesson Plans

If you are using English Grammar and Composition: Complete Course

for the first time, you may want concrete suggestions for translating the

text material into class lessons. The following lesson plans are designed to

show how to introduce or motivate the learning and how to work the

textbook material into the class period. Pairs of lesson plans—one plan for

average or above-average students and the other for below-average

students—are provided in each of the following areas: usage, sentence

structure, effective word choice, and composition.

These lesson plans use the inductive approach, in which the teacher

leads students to solve problems for themselves. Only after the students

have arrived at the formulation of a general rule do they open their

textbooks to check their solution and to do the exercises.

Of course, much of your teaching at this grade level will be deductive

rather than inductive: you will state the rule briefly and then give examples

of its application. No separate lesson plans are given to illustrate the de-

ductive approach, because the teacher using this approach need merely

follow the arrangement in the textbook.

1. A MODEL LESSON PLAN IN USAGE:For an Average or Above-average Class

OBJECTIVE

To teach (or review) the correct uses of the nominative pronouns. Rules

7a, 7b, and 7c.

MATERIALS

English Grammar and Composition: Complete Course, Chapter 7,

pages 104-08.

PROCEDURE

1. Begin the lesson (books closed) by questioning the class about pro-

nouns. The questions should draw from the class the following facts:

a. A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun.

b. There are several kinds of pronouns: personal, indefinite, relative, etc.

c. Personal pronouns are those which change form in the different persons.

d. Personal pronouns have different forms for the three cases: nominative,

objective, and possessive.

155

156 MODEL LESSON PLANS

2. Write the following table on the board:

SINGULAR

NOMINATIVE OBJECTIVE

FIRST PERSON

SECOND PERSON

THIRD PERSON

FIRST PERSON

SECOND PERSON

THIRD PERSON

PLURALNOMINATIVE OBJECTIVE

As the class members volunteer the pronouns, write them in the proper

places in this table.

Then ask which pronouns have the same form in the nominative and the

objective case. Write the others on the board in two columns:

NOMINATIVE OBJECTIVE

I mehe him

she her

we us

they them

3. Lead up to Rule 7b, "The subject of a verb is in the nominativecase," by writing the following sentences on the board:

1. Him and her are cousins.

2. He and she are cousins.

Ask the following questions:

Question: Which of these sentences is correct?

Answer: The second.

Q. In what case are the pronouns in the second sentence?

A. Nominative.

Q. What part of the sentence are these pronouns?A. Subject.

Q. From this one example, what conclusion can we draw as to the case of

pronouns used as subjects?A. Pronouns used as subjects are in the nominative case.

4. Establish the fact that whenever one of the parts of a compoundsubject is a pronoun, you can tell the correct form by trying the pronounalone before the verb.

Barrie and me (him, her, us, them) will be late.

Barrie and I (he, she, we, they) will be late,

fl will be late; she will be late; etc.J

MODEL LESSON PLANS 157

Explain that the correct form of the pronoun in such expressions as

"We seniors voted for the plan" can be similarly determined: "We(not 'Us') voted for the plan."

5. Have the class do Exercise 1, pages 107-08, reading aloud in unison.

6. Have students close their books. Review the predicate nominative

by writing the following sentences on the board:

It was he.

That is she.

It might be they.


Question: The verbs in these three sentences are forms of the same verb.

What is this verb?

Answer: The verb be.

Q. What kind of verb is be, as used in these sentences—an action verb or a

linking verb?

A. A linking verb.

Q. What do we call a noun or pronoun following a linking verb?

A. A predicate nominative.

Q. Judging by these sentences (and by the name predicate nominative),

pronouns used as predicate nominatives should be in what case?

A. In the nominative case.

Q. What rule can we now formulate?

A. A predicate nominative is in the nominative case.

7. Write on the board the expressions "It's (I, me)" and "It's (we,

us)." Point out that although according to grammatical rule one should say

"It's I" and "It's we," many persons do not follow the rule in their every-

day speech. Have the class open their books to page 107 and read the

usage note in the middle of the page. Point out that this is an instance

where formal written usage differs from informal usage; remind the class of

what they learned about formal and informal English in Chapter 5.

Assignment

Write Exercise 2, page 109. If you need help with any of the sentences,

refer to the material on the four preceding pages of the textbook.

2. A MODEL LESSON PLAN IN USAGE:

For a Below-average Class

OBJECTIVE

To teach (or review) the use of the nominative pronouns as subjects

Rule 7b.


MATERIALS


pages 104-06.

PREPARATION

Write the following two exercises on the board. (Or, if possible, have

them mimeographed.)

Number your paper from 1 to 12. Choose correct personal pronouns for

the blanks in the following sentences. Vary your pronouns. Do not use you.

1. Jimmy and make a good team.

2. Maria and played against them yesterday.

3. She and argued about the score.

4. My partner and practiced for several days.

5. The Browns suggested to us that and go on a picnic.

6. Tom and preferred to play golf.

7. Sara and are twins.

8. Neither Betty nor is on the committee.

9. and asked our dads to play with us.

10. boys accused them of being afraid of us.

11. Yesterday and went downtown.12. Mom said that Mrs. Berg and could have made better scores than

ours.

B

Number in a column on your paper from 1 to 20. Read each of the follow-

ing sentences. Decide whether the italicized pronouns are in the correct

case. If all the italicized pronouns in a sentence are correct, put a + after the

proper number on your paper; if any one of them is not, put a and write the

correct form of the pronoun(s).

1. Bill and / believed that you and she would help.

2. You and / will have to solve the problem.

3. Your friends and him are troublemakers.

4. We players respect the coach.

5. Her and me were going skating.

6. Helen and her preferred to ski.

7. The principal and he knew the whole story.

8. You and / ought to get together.

9. I wish you and she were more friendly.

10. You and them came from the same town.

1 1. Where do your aunt and he live?

12. He and she both live on Tenth Street.

13. Him and me will graduate at the same time.

14. Us boys must stick together.

15. I think you and she are bound to win.


16. Her and / arrived an hour early.

17. My uncle and they were not able to come.

18. Robert and / will bring the sandwiches.

19. Karen and me decided to go to college together.

20. Hank and she enlisted in the navy.

PROCEDURE1. Put the following sentences on the board:

(I, Me) will be late.

(He, Him) will be late.

(Her, She) will be late.

(Us, We) will be late.

(Them, They) will be late.

Ask individual students to read each sentence, selecting the correct

pronoun. Draw a line through the incorrect form as the student reads the

correct one. Then, add "Dottie and" and read aloud:

Dottie and I will be late.

Dottie and he will be late.

Dottie and she will be late.

Dottie and we will be late.

Dottie and they will be late.

2. Establish by asking the following questions that the words that stu-

dents were working with in these sentences are pronouns, and that they are

subjects of the verb will be.

Question: What part of speech is I?

Answer: A pronoun.

Q. What part of speech are the words used with Dottie in the other sen-

tences?

A. Pronouns.

Q. What is the verb in each sentence?

A. Will be.

Q. What is the subject of will be in the first sentence?

A. Dottie and /.

Q. What are the subjects in the other sentences?

A. Dottie and he, Dottie and she, etc.

Q. What pronouns, then, do we use as subjects?

A. /, he, she, we, they.

Q. What pronouns are not used as subjects?

A. Me, him, her, us, them.

3. Tell the class that the pronouns used as subjects are called nomina-

tive pronouns. The others are called objective pronouns. Have the class


recite in unison the nominative pronouns until you think they can recite

them from memory: /, he, she, we, they.

4. Returning to the sentences on the board, make the point that whenanother subject (Dottie, in these sentences) is used with a pronoun, the

pronoun form does not change. Therefore, whenever we have such a con-

struction, we can tell what pronoun to use by using the pronoun alone

before the verb ("/ will be late," etc.).

5. Have the class open their books to page 106 and read silently the

explanations that have just been covered orally. Then discuss rule 7b(2),

which was not covered orally.

6. Conduct an oral drill with the sentences in Exercise 1, pages 107-08,

having the class read the sentences in unison.

7. Have the class write Exercise A (in the section on "Preparation" at

the beginning of this lesson). Have students exchange papers and check

answers. All pronouns used should be from the list of nominative pro-

nouns: /, he, she, we, or they.

8. Then have the class do Exercise B (also in the section on "Prepara-

tion"). Have students exchange papers and check answers. Have each cor-

rect sentence read aloud several times.

9. If there is time, clinch the lesson by using Exercise B a second time

orally, as follows. (First collecting student papers and—if the exercise waswritten on the board—erasing it.)

a. Have the class number from 1 to 20 on their papers.

b. Give the following instructions: "I am going to read to you the sen-

tences in the exercise you have just corrected. If a sentence is cor-

rect, put a plus after its number; if it is incorrect, put a zero. Youshould all get a perfect score.

c. Read the sentences at the rate of four or five a minute, changing the

original order.

d. Let students correct their papers as the teacher reads the answers.

Ask for questions, and try to clear up any difficulties.

3. A MODEL LESSON PLAN IN SENTENCESTRUCTURE:For an Average or Above-average Class

OBJECTIVE

To teach the meaning of parallelism in sentence structure. Rules 15a,

15b, and 15c.

MATERIALS


pages 239-45.


PREPARATION

Write the following sentences on the board, leaving plenty of room

below each:

1. Helen decided on studying French first and to write her composition last.

2. She was happier in high school than when she was in college.

3. She wanted a job which was both challenging and paid a lot of money.

PROCEDURE

1. Ask the following questions about sentence 1:

Question: What makes the wording of this sentence awkward?

Answer: The two things that Helen decided are expressed in different

forms.

Q. In terms of grammar, what is the word studying?

A. A gerund.

Q. What is the expression to write?

A. An infinitive.

Q. Can you revise the sentence so that these two ideas will be expressed in

the same form?

A. "Helen decided to study French first and to write her composition

last." {Have this sentence written on the board below sentence 1 .)

Q. What kind of conjunction is and, which joins the two infinitives?

A. A coordinating conjunction.

Q. These two ideas, to study and to write, are called coordinate ideas.

What rule could you state concerning the grammatical form of coordi-

nate ideas?

A. Coordinate ideas should be expressed in the same grammatical form.

2. Ask the following questions about sentence 2:

Question: Explain the awkwardness in sentence 2.

Answer: In high school in the first part of the sentence does not matchwhen she was in college in the second part.

Q. What kind of construction is in high school?

A. A prepositional phrase.

Q. What kind of construction is when she was in college?

A. A subordinate clause.

Q. How could the sentence be written so that these two parts would be in

the same form?

A. "She was happier in high school than in college." (Have this sentence

written on the board below sentence 2.)

Q. What is the purpose of this sentence, so far as her two experiences are

concerned?


A. The purpose is to compare them.

Q. What rule could you state concerning the form in which compared ideas

should be expressed?

A. Compared ideas should be expressed in the same grammatical form.

3. Ask these questions about sentence 3.

Question: Explain the awkwardness in sentence 3.

Answer: Challenging is an adjective. Paid a lot of money is a predicate.

Q. How can these two constructions be made more alike?

A. "She wanted a job which was both challenging and high-paying."

{Have this sentence written on the board under sentence 3.)

Q. What kind of conjunction is both . . . and?

A. Correlative.

Q. What rule can you then state concerning the grammatical form of two

expressions used with correlative conjunctions?

A. Correlative constructions require the same grammatical form.

4. Explain to the class that expressions which are in the same grammat-

ical form in coordinate, compared, and correlative constructions are said to

be parallel. This rhetorical device is called parallelism.

5. Assign the class to study silently text pages 239-41, up to rule 15b.

6. Now have the class read rule 15b and the examples which follow it

(page 241). Explain that if the first example were logically completed, it

would have to name another office held by Mrs. Sayers; for example, "Mrs.

Sayers is not only president of the National Bank but also secretary of the

Chamber of Commerce." If she is president of both, the correlative con-

junctions should not precede president but should precede the National

Bank and the Chamber of Commerce. Explain the second example simi-

larly.

Follow a similar procedure for rule 15c (page 241) and the examples

following it (page 242). In this rule, the phrasing "whenever necessary to

make the meaning clear" is the clue. As in Rule 15b, we are concerned

here with clarity rather than with smoothness in sentence structure.

Assignment

Write Exercise 1, pages 242-43.

4. A MODEL LESSON PLAN IN SENTENCESTRUCTURE:For a Below-average Class

OBJECTIVE

To teach students to recognize and correct errors in the placement of

modifiers. Rules 14a and 14b.


MATERIALS


pages 230-38.

PREPARATION


1. The social committee hired the Jerry Johnson Quintet to play for the

spring dance in October.

2. The witness could not remember when he was asked where he had been

on the night of the murder by the district attorney.

3. She wore a colorful scarf at the party that came from Mexico.

PROCEDURE

1. Ask the following questions:

Question: What do we mean when we say that one word modifies another

word? Can you give an example?

Answer: The word describes another word—"a white house." (Student

examples will, of course, vary.)

Q. Does a modifier sometimes describe an action?

A. Yes

—

"drove fast."

Q. Can a whole group of words be a modifier? Can you give an example?

A. "A house with green shutters," "drove as fast as she could."

2. Turn to sentence 1 on the board. Tell the class that sometimes a writer

confuses the reader by putting modifiers in the wrong place in a sentence.

The reader can usually figure out the intended meaning, but the fact of

having to stop and figure it out means that the sentence is not very good.

Read sentence 1 and ask a student to explain the difference between

what the sentence says and what the writer intended it to say. (The sen-

tence says that the spring dance takes place in October. What the writer

intended to say is that the Jerry Johnson Quintet was hired in October.)


Question: Can you make the sentence clear by shifting a modifying groupof words to another place in the sentence?

Answer: You can shift in October to the beginning of the sentence: "In

October the social committee hired the Jerry Johnson Quintet to play

for the spring dance."

Q. What word does the phrase modify?

A. Hired.

Point out that in the change the phrase was placed nearer to the word it

modifies, and away from the phrase it was not intended to modify.


3. Ask similar questions about sentence 2. Derive the following solu-

tion: "When he was asked by the district attorney where he had been on

the night of the murder, the witness could not remember." Point out that

the modifier by the district attorney has been moved close to was asked,

which it modifies, and that the when clause has been moved to the begin-

ning of the sentence.

4. Ask similar questions about sentence 3. To get the modifier that

came from Mexico away from party and next to scarf, which it modifies,

we can move at the party to the beginning of the sentence: "At the party

she wore a colorful scarf that came from Mexico."

5. Have students open their books to page 230 and study the three

examples of misplaced modifiers on pages 230-31.

6. Go over with the class the first ten sentences in Exercise 1, pages

232-33, calling on volunteers to explain how the meaning of each sentence

has been distorted by the incorrect placement of a modifier. Have each

sentence corrected by shifting the modifier.

7. Explain to the class that another kind of modifier that often confuses

the reader is one that usually comes at the beginning of a sentence and

modifies the noun or pronoun that immediately follows it. Write the follow-

ing sentence on the board.

Reading in the library, I was startled by the siren of a passing ambulance.

Point out that the opening phrase, reading in the library, modifies the pro-

noun /; it was "I" who was reading in the library.

Now write the following sentence on the board.

Reading in the library, the siren of a passing ambulance startled me.

Ask, "What word does the opening phrase now seem to modify?" (An-

swer: siren.) "Is the siren, then, reading in the library?"

Explain that a modifier like this that seems to modify a word it cannot

possibly modify is called a dangling modifier.

8. Write on the board the sentence openings below and ask volunteers

to supply ways to complete the sentences. Emphasize the fact that in every

instance the word following the opening phrase should name something or

someone that the phrase can sensibly modify.

Tackled from behind,

While eating breakfast,

Trained to obey only its trainer,

Thinking the police were after them,

Defeated in their first three games,

9. Turning back to the book, read over with the class the two ways to

correct a dangling modifier and the illustrative examples, pages 233-34.


10. Have students do orally the first ten sentences in Exercise 2, page

235.

11. Read over with the class the discussion of two-way modifiers,

pages 236-37.

Assignment

Write answers for the first fifteen sentences in Exercise 3, page 237.

5. A MODEL LESSON PLAN IN EFFECTIVEDICTION:

For an Average or Above-average Class

OBJECTIVES

To teach students to avoid jargon and trite expressions, and to review

the use of figurative language. Rules 19a-19f.

MATERIALS


pages 275-83.

PROCEDURE

1. Begin the lesson by explaining that the class is about to study a third

important aspect of good writing. The first important aspect was usage, the

second, sentence structure. The third is effective diction or v/ord choice.

Point out that diction is extremely important in developing an effective

style.

2. Ask for a volunteer to define the meaning of trite. Establish the idea

that trite expressions are expressions which have grown stale through too

frequent use. If no one knows the word cliche, explain its meaning.

3. Ask volunteers to suggest some trite expressions. Write them on the

board.

4. Have the class turn to Chapter 19 and read pages 275-77. Have stu-

dents go over a few of the sentences in Exercise 1 orally. (An advanced

class need not write any answers for the exercise. An average class might

write answers for a few sentences.)

5. Through questioning, make it clear that cliches may be acceptable in

conversational English but are almost always poor written English:

Question: Do we usually use the same words in expressing an idea orally

that we use in expressing it in writing?


Answer: No.

Q. In what ways does our diction when we speak differ from our diction

when we write?

A. Our spoken diction employs a simpler vocabulary. We are less careful

about choosing exact words; we may use many commonplaceexpressions—cliches

.

Q. Why are cliches acceptable in speaking but not in writing?

A. Speaking is spontaneous and we tend to say things in words that comefirst to mind. Cliches are likely to come first to mind. Everyone under-

stands cliches; and in conversation one is likely to be much less con-

cerned with how an idea is expressed than with what is said.

6. Have the class follow in their books as you read aloud the exampleof professional jargon which begins at the bottom of page 278. Ask the

following questions:

Question: What makes the paragraph hard to understand?

Answer: The author uses big words and expressions which seem to have a

special meaning that we don't know—"institutional structures," "em-

pirical evidence," "social mobility," etc.

Q. The paragraph was written by a sociologist. Would other sociologists

understand it better than we did? Why?A. Yes, because they know the sociologist's jargon.

Q. Is this kind of professional jargon bad writing?

A. Not necessarily. One writes for a particular audience.

Q. Can you see any danger in writers' relying heavily on professional jar-

gon?

A. They should not rely on professional jargon when they are writing for a

general audience.

7. Go over the explanation of the second meaning of jargon (textbook

pages 279-80).

8. Treat the material on figurative language as review. Have the class

read silently pages 280-82, and quiz them briefly on what they have read.

When they seem to understand the three figures of speech, take up Exer-cise 3, page 282. Do the first three items orally, asking volunteers to give

answers. Assign the rest to be done in writing in class. (An advanced class

may save time by doing the entire exercise orally.)

9. End the lesson by asking volunteers to summarize what has beensaid about cliches, jargon, and figurative language.

Assignment

Do Exercise 2, page 280, and Exercise 4, page 283.


6. A MODEL LESSON PLAN IN EFFECTIVEDICTION:

For a Below-average Class

OBJECTIVE

To teach students to avoid trite expressions and slang in written Eng-

lish. Rules 19a and 19i.

MATERIALS


pages 275-77 and 287-89.

PREPARATION


1. She's busy as a bee.

2. We agreed to bury the hatchet.

3. My successes have been few and far between.

4. The brothers have not been on speaking terms for months.

5. The unexciting first few minutes of the town meeting turned out to be

only the calm before the storm.

PROCEDURE

1. Approach the subject of trite expressions as follows;

Question: You have all heard the expression "busy as a bee." It is a

common expression, familiar to everyone. Can you find phrases in the

second and third sentences which are also common?Answer: "Bury the hatchet," "few and far between."

Q. Sentences 4 and 5 also contain expressions that are common, though

perhaps not so common as the ones in the first three sentences. Whatare they?

A. "On speaking terms," "the calm before the storm."

Q. Do you think such common expressions are useful? Why?A. Yes, because everyone knows what they mean.

Q. If you came upon these common expressions in a piece of writing,

might you feel differently about them than you would feel if you heard

them spoken? Why?A. Yes. You might think the writer was lazy and was using common ex-

pressions instead of finding more original words.

Q. Does anyone know what we call such common expressions which are

used so much in speaking?

A. Cliches or trite expressions. (Explain these terms if necessary.)


2. Ask the class to try to think of other cliches. List on the board those

they suggest. If no one can suggest any, or if the supply of suggestions is

soon exhausted, have the class open their books to page 275 and read Rule

19a and the material that follows it (pages 275-77).

3. Do the first five sentences of Exercise 1 with the class. Ask for vol-

unteers to spot the trite expressions and to suggest new ways of saying the

same thing. Assign sentences 6-10 to be done in writing. Suggest that stu-

dents check the sentences against the list of cliches on pages 276-77.

For each sentence, have two students write their corrected versions on

the board. Compare each pair of sentences. Do not expect too much, but

be satisfied if the students have recognized the cliches.

4. Undoubtedly the class will have a pretty good idea of what slang is.

Ask for examples, and list the examples on the board.

5. Capitalize on any differences of opinion that develop about items in

the list on the board. (Some items may be only informal English, not

slang.) Point out that the difference is chiefly a matter of degree.

6. Have the class turn to page 288 and read over the list of slang ex-

pressions. Then have them read the discussion of informal English which

begins at the bottom of the page.

7. By questioning, establish the point that slang and informal expres-

sions are acceptable in friendly conversation and in very informal writing,

but that they don't sound right in serious writing.

8. Take up Exercise 7, pages 289-90, sentence by sentence. Ask for

volunteers to find and read aloud the inappropriate words or phrases. Em-phasize the word "appropriate" as applied to diction in written English.

Assignment

Write a list of five expressions you have heard which you think are

slang, and a list of five expressions you think should be classed as informal

English. Label the lists. [Note: Do not quibble with the class over the lists

they submit. The important thing is that the students have thought a little

about careful word choice and about the matter of appropriateness.]

7-8. TWO MODEL LESSON PLANS IN

COMPOSITION:

For an Average or Above-average Class

First Lesson

OBJECTIVES

To review the stages in planning a composition, and to have students

begin work on an informative composition. Rules 22a-22d.


MATERIALSEnglish Grammar and Composition: Complete Course, Chapter 22,

pages 339-47.

PROCEDURE

1. Tell the class that they are going to review the stages of planning an

expository theme. (Do not use the textbook yet.)

2. Take a broad subject on which students are sure to have ideas—for

example, "College" or "Higher education"—and write it on the board.

Make the point that this is too broad a subject for a theme. Ask students to

suggest limitations—narrower subjects about college. If possible, drawfrom them the topic "Factors to consider in selecting a college."

