Volume 9 June 2015

SAMIKSHYA (A Journal of Socio-economic Issues)

9th STATISTICS DAY 2015

SPECIAL ISSUE ON

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

DIRECTORATE OF ECONOMICS AND

STATISTICS

4th Floor, Heads of Department Building,

Bhubaneswar, Odisha Pin – 751001, India

Fax: 0674-2391897, Ph: 0674-2391295,

e-mail ID: desbbsr@gmail.com, desbbsr@datatone.in,

Website: desorissa.nic.in

Foreword

The 9th issue of Annual journal of Directorate of Economics and Statistics,

Odisha “SAMIKSHYA” is placed before you. SAMIKSHYA is the mirror journal

on continuing academic pursuits by Officers and staff of D.E&S, Odisha. It

addresses the contemporary social and economic problems and policy issues of the

State with analytic notes. The paper contributors offer statistical and economic

analysis to reach out possible trends and solution to sectoral problems in the

State. SAMIKSYA 2015 is a special issue on “Social Development” i.e. the

current year theme of the current year national theme of Statistics Day 2015. The

social sector development draws profound interest among the planners in recent

years in the wake of MDG goals on social development and UN’s strategy on

going beyond GDP & economic prosperity for the nations and States. Social

development in India and States remain an emerging issue. The resource &

research papers of the journal expect to deliver useful feedback for policy issues.

The DE&S makes the constant endeavor to capture and develop the elaborate

and quality database on the social sector developments. The workshop on

Statistics Day is the rightful forum to think globally and act locally in the area

of quality statistical products on social sectors and its development issues.

SAMIKSHYA makes a symbolic attempt in this regard. It not only embodies the

essence of statistics and economic system of the State, but also brings out critiques

and potential solution to the system.

I acknowledge with sincere thanks the valued contributions of Paper

writers and concerted efforts of Board of Editors of the Journal in preparing and

releasing the DE&S Journal “SAMIKSHYA” within a short span of time period.

I wish SAMIKSHYA a great success.

(Dusashan Behera)

Director

Editorial Board

The special issue of SAMIKSHYA 2015 on Social development bears

human interface with its research insights. It adds new dimension to the data

production, storage and dissemination on social sectors components with the

contribution of professional economists and statisticians. The experts from

statistics and economics fields contributed significantly to enrich the

contents of SAMIKSHYA. The views expressed in the journal are those of the

individual writers. Their valued contributions are thankfully acknowledged.

The constructive views of esteemed Readers shall be highly appreciated.

Contents

Sl. No Subject Page

1 Prof. Mahalanobis : A Complete Personality

1

2 Performance of High School Students in Odisha : A Critical Analysis

2

3 Regional Disparity in Standard of Living of Rural Odisha

10

4 Empowerment of Women through Entrepreneurships Development : A Study in Odisha

16

5 Sustainable Development and Environmentally Adjusted GDP: Some Issues

35

6 Status of Housing, Sanitation and Micro Environment : (An experiment towards Swachha Bharat- A Case Study of Odisha)

41

7 Directorate of Export Promotion and Marketing : The Trade Facilitator for MSME sector in Odisha

56

8 Minor Irrigation Censuses in Odisha : A Curtain Raiser

60

9 Statistical Thinking and Development Planning

73

10 Inflation vrs Growth in India – A Critical Analysis

81

11 Social Development in Kalahandi District : An Observation

88

12 Women Development and Welfare in Odisha : A Relook

98

Paper Contributors

Name Address

Dr. Dillip Ray Deputy Director, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswrar

Sri Sridhar Sahoo Assistant Director, School & Mass

Education Dept Odisha, Bhubaneswrar

Dr Sujata Priyambada Parida Assistant Director, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswrar

Dr Gitanjali Mishra Consultant, P&C Dept, Odisha,

Bhubaneswrar

Dr Bijaya Bhushan Nanda Deputy Director, RIPAES, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswrar

Sri Ashok Kumar Patnaik Statistical Investigator, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswrar

Smt Indira Gadanayak Statistical Assistant, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswrar

Sri Rasmi Ranjan Kanungo Statistical Assistant, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswrar

Sri Bijay Kumar Das

Director, Export Promotion & Marketing,

Govt of Odisha, Bhubaneswar

Sri Pradeep Kumar Sarangi,

Statistical Investigator, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswrar

Sri Ramakrusna Satpathy Assistant Director, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswrar

Sri Bigyan Nanda Mohanaty Deputy Director, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswrar

Smt Anita Das

Statistical Assistant, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswar

Sri Bimbadhar Sethy

Deputy Director, DPMU, Klahandi

Odisha,

Smt. Smruti Ranjita Patnaik Statistical Assistant, DE&S, Odisha,

Bhubaneswar

Samikshya -2015 1

Prof. Mahalanobis :

A Complete Personality Dr.Dillip Ray

He was born in a family that showed the path of Bengal renaissance.

He was mathematician & physicist by academics but Statistician by

profession. The biometric journal of England transformed him to a visionary

Statistician. His discovery of D2 Statistics and large sample survey method

made him a Statistician par excellent. He played the pioneering role to

establish Indian Statistical Institute and Central Statistics Organization. He

gave defite identity to Indian administrative Statistical system in many

International Statistical Organization. He formulated 4-sector model for

India’s second five year plan that built up strong edifice of take off stage of

development. He was honored with many apex level international & national

awards. He received Padma Bibhushan award for his visionary contributions

to Indian Economy .He was truly a renaissance man, a complete personality.

He was no other than professor Prashant Chandra Mahalanobis, the Father

of Indian Statistical system. On this eventful holy day of 9th Statistics Day-

2015, we are deeply moved to salute this great soul with profound reverence

& honour.

Samikshya -2015 2

Performance of High School Students in Odisha :

A Critical Analysis

Sridhar Sahoo

Abstract

The paper is concerned with one of the components of Social and human development

i.e education sector. It attempts to put performance indicator as the leading factor for

successful march of social sector development. The gender gap, social gap, social class

gap, institutional gap and governance gap in school examinations have been analysed by

statistical tools with effective suggestions towards improvement.

