WAR, WARFARE

AND

ENVIRONMENTPresented by:

M.Phil (1st semester)

Usman Arshad (02)

Isma Haq (01)

Mehwish Jameel (04)

Sumaira Roshan (05)

SPECIES

HABITAT

ECOSYSTEM

COMMUNITY

BIOSPHERE

POLLUTION IN TERMS OF ENTROPY

TOXIC AGENTS

Presented by:

ISMA HAQ

OVERVIEW

¶ TOXIC CHEMICAL AGENTS

¶ BIOTOXINS

¶ INFECTIOUS AGENTS

¶ EXPLOSIVE SUBSTANCES

WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION

Any weapon or device that is intended, or has the

capability, to cause death or serious bodily injury

to a significant number of people through the

release, dissemination, or impact of:

Toxic or poisonous chemicals or their precursors

A disease organism

Radiation or radiactivity

CHEMICAL WARFARE HISTORY:

WORLD WAR I

Large-scale use of CW

1915: Germans deployed

150 tons chlorine gas

15,000 wounded

1,000 deaths

Psychologically devastating

High volatility limited usefulness

CHEMICAL WARFARE: WWI

1917: Germans used

Sulfur mustard

Artillery shells

Many casualties

Overwhelmed system

<5% died

High persistence

Contaminated large areas

CHEMICAL TERRORISM:

IRAQI KURDS

1988: Iraq bombed

their Kurds with mustard,

nerve and cyanide gas

Over 5,000 died

75% women and children

CLASSES OF CHEMICAL AGENTS

Chemical Agents

Lethal Agents

Nerve Agents Blistering Agents

Blood Agents Choking Agents

Riot control or tear gas

Dynamic Phase of Toxicity

POTENTIAL TERRORIST AGENTS

Chlorine (Cl2) First military poison in World War I

Strong oxidizer that forms acids and is especially damaging to respiratory tissue

10-20 ppm: Acute respiratory tract discomfort

1000 ppm: Rapidly fatal

Hydrogen cyanide (HCN)

Highly toxic gaseous substance with potential for attack through the atmosphere

Cyanide binds with iron in the +3 oxidation state of ferricytochrome oxidase enzyme preventing utilization of O2 leading to rapid death

POTENTIAL TERRORIST AGENTS

Hydrogen sulfide (H2S)

Colorless gas with a foul, rotten-egg odor

As toxic as hydrogen cyanide and may kill even more rapidly

1000 ppm: Rapid death from respiratory system

Paralysis

Nonfatal doses can cause excitement due to damage the central nervous system; headache and dizziness may be symptoms of exposure

CHEMICAL ATTACKS

Chemical-agent types

Nerve agents

Blister agents (vesicants)

Blood agents (cyanide agents)

Choking agents (pulmonary or lung-damaging agents)

Riot control agents (irritants)

Toxic industrial materials (normal hazardous

materials used for terrorist purposes)

CHEMICAL AGENTS:

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Exists as liquid, solid, vapor

Depends upon agent, temperature and pressure

Stored as liquid Dispersed as liquid, gas or aerosol

Aerosol: particles suspended in gas

Persistence: tendency to remain for long time

Volatility: tendency to evaporate

Smell: fruity, almonds, mustard, or no smell

NERVE AGENTS

Attack the nervous system by

affecting the transmission of

impulses

• Inhibit acetylcholinesterase

Routes of entry

Inhalation

Through the skin

Symptoms

Increased production of saliva

Runny nose

Feeling of pressure on the

chest

Ach

Ach

Acetylcholine (Ach)

Acetic acid

+

Choline

Cholinesterase

MUSCLE

NEURON

NERVE AGENT

BLOCKING ACETYLCHOLINESTERASE

NERVE AGENTS Tabun: Usually a low-volatility persistent chemical agent

that is taken up through skin contact and inhalation of the substance as a gas or aerosol

Sarin : Usually a volatile nonpersistent chemical agent mainly taken up through inhalation

Soman : Usually a moderately volatile chemical agent that can be taken up by inhalation or skin contact