3. Ask the class to suggest ideas on the limited topic. List all the

suggestions on the board, whether or not they seem usable. Then go over

the list with the class, asking students to point out topics that should be

eliminated because they are either irrelevant or unimportant.

4. Now ask students to group related topics and provide a heading for

each group. Accept their suggestions and develop at the board a rough

outline. When the outline is complete, ask for criticism and corrections.

5. If necessary, clinch this review by having the class read pages 340-42.

6. Go over with the class the ten rules for outline form, pages 344-46.

This is review material. Emphasize rules (7), (8), and (9).

Assignment

Do Exercise 1, page 347 and choose a subject for your next composi-

tion—an expository theme. Write it at the bottom of your homework paper.

(The list of subjects under Exercise 8, pages 365-66, can provide ideas.)

Second Lesson

OBJECTIVE

To review the planning of an informative composition and the writing of

a first draft. Rules 22e, 22f, and 22i.

MATERIALS


pages 348-61 and 364-65.

PROCEDURE

1. Have two students put on the board the corrected outlines they

wrote for Exercise 1, their homework. Compare the two outlines, letting


the class offer suggestions and permitting the two students to defend their

versions, if necessary. Resolve any disagreements and have students makecorrections on their own homework papers. Collect the papers.

2. Have students turn to "Exposition that Informs, " page 364. Explain

that a term frequently applied to the listing of ideas for a composition is

"analysis." Ask why this is a logical term for the process. Explain the

meaning of "division," a term used for the process of organizing the ideas

under a few general headings.

Tell the class that for homework they will prepare outlines for the com-position subjects they have chosen.

3. By questioning, draw from the class the characteristics of a good

opening paragraph. Write these on the board. Have the class read silently

the material under subrule (1), pages 348-49. Emphasize the tentative na-

ture of the first draft of a composition. Then have students read silently the

material under subrules (2) and (3), pages 349-50, and ask volunteers to

summarize it orally. (While the class is reading silently, leaf through their

homework papers and look at the subjects they have chosen for their next

compositions. Return any papers that have unsatisfactory subjects.)

4. Ask what devices were suggested in Chapter 21, "The Paragraph,"

for keeping the thought flowing from sentence to sentence (linking expres-

sions and connectives). Turn to subrule (4), page 350, and go over with the

class the suggested devices for keeping the thought flowing from paragraph

to paragraph (pages 350-53). Do exercise 3, pages 353-54, orally.

5. After emphasizing subrule (5), page 355, read over with the class the

model composition, pages 356-61, emphasizing the marginal notes.

6. Confer briefly with students who did not choose satisfactory topics.

Others can start work on the homework assignment at this time.

Assignment

Prepare an outline for an expository composition on your subject.

Note: During the next lesson look over students' outlines. Tell them

that when their outlines have been approved, they can start their composi-

tions. Require that the final outline be handed in with the composition.

9-10. TWO MODEL LESSON PLANS IN

COMPOSITION:For a Below-average Class

First Lesson

OBJECTIVE

To review the stages in planning a composition


MATERIALS


pages 339-42.

PROCEDURE

1. Tell the class that a 300-word composition will be due in five days.

Ask students to be thinking of a subject they would like to write on for this

assignment. The assignment is not a story, but an informative theme.

Tell the class that there are certain steps or stages in the planning and

writing of a composition and that this lesson will take up the stages in

planning.

2. By asking questions, draw from the class the following information

about the characteristics of a good subject for a theme: a subject should be

interesting to the writer; it should be something the writer knows enough

about; it should be narrow enough to be handled in 300 words; it should be

a subject the writer can make interesting to others.

3. Write the following topics on the board, leaving room under each

topic:

Athletics Legal holidays Television

By asking questions, lead students to see that these topics are too broad.

Ask volunteers to suggest more limited topics in each area. Write all the

suggestions on the board, and then ask the class to decide whether each

one is really narrow enough. Try to get at least one topic in each list that

would be suitable for handling in 300 words.

4. Select one of these suitable topics and have the class suggest specific

ideas for a theme on this subject. List all the ideas on the board as the

students volunteer them, regardless of whether they seem usable.

5. Then go over the list on the board, asking volunteers to point out

items that should be eliminated because they are unimportant or not rele-

vant to the subject.

6. Have students suggest ideas in the list that can be grouped together.

Write these on the board in groups as suggested, and get suggestions for a

heading to cover each group.

7. Have students open their books and read pages 340-42. Take up the

material on these pages paragraph by paragraph, asking questions about

each paragraph.

Assignment

Choose a topic for an informative composition. You may use one of the

topics suggested for Exercise 8 (pages 365-66), if you wish, or you maythink up a topic of your own Write the topic on a slip of paper and bring

it to class tomorrow.


Second Lesson

OBJECTIVE

To review outline form.

MATERIALS

English Grammar and Composition: Complete Course, pages 342-48.

PROCEDURE

1. Collect the homework papers.

2. Have students turn to page 344. Read over with them the ten rules

for outline form, pages 344—46, explaining each rule as necessary.

3. Have the class write Exercise 1, page 347.

While the class is at work, try to find time to go through students'

homework quickly and approve or reject their composition subjects. Re-

turn the papers and confer briefly with students whose subjects were not

approved.

4. Have two or three students who finish Exercise 1 early put their

outlines on the board. With the help of the class, evaluate and correct these

outlines. Then have students correct their own outlines before handing

them in.

Assignment

Do Exercise 2, pages 347-48. Also prepare a list of specific ideas for

your next composition. Make sure that all the ideas you put down are di-

rectly related to your subject. Bring the list to class and be prepared to

start organizing these ideas into an outline.

Note: The third lesson in this composition unit will be in two parts: (1)

Have one or two students put their outlines for Exercise 2 on the board;

ask for comments and corrections. (2) Have students work at their desks,

organizing the ideas in the lists they prepared for homework and grouping

the ideas under three or four headings. For homework, have students workthese groupings into an outline that follows correct outline form. Thefourth lesson will include study of Rule 22e, pages 348-55, and careful in-

class reading of the model composition, pages 356-61. The class's owncompositions should be completed and handed in one or two days after this

lesson.

Answer Keys

ANSWER KEY TO WARRINER'SEnglish Grammar and Composition:Complete Course

Chapter 1 The Parts of Speech

p. 4 DIAGNOSTIC TEST

1. this, adj.

2. rapidly, adv.

3. More, adj.

4. graduate, v.

5. and, conj.

6. to, prep.

7. Many, pron.

8. college, n.

9. Today, adv.

10. more, adv.

11. high school, adj.

12. sixty, adj.

13. Graduate, adj.

14. is, v.

15. then, adv.

16. Because, conj.

17. us, pron.

18. Our, pron.

(or possessive adj.)

19. of, prep.

20. grow, v.

21. Although, conj.

22. who, pron.

23. high school, n.

24. still, adv.

25. they, pron.

26. Their, pron.

(or possessive adj.)

27. soon, adv.

28. Anyone, pron.

29. today's, n. (or adj.)

30. college, adj.

31. Alas, inter.

32. necessary, adj.

33. future, n.

p. 7 EXERCISE 1

(In these answers, its and my are treated as pronouns, not possessive adjectives.)

1. those, who, it

2. Few, who, their

3. they, most, what, we4. that, what

5. everybody, its

p. 9 EXERCISE 2

6. what, most, this

7. themselves, who, that

8. anyone, all, whose

9. many, us, neither

10. we, ourselves, each, us

1. Some, adj. (people)

it, pron.

others, pron.

tensions, n.

2. this, adj. (culture)

ours, pron.

everyday, adj. (living)

which, pron.

3. them, pron.

enjoyment, n.

other, adj. (hobbyists)

4. their, pron. (or possessive adj.—hobbies)

exhausting, adj. (responsibilities)

Presidency, n.

5. ship, adj. (models)

he, pron.

who, pron.

175

176 ANSWER KEY

6. All, adj. (hobbies)

some, pron.

educational, adj. (some)

7. leisure, adj. (pursuits)

word, adj. (game)

unlikely, adj. (answers)

such, adj. (answers)

8. Other, adj. (players)

which, pron.

your, pron. (or adj. (country))

9. Crossword, adj. (puzzles)

millions, n.

vocabulary, adj. (exercise)

10. type, n.

one's, pron. (or possessive adj.—imagination)

p. 13 EXERCISE 3

1. is, l.v.

1. began, v.i.

1. is continuing, v.i.

2. have, v.t.

2. are, v.i.

3. are, l.v.

4. contains, v.t.

4. can buy, v.t.

5. may develop,

5. becomes, l.v.

6. are, l.v.

6. design, v.t.

7. are, l.v.

7. can move, v.i

8. interests, v.t.

8. enjoy, v.t.

8. cater, v.i.

8. do vary, v.i.

9. is, l.v.

9. provide, v.t.

p. 15 EXERCISE 4

1. interestingly, spoke, how1. here, spoke, where

1. today, spoke, when2. really, was, extent

3. often, have been made, when3. accidentally, have been made, how3. always, try, when4. unexpectedly, affected, how5. there, to inspect, where

6. unusually, clear, how or extent

6. everywhere, prevail, where

7. almost, short, how or extent

7. uniquely, high, extent or how

8. here, were working, where

8. abroad, were working, where

8. quickly, realized, when or how8. never, recorded, when8. before, recorded, when8. soon, alter, when9. popularly, call, how

10. now, are to be, when10. long, associated, extent

10. once, was, when10. very, hot, extent or how10. ever, suspected, when or extent

p. 16 EXERCISE 5

1. new, adj.—car

2. long, adj.—car

3. they, pron.

4. all, pron.

5. it, pron.

6. Someone, pron.

7. once, adv.—suggested

8. buy, v.

9. smaller, adj.—car

10. had set, v.

11. hearts, n.

12. this, adj.—model13. model, n.

14. very, adv.—impressive

ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 177

15. plenty, n.

16. This, pron.

17. you, pron.

18. always, adv.—see

19. overhead, adj.—door

or garage door

20. garage, adj.—door

21. only, adv.—halfway

22. white, adj.—sedan

23. protrudes, v.

p. 20 EXERCISE 7

1. ring, n. 4. right, adv.

ring, v. right, adj.

2. daily, adj. right, n.

daily, adv. 5. That, pron

3. book, n. that, adj.

book, adj.

p. 21 REVIEW EXERCISE

1. Our, pron. 13.

(or possessive adj.) 14.

2. into, prep. 15.

3. that, adj. 16.

4. across, prep. 17.

5. today, adv. 18.

6. enjoyed, v. 19.

7. whenever, conj. 20.

8. enormous, adj. 21.

9. about, prep. 22.

10. closely, adv. 23.

11. their, pron. 24.

(or possessive adj.) 25.

12. and, conj. 26.

24. time, n.

25. there, adv.—is

26. Yesterday, adv.—arrived

27. arrived, v.

28. situation, n.

29. front, n.

30. three, adj.—feet

31. eventually, adv.—get

32. sadly, adv.—may reflect

33. high, adj.—cost

Moving, n.

like, prep,

all, pron.

like, v.

around, adv.

it, pron.

Other, adj.

Soon, adv.

four, adj.

others, pron.

they, pron.

offered, v.

wagon, n.

this, pron.

27. not only, conj.

28. because, conj.

29. but also, conj.

30. them, pron.

31. distraught, adj.

32. of, prep.

33. cautioned, v.

34. freshly, adv.

35. painted, adj.

36. vainly, adv.

37. barely, adv.

38. dozen, adj.

39. At, prep.

40. Hey, interj.

Chapter 2 The Parts of a Sentence


1. Some will attend

2. experience taught me (i.o.) lesson (d.o.)

3. creature came4. Jane, I were late (p. a.)

5. water seemed cold (p. a.)

6. people were children (p.n.)

7. mail carrier left letter (d.o.)

8. He gave me (i.o.) one (d.o.)

9. Lee Trevino is golfer (p.n.)

10. Mechanics had assembled, (had) checked parts (d.o.)

178 ANSWER KEY

p. 27 EXERCISE 1

1. weight, is

2. you, should drop, (should) add

3. ability, depends

4. John Quincy Adams, proposed

5. countries, employ

6. Adoption, must be legislated

7. National Bureau of Standards, must insure

8. changeover, will take

9. changes (and) adjustments, will cost

10. cost, will be

11. unit, is

12. Weight, will be calculated

13. (you), lift

14. shopper, buys

15. Prefixes, indicate

16. kilogram, equals

17. We, would substitute

18. zero, represents

19. changes, will be

20. you, could be offered, take

p. 31 EXERCISE 2

1. patients, d.o.

2. us, i.o.; stories, d.o.

3. difficulty, d.o.

4.

5. patient, i.o.; news, d.o.

6. operation, d.o.

7. doctor, i.o.; stories, d.o.

8. some, d.o.; all, d.o.

9. patient, i.o.; benefit, d.o.; her, i.o.; operation, d.o.

10. leg, d.o.

p. 33 EXERCISE 3

1. cellist—p.n. 2. effective—p.

a


3. dark, ominous—p. a.

4. blow—p.n.

5. nervous—p. a.

6. captain—p.n.

7. worker—p.n.

8. unfair—p. a.

9. Tall, handsome—p. a.

10. Helen—p.n.; happy—p. a.

11. uncertain—p. a.; wrecks

(or nervous wrecks)—p.n.


1. O. Henry is pseudonym (p.n.)

2. O. Henry is famous (p. a.)

3. he knew aspects (d.o.)

4. he gave us (i.o.) picture (d.o.)

5. New York World paid O. Henry (i.o.)

12. absent—p. a.; orderly—p. a.

13. sure—p. a.; he, Mrs. Graham—p.n.

14. ready—p. a.; late—p. a.

15. better—p. a.; better—p. a.

16. honest—p. a.

17. fishy—p. a.; salty—p. a.

18. tall—p. a.; short, stocky—p. a.

19. president—p.n.; dictatorial—p. a.

20. pilot—p.n.

dollars or one hundred dollars

(d.o.)

6. Many were people (p.n.)

7. population was four million (p.n.)

describes troubles, hardships, joys (d.o.)

give reader (i.o.) understanding (d.o.)

sentimental, full (p. a.)

'The Gift of the Magi" (p.n.)

sells watch (d.o.); wife sells hair (d.o.)

her (i.o.) set (d.o.); she buys him (i.o.)

8. O. Henry

9. descriptions

10. story is

11. story is

12. husband

13. he buys

14. stories

15. they

fob (d.o.)

have ending or surprise ending (d.o.)

are interesting (p. a.); they re-create New York (d.o.)

Chapter 3 The Phrase


A. 1. in the same math class (adv.); from mine (adv.)

2. in town (adj.)

3. with your guidance counselor (adv.); about several colleges (adj.); for you

(adv.)

4. to several colleges (adv.); in the Middle West (adj.)

5. of the Security Council (adj.)

6. during the last quarter (adv.)

B. 2. walking downtown (gerund); driving the car (gerund)

4. Accepting my counselor's suggestions (participial)

5. facing a difficult situation (participial)

6. To raise your grades during the last quarter (infinitive); to maintain them all

year (infinitive)

p. 38 EXERCISE 1

1. of the Southwest, deserts 1. for business and recreation, areas

180 ANSWER KEY

2. beneath the rims, Caves 4. below the abandoned ruins, flatlands

2. of the desert canyons, rims 4. of canals, system

2. of small bands, homes 5. to the desert, visit

2. of Pueblos, bands 5. from states, tourists

3. from enemies, protection 5. without deserts, states

3. in cliff dwellings, life

p. 40 EXERCISE 2

1. After the concert, praised; for her performance, praised

2. at her home, hours; in the den, practicing

3. at her best, playing; in the concert hall; pressures

4. at home, played; with complete abandon, played; about her coming perfor-

mance, modest

5. beyond the necessary hours, far; with a merely mechanical rendition, content

6. for only a short time, practiced; after practicing, went; to the corner, went; for a

pizza, went

7. with the right notes, succeeded; with him, satisfied

8. After their first rehearsal together, was; to his self-respect, shattering

9. among the boys, best; in terror, practiced; for the remaining three days, prac-

ticed; without stopping, practiced

10. with us, spoke; after the recital, spoke; about Gail's playing, raved; over his

own mistakes, groaned

pp. 43-44 EXERCISE 4

1. replying to a questionnaire about their college courses, graduates

1. giving them the most trouble, course

2. Facing college standards, graduates

2. assigned in high school, themes

3. reported by the National Education Association, statistics

3. emphasizing composition, classes

4. Handicapped by their writing deficiencies, graduates

4. seeking employment or advancement in their occupations, graduates

5. Recognizing the importance of practice, teachers

5. imitating the athletic coach, teachers

p. 44 EXERCISE 5

1. Being an Army officer, father, participial

2. to different posts, was transferred, adverb3. of many kinds, schools, adjective

4. By 1980, will be, adverb

5. attending college, students, participial

6. in community or junior colleges, will be, adverb7. struggling for success, persons, participial

8. with either wealth or prestige, equate, adverb9. published annually in this country, books, participial

10. of fiction, books, adjective

11. of today, public, adjective

12. interested primarily in biography and current affairs, public, participial

13. in the past, bought, adverb


14. Persuaded by her daughter, Mrs. Sears, participial

15. showing perhaps more bravery, Mrs. Sears, participial

16. to a party, invited, adverb

17. for her daughter, gave, adverb

18. Left in charge of the class, student, participial

19. receiving good cooperation from his classmates, student, participial

20. taken by the pilgrims, trip, participial

21. made customarily in the spring, pilgrimage, participial

22. Lacking sufficient time, we, participial

23. of the school paper, issue (or election issue), adjective

24. making vague campaign promises, candidates, participial

25. promising the impossible, those, participial

p. 49 REVIEW EXERCISE A

1. participial 11. prepositional--adverb

2. prepositional—adverb 12. prepositional--adverb

3. prepositional—adjective 13. infinitive

4. gerund 14. gerund

5. gerund 15. prepositional--adverb

6. participial 16. participial

7. infinitive 17. prepositional--adjective

8. gerund 18. infinitive

9. prepositional—adverb 19. prepositional--adjective

10. participial 20. gerund

p. 50 REVIEW EXERCISE B

1. prepositional—adverb 14. participial

2. prepositional—adjective 15. prepositional-—adjective

3. infinitive 16. appositive

4. infinitive 17 infinitive

5. gerund 18. infinitive

6. prepositional—adjective 19. prepositional-—adverb

7. prepositional—adverb 20. participial

8. appositive 21. prepositional--adjective

9. prepositional—adverb 22. gerund

10. participial 23. prepositional--adjective

11. prepositional—adjective 24. infinitive

12. prepositional—adverb 25. prepositional--adverb

13. participial

Chapter 4 The Clause


1. who seem to like you, adjective

2. who raises one's self-esteem, adjective

3. When negotiations began, adverb

4. What actually happened to the ill-fated e:xpedition, noun

182 ANSWER KEY

5. until she had studied the ambassador's report, adverb

6. Since economic necessity is the thing, adverb

that makes people work hard, adjective

who offers to work for nothing, adjective

7. If students are on the honor roll, adverb

whatever they wish, noun

p. 54 EXERCISE 1

1. S 3. S 5. I 7. S 9. I

2. S 4. I 6. S 8. I 10. I

p. 58 EXERCISE 2

1. which puzzle scientists, stars (subj.)

2. when their existence was only a theory, time (mod.)

3. who have become convinced of the real existence of black holes, scientists

(subj.)

4. which behaves very mysteriously, star (subj.)

5. which is astonishingly small, size (subj.)

6. that is astonishingly great, density (subj.)

7. which are quite peculiar, powers (subj.)

8. which spaceships can pass by easily, stars (obj.); near which special maneuver-

ing might be required, others (obj. prep.)

9. who entered its field, anyone (subj.); which is nearly inescapable, field (subj.)

10. that could hardly be enjoyable, accident (subj.); that would probably be un-

forgettable, accident (subj.)

11. who attempt to explain various unsolved mysteries by the fact, scientists (subj.)

12. which seem to have suddenly vanished from sight, meteors (subj.)

13. which is smaller and denser than anything known, hole (or black hole) (subj.)

14. who became attracted in this way to a black hole, scientist (subj.); who could

not be examined afterward, scientist (subj.)

15. which remains unanswered, riddle (subj.); that may never fully be solved, mys-

tery (subj.)

p. 61 EXERCISE 3

1. which go on in a clock, adj. (processes)

2. who knows clocks, adj. (someone)

2. what makes them tick, n. (dir. obj. of the verbal)3. Whatever a clockmaker says, n. (subj.)

4. that is really a clock, adj. (timepiece)

4. what someone wrongly called a clock, n. (subj.)

5. Whatever can properly be called a clock, n. (subj.)

6. What does not strike the hours on a bell, n. (subj.)

7. (which) we use, adj. (words)

7. what determines their correct meaning, n. (pred. nom.)8. Whoever knows the history of the word clock, n. (subj. of the verb will know)8. how its meaning has changed, n. (dir. obj. of the verb will know)9. what the French and the Germans say, n. (pred. nom.)


