THE WAR OF 1812: SECOND WARFOR INDEPENDENCE

Failed Invasion of Canada

PECULIAR WAR

War avoidable; it began whencauses diminishing

Declaration of war came at timewhen ban on trade and “peaceablecoercion” beginning to work

Treaty of Ghent resolved virtuallynone of the issues that officiallycaused the war

The most decisive American victoryoccurred after the treaty ending warhad been signed. The war was adraw, diplomatically and militarily.

U.S. ill-prepared for war andsuffered more defeats than victories

U.S. emerged from war stronger

U.S.S. Constitution

CAUSES

Determination to defend American commerce, nationalinterests, the national honor, and republicanindependence

Territorial aggrandizement Violations of American neutrality and maritime rights

– Blockades– Impressment (e.g. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair, 1807)– Belief that British inciting Native Americans uprisings

War Hawks; emergence of Liberal Republicans Desire to prove that the republican experiment could

succeed Economic distress in East and South

EMBARGO ACT OF 1807

“Peaceable coercion” Jefferson hoped that U.S. refusal to

export any goods or to buy any productsfrom abroad would put sufficienteconomic pressure on Britain and Franceto make them respect U.S. neutral rights.

The embargo failed to hurt thecombatants enough to change theiractions.

The trade ban devastated the U.S.economy. Seamen unemployed.Merchants and farmers whodependended on foreign sales ruined.New focus on domestic manufacturing(unintentional result).

Thomas Jefferson

“PEACEABLE COERCION”

When neither economic coercion nor negotiation changedBritish policies, war sentiment grew in the U.S.

Jefferson expanded his definition of executive power toenforce the embargo. Highly unpopular, the embargowas repealed by Congress in 1809 and was replaced bythe Non-Intercourse Act.

Both Jefferson and Madison overestimated the value ofAmerican commerce to Britain and France.

Non-Intercourse Act (1809): opened trade to all nationsexcept Britain and France and authorized Congress torestore trade with those nations if they stopped violatingAmerican neutral rights. It expired in 1810 and wasreplaced by Macon’s Bill Number 2.

FOREIGN TRADE

FAILURE OF ECONOMICCOERCION

Macon’s Bill Number 2 openedtrade with Britain and France, butthe first belligerent who agreed tocease its interference withAmerican trade would be rewardedby an embargo on the remainingbelligerent. When Franceexpressed interest in agreeing toterms, the U.S. ceased trading withBritain. This too failed to stop theseizure of ships or impressment.

Peaceable coercion failed tochange British policy, and it hurt theAmerican economy. Also, it leftonly two alternatives—war orretreat.

James Madison

WAR HAWKS

Coalition of aggressive youngRepublicans from the West andthe South who favored war withBritain

Defend American commerceand national honor

Retaliate against British forinciting Indians along GreatLakes frontier

“On to Canada!” Gain territory Preserve republicanism and

American rights Revitalize republic and

demonstrate new strength

Speaker of the House, Henry Clay

SPIRITED RESISTANCE

Albeit in different ways, Shawnee brothers Tenskwatawaand Tecumseh worked tirelessly in a quest for therevitalization of Native American culture and the securingof an independent nation for all Native Americans.

Indians faced with a trail of broken treaties, the onslaughtof incessant white encroachment, the decline of the furtrade, a loss of autonomy, the debilitating effects ofalcohol, the ravages of disease, and utter chaos

Shawnees believed the chaos was caused by the loss oflands, economic deterioration, injustice, alcohol, andthose who had abandoned the traditional “ways of theirfathers.” The Shawnees believed they were “the Masterof Life’s” chosen people who had fallen from grace.

SHAWNEE BROTHERS

Tecumseh Tenskwatawa

TENSKWATAWA I

Tenskwatawa, “the Prophet,” and other Shawneesassociated Americans with disorder, witchcraft andforces of evil.

He urged Indians to stop drinking and committing actsof violence against each other. He preached thathusbands and wives should remain monogamous. TheProphet also pleaded with warriors to stop quarreling.

Revitalized some facets of traditional tribal culture andpromised new deliverance.

TENSKWATAWA II

Teachings: return to communal ways; refrain fromconsuming American manufactured goods; if pure andfaithful, Master of Life will restore order and prosperity;believed himself to be the chosen one; rejectAmericans and their ways

Intolerant of deviance and opposing views; demonizedopposition; suspicious of acculturation; witch hunts

Converted countless Indians. Opposed Americanexpansion and Treaty of Fort Wayne (signed by chiefsunauthorized to do so).