Introduction

In Odisha, 5.76 lakhs students (Boys-2.88 lakhs and Girls-2.88 lakhs)

appeared in the AHSC examination, 2015. Out of this, 5.49 lakhs students

appeared as Regular candidates. Out of those appeared, 4.52 lakhs students

(Boys-2.24 lakhs and Girls-2.28 lakhs) passed. Thus out of those appeared in

the Class-X examination conducted by BSE, Odisha, 80.5 % of students (Boys-

80.3 % and Girls-80.8 %) have successfully completed Class-X. Pass

percentage in respect of Regular candidates is 82.3% (Boys-82.3 % and Girls-

82.2 %). Pass percentage for Scheduled Caste Students is 75.6 %( Boys-76.4

% and Girls-74.8 %) and for Scheduled Tribes Student is 79.4 %( Boys-79.1%

and Girls-79.8 %). However, in comparison to boys, pass percentage among

girls is higher in respect of ST category.

During 2013-15, the result of AHSC examination of regular category

has overall increased by 6.6 percentage points (from76% to 82.6%) while in

case of scheduled caste category it has increased by 8.2 percentage

points(from 67.7% to 75.9%) and in case of scheduled tribe it has increased

by 10.1 percentage points(from 69.8% to 79.9%) during the same period.

Better performance of Odisha in addressing results can be attributed to

reformation of examination system and quality of teaching.

Neither two students’ nor two schools are identical. Students’ differ in,

region, culture, religion, language, gender, and economic status of parents

etc., whereas the schools differ in strength of students, quality of teachers,

Samikshya -2015 3

basic infrastructure, location of the school, aid provided by the government

etc. Obviously performance of the students measured in terms of scores or

grades obtained by them in examinations varies from student to student and

school to school. The variability in scores is a function of social groups, which

has to be studied and analyzed scientifically.

The performance measure corresponding to different independent

variables may be analyzed using logistic regression analysis. Logistic

regression has been successfully employed in social science, biostatistics,

genetics and demographic issues, but as far as school examinations is

concerned, not many research articles are available.

Objective of the Study

The main objectives of the study are:

To examine students satisfaction in AHSC examination.

To examine factors associated with student’s satisfaction in AHSC

examination.

Sources of Data

The present study uses the secondary data of AHSC examination,

2015. The methodology for data analysis is parametric procedure for

comparison of result by Gender, Caste and Type of School. In Odisha, 5.81

lakhs students had enrolled in the AHSC examination. Out of them, 5.47

lakhs were regular students. The analysis for this paper is based on the

regular category students.

Methodology

The analysis was carried out using both descriptive and multivariate

statistical methods. In the descriptive analysis, all indicators of gender,

community and school type are measured as percentages. Each outcome

variable is binary (yes or no), so that logistic regression is an appropriate

method of multivariate analysis.

Samikshya -2015 4

Analysis

I. Descriptive Analysis

For an analysis the study variables are defined into two broad

categories: dependent and independent variables. The dependent variable

(result of students) is expressed in terms of the satisfaction, whereas scores

of students affected by the social environment controlled by the parameters

viz. (i) gender (boys, girls), (ii) community (Others, OBC, Scheduled Caste,

and Scheduled Tribe) and (iii) school type (Govt., Unaided, Aided) are

independent variables.

It is assumed that students are ‘satisfied’ with their result if their

scores more than or equal to 60 percent and ‘not satisfied’ if their scores less

than 60 percent.

The study reveals that about 26.9% of students are satisfied with their

performance in their AHSC examination, 2015, while 73.1% are not satisfied

with their performance.

It is observed from the Table-1, 26.9% boys and 27% of girls are

satisfied with their performance. They have secured more than or equal to

60% marks in the AHSC examination, 2015.

Table 1: Percentage of Students performance in AHSC

Examination,2015 in Odisha Category Satisfied (%) Not Satisfied(%)

Gender

Boys 26.9 73.1

Girls 27.0 73.0

Community

OBC 30.4 69.6

Scheduled Caste 18.3 81.7

Scheduled Tribe 18.0 82.0

Others 38.8 61.2

School Type

Government 25.7 74.3

Aided 24.5 75.5

Unaided 42.1 57.9

Samikshya -2015 5

As far as community is concerned, 38.8% students from other

community are satisfied with their performance followed by 30.4% students

from other backward castes, 18.3% students from scheduled castes and 18%

students from scheduled tribe’s communities. The difference of students’

satisfaction of scheduled caste and scheduled tribe communities from the

others are 20.5 and 20.8 percentage point respectively.

Whereas, 42.1% student of Unaided High School are satisfied with

their results followed by 25.7 % of students of Government High Schools and

24.5% of students of Aided High Schools. It is noticed that students of

Unaided High School are more satisfied with their results as compared to the

students of Government High Schools and Aided High Schools.

Percentage of student satisfaction in their results among boys and girls

are given in Table-2.

In case of boys and girls, it is noticed that, boys from others, other

backward castes, and scheduled castes communities are satisfied with their

performance than their counter part i.e. girls, whereas girls from scheduled

tribes community perform better result than the boys. It is also noticed that

scheduled tribe boys and scheduled caste girls are less satisfied with their

performance as compared to others.

Table 2: Percentage of students satisfaction by sex in AHSC

examination,2015 in Odisha Category Satisfied (%) Not Satisfied(%)

Boys Girls Boys Girls

Community

OBC 30.5 30.2 69.5 69.8

Scheduled Caste 19.0 17.3 81.0 82.3

Scheduled Tribe 16.5 19.5 83.5 80.5

Others 38.9 38.7 61.1 61.3

School Type

Government 25.0 26.4 75.0 73.6

Aided 24.8 24.3 75.2 75.7

Unaided 44.4 39.6 55.6 60.4

Samikshya -2015 6

As regards level of satisfaction among students of the three type of

schools, boys from Aided and Unaided High School are more satisfied with

their result as compared to girls of the same school, whereas in case of

Government High School girls are more satisfied with their result than the

boys. It is also notice that boys and girls of Aided High School are less satisfied

with their performance as compared to Government High School.

