W1 Report Writing

8/6/2019 W1 Report Writing

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REPORT WRITING

Reports are very important method of gaining and giving information. Although they

may be presented orally, at a meeting for example, reports are usually presented in

writing. The ultimate purpose of any report is to provide the foundation for decisions to

be made and action taken.

EMPIRICAL/ INVESTIGATE/EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH REPORTS

In empirical research, the investigators gather information through carefully

planned, systematic observations or measurements.

When scientists send a satellite to investigate the atmosphere of a distant planet,

when engineers test jet-engine parts made of various alloys, when pollsters ask

older citizens what kinds of outdoor recreation they participate in, they all are

conducting empirical research.

In your career, you will almost certainly perform some type of empirical research

and report on it in writing.

Typical Writing Situations

Empirical research has two distinct purposes. Most aims to help people make

practical decisions. For example, the engineers who test jet- engine parts are

trying to help designers determine which alloy to use in a new engine.

A small portion of empirical research aims not to support practical decisions but

rather to extend human knowledge. Here researchers set out to learn how fish

remember, what the molten core of the earth is like, or why people fall in love.

Such research is usually reported in scholarly journals whose readers are


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concerned not so much with making practical business decisions as with

extending the frontiers of human understanding.

These two aims of research sometimes overlap.

The Questions Readers Ask Most Often

The readers of reports on all types of empirical research tend to ask the same seven

general questions.

Why is your research important to us? Readers concerned with solving specific

practical problems want to know what problems your research will help them

address.

What were you trying to find out? A well- designed empirical research project

is based on carefully formulated research questions that the project will try to

answer.

Was your research method sound? Unless your method is appropriate to your

research questions

What results did your results produce? Your readers will want to learn what

results you obtained.

How do you interpret those results? Your readers will want you interpret your

results in ways that are meaningful to them.

What is the significance of those results? What answers do your results imply

for your research questions, and how do your results relate to the problems your

research was to help solve or to the area of knowledge it was meant to expand?

What do you think we should do? Readers concerned with practical problems

want to know what you advise them to do. Readers concerned with extending


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human knowledge want to know what you think your results imply for future

research.

Report elements Readers Questions

Introduction

Objectives of the research

Why is your research important to us?

What were you trying to find out?

Methods of obtaining facts

Facts

Was your research method sound?

What results did your research produce?

Discussion How do you interpret those results?Conclusions What is the significance of those results?Recommendations What do you think we should do?

GENERAL STRUCTURE FOR A REPORT

Front Matter

Letter of transmittalTitle

AbstractAcknowledgementsTable of contentsList of figuresList of tablesList of abbreviations and symbols

Body of Report

Chapter 1: Introduction What will we gain from reading your report? This

prepares the reader to understand your work.Chapter 2: Reviewing Previous

Work

A literature review, i.e. a report of previous work

from published research by experts from your field

is treated in this section.Chapter 3: Methods Primary sources or firsthand observation include

experiments, questionnaires, interviews and field

observations. The explicit account of data collection

and how the data is analysed are presented here.


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Chapter 4: Describing Materials Concerned with the equipment used in your

experiment. It gives a detailed description of

equipment and the process involved in the operation

of the equipment.

Chapter 5: Presenting the Results This shows how the results of a study are written and

commented on with the aid of illustrations.Chapter 6: Conclusion andAbstract

These are the last sections to be written; however,

the abstract appears at the beginning of the report.

The primary goal of the conclusion is to indicate

whether or not the objective of the study has been

met. The goal of the abstract, however, is to provide

a preview of the report, that is, it gives the most

important information from the different section of

the report.

End Matter

References

Apendices

Introduction

In the introduction of a report, you answer your readers question, What will we

gain from reading your report? In some reports, you can answer this question in

a sentence or less.

In longer reports, your explanation of the relevance of your report to your readers

may take many pages, in which you tell such things as (1) what problem your

report will help solve, (2) what activities you performed toward solving that

problem, (3) how your readers can apply your information in their own efforts

toward solving the problem.