Cyclohexyl sarin : A low-volatility persistent chemical

agent that is taken up through skin contact and inhalation of

the substance either as a gas or aerosol

V-agent : A low-volatility persistent chemical agent that can

remain on material, equipment, and terrain for long periods

BLISTERING AGENTS: TOXICITY

Burn and blister the skin or any other

part of the body they contact

Local damage:

Easily enters skin, eyes,

respiratory tract

Enhanced: moisture, heat, thin

skin

Protease digestion in skin

Dermal-epidermal junction

vesicles, blister

May be delayed 1-2 days

Fluid does not contain vesicant

Sulfur /Nitrogen mustards, Phosgene oxime, Phenyldichloroarsine etc.

BLOOD AGENTS

Chemical agents that interfere with oxygen utilization at

the cellular level

Types

Arsine

Hydrogen cyanide

Cyanogen chloride

CHOKING AGENTS

Chemicals that attack the lungs causing tissue

damage. These are also known as pulmonary

agents.

Pulmonary agents: organohalides

Phosgene, chlorine, ammonia

Pulmonary agents

Absorbed by inhalation

Readily penetrates respiratory system

Mucous membrane irritation

Immediate eye, nose, airway irritation

Upper Airway

Irritation

Pulmonary

Irritation

Wa

ter

So

lubili

ty

HIGH

LOW

Hydrochloric Acid

Ammonia

Mustard Gas

Chlorine

Phosgene

Nitrogen Oxides

PULMONARY AGENTS: TOXICITY

RIOT CONTROL AGENTS

(IRRITATING AGENTS)

Chemical compounds that temporarily make people unable to function by causing immediate irritation to the eyes, mouth, throat, lungs, and skin

Types

Chlorobenzylidene malononitrile (tear gas)

Chloroacetophenone

bromobenzylcyanide

1-bromo-2-propanone

USING BIOLOGICAL AGENTS AS

BIOWEAPONS

BIOLOGICAL AGENTS AND

BIOTERRORISM

Biological agents can be used as weapons in:

Biocrimes

Bioterrorism

Biowarfare

Definition: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) defines a biological weapon as ;

“the provision of any infectious agent or toxin by any means of delivery in order to cause harm to humans, animals, or plants.”

THE FOLLOWING ARE DESIRABLE

CHARACTERISTICS FOR BIOLOGICAL AGENTS TO

BE USED FOR HARMFUL INTENT

Generate high levels of panic among population

Easy to obtain

Inexpensive

Easy to produce in mass quantities

Lack of effective treatment

Result in lengthy illness with prolonged care needed

Long incubation periods

Hard to diagnose

High infectivity

High mortality

Toxins from Biological Sources

Biotoxins

• Some of the most toxic substances known

Botulinum toxin

From Clostridium botulinum bacteria growing in the absence of oxygen and cause the disease BOTULISM

As little as 1 millionth of a gram can be fatal to a human

In principle, millions of people could be killed by the amount of botulinum toxin carried in a terrorist’s pocket

Binds with nerve terminals causing paralysis of the respiratory muscles and death

Not transmitted person to person.

RICIN BIOTOXIN

Ricin

Very stable proteinaceous material extracted from castor beans (Ricinus communis)

Injection of an amount about the size of a pinhead can be fatal

Failure of kidneys, liver, and spleen along with massive blood loss from the digestive tract

INFECTIOUS AGENTSCDC PRIORITY CATEGORIES

June 1999 criteria for categories:

Level of Public health impact

Dissemination potential

Potential to cause public fear and disruption

Need for special public health preparedness

These are divided ino three catagories by CDC

Category A agents

Category B agents

Category C agents

CDC CATEGORY A AGENTS

Agents that would have maximum impact on

population:

Ease of dissemination

Person-to-person transmission

High mortality

Bacteria

Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis)

Plague (Yersinia pestis)

Tularemia (Francisella tularensis)

Viruses

Smallpox (Variola major)

Viral Hemorrhagic Fevers (filoviruses, arenaviruses and

flaviviruses)

EXPOLOSIVE SUBSTANCES

Small amount of explosives can

bring down aircraft.