II. Multivariate Analysis

The binary logistic regression analysis has been carried out in order to

estimate net or pure effect of socio-economic factors on satisfaction of student

performance in AHSC examination. The logistic regression model has been

adopted to examine the satisfaction of student examination scores. Since the

dependent variables is dichotomous it is to be seen whether the student scores

more than or equal to 60 percent in their high school examination or not.

For an analysis to examine the satisfaction of student examination

scores, the dependent variable is equal to 1 if the student scores more than or

equal to 60 percent and equal to 0 if the student scores less than 60 percent.

The study variables are defined into two broad categories: dependent and

independent variables. The dependent variable (result of students) is

expressed in terms of the satisfaction, whereas scores of students affected by

the social environment controlled by the parameters viz. (i) gender (boys,

girls), (ii) community (Others, OBC, Scheduled Caste, and Scheduled Tribe)

and (iii) school type (Govt., Unaided, Aided) are independent variables.

Coefficients are estimated using the maximum likelihood method

(MLM) of estimation. The independent variables are recoded into categorical

indicator variables. One value of each variable is chosen to be the reference

category. The reference category was the first category of the variable. For

ease of interpretation, the results are discussed in terms of the odds ratios.

The odds ratio is a measure that approximates how much more likely, (or

unlikely) it is for the outcome, in this case, for example, student whose scores

is more than or equal to 60 percent in their AHSC examination are classified

as ‘satisfied’ (coded 1) and the score of those is less than 60 percent in their

AHSC examination are classified as ‘not satisfied’ (coded 0). The odds ratios

for the reference category attributes are relative to the reference category.

Samikshya -2015 7

The odds ratio for the reference category is equal to 1. If an odds ratio is

greater than 1 this indicates an increased likelihood of the event occurring,

while an odds ratio less than 1 indicates a decreased likelihood of its

occurring.

The effect of the satisfaction for the likelihood of students is modeled,

taking into account various background characteristics. The result of logistic

regression analysis is shown in the Table-3.

A positive coefficient implies a positive association and a negative one,

implies a negative association. The students from different communities and

different types of schools as a whole are significant to the marks in AHSC

examination.

The performances of girls are 1.017 times higher than that of boys.

They are significantly more likely to satisfy their performance in AHSC

examination as compared to the boys when other factors are controlled. This

may be primarily because the girls tend to be more mastery-oriented in their

schoolwork habits. They are more apt to plan ahead, set academic goals, and

put effort into achieving those goals. They are also more likely to feel

intrinsically satisfied with the whole enterprise of organizing their work, and

more invested in impressing themselves and their teachers with their efforts

in comparison with the boys.

It is observed that, performance of students from scheduled castes and

scheduled tribes communities are 0.377 and 0.359 times better than the other

communities respectively, while performance of students from other

backward caste is 0.733 times better than the others. This may be primarily

because most of the students from socially-depressed communities (scheduled

caste, scheduled tribe) are from families where these students are first

generation learners. The majority of the students from the socially depressed

communities are handicapped from double disadvantages of the social

depression and probably institutional inadequacies.

Looking at the length of confidence of estimated odds, we find that

student of scheduled tribe community is estimated with 95% confidence

having shortest interval length.

Samikshya -2015 8

Whereas, it is observed that Government High School and Aided High

Schools are 0.492 and 0.467 times better than that of Unaided High School.

This may be due to the fact that the terms of teaching, teacher attendance,

school performance, small class size and discipline Unaided High School is

better than the other school.

Looking at the length of confidence of estimated odds, we find that

student of Government High School is estimated with 95% confidence having

shortest interval length.

Table 3 : Results of Logistic Regression Analysis of satisfaction of

student performance of high school Examination

Background

characteristics B S.E. Sig. Exp(B)

95.0% C.I.

for EXP(B)

Lower Upper

Gender

Ref. cat.: Boys 0.000 1.000

Girls 0.017 0.006 0.006 1.017 1.005 1.030

Caste

Ref. cat.: Others 0.000 1.000

OBC -0.310 0.008 0.000 0.733 0.721 0.746

SC -0.976 0.011 0.000 0.377 0.369 0.385

ST -1.024 0.011 0.000 0.359 0.352 0.367

Type of School

Ref. cat.: Unaided 0.000 1.000

Govt. -0.709 0.010 0.000 0.492 0.483 0.502

Aided -0.762 0.011 0.000 0.467 0.457 0.477

Constant 0.135 0.011 0.000 1.145

Conclusion

We may conclude that, girls are showing best performances in the

examinations. They are more likely than boys to feel intrinsically satisfied

with the whole enterprise of organizing their work, and more invested in

impressing themselves and their teachers with their efforts. The

performances of scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students are found to be

less satisfactory in the AHSC examination. Therefore, Government should

think about the economic condition of the students and provide them good

environment for their study. Similarly students of Government High School

and Aided High Schools show poor performance in the AHSC examination,

whereas students of Unaided High School perform better result. Government

should strongly replicate the PTR norm in the school. They should appoint

qualified teachers in schools and think for supply of better teaching learning

aids to the schools and teacher attendance, periodical performance of

students and discipline in the schools.

Samikshya -2015 9

References

1. Agresti, A. (1996). An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis, John Wiley

and Sons, Inc.

2. Hosmer, D. and Stanley, L. (1989). Applied Logistic Regression, John Wiley

and Sons, Inc.

3. Menard, S. (1995). Applied logistic regression analysis (Sage University

Paper Series on Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, 07–106),

Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

4. Menard, S. (1995). Applied Logistic Regression Analysis. Sage

Publications.Series: Quantitative Applications in the Social Sciences, No.

106.

5. Menard, S. (2000). Coefficients of determination for multiple logistic

regression analysis, The American Statistician, 54(1), p. 17–24.