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Method of Obtaining Results

Your discussion of your method of obtaining the facts in your report can serve a

wide variety of purposes. Report readers want to assess the reliability of the facts

you present: your discussion of your method tells them how and where you got

your facts. It also suggests where your readers can find additional information. If

you obtained your information from printed sources, for example, you can direct

your readers to those sources. If you obtained your information from an

experiment, survey, or other special technique, your account of your method may

help others design similar projects.

Results

Your facts are the individual pieces of information that you gathered.

If your report is based on laboratory, field, or library research, your facts are the

verifiable pieces of information you gathered: the laboratory data you obtained,

the survey responses you recorded, or the knowledge you assembled from printed

sources.

You may present your facts in a section of their own, or you may combine your

presentation of your facts with your discussion of them, as explained next.

Discussion

Taken alone, results mean nothing. They are a table of data, series of isolated

observations, or pieces of information without meaning. Therefore, an essential

element of every report you prepare will be a discussion in which you interpret

your facts in a way that is significant to your readers.


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In many of the communication you write, you will weave your discussion of the

facts together with your presentation of them.

Conclusions

Like interpretations, conclusions are general statements based on your facts.

and unless it is intellectually sound, your readers will not place any faith in your

results or in your conclusions, and recommendations.

CONDUCTING RESEARCH

Goals of Good Research

The first thing to remember about research is that it needs to be just as reader-

centered as any other writing activity. Your research is successful only if it

produces results that your readers will value.

Right scope. The research results enable you to write about your topic with

sufficient breadth your readers needs.

Right depth. The research provides sufficient detail to allow your readers to

understand your topic to the level necessary for them to perform their tasks and

appreciate the validity of your persuasive points.

Guideline 1: Define Your Research Objectives

You can streamline your research by defining in advance what you want to find.

After all, you are not trying to dig up everything that is known about your

subject. You are seeking only information and evidence that will help you

achieve your communications objectives.


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Although you should define your research objectives at the outset, you should

also be ready to revise them as you proceed. Research is all about learning. One

of the things you may learn along the way is that you need to investigate

something you hadnt originally thought important or even thought about at all.

Guideline 2: Plan Before You Begin

You will research much more efficiently and effectively if you begin by making a

plan.

Making a Research Plan Identify all sources that might be helpful. Include people and organizations as

well as publications.

Identify the most promising sources. It only makes sense to focus your efforts

on them.

Determine the most productive order in which to consult your sources.

Make a schedule as you can apportion your time wisely. Include the time

needed for interpreting results.

Consult general sources first. Useful general sources are encyclopedias

(including the specialized ones that exist for many subjects), articles in popular

magazines, and review articles published in specialized journals for the purpose of

summarizing research on a particular subject.

Conduct preliminary research when appropriate. In some situations, it will be

helpful for you to conduct some research in preparation for other research.


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Imagine, for instance, that you r key source is an executive or expert you can

contact only one.

Readers

Questions

Possible Sources Assessment of End

Source

When to consult

Are our

competitors

developing this

technology more

rapidly than we

are?

Competitor reports

to stockholders

Trade journals

Biased

Probably reliable

Next week

Immediately

When will our

design be ready?

Kami Mason,

Project Coordinator

Objective,

Informed

Close to completion

of report

Guideline 3: Check Each Source for Leads to Other Source

Conducting research is like solving a crime. You dont know exactly what the

outline come will be- or where to find the clues. Consequently, it makes sense to

check every source for leads to other sources. Scrutinize the footnotes and

bibliographies of very book, article and report you consult.

Guideline 4: Begin Interpreting Your Research Results Even as You Obtain Them

Research involves more than just amassing information. To make your results

truly useful and persuasive to your readers, you must also interpret them in light

of your readers desires, needs, and situation.


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Guideline 5: Take Careful Notes

A simple but critical technique for researching productively is to take careful

notes at every step of the way. When making notes on the facts and opinions you

discover, be sure to distinguish quotations from paraphrases so you can properly

identify quoted statements in your communication.

REFERENCE GUIDE: FIVE RESEARCH METHODS

Brainstorming

When you brainstorm, you generate thoughts about your subjects as rapidly as

you can through the spontaneous association of ideas writing down whatever

thoughts occur to you.

Record everything. If you shift your task from generating ideas to evaluating

them, you will disrupt the free flow of associations on which brainstorming

thrives.