10. who wants to (call), adj. (anyone)

10. whichever ones ring out the time, n. (subj.)

p. 64 EXERCISE 4

1. as the matter ended, when or why or under what conditions

2. When the courts had discovered the truth of the matter, when

3. Whenever government becomes arbitrary, when or under what conditions

3. as though they themselves were the victims, how

4. Since the people are less individually powerful, why

4. than they really are, to what extent

5. Because the people have elected the government, why

6. If the people are wise, under what conditions or why

7. So that social well-being can be maintained, why

8. As long as they fail to do this, when or under what conditions

9. If responsibility is avoided by either government or people, why or under what

conditions

9. because peaceful cooperation is impossible, why

9. when common goals are not being sought, when or under what conditions

10. Because the government and the electorate were equally dissatisfied, why or

under what conditions

10. until the situation had become unbearable for both, when or under what condi-

tions


1. When you drive a car, adverb

1. which pays for any damage or injury, adjective

1. that you may inflict on others, adjective

2. than it is in others, adverb

3. How much insurance costs, noun

3. how congested traffic is in the area, noun

4. who is under twenty-five, adjective

4. because statistics show, adverb

4. that he is the worst risk, noun

5. who have a record of accidents, adjective

5. since they have cost their insurance companies a great deal of money, adverb

6. that happen because of unforeseeable events, adjective

6. that are made to happen, adjective

7. When a tire blows out, adverb

7. while you are driving in heavy traffic, adverb

8. If a driver passes another car on a turn, adverb

8. that was made to happen, adjective

9. What is most alarming about our accidents, noun

9. that four fifths of them are made to happen, noun

10. because so many drivers make accidents happen, adverb

184 ANSWER KEY

p. 68 EXERCISE 5

1. simple

2. complex

3. complex

4. compound-complex

5. simple (or compound)

6. complex

7. complex

8. simple

9. simple

10. compound-complex

declarative

declarative

interrogative

declarative

imperative

interrogative

declarative

exclamatory

declarative

declarative

Chapter 5 Levels of Usage

p. 79 EXERCISE 1

1. informal

2. nonstandard

3. formal

4. nonstandard

5. informal

Chapter 6 Agreement

p. 87 EXERCISE 1

1. cause has 6. power differs

2. heartbeat causes 7. centralization is

3. H. Allen and others have shown 8. energies are

4. power belongs 9. number declines

5. strips are 10. sequence is

p. 89 EXERCISE 2

1. Each has 5. Ford was 8. loss was2. One was 6. one is 9. Everybody pays

3. All are 7. few were 10. amateur hasn't

4. Some are

p. 90 EXERCISE 3

1. Two members of this group sing better than any of the others.

2. A porpoise , like whales and sharks, swims near the surface.

3. One carload of apples was shipped from New York State to Chicago.

4. Several of our group were unfairly treated .

5. AH but three of the offices have been equipped with electric typewriters.

6. All of the other witnesses agree with my account of the accident.


7. All of the tickets have been used up.

8. Her struggle to overcome illness and financial reverses was finally successful.

9. The sky, as well as the wind and the water, looks promising.

10. Morgan, like the rest of our regular pinch hitters, usually strikes out.

p. 90 EXERCISE 4

1. is 5. + 9. have 13. + 17. +2. was 6. is 10. + 14. has 18. +3. was 7. + 11. ruins 15. + 19. +4. + 8. + 12. + 16. is 20. was

p. 93 EXERCISE 5

1. + 14. is

2. + 15. +3. has 16. rank

4. + 17. +5. have nourished 18. bring (about)

6. is 19. gives

7. vary 20. +

8. has 21. explain

9. + 22. is used10. occurs 23. is used11. + 24. makes12. show 25. +13. are

p. 98 EXERCISE 6

1. was 6. were 11. have 16. looks 21. are

2. was 7. is 12. have 17. was 22. have

3. has 8. seem 13. doesn't 18. are 23. was4. are 9. revolves 14. appeal 19. There are 24. are

5. doesn't 10. is 15. don't 20. is* 25. is

**

* In sentence 20, is is correct if the sentence is taken to mean ' 'two weeks is enough

time for the trip," but are would be correct if the sentence is taken to mean "two weeks are

enough weeks for the trip."

** Measles is sometimes used with a plural verb in informal speech, but informal writing

this word is ordinarily regarded as singular.


1. (is) 7. +2. + 8. (he asks)

3. (is) 9. (he, prefers)

4. (was, its) 10. (seems)

5. (was) 11. +6. + 12. +

186 ANSWER KEY

13. (it is) 20. (Are)

14. + 21. +15. (himself, he wishes) 22. +

16. (write) 23. (his)

17. + 24. (was)

18. (is) 25. (he)

19. (has)


1. Many a student fails to work up to his ability.

2. Where are Mary and Helen?

3. Neither of the rivers has reached the flood stage.

4. We expected her to be one of the girls who were nominated.

5. Neither the junior high nor the senior high has its full complement of teachers.

6. A person needs goals if he is to be successful.

7. A catalogue, together with an order form and a covering letter, is supposed to

be in the morning mail.

8. Either the teacher or the students are wrong about the answer.

9. All of the poems in this book are difficult to understand.

10. Two weeks is not much time for a trip like that.


p. 107 EXERCISE 1

1. he

2. she

3. We4. they

5. she

6. he

7. we8. she

9. she

10. I or we11. they

12. he or she

13. they

14. she

15. he

p. 109 EXERCISE 2

1. him or her

2. him

3. us

4. me or us

5. him6. her or him

7. us

8. him9. me or us

10. us

p. 109 EXERCISE 3

1. her

2. she

3. they

4. we

5. him

6. her

7. he

8. she

9. us

10. me11. me12. me

13. her

14. he

15. him

16. her

17. her

18. they

19. I

20. she

p. 111 EXERCISES

1. against him

2. toward me3. with them

4. to her

5. after me6. on us

7. beside him

8. between them9. for her

10. about us


p. 111 EXERCISE 6

1. him, c

2. them, d

3. I, a

4. she, b

5. him, c

6. they, b

7. He, a; I, a

8. her, d

9. us, d

10. She, a; I, a

p. 116 EXERCISE 7

1. whom 5. who2. who 6. who3. whomever 7. whom4. whom 8. whom

11. he, b

12. we, a

13. her, d

14. her, c

15. her, d

9. whom10. whom11. whom12. who

16. us, d

17. I, a

18. he, b

19. them, c

20. her, c

13. who14. who15. whom16. who

21. I, a

22. me, d

23. they, a

24. they, b

25. him, d

17. who18. whom19. who20. whom

p. 117 EXERCISE 8

(Answers may vary slightly.)

1. as they did

2. as she does (or as I know her)

3. than I am4. than they did

5. than he was

6. than I am

7. as he could

8. than I do (or than you trust me)9. as we are

10. than I can understand her (or than

she does)

). 119 EXERCISE 9

1. + 3. + 5. she 7. + 9. he

2. I 4. Bob's 6. his 8. + 10. +


1. I 10. who 19. He, I 28. she

2. her 11. she 20. me 29. his

3. they 12. whom 21. we 30. I

4. her 13. him 22. him 31. their

5. whom 14. I 23. whom 32. I

6. who 15. who 24. he 33. their

7. me 16. she 25. us

8. whom 17. he 26. her

9. I 18. me 27. his

3. 121 REVIEW EXERCISE B

1. she 5. he 9. I 13. + 17. whom2. + 6. + 10. + 14. + 18. your

3. + 7. he 11. I 15. her 19. him

4. me 8. his 12. + 16. Who 20. +

p. 127 EXERCISE 1

1. begun 2. blown 3. came 4. chosen 5. beat

188 ANSWER KEY

6. did 9. did 12. chose 15. chosen 18. did

7. broken 10. begun 13. burst 16. broken 19. began

8. burst 11. blown 14. came 17. came 20. come

p. 128 EXERCISE 2

1. drunk 5. gave 9. gone 13. drawn 17. gave

2. fallen 6. flown 10. gave 14. drank 18. driven

3. frozen 7. driven 11. frozen 15. driven 19. gone

4. gone 8. drew 12. flown 16. fallen 20. given

p. 129 EXERCISE 3

1. + 12. had burst 23. +2. began 13. gave 24. gave

3. drank 14. blew 25. came4. have broken 15. + 26. +5. has driven 16. was frozen 27. must be broken

6. + 17. was drawn 28. began

7. had fallen 18. + 29. +8. did 19. had chosen 30. +9. + 20. could have flown 31. did

10. came 21. + 32. +11. + 22. should have gone 33. came

p. 130 EXERCISE 4

1. rung 5. saw 9. saw 13. spoken 17. spoken

2. ran 6. ridden 10. knew 14. sung 18. saw

3. sung 7. known 11. ridden 15. ran 19. rung

4. spoken 8. grown 12. grown 16. rung 20. ran

p. 131 EXERCISE 5

1. sprung 5. threw 9. threw 13. sprung 17. written

2. swum 6. taken 10. written 14. taken 18. swam3. torn 7. swung 11. torn 15. swung 19. threw

4. written 8. stoleri 12. swam 16. stolen 20. written

p. 132 EXERCISE 6

1. have grown 12. threw 23. +2. had rung 13. + 24. +3. has run 14. + 25. +4. + 15. + 26. ran

5. has spoken 16. + 27. had rung6. + 17. + 28. +7. had torn 18. saw 29. should have known8. have writteri 19. + 30. +9. + 20. would have known 31. had torn

10. had ridden 21. Have written 32. could have taken11. saw 22. had torn 33. +


p. 133 EXERCISE 7

1. burst 11. driven 21. grown 31. threw 41. began

2. frozen 12. ridden 22. spoken 32. gone 42. swam3. broken 13. drank 23. gone 33. sawr 43. fallen

4. flown 14. ran 24. saw 34. frozen 44. beat

5. blown 15. did 25. gave 35. ran 45. saw

6. fallen 16. swam 26. taken 36. came 46. thrown

7. began 17. came 27. torn 37. written 47. ran

8. known 18. stolen 28. threw 38. drank 48. spoken

9. beat 19. chosen 29. torn 39. known 49. came10. rung 20. sung 30. written 40. broken 50. written

p. 137 EXERCISE 8

1. lying 3. laid 5. lying 7. laid 9. laid

2. laid 4. lay 6. lain 8. lay 10. lying

p. 138 EXERCISE 9

1. lay (or lies) 5. laid 8. lain

2. Lie 6. lying 9. lying

3. lay 7. laid 10. laid (or lays)

4. lying

p. 138 EXERCISE 10

1. lay 5. lain 9. lie 13. laid 17 . laid

2. lie 6. lying 10. laid 14. lies 18 . lain

3. lying 7. lies 11. 1lies 15. laid 19 . lies

4. laid 8. laid 12. 1lie 16. lying 20 . laid

p. 139 EXERCISE 11

1. sitting 3. sitting 5. sat 7 . sitting 9. set

2. sat 4. set 6. sit 8 . sit 10. sat

p. 140 EXERCISE 12

1. rising 3. rose 5. rises 7 . rise 9. rising

2. raise 4. rising 6. rise 8t. raised 10. rising

p. 141 EXERCISE 14

1. lay 6. lying 11. lying 16. rising 21. rises

2. sit 7. rose 12. rising 17. lying 22. laid

3. rises 8. laid 13. sit 18. sitting 23. rise

4. lying 9. sitting 14. Lie 19. sit 24. sitting

5. sat 10. laid 15. lay 20. lie 25. lie;5

p. 147 EXERCISE 15

(The differences in meaning will be obvious. In the following answers, only the

names of the tenses are given.)

190 ANSWER KEY

1. past

present perfect

2. present perfect

past

3. present perfect (progressive)

past

4. present perfect

past perfect

5. past, past perfect

past, present perfect

6. present, future perfect, present

present, future, present

7. past (progressive)

past perfect (progressive)

8. future perfect (progressive)

future (progressive)

9. future perfect

future

10. past perfect

present perfect

p. 149 EXERCISE 16

1. had made

2. is

3. will have been practicing

4. had been proved

5. had been

6. had vanished

7. had lived

8. had gone

9. had been

10. had met

11. had lost

12. will have withdrawn

13. had asked

14. had imagined

p. 152 EXERCISE 17

1. Having listened

2. should have liked to see (or should

like to have seen)

3. had cut

4. is (has been is also acceptable)

15. had had

16. had taken

17. will have been working

18. had won19. had stayed

20. had been

21. are (Note: Even informal writing,

however, were might not be consi

dered wrong.)

22. will have been

23. had applied

24. will have been married

25. had been prepared

6. shall have been practicing

7. had finished

8. wished to be

9. had known10. had finished

5. to become

p. 152 EXERCISE 18

had hoped to be 6.

Having received 7.

to learn, is (Note: Even informal 8.

writing, however, was might be

used in the last clause.) 9.

had won 10. had bought

Having become

hoped to see (or had hoped to see)

will have been working

should have liked to meet (or

should like to have met)

hadn't eaten

p. 156 EXERCISE 19


1. After we had washed the car, the garage attendant waxed and polished it.


2. Lieutenant Douglas held us spellbound as he related a number of his harrowing

experiences in the Air Force.

3. Urged on by the entire student body, the Student Council has presented a for-

mal protest against the location of the new school building.

4. Every student must understand and follow the rules of the school. (Note: The

sentence can also be considered correct as it stands.)

5. Since the girls had prepared the dinner, the boys washed the dishes.

6. The Chinese had invented gunpowder long before Europeans knew of its use.

{Note: The sentence can also be considered correct as it stands.)

7. She wore her new, high-heeled shoes to the dance.

8. In the game on Saturday, the team completely forgot the new surprise play

which they had learned {or which had been taught to them) on Thursday.

9. Everybody knew and liked Janet Chen. (Note: The sentence can also be

considered correct as it stands.)

10. Because Mr. Brown could not provide proof of his accusations, the FBI had to

drop the case against the accused man (or the case against the accused man had

to be dropped by the FBI).


1. were

2. laid

3. +4. to go

5. +6. had been opened

7. had told

8. lying

9. +

10. were

11. swam12. +13. ran (or had run)

14. +15. came16. had taken

17. +

18. +19. saw

20. had entered

21. +22. is (or +)23. had listened

24. had made25. gave


1. + 10. had lived 18. to rise

2. had laid 11. + 19. swam3. were sitting 12. had left 20. +4. had broken 13. came 21. +

5. were 14. had lain 22. ran

6. + 15. to fly 23. had broken

7. began 16. had had 24. had made

8. had called 17. + 25. lying

9. will have been married


p. 163 EXERCISE 1

1. smoothly

2. miserable

3. carefully

4. suspicious

192 ANSWER KEY

5. coldly

6. bitter

7. sad

8. angry

9. regularly

10. quietly

11. fragrant

12. abruptly, disappointingly

13. suddenly

14. brave (or bravely, // act is under-

stood to mean "take action")

15. poor

16. firmly

17. carefully

18. quickly

19. easily

20. rapidly

p. 165 EXERCISE 2

1. well—held 14. beautifully—blended

2. + 15. well—could hear

3. speedily—do 16. +

4. + 17. +

5. slowly—Work 18. unfairly—had been treated

6. + 19. +7. easily—can do 20. separately—wrote

8. + 21. bad—things

9. well—fit 22. rapidly—speaks

10. bitter—family 23. sharply—speaks

11. carefully—Drive 24. +

12. + 25. badly—had been behaving

13. badly—had been hurt

p. 168 EXERCISE 3

(Many adjectives that are ordinarily compared with -er and -est will, under certain

circumstances, be compared instead with more and most. This happens frequently

in parallel constructions. For instance, a good writer might choose to say "that

summary is the most clear, accurate, and illuminating one I have ever heard"—rather than "the clearest, most accurate, and most illuminating one." The follow-

ing answers, however, give only the more usual forms; alternate answers are pro-

vided only for words where both forms occur with approximately equal frequency.)

1. taller, tallest

2. more beautiful, most beautiful

3. fewer, fewest

4. shorter, shortest

5. more graceful, most graceful

6. more satisfactory, most satisfactory

7. worse, worst (or iller, illest)

8. little, littlest; or less (lesser), least

9. more industrious, most industrious

10. more bravely, most bravely

11. worse, worst

12. more casually, most casually

13. more reckless, most reckless

14. clearer, clearest

15. better, best

16. humbler, humblest; or more hum-ble, most humble

17. dearer, dearest

18. stealthier, stealthiest; or more

stealthy, most stealthy

19. more diligently, most diligently

20. smaller, smallest


p. 169 EXERCISE 4

1. Speak to her gently.

2. I played as well as she did.

3. Bill works harder than any other boy in his group.

4. +5. +6. Since there were two recommended procedures, the committee had to decide

which one would be better.

7. To our palates the highly seasoned food tasted strange.

8. +9. +

10. His greeting was friendlier (or more friendly) than hers.

11. When the tide is in, the water is many feet deeper.

12. +13. Gone with the Wind sold better than any other American novel.

14. +15. Eat moderately, and you will lose weight.

16. The tiger rushed menacingly toward me.

17. I found Mrs. Trumbull the more cooperative of the two women.

18. Has she been working regularly?

19. +20. Three jobs faced us, and we did the easiest one first.

21. Pine Lake has the clearest water.

22. I didn't believe she could act so stubbornly as that.

23. She makes up her mind too slowly.

24. Jean is a lot more truthful than her brother.

25. When she ran out of money, she felt too proud to borrow.


p. 174 EXERCISE 1

1. adapt

2. effect

3. allusions

4. alumnae

5. number6. everywhere

7. except

8. illusion

9. adopted

10. alumni (or alumnae,

for an all-girl school)

11. as far as

12. affect

13. except

14. accept

15. alumnae

16. affected

17. number18. allusions

19. accept

20. effect

p. 179 EXERCISE 2

1. credulous

2. Besides

3. Bring

4. take

5. emigrate

6. fewer

7. among

8. Because

9. fewer

10. invented

11. Among12. take

13. besides

14. fewer

15. did

16. doesn't

17. credible

18. have

19. immigration

20. take

21. famous

22. invented

23. Since

24. famous

25. creditable

194 ANSWER KEY

p. 180 EXERCISE 3

1. fewer

2. Since (or Because)

3. +4. +5. was that

6. +7. police officer, who8. alumnae

9. among10. as fast as

11. +12. everywhere

13. where she was

14. +15. illusions

16. could have done

17. +18. bring

19. fewer

20. accepted

21. +22. number23. +

24. accept

25. +26. children, etc.

27. +

28. +

29. number30. inventing

31. famous (or notable

well-known, etc.)

32. +33. Since (or Because)

p. 185 EXERCISE 4

1. + 5. 9. + 13. 17.

2. 6. 10. 14. 18. +3. + 7. + 11. + 15. 19.

4. 8. 12. 16. + 20.

). 191 EXERCISE 5

1. respectfully 6. said 11. could 16. had

2. can 7. have 12. has 17. whom3. somewhat 8. nor 13. have 18. any

4. way 9. way 14. respectively 19. nauseated

5. persecuted 10. These 15. nor 20. had


1. (take) 18. (as fast as)

2. (number) 19. (as though, or as if)

3. (selfishness, which) 20. +4. + 21. (is the division of a thing

5. (fewer) into two parts)

6. (can hardly read, or can't read) 22. +7. + 23. (is nothing, or isn't anything)

8. (would have had) 24. (implied)

9. + 25. (Since, or Because)

10. + 26. +11. + 27. (discovered)

12. (accept) 28. (fewer)

13. (lyric, etc.) 29. + .

14. + 30. (whom)15. (Let) 31. +

16. (Besides) 32. (from)

17. + 33. (immigration)


Chapter 11 Sentence Completeness

p. 200 EXERCISE 1

(Methods of correcting the fragments may vary.)

1. Elizabeth Blackwell was born in 1821 and died in 1910.

2. When, in 1832, her parents could no longer tolerate the social and polit-

ical situation in Bristol, England, where Mr. Blackwell was a leading memberof the business community, they immigrated with their eight children to NewYork.

3. After six years of adventures—some profitable, some unhappy—in the East, the

family decided to move to Cincinnati, where they hoped to prosper.

4. For a while things looked bright for the family, despite the growing realization

that some of them missed England.

5. C6. Feeling depressed by the economic plight of her family, which now consisted of

her mother, four sisters, and four brothers, Elizabeth established a school for

girls.

7. C8. C9. In spite of herself, the idea of being a doctor plagued Elizabeth, leading her to

inquire into the possibility of a woman studying medicine.

10. When told that it would be impossible for a woman to become a doctor, she

became determined to follow her dying friend's advice, although she was not

certain how she should proceed against the forces of prejudice.

11. Elizabeth Blackwell's conviction to study and practice medicine must be seen as

courageous, since the only respectable career for a woman in the 1840' s was

matrimony.

12. Her insistence on finding a place and a way to study medicine took Elizabeth

Blackwell to North Carolina, where she received private instruction from two

doctors and taught music in boarding schools.

13. After applying to and being rejected from medical schools in Philadelphia, the

seat of medical education in America at that time, Elizabeth applied to schools

around the country.

14. Finally, in 1847, the Medical Institution of Geneva College, now known as

Hobart College, in northern New York State accepted Elizabeth Blackwell.

15. A young woman convinced that she was right and determined to change ideas

about education, she graduated in 1849 at the head of her class.

16. C17. Once she was back in America, Elizabeth Blackwell led a life marked by an

enthusiasm to encourage her sister Emily and a passion to practice medicine,

combined with an interest in helping the poor.

18. C19. Because of Elizabeth's and Emily's breakthroughs in medicine and the social

pioneering of the three other sisters, the Blackwell women are important in

American history, though we may not hear their names very often.

20. Besides the impressive women born into the Blackwell family, two women whomarried into the family, Antoinette Brown and Lucy Stone, also fought for

women's rights and battled against social injustices.

196 ANSWER KEY

p. 203 EXERCISE 2

(Answers will vary.)

1. problems; so far we have

2. place. A man was not . .

3. America. This . . .

4. life: you do not . . .

5. talent. Now he spends .

6. life—at least . . .

7. generation; the airplane and

8. behavior. Instead of just . .

9. office. Students can . . .

school. Names should not .

10. yourself. If you can't . . .

p. 204 EXERCISE 3


1. Paula. She

took, and she

2. success, although

3. once whendesperate. I

4. me so that

them. Anyway,

5. school, because

lessons. Sports

6. girders, huge

place almost

7. license. Some8. Stacey—where

doing. Wild

9. threatened, very

10. Kipling. His

me because

11. customers, especially

merchandise. Whensight. They

12. foolishly. Theymoney until

13. century during

period, when14. play; the

15. building; conse-

quently

vote when

Chapter 12 Coordination and Subordination


(Answers will vary somewhat.)

1. contrast , but 11. contrast , but

2. result ; therefore 12. result ; therefore

3. addition , and 13. addition , and

4. choice , or 14. contrast , but

5. contrast ; nevertheless 15. result ; therefore

6. choice , or 16. addition , and

7. contrast, yet 17. addition , and

8. result ; consequently 18. addition , and

9. result ; hence 19. contrast ; nevertheless

10. result ; therefore 20. contrast ; still


p. 212 EXERCISE 2


1. When, time 11. until, time

2. if, condition 12. so that, purpose or result

3. Although, condition 13. Although, condition

4. provided, condition 14. for, cause or reason

5. though, condition 15. until, time

6. since, cause or reason 16. after, time

7. Although, condition 17. Though, condition

8. when, time 18. since, cause or reason

9. While, condition 19. While, condition

10. When, time 20. Although, condition

p. 213 EXERCISE 3


1. If it is true that you learn to do by doing, then it is obvious that you learn to

write by writing.

2. You should not make up your mind until you have studied all the evidence.

3. Although money is undoubtedly important, it has never made anyone happy.

4. All students should learn standard English so that they will never be . . .

5. Whenever this critic recommends a new book, the book becomes a best seller.

6. She will invest her money with you, if you can prove that the investment is safe.

7. Although we raised our prices, our business increased.

8. She wanted to graduate in January so that she could join the Navy.9. If you train rigorously, you will be able to do well in cross-country.

10. Although she was ill, she insisted on going ahead with the show.

11. Since the committee members could not agree, the whole matter was . . .

12. The president took the responsibility because she wanted to settle . . .

13. She decided to carry the issue before the entire club so that everyone . . .

14. Although there was a great deal of talk, nothing was decided.

15. Unless a decision is reached today, the donors will not give us the money.

16. The City Council offered to give us money for a clubhouse if we would let the

public use it.