6. Saha, G. and Sarmah, P. (2010). Statistical Analysis of School Examination

Result with Special Reference to the State of Tripura: North-East India,

Journal of Statistics Sciences, 2, p. 111-121.

7. Saha, G. and Sarmah, P. (2012): Stochastic Modeling of the Grading Pattern

in Presence of the Environmental Parameter, Electronic Journal of Applied

Statistical Analysis (Accepted).

8. Saha, G. Journal of Reliability and Statistical Studies, IIN (Print),0974-8024,

(online):2229-5666 Vol.4m Issue-2 (2011):105-117.

9. Sarma, R. and Sarmah, P. (1999). A Stochastic Modeling on Grading System,

In Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Operations and

Quantitative Management in the Global Business Environment (ICOQM),

Ahmedabad, India, 3–6th January 1999, p. 276–281.

10. Sarma R. and Sarmah P. (1999). Analysis of Results Based on Grades, In

Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Operations and

Quantitative Management in the Global Business Environment (ICOQM),

Ahmedabad, India, 3–6th January 1999, p. 282–290.

11. Tabachnick, B. and Linda, F. (1996). Using Multivariate Statistics, Third

edition. Harper Collins.

Samikshya -2015 10

Regional Disparity in Standard of Living

of Rural Odisha

Dr. Sujata Priyambada Parida

Abstract

This paper is a trial to show regional disparity of rural Odisha through inequality

distribution of living standard. The backwardness of the tribal based KBK region has

been analysed with over all rural Odisha using inequality distribution over ten economic

classes. All the measures and inequality i.e Gini Index and Lorenz Curve have been

computed from the important indicator monthly household expenditure of the households.

The latest household consumer data of National Sample Survey for the years 2004-05,

2009-10 and 2011-12 have been used for the analysis.

1. Introduction

According to the poverty measure of Planning Commission for the

year 2011-12, about 21.92% of people in India are suffering from poverty and

the figure is 32.59% for Odisha. According to this report poverty has been

declined in 24.61 percentage points for Odisha i.e. from 57.2 to 32.59 from

2004-05 to 2011-12. Poverty estimation is based on a cut off line called as

poverty line over the entire population of state. But the inequality

distribution takes different economic classes in to consideration. Hence

reduction of inequality along with the reduction of poverty is essential for a

developed state.

This study is an attempt to examine the inequality in standard of living

within rural sector of KBK region of Odisha. The KBK region, comprising

undivided Koraput (i.e, Koraput, Nabarangpur, Malkanagiri & Rayagada),

undivided Bolangir (i.e. Subarnapur and Bolangir) and undivided Kalahandi

(i.e., Kalahandi & Nuapada) districts, is one of the most backward regions of

the country. Hence taking these eight backward districts as KBK region the

analysis has been made for rural sector of Odisha.

Samikshya -2015 11

2. Data description and Sources:

The present study is based on unit level pooled data of state and

central sample of Household Consumer Expenditure Survey of NSSO

(National Sample survey Office) surveyed during its 61st (2004-05), 66th

(2009-10) and 68th (2011-12) rounds. It includes all expenditure relating to

food, clothing, education and health. The data sets were obtainable from

NSSO, Government of India and Directorate of Economics & Statistics,

Government of Odisha. The information on MPCE (monthly percapita

consumer expenditure) of each sample household is to be used for the study.

A two-stage stratified sampling design had been adopted for these survey.

The first stage units (FSU) or primary units were census villages for rural

sector and UFS (Urban Frame Survey) blocks for urban sector. All rural and

urban area of each district constitutes a separate rural and urban stratum

respectively. Then from each selected FSU sample, households are selected

as second stage units (SSU).The sample proportion for selection of FSU is

very small i.e. less than 1%. As the sample size is adequate for state level

estimate only, sub-state level estimate i.e. for KBK region of Odisha has been

done by pooling state and central sample to increase the sample size.

3. Methodology and Statistical tools:

3.1: Pooling procedure

For Odisha two different equal and independent samples i.e. Central

and State samples had been surveyed by two different agencies i.e. NSSO,

Govt of India and Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Govt of Odisha

respectively. For pooling two different sample data the study follows a

procedure where pooled estimate at stratum level has been calculated as the

weighted average of central and state sample estimates with number of

primary units as weights at stratum level.

3.2: Measures of Inequality

The devices “LORENZ CURVE” and “GINI INDEX” have been used to

measure the regional inequality in living standard of Odisha people. A

graphical representation of inequality distribution is called as Lorenz curve.

On the graph, a straight diagonal line represents perfect equality of the

expenditure distribution; the Lorenz curve lies below it, showing the

Samikshya -2015 12

inequality distribution. The Gini Index measures the inequality among

values of a frequency distribution (for example levels of expenditure). This

lies from 0 to 1 and“0” expresses perfect equality where all values are the

same (for example, where everyone has an exactly equal expenditure) where

“1” expresses maximal inequality among values (for example where only one

household has all the expenditure).To construct the Gini Index, the

cumulative percentage of Xi (distribution of population over ten economic

classes) has been taken on the horizontal axis and the cumulative percentage

of Yi (distribution of consumption expenditure over ten economic classes) has

been taken on the vertical axis. Then GINI INDEX OR GINI COEFFICIENT

has been calculated using the following formula.

𝐺𝑖𝑛𝑖 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 =∑[𝑿𝒊 ∗ (𝒀𝒊+𝟏)] − ∑[𝒀𝒊 ∗ (𝑿𝒊+𝟏 )]

𝑁2

Where N= cumulative percentage total =100

And 𝒊 varies from 1 to 10 (i.e for ten economic classes)

4. Result and analysis:

4.1: Change of inequality in KBK region from 2004-05 to 2011-12 (Using Lorenz Curve)

As KBK region is tribal based and one of the poorest region of the

country majority people are in very low living standard and some people in

upper classes in high living standard. To measure this disparity in living

standards within different economic classes of KBK region of rural Odisha,

the inequality distribution through Lorenz Curves of 68th round (2011-12),

66th round (2009-10) and 61st round (2004-05) for rural sector of KBK region

has been shown in the following figure 4.1.1.