Free writing

Free writing is very much like brainstorming. Here, too, you tap your natural

creativity free from the confines of structured thought. You rapidly record your

ideas as they pop into your mind. Only this time, you write prose rather than a list.

The goal is to keep your ideas flowing.


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Flow Chart

When you are writing about a process or procedure, try drawing a flow chart of it,

Leave lots of space around each box in the flow chart so you can write notes next

to it.

SEARCHING THE INTERNET

The explosive growth of the Internet has created a rich and continuously evolving

aid to researchers. From your computer at home, school or work, the Internet lets

you read technical reports from companies such as IBM, download software, view

pictures taken by NASA spacecraft in remote areas of the solar system, or join

online discussions on an astonishing array of topics.

You may have difficulty finding helpful sites. There are millions of sites in the

Internet, with millions more added annually. Navigating through these sites to

locate the ones that present useful information on your topic can be difficult.

You must carefully evaluate the sites you locate. Anyone can post information

on the Internet, regardless of his or her purpose, bias, or level of expertise.

Because no one prevents unreliable information from appearing, you must

carefully evaluate the credibility of each site you encounter.

INTERVIEWING

At work, your best source of information will often be another person. In fact,

people will sometimes be your only source of information because youll be


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researching situations unique to your organization or its clients and customers. Or

you may be asking an expert for information that this person possesses that is not

yet available in print or form an on-line source.

Preparing for an Interview

Choose the right person to interview. Approach this selection from your

readers perspective. Pick someone you feel confident can answer the questions

your readers are likely to ask in a way that your readers will find useful and

credible.

Make arrangements. If you expect the interview to take more than a few

minutes, contact the person in advance to make an appointment. Let the person

know about the purpose of the interview.

Plan the agenda. As the interviewer, you will be the person who must identify

the topics that need to be discussed. Often, its best simply to generate a list of

topics to inquire about.

Concluding the Interview

During the interview, keep your eye on the clock so that you dont take more of

your interviewees time than you requested.

Check your list. Make sure that all your key questions have been answered.

Invite a final thought. One of the most productive questions that you can ask

near the end of an interview is, Can you think of anything else I should know?

Open the door for follow-up. Ask something like this: If I find that I need to

know a little more about something weve discussed, would it be okay if I called

you?


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Thank your interviewee. If appropriate, send a brief thank-you note by letter,

memo, or e-mail.

CONDUCTING A SURVEY

While an interview enables you to gather information from one person, a survey

enables you to gather information from groups of people.

On the job, surveys are almost always used as the basis for practical decision-

making. Manufacturers survey consumers when deciding how to market a new

product, and employers survey employees when deciding how to modify

personnel policies or benefit packages.

Writing the questions

The first step in writing survey questions is to decide exactly what you want to

learn. Begin by focusing on the decisions that your information will help your

readers make.

Mix closed and open questions. Closed questions allow a limits number of

possible responses. They provide answers that are easy to tabulate. Open

questions allow the respondent freedom in devising the answer. They provide

respondents an opportunity to react to your subject matter in their own terms.

You may want to follow each of your closed questions with an open one that

simply asks respondents to comment. A good way to conclude a survey is to

invite additional comments.

Ask reliable questions. A reliable question is one that every respondent will

understand and interpret in the same way. For instance, if Roger asked, Do you


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like high-quality pastries? different readers might interpret the term high

quality in different ways. Roger might instead ask how much the respondents

would be willing to pay for pasties or what kinds of snacks they like to eat with

their coffee.

Ask valid questions. A valid question is one that produces the information you

are seeking. For example, to determine how much business the doughnut shop

might attract, Roger could ask either of these two questions:

How much do you like doughnuts?

How many times a month you visit a doughnut shop located within three

blocks of campus?

The first question is invalid because the fact that students like doughnuts does not

necessarily mean they would patronize a doughnut shop. The second question is

valid because it can help Roger estimate how many customers the shop would

have.

Avoid biased questions. Dont phrase your questions in ways that seem to guide

your respondents to give a particular response.

Place your most interesting questions first. Save questions about the

respondents age or similar characteristics until the end.

Limit the number of questions. If your questionnaire is lengthy, people may not

complete it. Decide what you really need to know and ask only about that.