17. Since we had never admitted the public to our meetings, we didn't want to

admit them to our clubhouse.

18. So that we would not lose the chance for a new clubhouse, some of us favored

admitting the public.

19. Although I agreed with those in favor of admitting the public, I sympathized

with the others.

20. Because no agreement was reached, the money went to another club.

p. 215 EXERCISE 4

1. Z, which is the last letter of the English alphabet, is a voiced alveolar fricative.

2. Dictionary listings, which proceed alphabetically, end with words beginning

with z.

198 ANSWER KEY

3. Zeal, one of the more familiar words found there, is a word that comes from an

ancient Greek word meaning "to boil."

4. Zero, which is also a verb, can mean a symbol, a mark on a scale, a tempera-

ture, a gunsight setting, a location in space, or nothing at all.

5. Applying zinc to something, which is called "zincifying," sounds rather com-

plicated.

6. Zinjanthropus, nicknamed "Nutcracker Man," is having a complicated time

just being a two-million-year-old fossilized forerunner of modern human beings.

7. The word zodiac, which is much younger than Zinjanthropus, comes from an

old adjective meaning "having to do with animals."

8. Human beings, who are quite zoophagous in that they eat other animals, are

(nevertheless) not regarded as edible themselves.

9. Animal lovers, who can be called "zoophiles," may not welcome the name.

10. Zymurgy, which results in good wine and ends at least one dictionary, means"the chemistry of fermentation."

p. 217 EXERCISE 5

{Answers will vary.)

1. These experiences will be valuable to me in social work, because I shall have to

work with people from all walks of life.

2. The region, which is covered with forest and dotted with small lakes, will be

developed as a resort area.

3. Baker Brothers, which manufactures pharmaceuticals, will build a new factory

on the west side of town.

4. Since there are only two senators from each state, the Senate is smaller than

the House of Representatives.

5. Columbia University, which was originally King's College, is situated in NewYork City.

6. Although the constant roar of machinery nearly deafened us, we enjoyed our

trip through the factory.

7. The heavy fog, which did not lift until noon, made flying hazardous.

8. The school needs another driver-training car so that more students can learn

how to drive.

9. After a Future Teachers of America Club was formed at our school, the number

of students planning to be teachers nearly doubled.

10. The junior college, which occupies the same building as the high school, has an

enrollment of 300 students.

p. 218 EXERCISE 6

{Answers will vary.)

1. Although they know cigarette smoking is a cause of cancer, millions continue to

smoke.

2. Banneker, who was an inventor as well as a scientist, constructed what was

probably the first clock made in America.

3. September, which has always been a pleasant month, surprised us this year

with storms and cold weather.

4. Since a newspaper costs far more than the public pays for it, it is supported by

the sale of advertising space.


5. The American Constitution, which went into effect in 1789, is one of the great

governmental documents of the world.

6. Our final game, with Parkerville, was rained out.

7. For years Japanese tourists have been inundating Europe during the summermonths.

8. She told me to look in the dictionary on her desk.

9. The only weapon the shipwrecked crew had was a pocketknife with two dull

blades.

10. The truck containing explosives narrowly missed a collision with an oil truck.

11. Mr. Miller, the custodian of our building, came to this country only three

years ago.

12. The new ruler, a woman of great experience in government, should be able to

reconcile the factions in the country.

13. The violin, an instrument with a beautiful tone, belonged to my grandfather.

14. This plane, the fastest passenger plane in the world, will take you to Europe in

record time.

15. Her new book, a volume of poetry, received very favorable reviews.

p. 220 EXERCISE 7


1. The Bay Challenge Cup, which represents the highest achievement in sailing,

was first put up for competition in 1903.

2. The principle that government employees shall not strike, which applies to both

federal and state employees, has recently been challenged.

3. Although high school graduates are better educated today than ever before,

they have a hard time finding jobs.

4. The final chapters of this book, which outline a constructive program dealing

with the problem, are the most important.

5. Because every business has several ambitious competitors, no business can

afford to stand still.

6. The new regulations, which call for the opening of school at 7:30 every morn-

ing, are unpopular with both students and teachers.

7. Mr. Greenberg, who was a high school coach for many years, is now coaching

college teams in Ohio.

8. Representatives from more than fifty countries met in the United Nations

Building in New York City.

9. Although the title of the book was very interesting, the book itself was very

dull.

10. Although their principal crop was potatoes and the potato season was poor, the

farmers managed to avoid going into debt.

11. Although Miss Lang had not directed many plays, she knew how to manage an

inexperienced cast.

12. Helen may go to Wellesley or Barnard next year.

13. Although Carl has taken piano lessons for only three years, he is already a good

pianist.

14. Although Mr. Stark has never paid back the money he borrowed, he wants meto lend him more.

15. Although we waited on the corner for an hour, the bus didn't come.

200 ANSWER KEY

16. The Commercial High School, a large stone building on Market Street, is at-

tended by students from all over the city.

17. Although Stewart Harrison was a famous detective, he could not solve the ar-

senic murder case.

18. Miss Armstrong, who has been selling advertising for many years, has been

made advertising director of the Herald.

19. I am going to the airport to meet a friend who is coming from Chicago.

20. Professor Drake, head of the chemistry department for twenty years, died yes-

terday.

Chapter 13 Clear Reference

p. 223 EXERCISE 1


1. As soon as the students had left the classrooms, the custodians cleaned the

rooms.

2. Fay was arguing with Jane, who looked unhappy. (Or When she was arguing

with Jane, Fay looked unhappy.)

3. One of the passengers told the bus driver, "You (or I) don't know the route

very well.,,

4. We unpacked our dishes from the barrels and then returned the barrels to the

moving company.

5. When the accountant was studying the treasurer's report, the treasurer became

very much alarmed. (Or When she was studying the treasurer' s report, the account-

ant became very much alarmed.)

6. As Pilar came into the office, she noticed that the principal was smiling in anodd way. (Or As the principal came into the office, Pilar noticed that she wassmiling in an odd way.)

7. When Senator Mills was touring the East, he conferred with the Secretary of

State. (Or When the Secretary of State was touring the East, Senator Mills

conferred with him.)

8. Our job was to remove the labels from the old bottles and wash the bottles.

9. The police officer chased the thief for several blocks; then, however, the thief

hid in an abandoned cellar.

10. International goodwill, which is essential to successful international trade, will

help to make a peaceful world.

p. 225 EXERCISE 2


1. The Chinese were bitter when Russia withdrew its technical assistance; they

said the withdrawal would harm the Chinese economy.2. Macbeth was frightened by the fact that his mind was constantly imagining

horrible things.

3. He is a conscientious, hard-working man with an engaging personality, but

these qualities don't make him any richer.

4. Out of curiosity, a number of people gathered around the speaker and her mi-

crophone.


5. The fact that I enjoyed the author's style and the type of characters she wroteabout made me want to read her other books.

6. Rabbi Meyer came to the house daily, and from his visits a sturdy friendship

grew.

7. The undertaking was a success because of the effort which went into planning

the expedition, hiring the right sort of men, and anticipating every emergency.

8. The fact that Chicago stretches along the shore of Lake Michigan makes a

beautiful shore drive possible.

9. School gymnasiums will be open every Saturday during the winter, and school

playgrounds will be supervised during the summer months. Other school

facilities, such as the shops and the little theater, will be available to hobbyists.

Keeping the school open for these purposes will cost money, but the Board of

Education thinks the public will be glad to meet the expense.

10. We thought it wasn't fair that students with season tickets had to pay admission

to the post-season games.

p. 227 EXERCISE 3


1. I love horses and believe that horseback riding is an enjoyable sport.

2. When you are ready to ice the cake, put some icing in the center of the top and

spread it smoothly toward the edges.

3. Friendship is a basic need in everybody's life, for without friends we wouldn't

be happy very long.

4. The jewelry sales clerk tried to make us believe the jewels were genuine.

5. She had written a great deal of poetry during her life, but she had never had any

of her poems published.

6. After watching the fire fighter's daring exploits, all the little children in the

crowd decided that they would be fire fighters.

7. She is a very wealthy woman, but she never spends any of her money.

8. When we finally reached a gas station, the attendant told us he didn't have any

gas.

9. She knows Navajo lore although she has never seen a Navajo.

10. When we boarded the bus for Tulsa, we learned that the trip would take four-

teen hours.

p. 228 EXERCISE 4


1. Western farmers today can produce more because of machines and because of

the many people the farmers employ.

2. Nancy rode home from school with Suzie, but Suzie didn't tell her anything.

(Or Nancy rode home from school with Suzie, but she didn't tell Suzie any-

thing.)

3. We felt frustrated because we had a long assignment, an inadequate library, and

insufficient time.

4. Golf wouldn't cost me so much if I didn't lose so many golf balls in the rough.

5. The radiator was leaking badly; the water ran all over the garage floor.

6. In the cabin he checked the fuel. In those days enough fuel might mean the

difference between life and death.

202 ANSWER KEY

7. She overcame her hip injury, although doctors had said recovery was impossi-

ble.

8. Her spelling and sentence structure are not good, but most of her errors are due

to carelessness.

9. When Ruth was in town last week, she saw Julie. (Or When Julie was in town

last week, Ruth saw her.)

10. Yesterday's editorial says the mayor has failed to live up to his campaign prom-

ises.

11. We talked with the other passengers as though we had had years of flying ex-

perience, but we had never been up in a plane before.

12. If the prospective buyer learns that the heating system in the house is unsatis-

factory, he had better not buy the house.

13. The witness testified that she had seen the accused eating dinner in the dining

car, and this testimony convinced the jury of the accused's presence on the

train.

14. The library does not have enough copies of some of the books in greatest de-

mand by students writing research papers, and this shortage of books makesresearch difficult for many students.

15. People in Washington are skeptical about the success of the new farm program.

Chapter 14 Placement of Modifiers

p. 232 EXERCISE 1


1. For their misbehavior in the cafeteria, the students deserved the severe rep-

rimand they received in the principal's office on Monday.

2. Commander Richardson was decorated for his action, but for years after, he

was haunted by the memory of the men he had had to sacrifice.

3. For skiers, the company is now running a late bus leaving at 6:15.

4. About midnight the big schooner, without running lights or motor, was sailed

through the narrow channel by a daring skipper.

5. Through binoculars, one of our observers sighted a plane that she could not

identify.

6. The minister announced that next Sunday's sermon, in which he hoped the

congregation would take great interest, would be an explanation of the nature

of sin.

7. To permit the passage of fishing boats, the causeway has a drawbridge, from

which all fishing is prohibited.

8. After ten years the mystery of the missing portrait has been solved.

9. Mrs. Borden, who later became Mrs. Gruber, built the community center at a

cost of $200,000.

10. The suspect tried to make the police believe that he had found the wallet that

didn't belong to him in his car.

11. By deduction, the detectives narrowed the number of the houses where the

robbers might strike.

12. One afternoon when the pool was empty, Myra almost made the mistake of

running and diving into the deep end.


13. When you finish, I'll check the manuscript for accuracy.

14. Without complaint, he worked hard in his fields, raising crops that would bring

in money.

15. Before handing down a decision on the alleged criminal actions, Judge Hart

asked for the submission of briefs which were to be prepared by the opposing

lawyers.

16. If what the directions on the package say is true, this is a powerful insecticide.

17. From a fast-talking salesclerk. Father bought a gadget for his new car that was

guaranteed to reduce gas consumption.

18. On the back of her head she wore a straw hat which was obviously too small.

19. In our social studies class Ms. Steinberg, the explorer, described her trips

through the jungle.

20. For the baby, Uncle Jim brought a new carriage that was named "Boodle

Buggy."

p. 235 EXERCISE 2


1. Coming up the front walk, I thought the bouquet in the picture window looked

beautiful.

2. Left alone in the house, he was terrified by the thunder storm.

3. Enormous and architecturally striking, the new building impresses everyone.

4. When selecting a college, some students seem to be more interested in the

social life than in education.

5. After considering the proposal for several hours, the council rejected it.

6. While I was talking with friends recently, the topic of dentistry came up.

7. After spending Saturday morning working in the library, I was possessed by a

feeling of righteousness.

8. After they had been flying in darkness for two hours, the moon rose, and navi-

gation became less difficult.

9. While we were driving at high speed on a deserted highway, two deer leaped in

front of our car.

10. Living in this coastal town for many years, he knew well the fishing boats and

their skippers.

11. After working in the fields all day, they had little strength left for social ac-

tivities.

12. When I was only a youngster in grade school, my father instructed me in the art

of boxing.

13. When they yielded to the temptation to look at a classmate's paper, the proctor

caught them cheating.

14. While she was working in California, her family was living in New York.

15. Having run off the road while passing a car, I was told by my father that I did

not know how to drive.

16. Since I had promised to be home by midnight, the family was annoyed when I

came in at two o'clock.

17. I was afraid the baby would fall out while he was playing in the high chair.

18. Riding in the glass-bottomed boat, we could see hundreds of beautiful tropical

fish.

19. Being very shy, my little sister is terrified by strangers.

20. After I had been wheeled into the operating room, a nurse placed a mask over

my nose.

204 ANSWER KEY

p. 237 EXERCISE 3


1. For their new home, Mr. and Mrs. Cohen chose a village with about 4000 resi-

dents.

2. As she rounded the corner of the house, her fears were confirmed.

3. If you wish to get to school early, tell the driver.

4. All members of the cast that are in the first act must have their lines learned by

Saturday.

5. Since the patient had required several pints of blood from the blood bank, his

family and friends were asked to replenish the supply.

6. The school board described the new school building wing, which consists of

four classrooms, a laboratory, and a library.

7. Sally found that the snow, which had fallen heavily during the night, had

reached the eaves of her cabin.

8. The voters refused to reelect Mr. Cooper after he had urged so many ridiculous

reforms.

9. Upon their arrival at the bank, the auditors discovered that the cashier had fled.

10. From talking to others, I judge that the prevalent opinion favors us.

11. While Sue was watching the ball game, her horse ran away.

12. Hotels hold for a year all articles that are found on the premises.

13. Preferring the mountains to the seashore, we chose the Great Smokies as our

vacation spot.

14. After working in Washington for twenty years, he was familiar with the

methods of lobbyists.

15. This bank approves loans of any size to reliable individuals.

16. When you were in Chicago, did you know I was living in Highland Park?

17. While the driver was lighting a cigar, the car swerved dangerously toward a

telephone pole.

18. Anita warned us that the animals, being completely untamed, were dan-

gerous.

19. Flying at an altitude of several thousand feet, one can see more than a hundred

lakes.

20. Along with his new typewriter, Jack bought a book of shorthand lessons, which

he read and studied diligently.

21. Living constantly under the eyes of the police, she grew increasingly nervous.

22. After three years of frustration, the federal government has finally completed a

new highway through the mountains and across California.

23. Ramon wanted to know what the referees said to the two captains before the

game began.

24. Believing that freedom was more important than security, these emigrants

abandoned homes, relatives, and countries.

25. As we rounded a sharp curve, a detour sign warned us of danger.

Chapter 15 Parallel Structure

p. 242 EXERCISE 1


1. Its large size, simple structure, and ready availability make the common cock-roach convenient to study.


2. Cockroaches have smooth leathery skin, long thin antennae, and a thick flat

body.

3. They are found not only in urban but in tropical areas.

4. The Oriental cockroach is short-winged, while the American cockroach is

full-winged.

5. North America boasts about sixty species; Great Britain, only two.

6. Cockroaches may be dark brown, pale brown, or delicate green.

7. Cockroach eggs are laid in small cases, carried on the female body, and then

deposited in hidden crevices.

8. A typical cockroach lives as a nymph for about a year, and as an adult for

about half a year.

9. The odors which a cockroach seeks out are sweet, but those which they emit

are disagreeable. (Or: The odors which attract a cockroach are sweet, but those

which come from it are disagreeable.)

10. Cockroaches are omnivorous, but they especially like sweet foods and starchy

foods.

11. Cockroaches soil far more than they consume.

12. By day the average cockroach is quietly lazy, but by night it is busily energetic.

13. We might view the cockroach not only with disgust but also with interest.

14. The cockroach is both the most primitive living winged insect and the most

ancient fossil insect.

15. We have as much to learn from the cockroach's evolution as we have to gain

from its extinction.

p. 243 EXERCISE 2

(Answers will vary.

)

1. My experience was not half so exciting as that of the people who didn't get

home until dawn.

2. As time passed, she was torn between her love for her parents and her love for

her husband.

3. This author's style is not much different from that of other writers of this time.

4. Highway signs in Europe employ symbols much more than do those in the

United States.

5. Compare your grades for this quarter with those for last quarter.

6. Statistics prove that prices this year are lower than they were last year.

7. You will find the information in the second edition more up-to-date than that in

the first edition.

8. Little children are more trouble in the boat than on the beach.

9. The trail on the north side of the mountain is steeper than the one on the south

side.

10. The amount of money his wife received in the will was much smaller than the

amount the children received.

11. The classrooms on the second floor are always cleaner than those on the first

floor.

12. The inexpensive overcoat which I bought last week looks exactly like those

from the more expensive stores.

13. Cats can catch rabbits as easily as dogs can.

14. The damage done by this year's forest fires was greater than the damage done

by last year's.

206 ANSWER KEY

15. The reaction of the students to the new regulations was more violent than the

reaction of the faculty.

p. 244 EXERCISE 3


1. One of the accident victims suffered a broken arm, several broken ribs, and a

punctured lung.

2. She was not only industrious but dependable.

3. As we were leaving the harbor, the radio weather report predicted gale-force

winds, heavy rain, and abnormally high tides.

4. A cloudy day is better for a game than a sunny day.

5. She spoke about her experience in Australia and made several predictions about

the country's future.

6. To the unthinking person, war may be a romantic adventure, but to the wise

person it is a foolish and dirty business.

7. The unexpected cooperation of China was a greater surprise to Russia than to

the United States.

8. The skipper had a harsh voice, a weatherbeaten face, and a very stocky build.

9. We were not sure that our request for a raise was fair or that it would be

granted.

10. The speech of cultivated Britishers is not so different as it used to be from the

speech of cultivated Americans.

11. The public's attention has been centered on the need for more teachers, ade-

quate classrooms, and enough new equipment.

12. This was a much harder assignment for me than for Luis.

13. The ambassador did not know whether the President or the Secretary of State

had sent for him.

14. Her friends were not only shocked but greatly disappointed by her failure.

15. The players were annoyed not so much by the decisions of the officials as by

the hostile crowd.

16. The company announced a bonus for all five-year employees and additional

benefits for deserving new employees.

17. The headmaster insisted that all of us return by ten o'clock and that the house-

masters check us in.

18. High school programs have been accused of being too closely tied in with col-

lege education and of neglecting the average teen-ager.

19. Pioneers came with hopes of being happy and free and of making their fortunes

in the new world.

20. All delegates to the convention were advised that on their return they wouldhave to make both a written and an oral report.

Chapter 16 Unnecessary Shifts in Sentences

p. 249 EXERCISE 1

{Answers will vary.

)

1. If you cook frequently, you will learn to organize your meals easily.


2. Many people rush to the kitchen once every few months, but find there only

forbidding chaos.

3. (Acceptable.)

4. When the boned chicken breasts are dredged in flour, they should go in a hot

skillet with butter.

5. (Acceptable.)

6. Some people like truffles, but others prefer mushrooms.7. The chicken breasts should be sprinkled with truffles or mushrooms and cov-

ered generously.

8. Light the oven broiler and cut some mozzarella or fontina cheese into slices.

9. Cover the sprinkled chicken breasts with slices of cheese, put them into the

broiler, and tell the guests to be ready in ten minutes.

10. When the cheese is melted, turn off the broiler, remove the chicken, stop the

guests from talking, and serve the meal.

p. 249 EXERCISE 2

(The past tense should he used in revising this passage.)

p. 250 EXERCISE 3


1. Adolescents naturally rebel against authority, but they must respect the author-

ity of the law.

2. Lonely students might participate in an extracurricular activity so that they can

make new friendships.

3. A senior must not only pass his courses and graduate, but he must also makeplans for his future before the year is over.

4. My brother frequently procrastinates and occasionally shows a tendency to-

ward laziness.

5. My father has some amusing peculiarities which he does not recognize.

6. The union's demands were unacceptable even though they contained some

concessions.

7. If a teacher wants to be liked, he must treat students impartially.

8. Coach Martin always insisted on long practice sessions and strict training, but

her winning teams justified her methods.

9. The Vice-President flew to the Paris Conference, but he accomplished few con-

crete results.

10. A good student can win a college scholarship and thus relieve his parents of

part of the cost of his college education.

11. When you buy a car, you should be sure you can afford the upkeep.

12. In the end Robert stays with his mother and loses forever the girl that he loves.

13. First mix the cement and sand thoroughly; then add the water.

14. The experienced boat operator is aware of the danger of fire, and, when filling the

gas tank, takes great precautions not to spill gasoline in the bottom of the boat.

15. As district attorney he successfully handled the Tammany Hall cases, and he

thus won the backing of the Republican party.

16. As the bus careened toward the edge of the road, we thought our time had

come, and we grabbed our seats in desperation.

17. Many doctors recognize the value of health insurance, but they cannot agree on

the particular kind we should have.

208 ANSWER KEY

18. Driven backward, Guy felt the ropes burning his back for a moment before he

lunged forward with his right and brought Hammer Joe's comeback to an ab-

rupt end.

19. Sammy had just finished his bitter denunciation of all teachers and of one

chemistry teacher in particular, when he turned around and saw Ms. Lerner in

the laboratory doorway.

20. As an explorer you must study your maps very carefully so that you will be

able to plan your trip efficiently.

Chapter 17 Sentence Conciseness

p. 254 EXERCISE 1

(Answers will vary somewhat. )

1. We watched the massive black cloud rise from the prairie and cover the sun.

2. Far in the distance, the diminutive shapes of the settlers' huts were silhouetted

against the dark sky.

3. Modern cars can be driven fast more safely than yesterday's cars.

4. When the speaker's words were not audible, I asked her to repeat what she had

said.

5. In this mountain wilderness the explorers found the wildlife they had been look-

ing for.

6. During this year's baseball season, all home games and many away games maybe watched on station WPIX.

7. The mediator said that if both parties would give in a little, a satisfactory set-

tlement could be reached.

8. Although the danger was neither tangible nor visible, it was very real to all the

inhabitants of the village in the foothills of Mt. Wilson.

9. The drive to Cross Village winds along the top of a huge bluff above the lake.

10. When the pounding finally stopped, I stretched out on the bed and tried to

sleep.

11. The world today is in great need of great leaders who will work hard to prevent

another world war.

12. During the morning there is a variety of radio programs you may listen to.

13. As you continue in the book, you will be amazed by the skill of the writer in

weaving together the many previously unrelated threads of his story.