Many kinds of explosives have

been developed for illegal

purposes.

Ammonium nitrate fertilizer

with fuel oil

Types

Gunpowder

Nitroglycerine

TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene)

PETN ( pentaerythritol

tetranitrate)

Nuclear Weapons

Nuclear Weapons

“ The nuclear bomb is the most anti- democratic, anti-

human, outright evil thing that man has ever made.”

A nuclear weapon is so powerful that one single

weapon explosives can be capable of destroying or

seriously disabling an entire city., outright evil

thing at man has ever made…

Nuclear Weapons History

The Nuclear weapons were symbols of military and

national powers.

The first nuclear weapon was created by the United

States.

While the first weapons were developed mainly out of

fear that Germany they would first develop them, they

were eventually used against the Japanese cities of

Hiroshima Nagasaki in August 1945.

The Soviet Union developed that tested their first

nuclear weapon in 1949.

History Cont…

The USA and USSR wanted to develop weapons

powered by nuclear fusion during the 1950s.

During the 1960s, it became possible for nuclear

weapons to be delivered anywhere in the world.

Other nations also developed nuclear weapons,

including the United Kingdom, France, and China, india,

south africa, pakistan.

There was a “nuclear club” which wanted to attempt to

limit the spread of nuclear proliferation to other nations.

History Cont…

Nuclear proliferation is still going on, with Pakistan testing their first weapon in 1998, and the state of North Korea claiming to have developed nuclear weapons in 2004.

In 2005, there were at least 29,000 nuclear weapons held by at least seven countries, though 96% of these are in the possession of just two the United States and the Russian Federation.

Nuclear Fission

A nuclear reaction in which an atomic nucleus

splits into fragments.

Fission occurs readily in U-235 and Pu-239

when bombarded with neutrons.

The sum of the product masses is less than the

mass of the original atom.

The lost mass is converted directly into energy.

Nuclear Fusion

The combination of two nuclei to form a single

atom.

The product’s mass is less than the mass of the

original atoms.

Fusion occurs most readily in a combination of

the hydrogen isotopes deuterium and tritium.

Temperature in the millions of degrees is

required to initiate fusion.

Weapon Designs

Gun-triggered fission

Implosion-triggered fission

Fusion Bombs

Gun-triggered This is the simplest form of nuclear weapon.

A bullet of U-235 is propelled by explosives into a U-

235 sphere.

This is the type of bomb that destroyed the Japanese

city of Hiroshima.

Gun-triggered

Implosion-triggered

A sub critical sphere of plutonium is surrounded by

explosives, when the explosives detonate they create a

shockwave which compresses the core.

This method can be used with both U-235 and Pu-239.

To properly compress instead of blowing it apart, it is

necessary to use explosive lenses, which create a concave

shockwave that fits the surface of the core.

Implosion Triggered

Teller-Ulam Bomb

The first true fusion bomb design.

Utilizes a fission weapon to provide the necessary

energy to cause fusion.

The massive amount of X-rays released by the

fission, which travel much faster than the actual

explosion, are contained by a thick tamper and used

to provide the heat to initiate a fusion reaction

before the explosion has a chance to blow apart the

bomb.

Teller-Ulam Bomb

Teller-Ulam Bomb

The Effects

Standard Nuclear weapons emit approximately 50% of their total energy as blast energy, 35% as thermal energy, and 15% as radiation.

The actual effects of the weapon vary greatly depending on the yield, and the detonation point.

Detonation in the upper atmosphere can create massive EMPs, severely damaging many electronics.

Surface Detonation results in blast and thermal damage, and large amounts of fallout.

Subterranean detonation results in large shockwaves, but minimizes most of the effects, provided the blast does not break the surface

Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and

Nagasaki

The United States Army Air Force dropped two atomic

bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki

on August 6 and August 9, 1945 during World War II.

At least 120,000 people died immediately from the

attacks.

Thousands of people died years after from the effects of

nuclear radiation.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki Cont…

The role of bombings in Japan’s was to make them surrender.

The U.S. believed that the bombing ended the war sooner.

In Japan, the general public tends to think that the bombings were

needless as the preparation for the surrender was in progress.