The Lorenz curve shows the changes of rural inequality of KBK region

from 2004-05 to 2009-10 and 2009-10 to 2011-12 in a declined manner.

Although inequality decreases from 2004-05 to 2011-12, there is a significant

change during the period from 2004-05 to 2009-10. But the change from 2009-

10 to 2011-12 is quite insignificant. Although the poverty in Odisha is

declining at a faster rate in recent days which is continuing as a debatable

Samikshya -2015 13

issue both at the National and State level as reduction of poverty has a little

bearing on reduction of inequality.

Figure 4.1.1

(Comparative Lorenz curves of rural KBK Region For 61st (2004-05), 66th

(2009-10) and 68th (2011-12)

4.2: Change of inequality in KBK region from 2004-05 to 2011-12

over all rural Odisha (using Gini Index)

This part shows the change in exact measure of inequality from 2004-

05 to 2011-12 for KBK region over all Odisha for both rural and urban sectors.

The figure 4.2.1 shows the trend of inequality measures (Gini co-efficient)

from 2004-05 to 2011-12 for KBK region with respect to over all rural Odisha.

From the figure 4.2.1 it is observed that although inequality decreases

from 2004-05 to 2011-12, during 2009-10 and 2011-12 the inequality indices

are significantly less than All Odisha indices.

02

04

06

08

01

00

0 20 40 60 80 100

rur_KBK_66 rur_KBK_61

rural_KBK68 line_eq

P

o

p

u

L

A

T

I

o

n

Expenditure

Samikshya -2015 14

Figure 4.3.2 (Gini index of rural sector from 2004-05 and 2011-12)

5. Conclusion and Suggestions:

This study has investigated some issues related to inequality in

standard of living for KBK region of Odisha. For rural sector of KBK region

the inequality in living standard is gradually decreasing where as the decline

is very slow in over all rural Odisha. This paper shows a positive signal

towards development in the last recent years and the success of

implementation of poverty eradication programme in the rural backward

region of Odisha.

As poverty is measured through a particular cut-off line called as

poverty line the uniformity of development in all economic classes can not be

measured through the inequality distribution. Although the high rate of

poverty declination in Odisha is a big issue for many national level

researchers and political leaders, along with eradication of poverty

concentration should be more to eradicate inequality among different

economic classes i.e disparity should be less from top to bottom of different

region. At Government level plans should be implemented properly to identify

the non-facilitated people and to properly facilitate the unidentified people of

the backward region of Odisha properly to reduce disparity.

0.246

0.213 0.212

0.2430.239 0.24

61ST(2004-05) 66TH(2009-10) 68TH(2011-12)

RURAL

Gin

i in

de

x

Change in Gini-index in rural sector from 2004-05 to 2011-12

KBK Odisha

Samikshya -2015 15

References

1. B.S. Minha& M.G. Sardana(1990)—“A notes on pooling of state and

central sample data of NSS” – Sarvekshana July –Sept

1990,NSSO,Department of Statistics ,MOSPI, Govt of India.

3. SDRD, NSSO, Govt of India:Notes on Sample Design and Estimation

procedure61stround, 66th round and 68th round.

4. The free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gini-coefficient

Samikshya -2015 16

Empowerment of Women through

Entrepreneurships Development :

A Study in Odisha

Dr. Geetanjali Mishra

Dr. Bijaya Bhusan Nanda,

Introduction

Empowerment of women is a holistic concept. It has multiple

dimensions, which can be broadly categorized as legal, political, economic &

social. Of all these facets of women’s development, the economic independence

or economic empowerment occupies an area of utmost significance for lasting

and sustainable development of the society. The women get a forum in the

SHG to share their experience, built up their capacity and upgrade their

managerial and entrepreneurial skills. In the group collectively they get

control over the community assets and access to Govt. and financial

institutions and they become a force to reckon with. Organization of Self Help

Groups provides a foundation stone for income generating activities (IGA) to

be taken up by the women in the group and individually as well. Through

mobilization of thrift and credit activities, they get access to financial

resources and improve their status not only in the family but also in the

society. With the access to the financial resources they set up economic

activities and with the subsequent support of banking institutions and

capacity building support from Govt. / NGOs they broad base their economic

activities and slowly proceed ahead on the path of economic independence.

Therefore, Women’s Self Help Groups (WSHGs) is a single pedestal, which

provides strength to the rural women to walk down on the path of legal, social,

political and economic empowerment.

Entrepreneurship development requires adventurous sprit and

willingness to take risk in the face of uncertainty. Women entrepreneurs are

insignificantly small in our country and particularly in a backward state like

Orissa. The reasons for insignificant participation of women in the

entrepreneurial development are historical, social, political and economic.

Apart from the problems common to all entrepreneurs, the women go through

discouraging experience, while dealing with various officials, who usually do

not have a positive attitude towards women and the projects started by them.

Samikshya -2015 17

This is the experience in India and outside as revealed from various studies,

James and Poul, 1979, Eric and Bary-1982, Robbert & Marry- 1981,

Ganeshan and Durai Pandian (1995). A women’s whole socialistic process

make her peaceful of failure, doubtful of success and reluctant to take risk.

The social nurturing of women in the rural condition develops in women a

personality type, which is not suitable for entrepreneurship. But the shackles

have to be broken and the women need to be encouraged and supported to

take up entrepreneurship. The success stories of many rural women

entrepreneurs even- though small in number have proved that the women

have capacity and potential to manage the enterprise efficiently & effectively.