14. At the end of the picture, the villain does an about-face and changes into a goodperson.

15. His thought processes puzzled his teachers and made them despair of his future

success.

16. I am always surprised to find that a current hit tune was popular when myparents were in high school.

17. She was determined to combine the two divisions of the firm in order to achieve

a stronger company.

18. Circling his adversary with a menacing look on his face, Broadhurst waited for

an opening for his mighty right.


19. The President's struggle with Congress ended in a victory for the President

when the public reelected him.

20. The conclusion of the novel on which she had been working for more than five

years disappointed everyone who read the manuscript, so she decided to revise

the story.

p. 256 EXERCISE 2


1

When we were two hundred yards from our objective, a small grove of pine

trees on the side of a hill, we were confronted by a vast swamp. I remembered that

during the last two weeks we had had ten days of rain and decided to send out a few

scouts who might discover a way we could reach the grove without getting our feet

wet. When the scouts reported that their efforts had been unsuccessful, we resigned

ourselves to sloshing knee-deep through the muddy water.

When a student becomes a freshman, he finds out what seniors are really like.

Until this point, seniors have been heroes to him, admired from a respectful dis-

tance as though they were gods. Now, however, his conception changes. Thesenior becomes an ogre whose only purpose in life seems to be to make life as

miserable as possible for freshmen. Every way the freshman turns in the corridors,

a senior hall cop, with a big letter on his chest, grabs him with huge talons and tells

him with fiery breath that he cannot go down an up stairway. He is enticed into

joining clubs ruled by seniors who use him mainly for the performance of unpleas-

ant errands. Whenever the freshman cannot be of use, he is ignored. His former

ambition to be a senior wanes, until one day he begins to think of getting his re-

venge. The idea dawns that he, too, will someday enjoy the privilege of molding the

lives of ninth-graders. This idea accounts for the fanatic stare in the eyes of so

many freshmen.

p. 259 EXERCISE 3

1. Mrs. Holmes, an automobile dealer, has promised her children a car as a gift for

their seventeenth birthday.

2. After looking everywhere for an old place to renovate, Mr. Dayton bought the

deserted house on the edge of town.

3. The apple orchard which stood behind the house yielded no fruit during his first

year there, but it bore bushels and bushels during the second season.

4. Sitting near first base, we were able to judge the accuracy of the umpire's

decisions.

5. Having to be away from home afternoon and evening for many days, Mrs.

Stein, the president of the Parent-Teacher Association, hired a succession of

baby-sitters to take care of her children during her absence.

210 ANSWER KEY

p. 260 EXERCISE 4


1. To save money, we decided to wait for the bus.

2. After I had finished the assigned reading, I read three novels by Virginia Woolf.

3. This small Connecticut hotel is patronized mainly by Bostonians.

4. After losing a leg in a hunting accident, Monty Stratton, a White Sox pitcher,

made an amazing comeback in professional baseball.

5. Our seats for the Army-Navy game were almost on the forty-yard line, at the

top of the stadium.

6. French poetry has had a notable influence on English poetry.

7. While inspecting his new house in the suburbs, Mr. Doyle stumbled over a

piece of flooring and fell down the cellar stairs.

8. Our days in the north woods would have been perfect if it had not been for the

enormous, hungry mosquitoes.

9. Inez, an ambitious young actress, found that acting in a summer stock companygave her needed experience.

10. The most common student complaint is that every teacher chooses Friday for

examinations.

p. 260 EXERCISE 5


1. Seniors who are going to college should consult the guidance department regu-

larly for suggestions relating to their choice of college, to scholarships, and to

their college expenses.

2. Galen, a famous physician of the second century, greatly added to our knowl-

edge of the body by his discoveries of important facts about the arteries, the

brain, and the nervous system.

3. The crusade for wildlife protection which began in the eighteen-eighties was

headed by conservation groups, including the Boone and Crockett Club

(founded by Theodore Roosevelt) and the Audubon Society.

4. The natural resources of the Arctic, which have remained untouched because

of lack of fuel for power, can now be developed by atomic fuel: an atomic

furnace is small enough to be transported by plane into the remotest regions

of the Arctic.

5. In the Roman de la Rose, a long medieval French poem of which more than 150

manuscripts survive, the Lover finally wins the Rose despite the wiles of

Shame, Scandal, and Jealousy.

6. According to the myth most popular in the sixteenth century, Robin Hood, whowas probably from the Nottinghamshire area near Sherwood and perhaps wasan earl, readjusted the distribution of wealth by taking from the greedy to give

to the poor.

7. One of the oldest known crafts, ropemaking originated in the plaiting of natural

thongs, which led to basketweaving and finally to true textile weaving.

8. If you want to look toward the center of our own galaxy, aim your eyes at

Sagittarius, the Archer, the ninth sign of the zodiac, whose symbol is the arrowand whom the Greeks represented as a centaur.


9. After the proper holes are drilled in a hollow-ground razor, which is not easy to

produce, the blade is hardened, tempered, ground, hollowed, glazed, buffed,

and last of all, before each shave, whetted.

10. A hardy plant which originated in Asia, and delicious when soaked in lemon

and butter, spinach is rich in vitamins A and C, calcium, and iron, and thrives

both in cool weather, which is good for its leaves, and hot, which is good for its

stalks.

p. 263 EXERCISE 6

(Answers will vary considerably.)

1. Jan shot through the drift in a cloud of snow, effortlessly maintaining her bal-

ance on her skis.

2. My study of economics convinced me that we cannot change the law of sup-

ply and demand.

3. The bitterest irony of our time is the idea that creating more powerful weapons

is the only way of maintaining peace.

4. The sharp crack of the bat was followed by a roar from the crowd as the ball

arched over the stadium and dropped beyond the left-field wall.

5. East, west; home's best.

6. After school several of us listened to records at Jacobsen's music store.

7. Laying my homework aside, I stretched out on the davenport and read the

current issue of Time.

8. Since I didn't want to be embarrassed by a refusal, I asked Helen's family what

her Friday-evening plans were, before inviting her to go to the movies with me.

9. Bent upon a week's hitchhiking trip, I said good-bye to my anxious mother and,

with my possessions in a cardboard briefcase, set out on my adventure.

10. Harvey's kick lifted the ball from the wet ground and sent it directly between

the goal posts.

Chapter 18 Sentence Variety

p. 267 EXERCISE 1

1. At Mystic, Connecticut, the Marine Historical Society has recreated a nine-

teenth-century coastal village.

2. Until you receive your bill at the end of the month, traveling, eating, and shop-

ping with credit cards seems wonderfully easy.

3. Selfish and materialistic, some people are never happy with what they have.

4. Working part-time at a gas station during his senior year in high school, Jose

managed to save a thousand dollars toward his college expenses.

5. Of all the new professions created by the space age, the most glamorous is that

of the astronaut.

6. One of the oldest players in professional football, Belmer makes up in experi-

ence what he lacks in speed.

7. At the alumni luncheon the college president stated the immediate financial

needs of the college.

212 ANSWER KEY

8. Although a university should encourage educational programs for its alumni, its

primary responsibility is to its resident students.

9. To the casual reader, this seems to be a highly technical book.

10. If present plans are approved, the first ships of the expedition will sail in Oc-tober.

11. Expertly and rapidly, Navy divers repaired the damaged hull.

12. Lacking funds for expansion, the firm attempted to borrow money.

13. Occupying an area of 20 square feet, the skin on the average adult weighs 8.8

pounds.

14. Led by Colonel Walter H. Wood of New York, the expedition spent several

weeks at its camp on Seward Glacier.

15. At first glance one can see that modern office furniture uses more metal than

wood.

p. 269 EXERCISE 2

(Answers will vary' slightly.)

1. This winter, for the first time in the history of the school, a bowling team was

formed.

2. Cautiously, a sinister figure stepped into the dark room.

3. To prove their knowledge of traffic regulations, candidates for a driver's license

must take a written examination.

4. When both parents are working, the children are cared for in nursery schools.

5. Tired and hot, the audience soon became impatient.

6. Frightened by the explosion, we dared not move from our places.

7. Of the 90,000 acres under cultivation, more than half had been ruined by the

recent drought.

8. A merchant sailor for ten years, Jim knew every important port in the world.

9. Although they look exactly alike from the outside, the new houses have very

different interiors.

10. In the transportation industry, competition has been growing more and moreintense.

11. Sobbing bitterly, a small boy ran toward me.

12. When it is soft and rhythmic, music is to me an excellent tranquilizer.

13. When striving for the highest spiritual goals, a person will frequently becomediscouraged.

14. Either to reduce their weight or to improve their physical fitness, more and

more people are rushing to local gymnasiums and health clubs.

15. Even if you cannot play an instrument well and are not musically inclined,

nothing is more satisfying than producing your own music.

p. 271 EXERCISE 3


1. Alma Gropius Mahler Werfel, thelkwidow who married the arts," first married

Walter Gropius the architect, then Gustav Mahler the composer, then Franz

Werfel the novelist.

2. Five years after she made her first solo crossing of the Atlantic in 1932, Amelia

Earhart attempted a round-the-world flight, becoming a major figure of concern

when her plane lost radio contact on the second of July.


3. The author ofA Street in Bronzeville, Gwendolyn Brooks the poet has won the

Pulitzer Prize and has taught poetry in several Chicago colleges.

4. "Sounds of Silence," a year after Simon and Garfunkel first recorded it, was

newly edited with additional background dubbed in by a studio engineer, be-

came a national hit, and launched their successful career.

5. An odd thing which does not exist all by itself, time is a name we give to one of

our ways of experiencing our lives.

6. Both versatile and talented, Eleanor Roosevelt, who was twice a delegate to the

United Nations, also wrote some very interesting books, including On My Own.7. The Pulaski Highway in Maryland and the Pulaski Skyway in New Jersey were

named after General Casimir Pulaski, an exiled Polish count who served under

Washington in the Revolution.

8. The Shakespeare Memorial at Stratford-on-Avon, the birthplace of Shake-

speare, houses a theatre, a gallery, and a library.

9. Made from wine grapes grown in the Charente region in France, cognac is a

distillate, the part of the solution that escapes first when separated by heating.

10. On March 10, 1876, speaking through the first electromagnetic telephone, Alex-

ander Graham Bell said to Watson, his assistant, "Mr. Watson, come here; I

want you."

p. 273 EXERCISE 4


1. Because Tom Sawyer made Becky Thatcher jealous by talking to Amy Law-

rence, Becky, who became very upset, invited everyone except Tom and Amy to

her picnic. Then she spent recess with Alfred, pretending not to notice Tom.

2. Although Tom and Becky continued to be angry with each other for a while, they

eventually made up. Tom looked forward to going to Becky's picnic.

3. On the day Mrs. Thatcher set for the picnic, Tom and Becky and the rest of the

company visited the cave called "McDougal's Cave," exploring the more famil-

iar wonders of the cave and, afterwards, playing hide-and-seek.

4. As they followed a little stream of water, Tom played the role of a discoverer,

which Becky, following him, thought was fun.

5. Winding down through the cave this way and that, and creeping from cavern to

cavern, they found a spring-fed pool.

6. In one cavern, bats, which completely lined the ceiling, swarmed down when

Tom and Becky entered with their candles. One of them almost snuffed

Becky's candle out with its wings.

7. The stillness of the cave soon dampened Tom and Becky's spirits. Realizing

that they had gone some distance from the others, they were suddenly afraid

that they might be unable to get back.

8. When they started back, there was no way Tom could remember which route

they had followed. Indeed they had become lost, with only one piece of cake

and a few candle-stumps.

9. When, after several false starts through various tunnels, their candles gave out

and left them in total darkness, Becky wept. They both thought they were cer-

tain to die in the pitch-black cave.

214 ANSWER KEY

10. Tom left Becky alone, took a length of rope, and traced his way through the

tunnels, looking for an exit. Soon, seeing a* candle, he shouted at the top of his

voice. The next thing he knew, a familiar face was there in front of him.


p. 277 EXERCISE 1 Answers will vary considerably.

p. 280 EXERCISE 2


When automation causes unemployment or relocation of workers, the govern-

ment, as well as labor and management, must help these workers.

p. 282 EXERCISE 3


1. who seemed to have descended like birds, from song flights to chirps—simile

2. The silence is cloven—metaphor

cloven by alarm as by an arrow—simile

3. Spring was a very flame—metaphor

4. fringed with white surf—metaphor

straight, like a ruled line—simile

5. smooth as cream—simile

crystal [waterdrops]—metaphor

6. I felt like a small bubble—simile

7. Night's candles [stars]—metaphor

jocund day / Stands tiptoe—personification

8. ripple of her voice was a wild tonic—metaphor

9. The farm was crouched—personification

fields, fanged with flints,—personification

10. The entire sentence speaks of the tree in human terms—personification; it

would also be correct, however, to pick out expressions such as "Maternally"

and "sighing and groaning" and to call them either metaphors or specific in-

stances of personification.

p. 284 EXERCISE 5

(Revised sentences will vary considerably.)

1. +2. Their struggle for power was like a championship fight between two heavy-

weights, and when the governor lowered his guard, the senator delivered a

knockout blow.

3. +

4. Unfortunately the speaker did not know that he was flying too high over the

heads of his audience until their general restlessness made him realize that he

had better come down out of the stratosphere.


5. In college, she changed coufse abruptly and steered away from the dangers of

low grades and expulsion from school.

6. Elisa dived into her studies, afraid that she might never come out ahead of all

the rest, but determined not to give up without trying.

7. Psychiatry, once considered a pseudoscience, has now achieved respectability

and may become a most important branch of medical research.

8. +9. She spent the first part of her career groping though the dark halls of obscurity,

but with the publication of her third novel, she finally emerged into the brilliant

noonday sun.

10. Unless the mayor changes his fiscal policy, our city is likely to be buried be-

neath a mound of debt.


1. b 3. d 5. a

2. c 4. b 6. c

7. c 9. c

8. d 10. d

line 8 couldn't care less

line 12 pretty far out

p. 289 EXERCISE 7

line 4 kids

lines 4-5 shake a stick at, cutting out

p. 291 EXERCISE 8

1. furniture, seat, chair, desk chair, swivel chair

2. creature, quadruped, mammal, dog, spaniel

3. liquid, drink, juice, fruit juice, lemonade

4. occurrence, storm, storm at sea, typhoon

5. human being, woman, employee, laborer, carpenter


1 2

blasted criticized

blistering attack powerful statement

long-winded tirade thorough discussion

aging politician venerable legislator

desperate bid strong bid

frightening only a few senators convinced several senators

Chapter 20 Exercises in Sentence Revision

p. 296 EXERCISE 1

{Revised sentences will vary.)

E 1. People may disapprove of laws, but this disapproval does not mean that the

laws are good or bad.

D 2. Human behavior is complicated and difficult, not only to analyze but to

evaluate.

E 3. The law is society's tested system of behavior, and without it, society

would have even worse problems.

216 ANSWER KEY

+ 4.

D 5. Any wise judge and any experienced citizen can appreciate that.

A 6. The fundamental principle behind all laws is the same.

+ 7.

D 8. The law has many arms, touching all of us, and prescribing the limits

proper to us in all our different roles.

B 9. It governs you as a student and me as a writer.

C 10. Hoping for order in our social dealings with one another, we often become

impatient with the fact that legality requires judicial decision.

D 11. The complexity of judicial decisions reflects the complexity of law itself.

A 12. When a law is carelessly formulated or improperly applied, a judge can cut

it down to size.

B 13. The presiding judge in an American court of law, scholars agree, is a per-

son who has no counterpart in other nations.

C 14. The Constitution was written by men intent upon avoiding the "tyranny1 '

of politics and fully aware of how the law can be twisted to the selfish

interests of those in power.

A 15. In the Constitution, legislative and executive power are restricted to a

greater degree than they are in other national systems of government.

C 16. This restriction was less a matter of design than it was the result of manydifficult decisions individually reached, as the writers of the Constitution

faced one practical question after another.

E 17. If the writers of the Constitution had not given the powers they did to the

courts, those powers would have been subject to one of the other branches of

government.

A 18. The mood of an executive and the whim of a legislator consequently do not

determine one's fate in a court of law.

+ 19.

A 20. Abuse and violation of the existing law are the last resort of any loyal

citizen.

p. 298 EXERCISE 2

(Revised sentences will vary.)

C 1. Our camp, which lies at the north end of the lake, is overshadowed by the

cliffs which rise steeply above it.

B 2. Team teaching offers teachers at least one important advantage: it enables

each teacher on the team to teach his specialty.

+ 3.

D 4. The car with whitewall tires was driven by a stunning girl.

A 5. The band in its new uniforms and the high-stepping majorette with her

twirling baton, as well as the stirring music, impressed the officials on the

reviewing stand.

D 6. A compromise is a settlement of differences between two parties reached

by mutual concessions.

D 7. At the meeting, secret police that were trying to take pictures with hidden

cameras were physically ejected by angry students.

C 8. She had intended to go to the dance with her brother.

B 9. At home we suffer the constant interference of our parents, but at college

we will be free to make our own decisions.

E 10

E 11

C 12

+ 13

E 14

A 15

D 16

+ 17,

B 18,

C 19

E 20


Matinees will be given on Wednesdays and Saturdays; tickets will cost

$1.50.

These experiences will be valuable in my career as a social worker, a

career in which I shall work with people from all walks of life.

I found that, except for literature selections, each English course covered

the same material I had had the year before.

The five junior high school buildings, which will cost eight million dollars,

were approved by the taxpayers in yesterday's balloting.

We found several students in the shop very busy learning how to take a

motor apart and put it together again.

Briefly and categorically, the senator denied the many charges that had

been made against her.

Twenty percent of the students said they were satisfied with their ownstudy habits; fifty-four percent said they wished they knew how to study

more effectively.

If you had come earlier, you could have seen the first act.

Although the demand for good television material exceeds the supply,

some of the best material, important news events, is not being fully used,

because news telecasts are not profitable.

). 299 EXERCISE 3

1. a (or b)* 6. + 11. a 16. b (or a)* 21. b

2. a 7. b 12. + 17. b 22. +

3. b 8. a 13. b 18. a 23. a

4. a 9. b 14. a 19. b 24. b

5. a 10. b 15. + 20. a 25. +

* Students may feel, with some justice, that variety in sentence rhythm is preferable to

exact repetition.

p. 303 EXERCISE 4


1. She tried to find out the name of the boy she was to invite.

2. Featherbedding, which is one result of automation, is the practice of keeping

workers on the job even though their jobs have been made obsolete by

machines.

3. The dean was more impressed by the candidate's scholastic record than by his

athletic record.

4. There are many persons who have jobs part of the year and are unemployed the

rest of the year.

5. In his Autobiography there is a great deal of Franklin's philosophy from which

every reader can benefit.

6. Soon many families will have helicopters and will be able to go from place to

place much more easily than they can today by car, since there will be a direct

route and much less traffic.

7. Since we had no tire repair kit, we pushed the motorcycle to the nearest gas

station, where we had the tire patched.

218 ANSWER KEY

8. Tammy was an optimistic, easygoing woman; no matter what happened, she

never seemed to be troubled.

9. The curtain opened to reveal an empty stage, but a moment later the stage crewarrived and, busily working and talking, soon put up the set for the first act.

10. In a child a negative attitude may come from the natural desire for recognition

and independence, but in an adult it may be a symptom of neurosis.

p. 304 EXERCISE 5

1. Mrs. Turnbull is a good author who has found out through experience what

readers want, and who has given it to them in this book.

2. From my own standpoint, either flower gardening or vegetable gardening pro-

vides a lot of fun, good exercise, and valuable experience.

3. One of the many ways to show loyalty to a friend is to avoid talking about him

behind his back.

4. In some countries the biggest problem of the people is getting enough food, but

the biggest problem of some people in America is eating too much food.

5. Since—as psychologists have proved—a child's mind is often more active than

an adult's, children are usually eager to learn.

6. The airline mechanic that failed to check the landing gear was guilty not only of

negligence, but, in effect, of murder.

7. After the dances in the gymnasium, of which we have a reasonable number,

many couples go to some nearby eating place for a snack.

8. I found out, on the day I went to a department store with Dolores, that shop-

ping quickly weakens a friend's patience.

9. The clash of ideals between East and West was blocking world unity at a time

when failure to achieve unity might lead to war.

10. By the time you have got the children into bed, you are so exhausted that you

have lost all ambition to study; until the parents return, television is your only

entertainment.

11. A single goal may so dominate an individual that it is the only thing he lives for;

never satisfied, he may work so hard that he misses the fun in life.

12. Since Paine was the first author to make a strong case for complete inde-

pendence from England, his book about American independence was a big

seller.

13. As we go further into the effects that a complete lack of petroleum would have

on the world, we realize that all the thousands of factories which use oil would

have to close down.

14. During a year of military training after graduation from high school, we mayforget much that we have learned in school; furthermore, this training adds

another year to the time it will take before we can graduate from college and get

jobs.

15. The school should require a pre-season physical examination, and the school

should enforce a law preventing anyone from playing football who has a history

of heart abnormalities.

Chapter 21 The Paragraph

p. 320 EXERCISE 3

1. If you travel over regions where the buildings were made in earlier times, youwill notice great differences from north to south. (1) (and 2)


2. The harder part is mastering new structures in both content and expression. (2)

3. Uniform standards for admission to college are impossible in the United States

for a number of reasons. {Note: It would not be wrong, however, to consider

the last sentence in this paragraph as the topic sentence.) (4)

4. Clay is an earthy or stony mineral consisting essentially of hydrous silicates of

alumina, the result of years of "abuse" by nature. (1)

5. The mouthbreeder is truly an exotic fish. (1)

6. The value of biologists and engineers working together on basic biological re-

search was demonstrated recently at the Max-Planck-Institut in Tubingen,

Germany. (2)

7. Modern civilization is greatly indebted to the Bible. (5)

8. Most of Shakespeare's plays are more successful in their opening scenes. (2)

9. Blake himself had very clear notions of what constituted mental health and

mental disease. (4 or 6)

10. Luck is sometimes the deciding factor in a game. (3)

p. 327 EXERCISE 5

1. Not all our family quarrels are unselfish. On another day this argument might

have been entirely selfish with everybody fighting for his own favorite restau-

rant.

2. French was once considered the language of diplomacy.

3. Headlines are written by those highly skilled in their jobs. Once the drudges of

the newspaper office, these newswriters in recent years have been accorded

greater respect as reflected in easier hours and higher pay.

4. Lending libraries can now be found in drug and stationery stores as well as in

bookstores. Of course, the demand for one-dollar books, which are not current

best sellers, is attributable to another human characteristic, the desire for a

bargain.