Test your questionnaire. Even small changes in wording may have a substantial

effect on the way people respond. Before completing your survey, try out your

questions with a few people from your target group.


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Contacting Respondents

Face-to-face. In this method, you read your questions aloud to each respondent

and record his or hers answers on a form. Its an effective method of contacting

respondents because people are more willing to cooperate when someone asks

their help in person.

Telephone. Telephone surveys are convenient for the writer. However, it can

sometimes be difficult to use a phone book to identify people who represent the

group of people being studied.

Mail or handout. Mailing or handling your survey forms to people you hope will

respond is less consuming than conducting a survey face-to-face or by telephone.

Generally, however, only a small portion of the people who receive survey forms

in these ways actually fill them out and return them.

Abstract or Executive Summary

The abstract is brief, condensed statement of the most important ideas of the

report. It provides the readers with a compressed overview of the report by

mirroring both its content and organization.

The length of the abstract depends primarily on the length of the report. The

typical abstract is a paragraph of 150 to 200 words.

Although the abstract is a compressed version of the report, you should not

write it in telegraphic style. Its words and sentences must be in a good prose

style.


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Center and make prominent the word Abstract at the top of the page, double

space, and begin the abstract.

Letter of transmittal

The letter of transmittal or the preface officially transmits or presents the report to

the readers. The letter of transmittal may be in memo or letter form. Addressed

to the readers, it provides sufficient background by:

Restating the title of the report (in case the letter is mailed separately from the

report);

Stating the purpose of the report (readers in the workplace want to focus

immediately on the task at hand);

Pointing out features of the report that may be of special interest;

Acknowledging special assistance in performing the study or preparing the report,

especially from those who funded the project or provided materials, equipment or

information and advice.


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FACTS, FIGURES AND FINDINGS

Calculating Statistical Information

Statistics are raw data. They must be processed in some way to create

information which is meaningful and helpful for a particular purpose. Some of

the ways of using statistical data.

Classification

Classification can be used to add meaning data by grouping items into helpful

categories or classes.

Product X: Complaints in July and August 1996

Date Name Account numbers Complaint

August

23 Greenwald, G. 2428 Broken Sprocket22 Wharf, S. 2991 Wrong colour 19 Walters, P. 3367 Delivered late

Certain faults seem to recur, and you decide to see of there is a trend: you decide

to classify the complaints according to type.

Your summary would give the following information.

(a) Broken sprocket (3)

(b) Wrong colour (3)

Frequency of distribution

One type of classification often used in the organisation of large sets of date is a

frequency distribution. Classes might be ranges of: age, or costs/ numbers/

frequency of products purchased, time spent, errors made and so on. You can


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compare the relative frequency of one class against another, or against the sane

class over time, to show trends.

Example

Given below is a set of raw date on the number of minutes in each hour reported spent on

the telephone by 40 sales office staff.

19 15 1 24 5 19 27 34 14 23

9 5 4 18 41 17 15 19 23 14

34 11 16 17 28 29 31 11 21 12

8 5 16 6 17 29 7 9 23 18

As frequency distribution, the date would be organised as follows. For example, count up

how many times a number between 0 and 10 occurs.

Time spent Number of

per hour (minutes) workers

0-9 10

10.19 17


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Classes 20-29 9 Class frequencies

30.39 3

40.60 1

Total 40 Total frequency

A cumulative frequency distribution uses ceilings instead of ranges to define

classes: under 10, under20 etc.

Time spent per hour (minutes) Number of workers = cumulative

frequency

Under 10 10

Under 20 10+27=27

Under 30 10+17+9=36

Under 40 10+17+9+3=39

Under 60 10+17+9+3+1=40(Total sample)

PRESENTING STATISTICAL INFORMATION: TABLES, CHARTS AND

GRAPHS

A picture paints a thousand words. A simple visual presentation of data has

more impact and immediately than a table or block of text that is uniform to the

eye and may contain superfluous elements.


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Tables

Tables are a simple way of presenting numerical information. Figures are

displayed, and can be compared with each other: relevant totals, subtotals, or

percentages can also be presented as a summary for analysis.