WSHGs and Entrepreneurship Development in Orissa

The Govt. of Orissa in the Department of Women and Child

Development launched ‘MISSION SAKTI ’ ; a Self Help Mission for

empowerment of women through Self Help Groups on 8th March 2001. The

Goal was to promote women SHG’s and income generating activities and

bring about a perceptible and sustainable change in the status of women in

Orissa. The objective was to promote more WSHGs and to strengthen

entrepreneurship among SHGs in the State and provide them the capacity

building support, skill up gradation training, financial and marketing linkage

for income generating activities. The strategy adopted was to bring all the

stakeholders like Bank, NGO, Govt. Departments, and international agencies

in to a single forum under the umbrella under Mission Shakti and provide

State patronage to make a big leap forward in the path of women

empowerment.

There have been reports of income generation activities being taken up

by the women members individually and through group approach. But data

base on income generation activities being taken up by the WSHG’s is lacking.

Besides the WSHG’s are also receiving financial support through SGSY

scheme, RMK (Rastriya Mahila Kosh), NGOs and international funding

agencies like CARE, UNICEF, UNDP etc. In the State of Orissa the women

SHG’s are promoted and nurtured by SHPI’s like Govt. Agencies, ICDS

functionaries, officials of Community Development Blocks, Rural Regional

Banks, Commercial Banks and Co-operative Banks and NGOs.

Samikshya -2015 18

Importance of the study

The State has witnessed acceleration in the promotion of WSHGs in

the recent past. This has been largely due to Government patronage and

sensitization. The different stake holders- Govt., Banks, NGOs, International

Agencies are making concerted and co-ordinate effort to empower the women

through WSHGs and entrepreneurship development. This is evident from the

quantitative data presented in the previous paragraph. There have been very

few research studies in this area to assess whether this impressive quantity

is matched with the quality in the ground situation. In this backdrop the

present research paper assumes greater importance.

Objectives

To study& examine

The process of formation of WSHGs and development of micro-fund,

Training, extension support and motivation organised for WSHGs,

The linkage with formal financing institutions,

Various entrepreneurial activities pursued by the women

entrepreneurs individually or jointly,

The system of credit management & suggest improvements, if any,

To ascertain, assess & suggest

income generating capacities of various enterprises,

better savings mobilization ,proper utilisation and stronger credit

support from formal financing institutions,

Sustainability of WSHGs and their entrepreneurial activities.

Socio-economic impact of the micro-credit system and

entrepreneurship development among women.

Methodology

The research methodology consists of four components namely

sampling scheme, collection of primary data, collection of secondary data,

analysis & interpretation of data.

Samikshya -2015 19

Sampling Scheme

The primary data in respect of WSHGs and women entrepreneurs, a

sample of three districts, six community development blocks- 2 from each

district, 60 WSHGs-10 from each block and 180 women entrepreneurs-3 from

each WSHGs were selected.

Selection of Districts

The basic criteria of selection of districts were that one of the district

will be from tribal area and other districts from the areas with maximum

concentration of WSHGs and their linkage with financial institutions. The

district of Keonjhar was selected from among the 11 tribal districts following

the simple random sampling techniques. The district of Ganjam was selected

from among the coastal districts, which have experienced a strong WSHG

movement among the women. Dhenkanal district was selected as because it

was the pioneer district, where DWCRA women groups were formed initially.

Selection of Blocks

From each sample district two blocks were selected one from among

the backward pockets & one from the relatively developed pocket. The level

of development was decided on the basis of SC, ST population, infrastructure

facilities, communication facilities and above all promotion of WSHGs.

Selection of WSHGs

In the state WSHGs are promoted by three types of SHPIs- Govt,

Banks and NGOs. From each of the sample blocks 10 WSHG’s were selected.

Thus a total of 60 WSHGs were selected. Care was taken to ensure selection

of WSHGs promoted by Govt., Banks and NGOs. This was done with a view

to ensure adequate representation of the WSHGs promoted by 3 types of

SHPIs. Besides care was also taken to include 3 year old WSHGs in the

sample so that the sample WSHGs have adequate gestation period for full-

fledged activities.

Selection of Entrepreneurs

In order to assess the economic impact of entrepreneurial activities on

the status of women entrepreneurs, 180 women entrepreneurs were selected

Samikshya -2015 20

at the rate of 3 from each WSHG. While selecting the entrepreneurs care was

taken to give adequate representation to the entrepreneurial activities from

Primary, Secondary & Tertiary sectors.

Construction of Empowerment Index

The responses of sample entrepreneurs on the issues of different

indicators were analysed and interpreted making a comparison between the

situation that existed prior to and after their involvement in the WSHG

activities. Index of individual indicator and over all indicators taken together

were computed for both the situations in line with the methodology discussed

in paper “Measuring women empowerment, some methodological issues” by

T.K Biswas. The index has been computed in three stages

First stage: (Index of an individual issue for an indicator )

Let, EIjk is the empowerment index of kth issue of jth indicator.

Fjkl be the frequency of the lth category of response of kth issue of jth indicator.

Xl be the value of lth category of response of kth issue of jth indicator,

Where l = 1, 2, … n.

Eijk = [Σfjkl*x l)/m]*100, Where ‘m’ is the maximum score or outcome of that

issue from all the sample entrepreneurs. ‘n’ is the number of category of

responses.

Second Stage: The Index of the Indicators

In order to develop empowerment index of an indicator weighted

average of index for different issues were computed. The weights to the issues

were assigned in order of their importance as it was revealed through FGDs.

Third Stage: Composite Index of all the Indicators

The composite index of all the indicators taken together was computed

as the weighted average of individual indicators. The weights were again

assigned on the basis of their relative importance, as it was revealed through

FGDs.