TECUMSEH I

Shawnee chief and politicalleader who challenged hisbrother’s leadership in 1810,believing that the nativisticrevitalization movement alonecould no longer protect theShawnees’ land base and thata political and military solutionwas necessary.

Tecumseh used thewidespread religious base tobuild a confederacy of tribesthat nearly succeeded inimpeding westward expansionand unifying Indian peoples ofthe Old Northwest and South.

Battle of Tippecanoe

TECUMSEH II

Unfortunately for Tecumseh,the War of 1812 disrupted hisplans of a pan-Indian politicaland military alliance before hecould fully implement them.

In a speech meant to recruitIndians into his confederacy,Tecumseh said, “Where todayis the Pequo[t]? Where arethe Narragansetts, Pocanokets,and many other once powerfultribes of our race? They havevanished before the avariceand oppression of the whitemen, as snow before thesummer sun.”

In 1810 Tecumseh explained toWilliam Henry Harrison: “Theonly way to stop this evil is forall [of us] to unite in claiming acommon and equal right in theland, as it was at first andshould be now…. No tribe has aright to sell, even to each other,much less to strangers, whodemand all, and will take noless…. Sell a country! Why notsell the air, the clouds and thegreat sea, as well as the earth?Did not the Great Spirit makethem all for the use of hischildren?”

WARRIORS

TIPPECANOE

When some Potawatomis killedsome white men in Illinois in July1811, General Harrison used theincident as justification for strikingagainst Tecumseh and hisconfederacy.

While Tecumseh was in the Southrecruiting Creeks into hisconfederacy, Tenskwatawaconvinced his followers that theycould easily achieve victory over theAmericans, which contributed totheir disastrous attack on Harrison’sforces at the Battle of Tippecanoe.Harrison routed the Indians anddestroyed Prophet’s Town.

William Henry Harrison

UPRISING

Seething with anger upon his return, Tecumsehbanished Tenskwatawa, who eventually died inobscurity. Uprisings pushed Tecumseh into war withAmericans before he could carry out his designs forpan-Indian unity.

Tecumseh formed an alliance with the British againstthe Americans. For a time, Tecumseh’s warriors wereable to weaken American control over the OldNorthwest.

Tecumseh and his warriors fought bravely againstHarrison and his men at the Battle of the Thames.Tecumseh died in the battle never realizing his dreamof an Indian nation.

“MR. MADISON’S WAR”

President Madison in the years 1811-12 faced thedifficult task of arousing the country and threateningwar with Britain if she refused to repeal her Orders inCouncil. He tried to give Britain a way to avoid war andto prevent a possible preemptive attack before thenation was adequately prepared. But he failedmiserably because his policies and pronouncementslacked the clarity and boldness necessary to meet acrisis and the perils of a fractious republic.

Many viewed Madison as indecisive and overlyhesitant. The failure of the embargo and diplomaticprotest exhausted the patience of the young republic.

PRESIDENT MADISON

Greatest accomplishments as constitutional lawgiver;weak and ineffectual as president

Never believed that vigorous executive leadership wasnecessary for sound republican government

Possessed healthy respect for dangers of uncheckedexecutive authority; believed in executiveindependence but with responsibility; thought thatpresident should not usurp legislative authority

3 factors severely hampered his foreign policy– Divided Republican party– Believed should not preempt Congressional deliberations– Overestimated value of American commerce to Britain and

France

“LAST OF THE FATHERS”

U.S. troops poorly armed, poorly led, and poorlyprovisioned

Ultimately placed decision of whether or not to declarewar on Britain with Congress

His naïve hope that preemptive assaults on Canadamight gain a lasting strategic advantage enabled WarHawks to prevail.

Faced daunting troubles: problems securingcooperation of Congress, New England refused tosupport war, incompetent secretary of navy, andinsubordinate secretary of war.

MADISON ADMINISTRATION

Although Madison’s leadership as chief executiveduring wartime may have been inept, the nation didemerge from the war with a greater sense of unity andself-confidence.

In his “War Message to Congress” Madison declared:“Whether the United States shall continue passiveunder these progressive usurpations and accumulatedwrongs, or, opposing force to force in defense of theirnational rights … is a solemn question which theConstitution wisely confides to the legislativedepartment of the Government.”

In the aftermath of war, with a renewed sense ofoptimism, Madison enjoyed popularity once again.

OPPOSITION

The U.S. went to war ill-prepared as well as deeply andbitterly divided.