Chapter 22 Expository Writing

p. 347 EXERCISE 1

(Answers will vary in wording, hut all correct answers will observe the rules about

parallelism and outline form that are taught on pages 344^46 of the textbook.)

How to Study

I. The conditions for studying

A. Enough time

B. Quiet place

C. Proper equipment

1. Textbooks

2. Reference books

II. The techniques of studying

A. Reading assignments

1. Note-taking

2. Memorizing

B. Writing assignments

220 ANSWER KEY


(The sample outline below shows the title, the three main topics, and the correct

subtopics for each main topic. Students are free, however, to take up the main

topics in different order, or to arrange the subtopics under any given main topic in

a different sequence from the one suggested below.)

Summer Jobs

I. Shelf stocker in a supermarket

A. Close to homeB. Indoor work

C. Heavy work

II. Counselor at a summer campA. Requires an interest in children

B. Assures an outdoor life

C. Confines one to campIII. Waiter at a summer hotel

A. Making extra money1. From tips

2. From baby-sitting for guests

B. Enjoying hotel's social life

p. 353 EXERCISE 3

1. This (pronoun), vast domain (perhaps direct reference)

2. such networks (connective, perhaps direct reference)

3. therefore (connective)

4. As a result (connective)

5. too (connective), the same conclusions (direct reference, or repetition of a key

term)

Chapter 24 Language and Logic

p. 403 EXERCISE 1

1. NP {The term old-fashioned begs the question.)

2. NP (A matter of verifiable fact is not an arguable proposition.)

3. P4. P

5. P

6. P

7. NP (A matter of verifiable fact is not an arguable proposition.)

8. NP (A statement of personal taste is not an arguable proposition.)

9. P

10. NP (The term inadequate begs the question.)

p. 412 EXERCISE 3

(The following answers are provided merely as an aid to the teacher who is con-ducting the class discussion. In a good discussion, students may offer argumentsdifferent from those sketched here.)


1. Although the opening statement may be true, the analogy between a writer's

use of words and a hunter's use of a gun is not very strong.

2. There is a close parallel between the Devil's three temptations and the three

things offered by the totalitarian state. The analogy contains enough points of

similarity to be strong.

3. The analogy of the city children helps make it vividly clear why we do not yet

know enough about the universe to state "certainties." The situation of an

earth-bound scientist in relation to the universe is sufficiently similar to the

situation of the city child in relation to the whole city to make the comparison

valid.

4. This is probably the weakest analogy of the five because human beings are in so

many ways different from wild animals. A school must certainly give its stu-

dents more freedom than a circus can give its wild animals.

5. While there are a few minor similarities between a bank vault and preparedness

for nuclear war (both are expensive, for instance), the two are not essentially

alike. Just as there is a basic difference between a threatened robbery (an at-

tempt of one person to take another's property) and a threatened duel to the

death (a mutual attempt of two people to kill each other), so there is also a

difference between the purely protective function of the vault and the largely

aggressive or retaliatory function of the nuclear force.

p. 415 EXERCISE 4

1. deductive, + 5. inductive, 9. inductive,

2. inductive, 6. deductive, 10. inductive, +3. inductive, 7. deductive, +4. deductive, 8. inductive,

p. 419 EXERCISE 5

Irrelevant arguments in favor of excusing the students: 3, 5, 6, 7

Irrelevant arguments against excusing the students: 3, 5

p. 421 EXERCISE 6

{In general, all the statements in the exercise offer insufficient prooffor the con-

clusions reached. Since the seven specific kinds of "errors in thinking" do overlap

somewhat, the teacher may wish to use the suggested answers given here simply as

a guide in class discussion.)

1. A2. B3. C4. D {or E)

5. A {or B)

6. E7. C {or A)

8. B

9. E10. B11. B {or G)

12. E

13.

14.

15.

F {or G)

F {or C)

C {or B)

Chapter 25 Exercises in Composition

p. 433 EXERCISE 2

{Since uniformity in precis writing is neither possible nor desirable, the following

precis are included only as suggestions. They represent one acceptable way of

summarizing each passage, but certainly not the only way.)

222 ANSWER KEY

1

Rapid readers are likely to succeed in college, not only because college courses

require much reading, but also because rapid readers usually understand and retain

material better. Average college freshmen read about 250 words a minute; a really

good college risk should read at least 300 words a minute. (49 words)

2

Americans today would rather be amused by someone else than amuse them-

selves. For instance, we listen to music more than our grandparents did, but wemake much less music of our own. We don't realize that making music is more

enjoyable than listening to it. (45 words)

3

The totalitarian view of government, which prevails in many parts of the world

today, holds that the state is more important than its individual citizens. The in-

dividual is supposed to live and work only for the good of the nation, and the

government has complete authority over all aspects of his life. The democratic

view, which came to the New World from northern Europe, holds that the in-

dividual is more important than the state and that individuals have private rights

which the state cannot restrict. The government exists only to serve the citizens;

the citizens control the government and can change it if they wish. (105 words)

4

The only justifiable reason for interfering with an individual's liberty of action is

to prevent him from harming others. One is not justified in forcing someone to do

something against his will merely on the grounds that it is for his own good or that

other people may think it is right. In matters that affect no one but himself, an

individual is entitled to complete independence. This doctrine, of course, applies

only to competent adults, not to children or to other people who are not capable of

taking care of themselves. (92 words)

5

One significant fact that emerged from the atomic meeting in Geneva was that

all nations are willing to share information about the peaceful uses of atomic en-ergy. As a step toward international control of atomic energy, this helps to decrease

the likelihood of atomic war. But an even more significant fact was that people finally

have an unlimited supply of fuel energy at their disposal. The world's coal and oil maybe exhausted within a century, but there are sufficient uranium and thorium de-

posits to provide fuel for thousands or millions of years. Furthermore, as soon as

the power of the hydrogen bomb is harnessed, we will have a source of energy that

can last an additional billion years. People are about to enter a new world of peace

and plenty. (131 words)

Chapter 26 The Research Paper

p. 457 EXERCISE 1

1

P. Nash, "Indian Administration in the United States," Vital Speeches, 29, Feb-

ruary 15, 1963, p. 279.2 Ibid.


3 Charles Hamilton, Cry of the Thunderbird, p. 41.

4 "Navajos Install Tribal Chairman," New York Times, April 21, 1963, p. 57.

5 Hamilton, p. 50.

6 Willard W. Beatty, "Indian Affairs," Encyclopedia Americana, Vol. 15, p. 28L.

p. 459 EXERCISE 2

Mann, M., "Slow Drivers Can Kill You," Popular Science Monthly, 182:77-79 + ,

April, 1963.

"Reading, Writing, and Driving," Senior Scholastic, 80:9, March 21, 1962.

Tenney, E. A., Highway Jungle, New York, Exposition Press, 1962.

Ward, R., and B. W. Yates, Rodger Ward's Guide to Good Driving, New York,

Harper, 1962.

Chapter 27 The Business Letter

p. 489 EXERCISE 2

1. Professor Fred Emerson

Columbia University

West 116th Street

New York, New York 10027

Dear Professor Emerson:

2. Dean of Admissions

Miami University

Oxford, Ohio 45056

Harper & Row10 East 53rd Street

New York, New York

Gentlemen:

10022

The Honorable Robert E. ThomasHouse of Representatives

Washington, D.C. 20015

Dear Mr. Thomas:Dear Sir:

Ms. Carol T. Brooks, Personnel Director

Bradley Company82-84 South Avenue

Cass City, Illinois 61016

Dear Ms. Brooks:

Chapter 29 Capitalization

D. 507 EXERCISE i 1

1. b 6. a 11. b 16. a 21. a

2. a 7. b 12. b 17. a 22. a

3. b 8. b 13. a 18. a 23. a, b

4. b 9. a 14. a 19. a, b 24. b

5. a 10. a 15. a 20. b 25. b

224 ANSWER KEY

p. 508 EXERCISE 2

1. Essex County 11. the Catskill Mountains

2. an African village 12. a city like San Francisco

3. Dallas, Texas 13. a popular British composer

4. Latin America 14. an English bulldog

5. two miles west 15. Mackinac Island

6. pioneering in the West 16. German composer

7. Thirty-fourth Street 17. Farragut Boulevard

8. Great Salt Lake 18. Elmore County

9. Glacier National Park 19. the Canadian wilderness

10. the Indian Ocean 20. George O'Connor, Jr.

p. 510 EXERCISE 3

1. Cambridge University 14. Memorial Day2. Room 15. Chemistry Department (or C)

3. C 16. Skippy

4. Parkview High School 17. C5. C 18. Bureau of Internal Revenue

6. French 19. Sunset Limited

7. Underwood 20. C8. C 21. American Revolution

9. Arcade Theater 22. Battle, Bunker Hill

10. C 23. Kentucky Derby

11. Interstate Commerce Commission 24. Fairview Country Club

12. Biology 25. Swedish

13. Shafer Hotel

p. 511 EXERCISE 4(Capitalization is optionalfor terms which are enclosed in parentheses in thefollowing

answers.)

1. Mrs. Glenn

Willow Creek

2. Social Studies III

West

War Between the States

3. University of Wisconsin

Lake MendotaMadison

4. Shannon County

(Department of Education)

5. Washington, D.C.

(Senior Class)

(Art Club)

National Gallery of Art

6. Massachusetts Mutual (Building)

St. Nicholas (Collegiate Reformed

Church)

Rockefeller Center

Fifth Avenue

Forty-eighth Street

7. Mr. Frank Mills, Jr.

8. (Village of) Turnerville

Lincoln HighwaySalt Creek

Cameron State Park

9. (State Theater)

Park Hotel

Main Street

Marlborough (Bridge)

Fiona McDonaldScottish

Robert Burns's

English

MondaySamantha Gardner

Gardner Baking CompanyTasty Crust

Avon Park

Gardner General Hospital

10

11


p. 514 EXERCISE 5

1. Captain

2. C3. C4. C5. C6. Vice-President (or C)

7. C8. ex-President (or C, if this is not

taken to refer to a U.S. President.)

9. C10. C11. Lord, His (or his)

12. Aunt

13. Senator


14. Mayor15. C16. The Case of the Missing Mail17. New Republic

18. Monroe Doctrine

CCPost

CGod, His (or no capital for his)

(Note: It would also be correct to

capitalize Whom.)C"Mending Wall"

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

(Capitalization is optional for terms which are enclosed in parentheses in the fol-

lowing answers.)

1. Rotary Club

Edgemont County

Roosevelt Hotel

2. English

Giants in the Earth

Norwegian

Dakotas

3. Professor Schwartz

Idylls of the King

Origin of Species

Rubdiyat of Omar KhayyamA Tale of Two Cities

4. (President)

Dulles International Airport

(Secretary of State)

Europe

5. Springfield Vocational School

Bowman (Engineering Company)Everlast

6. Northwest

South

Madeira Beach, Florida

Gulf of Mexico

7. Christian

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

North America

American Indians

Dr. Eugene Walker, Jr.

History II

Treaty of Versailles

World War I

GermanyAfrican

French

English

League of Nations

Clear LakeHighway 101

South (Southern)

(McKay)(Riding Club)

River RoadVice-President

President

East

Shea Stadium

(World's Fair)

Mets

National League

Chapter 30 Punctuation: End Marks and Commas


. M.D. 1. S.

226 ANSWER KEY

2. truck.

2. "Whew!"3. traffic!"

4. ahead. Although

5. St. (or Street)

7. idea. He8. horn. The

9. do? Anyone10. are!"

11. Dr.

12. annoyed. When17. rear.

17. right!

18. right!"

18. horses!

21. Dr.

(or once.")

(or again!)

(or horses.")

23. heavens!'

24. peace?"

25. curb.

26. once!

29. again.

30. Cant30. you?"

32. blasts.

34. out!"

34. yell.

35. horn'?"

36. Mr.

37. hornblowers.

40. motion. Wouldn't

40. law?"

40. Mr.

p. 524 EXERCISE 2

(In the following answers, optional commas are enclosed in parentheses.)

1. one, 8. responsible,

2. coffee, beans, 9. letters(,)

3. New York, New Jersey, Mary- 10. lonely,

land(,) 11. us, us(,)

4. card, 12. telescopes, installations^)

5. large, pale(,) 13. friendly,

6. expenses, rental, hospitalization^) 14. curb,

7. luggage, coat, 15. pretty, tall(,) (or no commas)

). 526 EXERCISE 3

1. E 5. E 9. E 13. Commas 17. E2. Commas 6. Commas 10. E 14. E 18. E3. Commas 7. E 11. Commas 15. Commas 19. Commas4. E 8. Commas 12. E 16. Commas 20. E

p. 528 EXERCISE 4

(In the following answers, optional commas are enclosed in parentheses.)

1. stage, classroom(,)

2. decorations,

3. personal, public(,)

4. Senator, room, (or no commas)5. everyone,

6. Astronomy, heavens, geography,

7. north, west(,) east,

8. boat, completed, anchor, sleek,

graceful (,)

9. man, minute, and, himself, (Note:

Answers may vary, according to

the way students interpret the sen-

tence.)

10. Board,

p. 530 EXERCISE 5

(/// the following answers, optional commas are enclosed in parentheses.)

1. enough, 2. playing,

,ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITION 227

3. school, lost, confused(,) 7. parties, Ross, satisfied,

4. Well, help, 8. long, crowd, police, orders,

5. period, defense, pass(,) 9. cities, actors, dancers(,)

6. yesterday, cafeteria, corridors(,) 10. driving, unexplainably(,)

p. 532 EXERCISE 6

1. act, free-for-all, audience, crowd,

2. Indeed, answer, friend,

3. book, criticism, have, opinion, {or no commas after have and opinion)

4. painting, Betty, Sanchez

5. artists, hand, doctrines,

6. attack, knew, success,

7. Jibaro, Alonso, is, way,

8. explanation, held, correctly, months(,) England, France(,)

9. in, Christmas,

10. understand, friend, that, so,

11. C12. school, homes, agriculture,

13. price, Henry, car-crazy, Company, buys, sells(,)

14. Jim, house, refrigerator,

15. brothers, Lucian, Louisiana, Monroe, representatives,

16. Well, me, message, reply(,) which, hoped, {or no commas after which andhoped)

17. warning, Joan, better, sleep, admitted,

18. park, retriever, spaniel,

19. apart, Maria, can, necessary,

20. finished, gone, steak, potatoes(,)


{In the following answers, optional commas are enclosed in parentheses.)

1. Trapped on a sand bar by the incoming tide, the amateur clam diggers, Pete and

Don, who could not swim, had to be rescued.

2. In the first semester the following courses in homemaking will be offered: cook-

ing, sewing, interior decoration, baby care and feeding.

3. Our house at 2125 Northern Boulevard, Flushing, New York, was sold, and wemoved to 433 West Thirty-fourth Street, New York City.

4. John Carr, Jr., the only Eagle Scout in the troop, organized the parade,

selected the flag-bearers, hired the band(,) and generally substituted for the

troop leader.

5. In 1935(,) putting the Herald Tribune on microfilm was begun, and we nowhave on microfilm copies of every issue of the Tribune from April 19, 1841, upto its last issue.

6. When Josie, who was driving, tried to show off, her friend(,) Lucille, fearing

an accident, threatened never to ride with her again.

7. In a gesture of good will, Laura, who owns a car, missed the dance on Friday anddrove to see Jan, her girlfriend, who had been hospitalized with pneumonia.

8. When the general called, Stackpole, a major in the RAF, and an official of the

228 ANSWER KEY

British government were standing at the table(,) watching an experiment.

(Answers may vary, according to the way students interpret this sentence.)

9. Some of the workers were eating, some were clearing away debris, and the

sheriff was conferring with the troopers(,) who had just arrived to assist in the

10. Our company, which has a representative in your area, will gladly submit de-

signs for a ranch-type, split-level(,) or colonial house.

11. Maria had moved to Tampa, Florida, on November 19, 1965, and in 1966 she

moved again(,) to Columbus, Ohio.

12. Our research papers, on which we had worked for weeks, were destroyed in

the fire at school. How disappointed we were to find that Mrs. Walker had not

yet read them!

13. When the school, on the one hand, had refused us the use of a bus, and our

parents, on the other hand, had refused us their cars, what other solution was

open to us?

14. In an address delivered on Friday, March 5, in Miami, Florida, she said that the

way to peace is through international economic cooperation, political under-

standing(,) and disarmament.

15. Although the crossbar had trembled as she passed over, the judges declared she

had not touched it and declared her the winner.

Chapter 31 Punctuation: Other Marks of Punctuation

p. 542 EXERCISE 1

1. farms; 6. magazines; 8 times:

2. instruments: follows: spelling;

trumpet; Atlantic, sentences;

clarinet; 210: so's

3. Daily Blade6; and so's

stories: Senior Scholastic9. position: (or

; )

4. 20:78: 10. gifts:

17;4; father;

5: Commonweal, Mother and Child5. Sealark

74:mother;

8:7. Times-News Folksong Favorites

30; (or , )

9:tariffs: (or

; )

p. 546 EXERCISE 2


1. "Do you think," Mrs. Shapiro asked, "that you can be ready at four?"

2. "Let's go, Jean," was all I heard you say.

3. "What," she asked, "have you done with the children?"-

4. "This is a mighty long job," groaned Alice. "We should have started earlier."

5. She asked how old I was, and I replied, "I'm old enough to know better."

6. Mrs. Seegar said, "Does everyone know the beginning of Alexander Pope's line

which ends with the words(,) 'where angels fear to tread'?"

ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND COMPOSITIQN 229

7. "I think that Shakespeare's phrase 'the primrose path' appears in both Mac-

beth and Hamlet, " Sandra replied.

8. "Why, Linda Morgan!" she exclaimed, "How dare you!" (or ?")

9. "Well," they asked, "what about us? Are we what you mean by 'the iunatic

fringe of the class' ?"

10. "We'll be glad to help you, Mrs. Riley,'

all work at it."

I said. "The job won't take long if we

p. 548 EXERCISE 3

1. city's, cities' 5. laborer's, laborers

2. girl's, girls' 6. man's, men's

3. friend's, friends' 7. dog's, dogs'

4. deer's, deer's

8. fox's, foxes'

9. student's, students'

10. church's, churches'

p. 548 EXERCISE 4

1. + 7. girls', boys' 12. Browns' 17. marine's

2. bus's 8. its 13. + (or marines')

3. children's 9. + 14. + 18. +4. + 10. ours 15. its 19. babies'

5. + 11. workers' 16. + 20. +6. yours

p. 550 EXERCISE 5

1. Gail's and Pat's gloves

2. the boys' locker room

3. my sister-in-law's home4. a person's personality

5. Carlos and Bob's boat

6. editor in chief's opinion

7. three dollars' worth

8. Barton and McLean's store

9. Charles Drew's research

10. its top

11. the witnesses' fears

12. a week's delay

13. ten cents' worth

14. the day's events

15. the ladies' wraps

16. the sergeant-at-arms's authority (or

sergeant-at-arms')

17. Tina and Jill's car

18. a ten minutes' wait

19. the moon's rays

20. Johnson and Johnson's products

p. 551 EXERCISE 6

1. girls' locker room

2. a man-of-war's guns

3. It's quite true, isn't it?

4. +5. Let's find out what's up.

6. I've found crying's no use.

7. Stengel and Ford's firm

8. men's shoes

9. What's its meaning?

10. a day's fun

11. Fred and Herb's football

12. Who's in Jean's car?

13. this chain's links

14. I'm sure it's early.

15. They'll play if he lets them.

16. Her parents' (or parent's) opin-

ions are the same as hers.

17. Aren't there two r's in embarrass?

18. women's handbags

19. boys' (or boy's) magazine

/230 ANSWER KEY

20. Her number's two 3's and two 0's. 24. Rosa's and Maria's notebooks (or

21. Bennett and Osborne's publications Rosa and Maria's, if the notebooks

22. + are a joint possession)

23. the boss's office 25. Let's see who's here.



1

In any discussion of the thrilling, unbelievable deeds of America's sports im-

mortals^the feats of Ty Cobb, ^the~Georgia Peach,^ are sure to play a prominent

part. InTiis twenty-three years in the major leagues, Cobb scored more runs^ made

more hits, and stoTe more bases than any other player in history. His lifetime bat-

ting average, the highest ever made, was .367. He finished three seasons with an

average better than .400, won the American League batting championship twelve

times (a feat never equaled), and stole ninety-six bases in one season (1915)—more

than entire teams now steal. To increase his speed, Cobb used to wear heavy shoes

in training so that his playing shoes would feel "fight. He was the first player to

swing three bats while warming up. Pitchers, who usually walk dangerous hitters,

didn't dare walk Cobb—he was too dangerous on the bases. He played twenty-one'

years with the Detroit Tigers, taking time out in 1918 to join the chemical warfare

division of the Army. He waslhe first of baseball's heroes to be represented whenL

in 1939, the Baseball Hall of Fame was opened in Cooperstown, New York.

At 9:30 A.M. on Lincoln's Birthday, which isn't a holiday here, a fire broke out

in the chemistry laboratory of Emerson High School, the big, new, fireproof brick

building on the north side of Oxford Boulevard. The third-period Chemistry II

class, which is composed of seniors, happened to be in the laboratory. Displaying a

senior's presence of mind, the students seized their chemistry notes, tfieir English

texts, and their French notebooks and, shouting with glee, hurled them into the

flames. It was Jerry Montague, I believe, who at this exciting moment appeared in

the doorway carrying one of the school's fire extinguishers. '^'Wow! What a splen-

did conflagration!", he exclaimed. "What's cooking?" As he prepared to warmhimself at the literary bonfire, someone (I am sure it was an accident) knocked a

bottle of sodium into a sink which was full of water. During the ensuing weeks the

principalis squad of detectives did its duty but didn't succeed in finding the

pyromaniac who had caused all the excitement.

3

I was sitting in the front row of the bleachers Wednesday afternoon, waiting for

the start of the fifth inning of our game with^Plainfield High.

"These are Ann Wrighfs books^Sue. She asked me to keep them while she

went back to the high school for a minute, but I've got to go home. Will you watch

them until she gets back?"This unexpected outburst from Jan Cunningham was accompanied by the arrival

in my lap of a pile of literature, science, math^ and French textbooks, a notebook,

and a pencil case. I wondered why some girls carry so many books home. I dropped

Ann's library under the seat and turned back to the game.


Someone^ voice bellowed in my ear, "Knock the cover off it, Meg!" Meg, you

know^is our best hitter. I forgot everything but the game.

At 8:30 that night, Jan telephoned. She wanted to know what Fd done with

Annls books. "Ann's books?" I asked vaguely. "Oh, yes, I guess I left themthere.'

-

*

"Where did you leave them?" Jan sounded desperate.

"Under the bleachers. Ann didn't come for them," I said.