Samikshya -2015 21

Computation of Scores

Besides the percentage scores of sample entrepreneurs were computed

by adding the values of their responses to different issues of the indicators

and computing the percentage out of the maximum score. Descriptive

statistics such as the mean score, median score, co-efficient of variance were

also computed for interpretation. F-test was done to know the significance of

differences between mean scores of different districts. Normal ‘Z’-test was

done to compare the significance of difference between the mean scores before

and after their participation in the SHG activities

Women’s SHGs, Micro entrepreneurship and Empowerment

The study has analysed, whether formation of WSHGs and micro-

entrepreneurship among the rural women have really led to their socio-

economic empowerment. The United Nations Development Programme

(UNDP) defined empowerment as a process, which redistribute the power

from powerful to powerless. In the rural set up, where gender difference and

male domination is a normal feature in the society, it is necessary that women

should be given freedom of choice with equal access to domestic and

community resources, equal opportunities and power with that of their male

counterparts. Formulation of WSHGs has the principal objective of improving

the identity of women through their independent economic activities. But it

is also a fact that such activities are likely to improve the social & economic

empowerment in various degrees. A quantitative measurement of the level of

empowerment even though is a difficult proposition but attempt has been

made to compute scores for empowerment and construct index of

empowerment. For this purpose a set of issues relating to indicators like (i)

Economic security (ii) Freedom for family domination (iii) Decision making

activity (iv) Mobility (v) Social & Legal awareness (vi) Exposure to

information (vi) Participation in rural development programmes (viii)

Reproductive rights have been considered. One hundred eighty sample

entrepreneurs have been interviewed to obtain their views on different issues

of indicators as prevailing before and after their participation in the WSHGs

and taking up entrepreneurial activities. The scores of entrepreneurs and the

index of empowerment were calculated as per the procedure explained under

methodology. This study attempts to provide an insight into this debate by

analyzing the capabilities of microfinance activities in promoting

Samikshya -2015 22

microenterprises and thereby economic empowerment among women in a

rural community in selected districts of Orissa.

Economic Security

The women folk in the rural areas viewed ‘Economic Security’ as one of

the very important indicators for empowerment. This indicator has been

computed on the basis of five issues; the responses to which have been

summarized below in table- 1. After participating in the SHG activities, more

than 90% of the entrepreneurs have expressed that they have independent

income from different sources & right to handle cash, independent decisions

for investment and savings, independent decisions to incur expenditure for

health & education of the children. About 85% viewed that they have access

to household assets and 2-3rd have right to ownership of land. The scenario

is much better than the scenario before their participation in the SHG

activities. The index of empowerment of this indicator for the sample

entrepreneurs was computed at 56.8 before their involvement in the WSHG

activities and the same indicator stood at 88.5 after the women have taken

up entrepreneurial activities through SHGs.

Table-1: Responses to different issues of Indicators of Economic Security

before and after participation in the SHG Activities.

Sl.

No.

Indicators/

Issues

Res-

ponse

Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar Total

1 Economic

Security Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef, % Aft. %

i Right to ownership

of land Yes 35 58 35 58 32 53 38 63 42 70 46 77 109 61 119 66

No. 25 42 25 42 28 47 22 37 18 30 14 23 71 39 61 34

ii Independent

Income from

different sources

and right to handle

cash

Yes 45 75 54 90 41 68 60 100 34 57 55 92 120 67 169 94

No. 15 25 6 10 19 32 0 0 26 43 5 8 60 33 11 6

iii Independent

decisions for

investment and

savings

Yes 34 57 58 97 38 63 59 98 29 48 45 75 101 56 162 90

No. 26 43 2 3 22 37 1 2 31 52 15 25 79 44 18 10

iv Access to

household assets Yes 32 53 58 97 24 40 49 82 17 28 46 77 73 41 153 85

No. 28 47 2 3 36 60 11 18 43 72 14 23 107 59 27 15

v Independent

decisions to incur

expenditure for

education and

health services of

children

Yes 21 35 57 95 44 73 57 95 31 52 52 87 96 53 166 92

No. 39 65 3 5 16 27 3 5 29 48 8 13 84 47 14 8

Samikshya -2015 23

Exposure to information

Access to information is a vital step forward on the path of

empowerment, for the rural women who are by and large illiterate and

uneducated. Five issues have been considered for the construction of the

index under this indicator, the responses of the entrepreneurs to these issues

have been presented in table 2. Eighty six per cent of the entrepreneurs have

expressed that they were attending SHG meetings and other village meetings

and getting exposed to information. Nearly 2-3rd of the entrepreneurs

expressed that though not regularly, they were listening to radio quite often,

1-3rd watching TV either in the community centre or in the neighbours’ house

and half reading news papers once in a while. Nearly 3-4th of the

entrepreneurs viewed that they also get information from other sources such

as ICDS workers, Village Agricultural Workers, Village Level Workers and

PRI representatives. The value of the index for this indicator was 23.4 for the

sample entrepreneurs prior to their participation in the SHG activities, which

considerable increased to 64.0 after participation in the SHG activities.

Table 2: Responses to different issues of Indicators of Exposure to

information before and after participation in the SHG

Activities

Sl.

No.

Indicators/

Issues

Res-

ponse

Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar Total

Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef, % Aft. %

Exposure to information

i Listening radio

Yes 25 42 28 47 37 62 50 83 18 30 38 63 80 44 116 64

No 35 58 32 53 23 38 10 17 42 70 22 37 100 56 64 36

ii Watching TV

Yes 10 17 12 20 22 37 45 75 5 8 6 10 37 21 63 35

No 50 83 48 80 38 63 15 25 55 92 42 70 143 79 105 58

iii Attending

meetings

Yes 8 13 56 93 11 18 49 82 2 3 49 82 21 12 154 86

No 52 87 4 7 49 82 11 18 58 97 11 18 159 88 26 14

iv Reading

Newspapers

Yes 4 7 24 40 16 27 39 65 2 3 30 50 22 12 93 52

No 56 93 36 60 34 57 21 35 58 97 30 50 148 82 87 48

v

Information

from any other

sources

Yes 15 25 51 85 21 35 48 80 16 27 35 58 52 29 134 74

No 45 75 9 15 39 65 12 20 44 73 25 42 128 71 46 26

Samikshya -2015 24

Social and Legal Awareness

Women empowerment is also linked with their social awareness and

ideas about various Acts& Laws protecting them against atrocities and

exploitation. The sample entrepreneurs were asked about their ideas on some

aspects relating to the indicator and their views analyzed in table-3. Some

questions were also asked about improvement of such awareness among

sample women members of WSHGs to obtain first hand information from

them. Nearly 80 per cent of the entrepreneurs viewed that they have

awareness about equal remuneration Act, laws for prevention of atrocity to

women and laws of inheritance. Seventy one per cent have expressed

awareness about dowry laws relating to prohibition of dowry and 59 per cent

knew the names of local PRI representative, MLAs and MPs. The index of

this indicator stood at 54.6 prior to and 77 after their involvement in the

WSHGs and IGAs.