Federalists charged Republicans with failing to negotiateeffectively with Britain, political maneuvering, beingwarmongers, possessing base territorial ambitions,favoring the French, deliberately avoiding the disgrace ofretreat, leading the nation into an unnecessary andimmoral war.

Republicans charged Federalists with plotting in favor ofsecession, aristocracy, Britain, and monarchy at theexpense of American unity, republicanism, andindependence.

DIVISION

Some Federalists and Republicans had doubts as towhether the nation and republicanism could survive.

The majority of Republicans agreed with Madison thatwar was the only alternative other than submission;however, some Republicans favored delay until theU.S. was ready. Others believed the U.S. should fighta limited war, confined to the sea. Still others opposedwar because they believed the U.S. was unprepared.

Continuing struggle between republicanism andliberalism

MAP

STRATEGY AND EARLYCAMPAIGNS

War characterized by more American defeats thanvictories

General American strategy– Invasion of Canada on three fronts: along Lake Champlain

toward Montreal, across the Niagara frontier, and from Detroitinto upper Canada

Campaigns of summer and fall of 1812 disasters Unexpected performance of small American navy British navy successively blockaded American coast,

leaving it open to hit-and-run raids American attempts to invade Canada in 1813 failed yet

again.

KEY BATTLES

Captain Oliver Hazard Perry’s fleet won the Battle of LakeErie (Oct. 1813).

General William Henry Harrison defeated the British andthe Indians at the Battle of the Thames in Canada (Oct.1813).

American forces successfully resisted the British at theBattle of Chippawa and Lundy’s Lane on the Niagarafrontier (July 1814).

Americans prevented the British from taking Baltimore. Thomas Macdonough’s fleet defeated the British

decisively at the Battle of Plattsburgh Bay on LakeChamplain (Sept. 1814), forcing the invading British backto Canada. The British lost interest in continuing the war.

DISASTERS

Failed invasions of Canada A low point came when the

British invaded and burnedWashington D.C. in August1814.

American morale low Country faced bankruptcy as

a result of the Britishblockade

Federalists of New Englandopposed war effort openlyand ruthlessly

WHITE HOUSE

IMAGES

Battle of Lake Erie Dolley Madison

IMAGES

TREATY OF GHENT

Restored prewar status quo Mutual restoration of territory captured by both

sides With ending of European war, violations of

American rights as a neutral no longer a majorissue

The Battle of New Orleans had no bearing onthe outcome

BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS

Fought two weeks after Treatyof Ghent sealed

General Andrew Jackson’sragtag army of 4,000 defeated8,000 disciplined Britishregulars in resounding fashion.

The British suffered 2,000casualties, while Americanssustained less than two dozen.

The battle transformedJackson (“Old Hickory”) into anational hero and made himthe most popular man inAmerica. Battle of New Orleans

VICTORY

JACKSON: WAR HERO

Won series of battlesagainst Creeks

Crushed Creeks atBattle of Horshoe Bend(March, 1814), winningfame as an Indian fighter

Political career launchedas a result of war record

Andrew Jackson

NATIONALISM

U.S. emerges stronger Heightened spirit of nationalism (loyalty and pride in

one’s nation) Nation growing and dividing at same time War of 1812 eliminated Federalists as a party Republicans convinced that America could fight a war

and maintain liberty, republicanism, and sovereignty Surge of liberalism Movement for economic self-sufficiency and unity “Era of Good Feelings”; sectional harmony breaks

down because of the slavery issue and its spreadwestward

EXPANSIONISM ANDEXCEPTIONALISM

Republicans embraced some Federalist doctrines andagendas

American System: Clay’s program to spur nationaleconomic growth, independence, and unity.

– Build army; pay national debt; develop “infant industries– New national bank, protective tariff, and internal improvements

Era of nationalism in which Americans, given greaterfreedom from interference from Britain and otherEuropean powers, turned their energies to inward intooccupying and developing a growing territorial spherein North America

Fulfill national destiny to overspread continent andadvance republicanism

“THE STAR SPANGLED BANNER”

Francis Scott Key, author ofnational anthem, lawyer, poet

Sent to secure release offriend who had been capturedby British, Key was held intemporary custody aboard aprisoner-exchange ship.

Throughout the night, Keywitnessed the British attackon Fort McHenry in BaltimoreHarbor.

The next morning, the sight ofthe American flag still flyingover the fort inspired him towrite the poem on the back ofand envelope.

The words were set to themusic of “To Anacreon inHeaven,” an English drinkingsong.

Congress proclaimed it thenational anthem in 1931.