The survivors of the bombings are called hibakusha, a Japanese

word that literally translates to “bomb-affected people.”

Aftermath Attack On Japan

The nuclear attacks on Japan occurred during hot weather.

So it was more effected toward the people.

Many people were outside and wearing light clothing's.

This lady's skin is burned in a patterns corresponding to the dark patterns of her kimono.

The dark sections of clothing absorbed more heat and burnt her to her flash.

So basically darker cloths would make it worst.

Aftermath Cont…

This was the effect of Nagasaki it left a heavy destruction at high blast.

This bomb created a smoke that would basically harm people.

The smokestacks happen from the open at the top.

The blast was so powerful it ruin almost most of the country.

GREEN CHEMISTRYIt has become obvious that, to the extent possible , systems are

needed that are inherently non-polluting and sustainable.

Starting in 1990s this need have been approached through a

system known as green chemistry.

So we can define green chemistry as,

The sustainable, safe, non-polluting practice of chemical science

and manufacturing in a manner that consumes minimum

amounts of materials and energy while producing little or no

waste material.

The single best way that chemical science can avoid the terrorist

threats is to follow the percepts of green chemistry. This is so

because green chemistry is safe chemistry and sustainable

chemistry.

Need of Green Chemistry

Green chemistry to mitigate terrorist threats

• Uses the safest possible chemicals as safely as possible

• Minimizes the accumulation of hazardous chemicals and eliminates hazardous chemical wastes

• Better detection of hazardous materials

Need of Green Chemistry

• Effective substitute materials to reduce potential for “resource blackmail”

• Sustainable energy sources to reduce “energy blackmail” such as supplies of petroleum and natural gas

• Biochemistry and recombinant DNA science to enable the development of better vaccines against pathogenic biological warfare agents and antidotes to chemical and biological toxins

Safest possible chemicals

The use of alternative reaction conditions for

green chemistry such as

Use of solvents that have a reduced impact on

human health and the environment.

Increase the selectivity and reduced wastes

and emission.

Use of green catalysts that permit the use of

less toxic reagents.

DETECTING HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES

• Residues of TNT, RDX, and PETN explosives detected by sophisticated instruments including ion mobility spectrometers and chemiluminecence sensors

• Nuclear quadrupole resonance (NQR) may be useful to detect explosives because it responds to nitrogen, which all major explosives contain

• Canine olfactory detection (dog’s nose). It is most sensitive method, and consist of use of dogs to sniff odors of substances at very low levels.

Detecting threats

Immunological methods

Biochemical and nucleic acid based methods

Cell culture and tissue based methods

Stand alone detectors

Immunological Methods

These methods are based upon powerful and specific

immune responses of animals towards foreign agents.

These are used for the detection of

Microbial cells and spores

Viruses and toxins

Chemical agents

Nucleic acid detection

This involves the production of multiple copies of DNA

from biological agents can be very sensitive and specific

for detecting infectious agents such as;

Bacillus anthracis

Cryptosporidium parvum

Cell culture and tissue based methods

These techniques have long been used to quantify

bacteria such as;

Fecal coliform bacteria in water.

These techniques combined with biochemical,

microscopy and staining can be used to reliably identify

bacteria.

Stand alone detectors

Mass spectrometry is the most well established and

suitable of the purely instrumental techniques.

Mass spectra is very useful in identifying specific

chemical species, such as those used in chemical attacks.

GREEN CHEMISTRY TO COMBAT TERRORISMSafe and sustainable green chemistry can help combat terrorism

• Hazardous substances that might be stolen or diverted for use in attacks are not made or used in large quantities

• Materials and processes that are likely to result in violent reactions, fires, high pressures, and other extreme conditions are avoided

• Potentially hazardous auxiliary substances and flammable materials are avoided

• Minimizes energy consumption, thereby reducing energetic, high-temperature processes that might be susceptible to sabotage

Conclusion To make green chemistry our sustainable future, we have

to introduce the “THINK GREEN CULTURE” among

our youngsters.

Let us make chemical pollution prevention our motto and

protect the environment.