."Yes, she did," Jan explained. "She looked for me, and when she couldn't find

me, she thought I'd taken the books home. Now she hasn't her books, arid it's

pouring outside."

I was sorry when I saw the books the next morning. They had been swollen by

the rain to twice their normal size. Jan said Ann and she were angry. But it wasn't

my fault, was it?

Chapter 32 Information in the Library

p. 569 EXERCISE 2 *

(Answers may vary somewhat.)

1. Table of contents, list of illustrations, appendix, glossary, bibliography, index.

(Note: Some or all of these items may occasionally be found in a book of

fiction. A college edition of the works of an eighteenth-century writer might

include most of the items. An ordinary contemporary novel, however, would

not include any of them.)

2. A printing date, which may or may not appear on the copyright page, merely

tells the year when this copy of the book was printed; the copyright date tells

the year (or years) when material in the book was registered with the United

States Copyright Office.

3. The purpose of a glossary is to give the meaning of technical words used in the

book.

4. A table of contents lists chapter titles (and sometimes subdivisions of chapters)

and gives the number of the page on which a chapter (or a subdivision) begins.

An index lists alphabetically the topics treated in the book, with page numbers.

The table of contents usually appears at the front of the book; the index, at the

back.

5. 1977.

6. 1973, 1969, 1965, 1963, 1957, 1951.

7. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.

8. New York, Chicago, San Francisco, Atlanta, Dallas, and London.

9. The purpose of the Preface is to state for the student the goals of a senior

course in composition. (Answers will vary considerably.)

10. There are nineteen pages in the index.

Chapter 33 Reference Books

p. 587 EXERCISE 2

1. Who's Who gives information about famous British persons and some world

232 ANSWER KEY

figures in other countries. It is published annually. Who's Who in America

gives information about famous Americans. It is published every two years.

2. The Biography Index is a quarterly publication which tells you in what books

and periodicals you will find biographical accounts of almost any person about

whom a book or an article has been published in English. It contains no biog-

raphies. Current Biography is a monthly publication which contains brief biog-

raphies of persons prominent in the news at the time.

3. A world atlas gives maps, and some statistical information, according chiefly to

contemporary political division of the world. A historical atlas gives mapsshowing earlier political divisions of various areas in the world.

4. (1) The Dictionary ofAmerican Biography contains biographies of dead persons

only; Who's Who in America gives information about living persons only.

(2) The Dictionary of American Biography gives fairly full biographies. Who'sWho in America gives only minimal biographical data about each person.

(3) The Dictionary ofAmerican Biography remains essentially as originally pub-

lished, although supplementary volumes are added at intervals. Who's Who in

America is entirely revised and republished every two years.

5. Any four of the following answers are acceptable:

World Almanac and Book of Facts, Information Please Almanac, Americana

Annual, Britannica Book of the Year, Collier's Yearbook, Official Associated

Press Almanac6. Granger's Index to Poetry and Recitations (or possibly the title index in

Stevenson's Home Book of Verse or Home Book of Modern Verse)

7. Granger's Index to Poetry and Recitations

8. Dictionary ofAmerican Biography, Webster's Biographical Dictionary, the dic-

tionary

9. Readers' Guide, Current Biography, Biography Index, Who's Who, Who's Whoin America

10. In Bartlett's Familiar Quotations, the quotations are arranged by authors. In

Stevenson's Home Book of Quotations, the quotations are arranged according

to the subjects with which the quotations deal.

p. 588 EXERCISE 3

1. World Almanac2. Stevenson's Home Book of Quotations

3. card catalogue

4. Statesman's Yearbook

5. Dictionary ofAmerican Biography

6. Readers' Guide

7. Current Biography

8. Stevenson's Home Book of Verse

9. encyclopedia

10. Information Please Almanac11. Bartlett's Familiar Quotations

12. Biography Index

13. Stevenson's Home Book of Quotations

14. card catalogue

15. atlas



17. vertical file

18. Who's Who in America

p. 589 EXERCISE 4


1. Readers' Guide

2. The Reader's Encyclopedia (or a dictionary)

3. card catalogue

4. atlas (or encyclopedia)



7. Biography Index

8. Readers' Guide

9. Biography Index (or MagilKs Cyclopedia of World Authors or a general en-

cyclopedia)

10. Who's Who in America (or an almanac or encyclopedia yearbook)

11. card catalogue

12. almanac

13. encyclopedia (or Readers' Guide)

14. almanac

15. vertical file

16. card catalogue

17. Statesman's Yearbook

18. encyclopedia (or Readers' Guide)

19. The Reader's Encyclopedia

20. Twentieth Century Authors (or Current Biography or an encyclopedia)

Chapter 34 The Dictionary

(Answers to the exercise questions in the chapter on the dictionary will vary, ofcourse, in accordance with what dictionaries are available to the members of the

class. Be sure to have students note the publisher of the dictionary they use in the

exercises, and also to note the edition involved. While it would be best to assign

these exercises as written homework, they may also be adapted for oral classroom

use if the availability of suitable dictionaries is too much of a problem.)



1. a 6. d 11. d 16. d 21. b

2. c 7. d 12. c 17. c 22. c

3. d 8. c 13. a 18. a 23. a

4. c 9. b 14. b 19. c 24. d

5. d 10. a 15. b 20. d 25. a

234 ANSWER KEY

p. 609 EXERCISE 1

(Definitions will vary in wording.)

1. acceded—gave consent, agreed

2. hectic—feverishly active, too busy

3. cabal—group that is secretly plotting

4. cryptic—obscure, mystifying

5. devoid—not possessing, empty

6. eschew—shun, avoid

7. immobilize—make immobile, prevent from moving

8. expiated—atoned for, paid the penalty for

9. empirical—based directly on experience or observation

10. fecundity—fruitfulness

p. 610 EXERCISE 2


1. comprehend—understand fully

2. acquisition—obtaining

3. conjecture—speculation, hypothesizing

4. depopulated—emptied of inhabitants

5. emigrants—persons who leave their native country to settle elsewhere

6. chimerical—visionary, fanciful

7. dupes—victims of a hoax or deception

8. credulous—too ready to believe

9. extravagant—exceeding the limits of reason

10. distempered—deranged, disordered

p. 612 EXERCISE 3


1. antidotes—remedies, substances to counteract the effects of poisons

2. quiescent—temporarily inactive

3. propitious—favorable

4. carnivores—meat-eaters

5. salutary—beneficial, curative

6. subterranean—underground

7. surrogate—substitute, deputy

8. inductive—proceeding from the particular to the general

9. compunction—qualm, twinge of guilt

10. divulge—reveal

p. 613 EXERCISE 4


1. lesion—injury, sore

2. minute—tiny

3. febrile—feverish

4. host—animal on which a parasite lives

5. vectors—carriers of disease germs

6. deduction—reasoning from known facts


7. engorged—filled or swollen with food (blood)

8. parasitic—living on another as a parasite

9. replete—completely full

10. excrete—discharge from the body

p. 618 EXERCISE 5

(Answers may vary slightly depending on which dictionary students use.)

1. from the Latin ahscondere (from abs-, away, and condere, store away, con-

ceal)

2. from the Greek aer

3. from the Latin capere, take {or, for some meanings, from the Latin capsa, box)

4. from the Greek daimon, divinity, spirit

5. from the Latin legalis (from leg-, law)

6. from the Latin legalis, legal

7. from the Latin quartus, fourth

8. from the Greek tyrannos

9. from the Latin votum, vow

p. 620 EXERCISE 6

{Definitions may vary somewhat. )

1. ab/solve (set free from an obligation)

2. a/morphous (without a definite shape)

3. anti/podes (diametrically opposite parts of the earth)

4. bi/ennial (occurring every second year)

5. circum/spect (careful to take everything into account before acting)

6. com/punction (qualm, remorse)

7. ex/cise (delete, remove by cutting out)

8. hypo/dermic (beneath the skin)

9. im/polite (rude)

10. sub/ordinate (lower in rank)

p. 625 EXERCISE 8

1. cavil (also caviler, cavilingness)

2. collation (also collator)

3. demur (also demurral, demurrage, demurrant, demurrer)

4. disbursement (also disbursal, disburser)

5. intercession (also interceder, intercessor)

6. intervention (also intervener, intervenience, interventionism, interventionist,

interventor)

7. prescription (also prescriber, prescript, prescriptionist, prescriptivist)

8. proscription (also proscriber, proscript)

9. stultification

10. verification (also verifiability, verifiableness, verifier)

p. 625 EXERCISE 9

1.0 4. defect

2. 5. notate (also note)

3. 6. rail

236 ANSWER KEY

7. remit (also remise) 9.

8. remunerate 10. verify

p. 625 EXERCISE 10

1. austere

2. complaisant

3. deductive (also deducible)

4. incremental

5. environmental (also environmentalistic)

6. essential

7. excessive

8. prescient

9. prescriptive (also prescript, prescriptible)

10. vituperative (also vituperatory, vituperous)


(The exact placement of the slanting bars may vary in the case ofsome words. The

wording of definitions will also vary.)

1. a/chromat/ic (without color)

2. auto/nom/y (self-government)

3. biblio/phile (book lover)

4. cosm/ic (relating to the universe)

5. crypto/gram (message in code)

6. de/duct/ion (act of taking away; or conclusion reached by reasoning)

7. e/voke (call forth)

8. ex/tort/ion (obtaining money by force or threat)

9. geo/log/y (earth science)

10. in/elig/ible (not suitable to be chosen)

11. in/cap/able (not capable, not able)

12. in/fid/el (one who does not believe in a particular religion)

13. judici/ous (showing good judgment)

14. luc/id (suffused with light, clear) (Note: Students will probably have to use

a dictionary to find this root and suffix.

)

15. nomin/ee (one who receives a nomination)

16. pro/pon/ent (one who advocates something)

17. pseudo/nym (a fictitious name)

18. sub/sequ/ent (following)

19. trans/miss/ion (act of transmitting—sending from one place to another)

20. voci/fer/ous (characterized by a loud outcry)

p. 631 EXERCISE 13

(Answers will vary in wording. Some dictionaries may also give answers which

differ in minor detail from the answers given below.)

abeyance—from Middle French abeance, expectation (eventually, from Latin ad,

to, and Medieval Latin batare, yawn, plus

—

ance)

challenge—from Latin calumniare, accuse falsely

derive—from Latin derivare, divert into a different channel (eventually from de,

from, and rivus, stream)


detriment—from Latin deterere, wear out (eventually from de, away, and terere.

rub), plus

—

mentdirge—from Latin dirige, which is the first word of one part of the Latin liturgy in a

Roman Catholic service performed for the dead

farce—eventually from Latin farcire, to stuff

glamour—from Scottish glamer, magic spell (from English grammar, through a

popular association between book-learning and magic practices)

knave—from Old English cnafa, boy, male servant

lampoon—from French tampon (probably from tampons!—let us drink!—a commonrefrain in seventeenth-century French satirical poems)

melancholy—from Greek melan, black, and chole, bile (because of the old theory

that an excess of black bile caused this condition)

monster—from Latin monstrum, evil omen (probably eventually from Latin mo-

riere, warn)

pedigree—from Middle French pie de grue, crane's foot (from the shape made by

the lines on a genealogical chart)

sabotage—from French saboter, to clatter with wooden shoes, botch, sabotage

(eventually from sabot, wooden shoe)

scandal—from Greek skandalon, trap, stumbling block

vegetable—from Middle Latin vegetare, to grow (from Latin vegetare, to animate,

which is from vegetus, lively, which is based in turn on vegere, to rouse)


1. a 5. b 9. c 13. c 17. b

2. b 6. d 10. c 14. c 18. d

3. d 7. c 11. b 15. c 19. c

4. b 8. a 12. b 16. a 20. d

Chapter 36 Spelling

p. 639 EXERCISE 3

1. foreign

2. brief

3. relieve

4. conceive

5. veil

6. niece

7. ceiling

8. grief

9. piece

10. receive

11. retrieve

12. sleigh

13. achieve

14. handkerchief

15. perceive

16. thief

17. siege

18. seize

19. believe

20. weird

21. receipt

22. belief

23. fiend

24. leisure

p. 640 EXERCISE 4

1. overrate

2. habitually

3. disagree

4. greenness

5. immaterial

6. disappoint

7. misapprehend

8. practically

9. unabated

10. casually

11. unnatural

12. stubbornness

13. illegal

14. inappropriate

15. disappear

16. immovable17. reconstruct

18. inanimate

19. dissimilar

20. keenness

21. misspell

22. misuse

23. unavoidable

24. merrily

238 ANSWER KEY

p. 642 EXERCISE 5

1. deferred 6. ninety 12. controlled 18. famous

2. deference 7. preparing 13. hopeless 19. nameless

3. hoping 8. profiting 14. moving 20. reddest

4. approval 9. writing 15. truly

5. benefited (or 10. propelling 16. running

benefitted) 11. desirable 17. singeing

p. 645 EXERCISE 6

1. candies 6. cameos 11. flies 16. editors in chief

2. sheep 7. torches 12. altos 17. spoonfuls

3. pianos 8. chiefs 13. brothers-in- law 18. heroes

4. valleys 9. tomatoes 14. shelves 19. knives

5. alumni 10. gases (or gasses) 15. benches 20. geese

p. 647 EXERCISE 8

1. already 6. all ready 11. cloths 16. clothes

2. altogether 7. capital 12. alter 17. capital

3. borne 8. alter 13. capitol 18. brakes

4. altar 9. born 14. all together 19. all right

5. break 10. all right 15. borne 20. all together

p. 649 EXERCISE 9

1. consul 6. formally 11. its 16. deserted

2. dessert 7. its 12. counselor 17. counselor

3. coarse 8. compliments 13. course 18. led

4. formerly 9. course 14. latter 19. course

5. councilor 10. Desert 15. compliment 20. complement

p. 651 EXERCISE 10

1. minor 6. principal 11. principal 16. passed

2. morale 7. principle 12. piece 17. moral

3. Peace 8. lose 13. loose 18. past

4. plain 9. quiet 14. personnel 19. minor

5. personnel 10. miner 15. quiet 20. principles


1. their 6. than 11. your 16. than

2. too 7. you're 12. who's 17. two

3. waist 8. waste 13. they're 18. who's

4. stationary 9. too 14. stationery 19. your

5. whose 10. stationery 15. You're 20. waste


1. capital 3. complimented 5. course 7. desert

2. all right 4. counselor 6. already 8. formerly


9. its 17. latter 25. complementary 33. all right

10. led 18. principal 26. passed 34. plain

11. all ready 19. It's 27. all together 35. wastepaper

12. lose 20. altogether 28. personnel 36. principles

13. morale 21. council 29. its 37. their

14. coarse 22. capital 30. principal 38. counselor's

15. piece 23. all ready 31. stationary 39. Whose16. altar 24. Coarse 32. who's 40. complimentary

Chapter 37 College Entrance and Other Examinations

Note: Answers to all the textbook exercises in the chapter "College Entrance and

Other Examinations" will be found on page 689 of the textbook.

ANSWER KEY TO Teaching Tests

Chapter 1 The Parts of Speech

A. (3 points each)

1. n. 6. v. 11. adj. 16. adv.

2. prep. 7. n. 12. prep. 17. v.

3. pron. 8. adj. 13. adj. 18. v.

4. adv. 9. conj. 14. n. 19. prep.

5. adj. 10. prep. 15. pron. 20. adv.

B. (4 points foi• each sentence)

21. on 24. adequately 27. This, sensible 30. It, who22. grammatically 25. on, to 28. while

23. all, their 26. place 29. schools, programs

Chapter 2 The Parts of a Sentence

A. (3 points for each lettered blank)

1. (a) Harvard

2. (a) number

3. (a) Yale, Princeton

4. (a) country

5. (a) Thomas Jefferson

6. (a) He7. (a) Many8. (a) Congress

9. (a) bill

10. (a) Some

(b)is

(b) were established (or were)

(b) were

(b) had

(b) initiated

(b) planned, gathered

(b) followed, established

(b) passed

(b) set

(b) have become

B. (4 points for each sentence)

11. invasion (d.o.)

12. Sudetenland (d.o.)

13. excuse (p.n.)

14. Germans (p.n.)

15. uneasy (p. a.)

Chapter 3 The Phrase

16. destruction (d.o.), afraid (p. a.)

17. none

18. them (i.o.), word (d.o.)

19. rest (d.o.)

20. clear (p. a.), inevitable (p. a.)

A. (4 points for each sentence)

PHRASE

1. without water

KIND OF PHRASE

adv.

TEACHING TESTS 241

PHRASE KIND OF PHRASE

2. in their humps adv.

3. In 1954 adv.

4. of their research adj.

5. none

6. on an evaporation process adv.

7. of this water adj.

8. on any such "icooling

system" adv.

9. During a long, hot day adv.

10. of 108 degrees adj.

B. (4 points each)

11. appos. 15. ger. 19. ger. 23. ger.

12. part. 16. inf. 20. inf. 24. part.

13. inf. 17. part. 21. inf. 25. appos

14. appos. 18. part. 22. ger.

Chapter 4 The Clause

A.

l.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

(4 points for each sentence)

since it was established in 1890

which march by at intervals

who ride the floats

which ones won prizes

which are entered by commercial firms

after the parade is over

who will be the Tournament Queen

because the parades were beginning to take too much time

that the parade should not take over two hours to pass any given

point along the route

which is played in the afternoon

which teams will participate

that are invited to play in the Rose Bowlwhich can seat about 100,000 people

Before the football games were established

who now watch it on television

which is ideal for color telecasting

adv.

adj.

adj.

noun

adj.

adv.

noun

none

adv.

noun

adj.

noun

adj.

adj.

none

none

adv.

none

adj.

adj.

B. (4 points each)

21. Cx 22. S 23. S 24. Cd 25. Cd-Cx

242 ANSWER KEY

Grammar Mastery Test

A. (2 points each)

1. n. 5. adj. 9. adj. 13. n.

2. pron. 6. pron. 10. v. 14. prep.

3. adv. 7. v. 11. conj. 15. prep.

4. conj. 8. adv. 12. pron.

B. (7 point for each lettered blank)

16. (a) you (b) will find

17. (a) lobster (b) is

18. (a) it (b) is related (or is)

19. (a) shrimps, lobsters (b) are

20. (a) look (b) should convince

C. (2 points for each sentence)

21. name (p.n.)

22. people (i.o.). freedoms (d.o.)

23. freedom (d.o.)

D. (2 points each)

26. prep. 29. prep. 32. part.

27. ger. 30. inf. 33. prep.

28. inf. 31. appos. 34. ger.

24. broad, sweeping (p. a.)

25. none

35. part.

E. (1 point for each underlined clause; 1 point for each blank)

36. that practices ventriloquism adj.

37. who has ever explored a marshland during the spring adj.

38. Although the bittern's call is easy to identify adv.

39. Whoever tries to spot a bittern or find its nest noun

40. while the bird is actually standing in a different location adv.

41. that the bittern also provides an excellent example of the use of pro-

tective coloration noun

42. When a bittern is alarmed adv.

43. which is marked with a vertical black stripe adj.

44. in which the bittern lays its eggs adj.

45. Since the nest is made of reeds and stalks adv.

F. (2 points each)

46. Cx 47. S 48. Cx 49. Cd 50. Cd-Cx

Chapter 6 Agreement

A. (3 points each)

TEACHING TESTS 243

1. takes 4. dominate 7. C2. C 5. C 8. has

3. is 6. is 9. C

B. (3 points each)

11. C 14. C 17. he (or she)

12. his 15. he 18. her

13. his 16. C 19. himself


21. has 24. her 27. depends

22. were 25. he brings 28. C23. varies 26. C 29. are

10. are

20. C

30. his


A. (2 points for each lettered blank)

1. (a) subj. (b) She 6. (a) subj. (b) they

2. (a) obj.p. (b) her 7. (a) obj.p. (b) us

3. (a) obj.p. (b) me 8. (a) obj.v. (b) me4. (a) p.n. (b) she 9. (a) subj. (b) we5. (a) obj.v. (b) her 10. (a) p.n. (b) she

B. (3 points each)

11. who 14. whom 17. who 19. whom12. whom 15. whom 18. Whom 20. whom13. who 16. who


21. myself I 26,-she- her

22. -her- she 27. -us- we

23. C 28. -yeu- your

24. C 29.-+- me25. him his 30. C

Chapter 8 Correct Form and Use of Verbs


gave

Cdone

4. drove

5.

6. believe

i. give

2. Cbelieved

244 ANSWER KEY

7. -visit- visited 14. conic cameC H run It' drank 15. C9. -handicapped- handicap 16. begun began

10. 4a4d- lay 17. rode ridden

11. .^ar-e- cared 18. .wor-e- worn12. -come- came 19. 4ay- laid

13. -FUftg- rang 20. raise raised


21. -are-started have started 31. would-have written had written

22. was- were 32. -4s— was23. -are dead having been dead 33.4s— was24. having been being 34. had been have been

25. C tJJ • TTTararvTi insists

2fi will h.^vp hf*pnMVt TT III I Id V tTXTX'TT will be 36. -was— were

27. C 37. C28. -are- were 38. -Seeing- Having seen

29. 4s was ^0 Vtr-ifi fnrnr>Hanjy . iiuu t\j\ g*Ji icii have forgotten

30. -to- hav^- listened to listen 40. has had had



1. dcliciously delicious 9. anyone anyone else

2. badly bad 10. C3. C 11. -slow slowly

4. good - well 12. -bitterly bitter

5. easy easily 1.5. oao badly

6. miserably miserable 14. -any any other

7. most latest latest 15. -werse- worst

8. easiest easier

B. (4 points each)

16. more slowly 20. more practical 23. any other

17. better 21. blissfully 24. better

18. funnier 22. more firmly 25. less

19. better


A . (4 pointsfor each sentence) Note: Forsome sentences there may be several accept-able ways ofcorrecting the error. The teacher should decide whether individual

variationsfrom the answers below are correct

.