ATTACK ON FORT MCHENRY

British Invasion of Baltimore

SECTIONALISM

Simultaneous rise of nationalism and sectionalism Sectionalism: loyalty to and love a state or region Hartford Convention Slavery issue Each section demanded its own special interests;

conflicting ideas on tariff, Second National Bank,internal improvements, slavery, right to vote, virtuallyeverything

Lacking serious opposition, Republican partydisintegrates into squabbling factions

SECTIONALISM

Different economic interests led to the death ofthe Federalist party and the breakdown of theRepublican party during the Monroeadministration, just as the polarization over theslavery issue caused the breakdown of thenational political parties into northern andsouthern factions in the waning years prior tothe Civil War (1861-5)

HARTFORD CONVENTION

A secret meeting of New England Federalists to protestthe Republican management of the War of 1812 (Dec.15, 1814 – Jan. 5, 1815)

Loss of trade and power 26 delegates representing New England states met

and passed resolutions declaring the right of the statesto nullify (declare null and void) federal laws

Asserted states rights and did not quite advocatedisunion; a proposal of secession was discussed butrejected

Set early precedent for the idea that secession was anavailable choice for states dissatisfied with nationalpolicies

HARTFORD CONVENTION

Disastrous timing; viewed astraitorous plot

Resolutions aimed atstrengthening New Englandwithin the Union

– Abolish 3/5 clause– Require 2/3 vote to declare war

and admit states into the Union– Limit president to single term– Prohibit election of two

successive presidents from thesame state

– Ban embargos exceeding 60days

Rapid demise of Federalist party Political Cartoon

MADISON’S ANNUAL MESSAGE

Madison’s Annual Message of 1815 seemed to supportthe American System

Passed Congress in 1817 Vetoed bill because he believed a constitutional

amendment was necessary– Believed federal aid to internal improvements to be

unconstitutional– Squandered magnificent opportunity over constitutional

scruples– Concluded his actions as president preserved the Union and

Constitution and the political values these institutionsembodied

CONCLUSIONS

Had the British decided to do so, they quite possiblycould have reversed the American Revolution. But theBritish had been exhausted by the long, protractedconflict with France. So, they decided to accept theterms of the Treaty of Ghent.

The War of 1812 nearly ended in disaster; however,Americans felt reassured that republicanism and theirindependence would long endure. But the rebirth ofnationalism coincided with sectionalism. Nationalism itseemed would be strong only when it was expedient.Sectionalism would contribute significantly to theeconomic, political, and social tensions building towardthe American Civil War decades later.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brown, Roger H. The Republic in Peril: 1812. New York:Columbia University Press, 1964.

Calloway, Colin G. First Peoples: A DocumentarySurvey of American Indian History. Boston: Bedford,St. Martin’s Press, 1999.

Dowd, Gregory Evans. A Spirited Resistance: The NorthAmerican Indian Struggle for Unity, 1745-1815.Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1992.

Edmunds, R. David. “Tecumseh, The Shawnee Prophet,And American History”. Western Historical Quarterly.Volume 14. 1983. 261-76.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ellis, Joseph J. “Thomas Jefferson.” In: “To The Best ofMy Ability”: The American Presidents. Edited byJames M. McPherson. New York: Dorling KindersleyPublishing, 2000. 28-35.

Fehrenbacher, Don E. The Era of Expansion: 1800-1848.New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1969.

From the Heart: Voices of the American Indian. Editedand with narrative by Lee Miller. New York: Alfred A.Knopf, 1995. 186-203.

Horsman, Reginald. “War of 1812”. In: The Reader’sCompanion to American History. Edited by Eric Fonerand John Garraty. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991.1129-31.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Josephy, Alvin. The Patriot Chiefs. New York: Viking,1989 (1958).

McCoy, Drew R. The Elusive Republic: PoliticalEconomy in Jeffersonian America. Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press, 1980.

____. “James Madison”. In: The Reader’s Companion toAmerican History. Edited by Eric Foner and JohnGarraty. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1991. 688-89.

Rakove, Jack N. “James Madison”. In: “To The Best ofMy Ability”: The American Presidents. Edited byJames M. McPherson. New York: Dorling KindersleyPublishing, 2000. 36-42.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Remini, Robert V. “Andrew Jackson”. In: “ToThe Best of My Ability”: The AmericanPresidents. Edited by James M. McPherson.New York: Dorling Kindersley Publishing, 2000.56-65.

Watts, Steven. The Republic Reborn: War andthe Making of Liberal America, 1790-1820.Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press,1987.