A table is two-dimensional (rows and columns), so it can only show two

variables: a sales chart for a year, for example, might have rows for products, and

columns for each month of the year. You simply need to enter the appropriate

figures on each position.

SALES FIGURES FOR 19..

Product Jan Feb Mar Apr May Ju

n

Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec TOTAL

$ 000

A

B

C

D

TOTAL

Here are some further guidelines:

The table should be given a clear title.

All columns and rows should be clearly labeled. State the units being used. (E.g. $

$$).


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Where appropriate, there should be clear sub-totals. In the example above it might

be appropriate, say, to have sub0totals for products A and B together and for C

and D together as well as overall totals.

A total figure is usually needed at the bottom of each column of figures and at the

far right of each row.

Tables should not be packed with so much data that the information presented is

difficult to read.

Line graphs

A graph shows, by means of either a straight line or a curve, the relationship

between two variables. In particular it shows how the value of one variable

changes, according to changes in the value of the other variable.

Changes in sales turnover over time;

How a countrys population changes over time.

The general rules for plotting graphs can be summarized as follows.

The scales on each axis should be selected so as to make the graph big enough to

be easily read. In some cases it is best not start a scale at zero: this is perfectly

acceptable as long as the scale adopted is clearly shown.

Graphs can show more than one line. However, they should not be overcrowded

with too many lines. They should give a clear, neat impression.

The axes must be clearly labeled with descriptions and units.

Bar charts

The bar chart is one of the most common methods of presenting data in a visual

display. It is chart in which data is shown in the form of bar.


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A mechanism any object or system that has as working part(s)

Suggests tools, instruments & machines

A typical description of materials usually:

Provides an overview

Describes the principal parts in detail

Makes a conclusion

Mechanism description explains the purpose, appearance, physical structure, and

sometimes the operation or behavior of a mechanism. The word mechanism, as

used here, refers to any object that takes up space and behaves in a predictable

manner or performs work. In this sense, a drivers license is a much as mechanism

as is a clutch or an automobile.

Mechanism description is an important means of conveying evidence of their

presence and of making visible to the mind what may not be visible to the eye.

At work, at home, at leisure, we are surrounded by mechanisms and objects. To

evaluate them or use them, we need to know all their functions, features, and how

their parts work together or relate to one another. Mechanism description helps

meet our need to know.

DECIDING HOW MUCH INFORMATION TO PROVIDE

One of the universal problems of mechanism descriptions is the decision of how

much information to provide. You can potentially so much in the description that


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it becomes unacceptably long and provides information that readers cannot use.

You must select what information to include and what to leave out. Four familiar

considerations face you immediately when you prepare to describe a mechanism

or object:

1. What is the purpose of your descriptions?

2. Who is your audience?

3. How familiar is your audience with the mechanism or object?

4. What is the audiences purpose in reading the descriptions?

Mechanisms have specially designed features built into them that are important to

readers, and describing these features is one of your most important tasks. You do

not want to burden readers with unnecessary information, but you also dont want

to omit meaningful information.

Because you know so well the features of the mechanism you describe, it may be

difficult for you to remember that such knowledge might appear isolated and

unimportant to your readers unless you explain the importance of the feature.

When you mention the features in your presentation, immediately explain the

significance of the features so that it has meaning to your readers. The two-

column format will do, or you can combine the information like this:

The Shredmaster 180 has seven major features:

Built-in shredder continuously feeds forms through the shredder. Works

automatically and without supervision.


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hp motor has 70% more shredding power than most other models. Shreds 14

sheets of 20-lb.bond papers at one time.

12 throat accepts computer printout pages.

Hardened cutter blades cannot be damaged by conventional staples or paper clips.

ARRANGING THE DETAILS OF THE DESCRIPTION

The Introduction

Your readers must have an understanding of the overall mechanism or object

and a mental framework in which to fit all the details before they get to the

details, or they will be swamped. The introduction provides this kind of frame

of reference and overview for the entire mechanism or object.

A volcano is a cone-shaped mountain with a crater in the top that from time

to time erupts, spewing gases, rock, ash, and molten lave. The main features

are its crater (the opening in the earths surface) and the conduit connecting

the opening to the interior of the earth, which contains magma (hot, molten

lave). The largest active volcano in the world is Mauna Loa in the Hawaiian

Islands, which towers more than 13,500 feet above sea level.