1. which- who 4. C2. where that 5. effec t- affect

3. inferred implied 6. -ways- way

TEACHING TESTS 245

/ •' some somewhat 14. 4n- into

8. C 15. 4heirselves themselves

9. -or- nor 16. 4ess- fewer

10. -off-of- from 17. credible credulous

11.4ike- as if 18. C12. C 19. illusions allusions

1«5. H^tftCl Or rather •lit * d ill vl Li 1 11

'

number

B. (4 points each)

21. that kind {or those kinds) of people

22. He could hardly {or could not) finish it.

23. jumped off the ledge

24. Those data are {or That datum is) in the file.

25. this kind of answer

Usage Mastery Test


1. -are- is 5. their her

2. -4s— are 6. C3. seem seems 7. are is

4. C

8. -they he

9. .were was

10. -their-, his {or her)


11. -he* she 15. C 18. -she her

12. -me my 16. C 19. C13. ^e— her 11 ^VKir>m Who 20. -she heri/. wnom14. -we- us

C. (2 points each)

21. began 25. gone 29. spoken

22. brought 26. knew 30. tore

23. chosen 27. lain

24. drank 28. saw

D. (2 points for each sentence)

31. would have4eld had told

32. saw had seen

33. -have keen- be

34. C"*5 DpinoJJ. xrCrttg- Having been

E. (2 points for each sentence)

36. carefu l carefully

37. most wonderfullest most wonderful

38. peculiarly peculiar

39. C40. -best better

246 ANSWER KEY

F. (2 points each)

41. B 43. A 45. A 47. B 49. C42. B 44. A 46. B 48. A 50. C

Chapters 11 and 12 Sentence Completeness;Coordination and Subordination

A. (4 points for each numbered line)Ay

(1) There have been epic poems written in many languages, Includinga, J

(2) Greek, Latin, and Anglo-Saxon/ As well as most modern European lan-

(3) guages. The oldest epics in European literature are two famous works

(4) attributed to Homer/JTtie Iliad and the Odyssey. Although the Iliadm

si/

(5) describes the exploits of many different Greek and Trojan heroes^fts

(6) central character is Achilles^ 7he mightiest of the Greek warriors.

(7) The Odyssey tells of the wanderings of Odysseus^ After the end of the

(8) Trojan War. The best-known Latin epic is, of course, Virgil's Aeneid/9

(9) Which imitates the technique of the Homeric epics. Virgil's hero,

(10) Aeneas, also wanders for years after the Trojan War/ And encounters

B. (4 points for each numbered line)

(11) During the Middle Ages, a few writers deliberately tried to con-

(12) tinue the tradition of the classical epic,.*hese writers typically

(13) drew their material from classical legends. Jrsually they wrote in

(14) Latin, rather than in a vernacular language. The most interesting

(15) heroic poetry of the Middle Ages, however, did not stem from the

(16) classical tradition^ was poetry that was written in the vernac-

(17) ular and that drew on new bodies of legendary material. There were

(18) two groups of legends which were especially populai>/vne was the

(19) Arthurian group, concerning King Arthur and his knights^/Tegends

(20) about Roland and other semi-mythical heroes of Charlemagne's court

C. (4 points each) Answers may vary somewhat.

21. Stephen Crane wrote The Red Badge of Courage when he was only twenty-

two.

22. Although Crane had never fought in a war himself, his book shows great insight

into the reactions of a young soldier.

23. Henry Fleming, a young recruit in the Union Army, is the hero of the book.

24. During his first battle Fleming panics and runs away under fire.

25. After the battle he finally rejoins his regiment, camped in the woods.

TEACHING TESTS 247

Chapters 13 and 14 Clear Reference; Placement of Modifiers

A. (4 points eac/i) A/iswers h>i// vary.

l.-he— my father (or the driver)

2. one a question

3. them the crates

4. -they- the outlaws (or the sheriff, etc.)

5.-4*— chemistry

6. C7.4t- that he is boring

8. C9. 4h#y- road conditions

10. 4t- everything

B. (4 points each) Answers will vary somewhat.

11. She stared with open amazement at the poster Roger was calmly tacking up.

12. Coming to class late and without their books, the boys were sent to the office

by their teacher.

13. A nation with high living standards can help less fortunate nations to raise their

living standards.

14. After debating Mr. Miller's suggestion, the club members adopted it in a mod-

ified form.

15. Sitting on a bench high above the bank, Elizabeth gazed dreamily down at the

river.

16. After I had learned to cook in my dietetics class, Dad was surprised at mycooking ability.

17. C18. The report that you submitted contained several factual errors.

19. He decided not to get into an argument with his father if he could help it.

20. The university believes that the new building, designed by a well-known ar-

chitect, will add to the beauty of the campus.

21. After spending three hours at his after-school job, Howie still had to do his

homework.

22. C23. According to state law, no one whose driver's license has been revoked is al-

lowed to drive a car.

24. Without protest, Ellen did the tasks that had been assigned to her by the prin-

cipal.

25. We were taught several different methods of solving algebraic equations.

Chapters 15 and 16 Parallel Structure; Unnecessary Shifts

in Sentences

A. (5 points each) Answers will vary somewhat.

1. Some families have to have a car which is newer, larger, and more expensive

than their neighbors/ £*sLo^.

248 ANSWER KEY

2. Mrs. Richards was expectedjbothko supervisenhe playground and the swimming

pool. .

3. To many students, being a success oooially is more important than scholastic

success.

4. My parents are always talking to me about being thrifty, saving my earnings, andim H\ hi

that I ohomd make out a budget.

5. Knowing how to repair a tire and start a stalled motor is more important in this

job than whether you Know how to fill a gas tank.

6. Two of the most important tasks of the Economic and Social Council are rais-

ing living standards and promotion or respect for human rights.

7. Although her study of animals was not so extensive as^plants. Ynes Mexia, the

explorer, enjoyed studying all forms of wildlife.

8. She is an excellent tennis player because she is fast, accurate, and pfayo aggros

.sivol y.

B. (6 points each) Answers will vary somewhat.

9. Juanita took one look at the noisy crowd in the school cafeteria and nearly

•dccldeaoo skip lunch that day.

10. Each student taking the placement test should be sure to have three or four

sharpened pencils with him. and ye« should also bring a ballpoint pen.

11. Navy pilots have been searching the area all day^ but no traces of the missing

plane have been found by thorn .

12. Parents should know what their children's interests are and whether they are the

right kind for yew children.

13. Two members of the varsity team broke training-, and ncvoro reprimandoTvere-

Fee ivcdby bu ih o f iliuih-

14. Those of us favoring the proposal expected a long, angry debate, but no serious\

opposition waa encountered.

15. Tht nidttiidl r»/irst cut^tccording to the pattern; then baste it and try it on for

fit.

16. C

17. The school lends musical scores free of charge/ and musical instruments

are rented at low rates.

18. C

Chapters 17 and 18 Sentence Conciseness; Sentence Variety


1. They continually point out again and again that the automobile has brought with

-4- slaughter to our -streets and roads i n this country.

TEACHING TESTS 249

2. They also argue to th e effe ct that cars have increased the amount of crime by

facilitating the criminal's getaway and making it easier for criminals to flee the

scene of a crime .

3. We must bear in mind and never forget, however, that there are two sides to

every argument.

4. The automobile with its greater speed of movement helps to save many lives

which would have been lost in the -former days of the horse-and-buggy doctor.

5. Modern law enforcement is greatly strengthened by the roving police car. al-

ways on the alert and ready to speed quickly to the scene of a crime anywhere.

B. (5 points for each sentence) Answers may vary somewhat.

6. Our tickets which we bought for the senior play cost two dollars apiece.

7. Rachel Lighter, who was the principal speaker of the evening, told some

humorous anecdotes about her experiences as a camp director.

8. Many, publications Tlmt are devoted to education utilize comic-book techniques.

9. Some^firms that arc engaged in industry explain their safety regulations in car-

toons or comic strips.

10. The firms distribute pamphlets in comic-book form showing the consequencesof

s that will follow/carelessness or failure to take precautions.

11. Anything that looks even remotely like a comic book seems to have an^appeal

that is irresistible .

12. This is not to say that literary classics which have been redone into comic

books make thoughtful parents and people who arc educators happy.

C. (5 points each) Answers will vary somewhat.

uaUo13. A college admissions officer, spoke to the junior and senior classes, and 3he

explained the admission situation from the colleges' point of view.

14. Atudemts can apply to six or seven colleges/ They cany -however/ attend only

one of them.

15. Each of the colleges receiving their applications will correspond with their high

school^ &ach college will arrange for tests or interviews.

A college inaynuve room for or

ceive five thousand applications.

16. A college fnaynuve room for only five hundred entering freshmen, -ft may re-

17. The admissions officer recommended erne-thing strongly-?-H*igh school students

should consult their guidance counselor before applying to a college.

18. Studonto may have only average scholastic ability, and /he guidance counselor^

will discourage these studentsfroTn applyirfg to a highly selective colleger

250 ANSWER KEY

eing Tu19. Truly outstanding students may fear being turned down by the college of their

choice.-und nu llity may want to apply to a dozen different colleges, -a«€l- /he

guidance counselor will discourage these students too from making foolish and

unnecessary applications.

20. By making fewer applications, students will save time and money for them-

selves/ Tl i cy will also aavc t i me and money for the colleges .by doing thin.



1. Fearing that my fond parents would see me, I beat a hasty retreat .

2. After all is said and done, each and every one of us owes a debt of gratitude to

the Board of Education.

3. Stubborn as a mule, Bill stayed in the examination room, busy as a bee to the

bitter end .

4. Whoever gives his all to the pursuit of the almighty dollar will be doomed to

disappointment .

5. Girls like her are few and far between .

6. She looked so hale and hearty that I was green with envy when I saw her, and I

told her so in no uncertain terms.

7. When she felt her adversary's viselike grip on her arm, she turned white as a

sheet and shook like a leaf .

8. It is an irony of fate that this bank robber, after eluding the guardians of the law

for so many years, should be tracked to earth through a traffic violation.

9. To make a long story short, our hero returned to the straight and narrow path a

sadder but wiser man.

10. In the depths of despair, we threw ourselves upon the tender mercies of our

captors.

B. (5 points each)

11. D 12. C 13. C 14. B 15. A

C. (5 points for each correctly identified expression)

Although many people do not realize it, engineering is a very broad field madeup of a number of technical specializations. The work of an electrical engineer whodesigns computing machines has little in common with the work of a civil engineer

who messes around with city drainage, and a competent aeronautical engineer maynot know beans about building an atomic reactor. Since no one guy could hope to

master all the specialties, the fellows in engineering colleges concentrate on a single

area almost from the start of their studies. A second-year student who plans to

TEACHING TESTS 251

become a chemical engineer, for instance, will already be taking one or two chem

courses in addition to his basic engineering courses.

Chapter 29 Capitalization

A. (2 points each)

1. B 5. B 9. B 13. A 17. B2. N 6. N 10. A 14. B 18. A3. A 7. A 11. N 15. N 19. B4. A 8. B 12. B 16. B 20. A


21. captain 29. scientist, rub

22. summer 30. colleges {or eastern colleges)

23. English, You 31. mathematics

24. C 32. capital

25. professor 33. Speak

26. century 34. gods

27. C 35. Chapter, of

28. Company

Chapters 30 and 31 Punctuation

A. {4 points each)

1. exciting

2. sister,

3. player,

4. C

5. way,

6. explorer,

7. said

8. Seattle,

9. C10. Williams,

B. (4 points each)

11. terms:

12. Saturday;

13. scholarships:

14. plans; (or :)

15. C

C. (4 points each)

16. Who wrote the poem "Elegy in a Country Churchyard"?

17. "If I'd known that you were going to the party," Norris said, "I'd have offered

you a ride."

18. Aldous Huxley's essay "Music at Night" appears in the anthology Adventures

in English Literature.

19. Jenny announced proudly, "I've learned to play 'The Star-Spangled Banner' on

the piano."

20. Barbara told me that she had seen the movie version of Hamlet on television.

D. (4 points each)

21. This book is hers.

22. three fourths of the members

252 ANSWER KEY

23. Your2's look like 7's.

24. Bob is an ex-president of the club.

25. The problem is explained on page 135 (see Figure 3).

Chapters 32 and 33 Information in the Library; Reference Books

A. (5 points each)

1. B 3. C 5. A 7. B 9. B2. D 4. C 6. C 8. C 10. B

B. (5 points each)

11. B 13. A 15. A 17. A 19. C12. C 14. B 16. C 18. A 20. B

Chapter 34 The Dictionary

A. (5 points each)

1. C 3. B 5. C 7. A 9. B

2. C 4. A 6. B 8. B 10. C

B. (5 points each)

11. A 13. A 15. B 17. B 19. D12. C 14. C 16. A 18. B 20. A


A. (3 points each)

1. B 3. L 5. F 7. G 9. A2. C 4. D 6. H 8. I 10. E

B. (3 points each)

11. F 13. B 15. A 17. L 19. I

12. G 14. H 16. E 18. J 20. C

C. (4 points each)

21. C 23. B 25. D 27. B 29. c22. A 24. B 26. A 28. D 30. A

Chapter 36 Spelling

A. (2 points each)

1. unknown

2. glorious

3. serviceable

4. really

5. enduring

6. kindliness

7. trueness

8. truly

9. skimming

10. slyness

TEACHING TESTS 253

B. (2 points each)

11. sons-in-law

12. spoonfuls

13. tomatoes

14. solos

C. (3 points each)

21. abundant

22. psychology

23. hindrance

24. embarrass

D. (3 points each)

31. lose

32. complimented

33. desert

34. led

15. symphonies

16. turkeys

17. mixes

25. tried

26. safety

27. license

35. than

36. stationery

37. morale

18. choices

19. leaves

20. species

28. expensive

29. permissible

30. vinegar

38. past

39. minor

40. all ready

Mechanics Mastery Test

A. (2 points each)

1. A 3. B 5. N 7. A 9. N2. B 4. B 6. A 8. A 10. B

B. (2 points each)

11. faded, 15. Frolic, 18. C12. leave, 16. Prinz, teacher, 19. fire, jokes

13. clocks, fish, 17. Yes, 20. name,14. Alaska,

C. (2 points each)

21. city; 23. C 25. year;

22. subjects: 24. Luxembourg;

D. (2 points for each sentence)

26. "I can't find a copy of Dickens' A Tale of Two Cit ies anywhere in the library,"

Belinda said to me.

27. Does the assignment include the last chapter, "Civics and Your Future"?28. We asked him whether this month's issue of the Reader's Digest was on sale

yet.

29. Janet exlaimed excitedly, "Mr. McGinley is going to let me play in the gameFriday!"

30. The drama director said that he could think of nothing more ridiculous than a

high school production of Hamlet.

E. (2 points for each sentence)

31. twins 33. C32. seventy-five, year's 34. president-elect

35. Let's, men's

254 ANSWER KEY

F. (1 point for each numbered line)

(36) Lorraine Hansberry.I feel^made an important contribution to the American

(37) stage. She is best known for her first play, A Raisin in the Sun , which

(38) opened on March 1 1^ 1959. It received an award from New York critics.

(39) The play was later made into a successful movie starring Sidney Poitier,

(40) Ossie Davis, and Ruby Dee. Her final p\ay Jlie Sign in Sidney Brustein's

(41) Window, also won critical acclaim,/hortly after the play's opening on

(42) Joroadway, Hansberry died. Her death was a great loss for America.

(43) Another writer I admire is Gwendolyn Brooks. The Bean Eaters is my

(44) favorite poem by her. A Street in Bronzeville , her first book, contains

(45) many other poems I have enjoyed. The American Jfcademy of jarts and/etters

(46) gave Brooks an award shortly after its publication. In 1949 Brooks A nnie

(47) Allen was awarded the Pulitzer Prize. One critic has said, She is one

(48) of America's most admired poets." Born in Topeka, Kansas^Brooks grew up

(49) in Chicago, where she graduated from Wilson/unior /ollege. Much of her

(50) poetry reflects Chicago life; however.her messages are universal.

G. (1 point for each sentence)

51. principal 53. audience

52. all right 54. succeed, seizing

55. churches

H. (/ point each)

56. readiness

57. withhold

58. awfully

59. dissimilar

60. potatoes

61. hospital

62. exhibition

63. consistent

64. mysterious

65. temperature

COLLEGE ENTRANCE AND OTHER EXAMINATIONS

Synonyms, Antonyms, and Word Analogies

1. B 7. C 13. C 19. D 25. C2. A 8. A 14. C 20. A 26. B

3. E 9. B 15. D 21. D 27. E4. B 10. B 16. B 22. A 28. E5. C 11. D 17. C 23. D 29. E

6. A 12. E 18. A 24. E 30. C

Words in Context

1. c 4. E 7. E 10. C 13. A2. A 5. D 8. D 11. E 14. B

3. C 6. B 9. A 12. D 15. D

TEACHING TESTS 255

Reading Comprehension

1. B 3. E 5. C 7. C2. B 4. D 6. A 8. B

Sentence Correction

1. c 3. E 5. B 7. A 9. A2. C 4. A 6. E 8. B 10. D

Error Recognition

1. D 4. A 7. C 10. A 13. E2. E 5. C 8. E 11. B 14. A3. D 6. B 9. D 12. E 15. B

Construction Shifts

1. B 3. B 5. A 7. B 9. A2. C 4. E 6. D 8. E 10. B

Organization

1. B 4. D 7. B 10. B 12. B2. C 5. C 8. D 11. D 13. A3. A 6. E 9. E

Taste and Sensitivity

1. D 4. E 7. C 10. D 13. C2. B 5. A 8. E 11. E 14. D3. C 6. A 9. B 12. A 15. B

The Interlinear Exercise

The following answers are meant merely to call attention to the errors in the pas-

sages and to show one possible way of correcting each error. In some cases there

may be several acceptable ways of correcting an error besides the one shown here.

Not only in the eighteenth century, but(onwards) from the days of^- —

Xenophon, innumerable attempts had been made to write historical novels.

Some of the attempts, -a*The French heroic romances of the seventeenth

century, -frare been successful in -rts- generation; but for one reason or

another, all ([n the long7un)had failedfTo understand the difference

between Scott's work •frSfftnat of his predecessors' and why he

succeeded whenTney did not^ith what intentions those predecessors

256 ANSWER KEY

had turned to the past for the setting of their stories. muot bo

co nside red-. In some cases they had done it not because they were

Awfully hostile to extemporaneous life, o r bored by i^ But merely

because they were full of curiosity -eE-aft fantiquarianynuture about-

tfiVll ll •€the past or+htrt- they wanted to make historical studies palatable to

the reader by presenting if in the guise of fiction.

2

Most of us today think of the Dutch as a peace-loving people,/his

view is largely1S«*- out by recent history. There was a time, however,

when the Dutch were considered by many nations as belligerent, warlikr

competitors in the international struggle for world power. This period

began about 1600, shortly after^its independence from Spain. had been

won by Holland . Holland was then, as now, a small *ree country. Its

frontiers were not fortified, and itnad Scarce! y)ne-real land army.

Its chief strength -te* in its large merchant fleet, whicj^had made the

country(not only}wealthy but also gave it command of the seas. In the

Orient, the armed trading vessels of the Dutch East India Company

fought British merchantmen for control of trade with India and in the

Spice Islands. In the Western Hemisphere, Dutch ships engaged in contra-

band trade with Spanish and Portuguese colonies-frequently aloo attacking

the merchant vessels of other countries and seizing their cargoes. Small

wonoQr that%roughout the seventeenth century the Dutch found themselves

almost continually at war moot of tho time with one or another of their

European neighbors.

Tab Key Index

TAB KEY INDEX

GRAMMAR

1 The Parts of Speech

1a Noun, 53

1b Pronoun, 53, 54

1d Verb, 54

1e Adverb, 54

2 The Parts of a Sentence

2g-h Direct and indirect objects, 56

2i-j Subject complements, 57

3 The Phrase

3b-d Prepositional phrase, 58

3e-f Participial phrase, 59

3g-h Gerund phrase, 59

3k Appositive, 60

7 Correct Use of Pronouns

7b-e Nominative and objective forms, 74

7f Who and whom, 75

7h-j Other problems, 76

8 Correct Form and Use of

Verbs

8a Irregular verbs, 78

8b-h Tenses, 80

S\-\ Voice and mood, 80

9 Correct Use of Modifiers

9a-b Adjective and adverb forms,

81

9c-f Comparison, 82

10 Glossary of Usage

4b-c

4d

4e-f

4g-h

USAGE

5

6

6c

6d-f

6g-i

6j-s

6t

The Clause

Adjective clause, 61

Noun clause, 62

Adverb clause, 62

Sentence classification,

63-64

COMPOSITION:SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Levels of Usage

Agreement

Intervening phrase betweensubject and verb, 69

Indefinite pronouns, 70

Compound subjects, 70

Other agreement problems,71

Pronoun and antecedent, 72

11

12

12a

12b

12d

13

14

14a

14b

15

15a

15b

15c

Sentence Completeness

Coordination and

Subordination

Coordinate ideas, 87

Adverb clauses, 88

Faulty coordination, 90

Clear Reference

Placement of Modifiers

Misplaced modifiers, 91

Dangling modifiers, 92

Parallel Structure

Kinds of parallel structure, 93

Correlative conjunctions, 94

Repetition of a needed word,

95

18

18a

18b

19

Unnecessary Shifts in

Sentences

Sentence Conciseness

b Avoiding wordiness, 97

Overwritten style, 98

Sentence Variety

Avoiding monotony, 99

Avoiding "stringy" style, 100

Effective Diction

19a Trite expressions, 100

19b Jargon, 101

19c-h Figures of speech, 101-02

19i Slang and informal English,

102

19j Meaning and connotation,102

20 Exercises in SentenceRevision

COMPOSITION

21 The Paragraph

21d-e Topic sentence, 106-07

21f-h Unity and coherence, 107

22 Expository Writing

22c-d Outlining, 109

22e-f Writing and revising, 111

22h Exposition that defines, 112

22i Exposition that informs, 112

23 Making Writing Interesting

24 Language and Logic

24a-c The proposition, 117

24d Evidence, 118

24e-f Inductive reasoning, 118

24g Deductive reasoning, 119

24h-i Clear thinking, 119

24j Propaganda, 120

25 Exercises in Composition

26 The Research Paper

26a Finding a subject, 124

26c Preliminary outline, 125

26d Note cards, 125

26f-g Writing the paper, 126

27 The Business Letter

27a Letter form, 128

27b Kinds of letters, 128

MECHANICS

28 Manuscript Form

29 Capitalization

30 Punctuation

30a-e End marks, 133

30i Commas, 134

31 Punctuation

31g-h Underlining (italics), 135

31 l-n The apostrophe, 135

AIDS TO GOOD ENGLISH

32 Information in the Library

32a

32b32c

32d

Arrangement of books, 137

Card catalogue, 137

Parts of a book, 138

Readers' Guide, 138

33 Reference Books

34 The Dictionary

34a

34b

34c

Kinds of dictionaries, 142

Content and arrangement,142

Special dictionaries, 143

35 Vocabulary

35a

35dContext clues, 145

Word analysis, 145 E

F 1

36 SpellingG 2

H 3

1 4

36a-i Spelling rules, 147 J 5

HERITAGE EDITION

m Harcourt Brace Jovanovich

:-0-15-311917-9

Warriner's English Grammar and Composition Teacher's Manual Complete Course

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Transcript of Warriner's English Grammar and Composition Teacher's Manual Complete Course