The most important statements you make about a mechanism or object

early in your description relate to its functions, parts, and appearance. If

you are familiar with the mechanism or object, its easy to assume that your

readers share your knowledge. But you must remind yourself that most

readers will need information about what the mechanism or object does (if

known), what it looks like and what its major parts are.


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Example: A hand hacksaw is a metal-cutting saw of three parts: a handle, a C-

shaped frame, and a thin, narrow blade fastened to the open side of the frame.

Every mechanism is designed or has the form to fulfill a particular

function. The question to answer is: why is the mechanism designed as it is?

Or why is the object shaped as it is?

Example: A drafting compass is designed for drawing circles, ares and

ellipses.

When the mechanism or object you are describing is part of a larger

mechanism or object, you should explain how the mechanism or object

relates to the larger whole.

Your readers always need a notion of the size, and general appearance of

the mechanism or object. Size can be explained by giving dimensions (the

metal plate is 2X3X1/4 or by comparisons (the film canister is about the

size of a tube of lipstick).

Every mechanism or object has at least two parts. Partitioning the

mechanism or object into its major parts usually presents no problems, unless

it is extremely simple or complicated. In either instance you make some

arbitrary decisions. Try to come up with not less than parts and not more than

five or six.

The lists of parts indicate the order in which the parts will be discussed.

The order may be one of three sequences:

1. Function: The parts are described in the order of their activity-Part A

moves Part B, which moves Part C, and so forth.


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2. Space: The parts are described from left to right, top to bottom, outside

to inside, front to back, and so on

3. Importance: The parts are described from the most significant to the

least significant

The Body

The body of a mechanism description explains each other major part in the order

indicated by the list of major parts in the introduction. The parts description

provides much the same information for each part that the introduces does for the

mechanism or object as a whole.

The Ending

The ending explains how the mechanism how the mechanism works or is used.

Here you divide its function or behavior into meaningful stages and explain what

happened in each. For instance, if the writer who described the bolus gun had not

provided such information in the introduction, he might have described its use

like this:

The bolus gun, designed like a hypodermic syringe, can be used with one hand.

The operator grips the gun with one hand, opens the animals mouth with the

other, and inserts the end of the gun deep enough into the animals throat to

prevent the pill or tablet from being coughed up.

PREPARED BY:Mdm. Sharimllah DeviFOSEE

MATERIALS


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A. Overview ( This step consistes of a few sentences to indicate the material used. Itgives a general idea of the material and the purpose for which it is intended

B. Description of the principal parts ( Here each major part or characteristic of the

material is described in logical sequence using spatial or functional arrangement)

C. Functional description (This last step shows how the various features described in Bfunction together.)

Complete the description of the solar water heating system by filling in the blanks

with the appropriate active or passive verb in the correct tense.

Solar systems designed to heat water 1. _________ now common in private homes in

many parts of the country . A typical domestic water heating system 2._________ of

three parts , which are : (A) roof-mounted solar collectors, (B) a solar storage tank,

and (C) an existing water heater.Water 3._____________ through the south-facing

collectors by a circulation pump.(D) As water 4._____________ through the

collectors, it acquires heat and returns to the storage tank. When hot water is

needed, it 5.___________ from the existing water heater (C) and replaced by solarheated water. An electronic control turns the pump on only during those hours

when usable solar energy 6. ____________. It also activates the drain-down valve (E)

to drain the system when the storage tank 7.__________completely _____ with

thermal energy.

The existing water heater 8. __________ as a back-up unit during long periods of

cloudy weather, or when demand is unusually high. Otherwise, its energy


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consumption 9.________ as long as the solar water temperature 10._________

higher than the existing water heater's thermostat setting

1. A) are B) have C) will2. A) has B) contains C) consists3. A) pumps B) pumped C) is pumped

4. A) pass B) passes C) passed5. A) takes B) is taken C) was taken6. A) can be collected B) could be collected C) can collect7. A) will charge B) has charged C) is charged8. A) act B) serves C) is9. A) is eliminated B) eliminates C) was eliminated10. A) get B) become C) is

Write the passage out with the answers that you've picked. See you in class!!

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