Table 3 : Responses to different issues of Indicators of Social

andLegal Awareness:-Before and after participation in the

SHGActivities Sl.

No.

Indicators/ Issues Res-

ponses

Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar Total

Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef, % Aft. %

Social and Legal Awareness

i Awareness about

equal remuneration

act

Yes 38 63 48 80 39 65 52 87 21 35 50 83 98 54 150 83

No 22 37 12 20 21 35 8 13 39 65 10 17 82 46 30 17

ii Idea on Acts and laws

about dowry

prohibition

Yes 41 68 46 77 28 47 44 73 20 33 38 63 89 49 128 71

No 19 32 14 23 32 53 16 27 40 67 22 37 91 51 52 29

iii Prevention of

atrocities to women

Yes 43 72 49 82 39 65 48 80 32 53 47 78 114 63 144 80

No 17 28 11 18 21 35 12 20 28 47 23 38 66 37 46 26

Iv Laws of inheritance Yes 35 58 45 75 42 70 55 92 15 25 47 78 92 51 147 82

No 25 42 15 25 18 30 5 8 45 75 23 38 88 49 43 24

V Names of local peoples

representatives

Yes 32 53 37 62 40 67 46 77 12 20 23 38 84 47 106 59

No 28 47 23 38 20 33 14 23 48 80 37 62 96 53 74 41

Freedom from family domination

The females in the households are always at the receiving end. They

are quite often ill treated, abused and beaten by in laws/ husbands or others.

Whether, the participation in the SHG activities and independent income

Samikshya -2015 25

from enterprises have brought some amelioration to their above conditions

due to a change in the attitude of the family members towards them. The

views of the entrepreneurs on several issues on this indicator were obtained

and analysed in table 4. Eighty-nine per cent of the entrepreneurs have the

freedom to work outside the home, 74% have freedom to acquire or sell

jewellary / ornaments used by her, 69% do not receive threat of divorce from

the in laws. While two-third said that they have freedom from physical abuse

by the in laws, 40% said to have such problems with the in laws. Sixty-nine

percent enjoy the freedom to go to the parents house, while 31% expressed

that their visit to the in laws house was restricted. Still considerable segment

of the women entrepreneurs suffered from the disadvantage of the family

domination. However the analysis of the information depicted that there has

been some improvement in the freedom from family domination after the

women’s involvement in the SHG activities. The index of empowerment,

which stood at 51.1 before the participation in the SHG activities, increased

to 61.4 after their participation in the SHG.

Table 4 : Responses to different issues of Indicators of Freedom

from Family DominionBefore and after participation in the

SHG Activities

Sl.

No. Indicators/

Issues

Res-

ponse

Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar Total

Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef, % Aft. %

Freedom from family domination

i Freedom from

physical abuse

from husband/in-

laws

Yes 19 32 34 57 28 38 63 14 23 36 60 61 34 108 60

No 41 68 26 43 32 22 37 46 77 24 40 119 66 72 40

ii Freedom to work

outside home

Yes 51 85 59 98 34 52 87 47 78 50 83 132 73 161 89

No 9 15 1 2 26 8 13 13 22 10 17 48 27 19 11

iii Freedom to go

parents house

Yes 38 63 54 90 30 33 55 25 42 37 62 93 52 124 69

No 22 37 6 10 30 27 45 35 58 23 38 87 48 56 31

iv Freedom to

acquire or sell

own ornaments

or jewelries used

by her

Yes 39 65 50 83 35 58 47 78 24 40 36 60 98 54 133 74

No 21 35 10 17 25 42 13 22 36 60 24 40 82 46 47 26

v Received threat

of diverse or

another

marriage

Yes 21 35 6 10 39 65 27 45 34 57 23 38 94 52 56 31

No 46 77 54 90 21 35 33 55 26 43 37 62 93 52 124 69

Samikshya -2015 26

Decision making capacity

Another important indicator of women empowerment is the role in the

decision making in the family. She may have the independence of taking the

decision or bring consulted in the process of decision making by the family

members. In order to through insight in to this aspects, the women

entrepreneurs were interviewed to express their views on different issues

relating to this indicator, the analysis of which is presented in Table-5. It was

seen that about 90% of the sample entrepreneurs have expressed that they

are either consulted or have the independence to take decision in the matters

such as enrolment and education of children, marriage of grown up sons and

daughters, purchase of durable household goods and assets, health care &

borrowing and lending money. However the incidence of independent decision

-making is minimum i.e. in and around 10%. In other issues like adoption of

family planning measures about 44% have viewed that they have no role,

while more than half have expressed that they are either consulted (51%) or

have independent decision making opportunity (5%).Fifty four percentage

(54%) of the women entrepreneurs have expressed that they do not have any

role in community functions or co-operative societies or voluntary

organizations, while 46% expressed their involvement. As regards to

purchase and sell of land nearly 59% have expressed their role while

remaining have expressed their non -involvement in the matter. The

comparison revealed that there has been improvement in the situation after

the women’s participation in the SHG activities than that existed prior to it.

The index of empowerment was 24.3 prior to their involvement in SHG, which

increased to 39.9 after taking up income generating activities through the

SHG.

Table 5: Responses to different issues of Indicators of Decision

making capacity of entrepreneur before and after

participation in the SHG Activities

Sl.

No. Indicators/ Isuues Response

Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar Total

Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef, % Aft. %

i Decision about

enrolment and

education of children

Independe

ntly

1 2 7 12 2 3 5 8 2 3 7 12 5 3 19 11

Jointly 45 75 51 85 40 67 53 88 38 63 48 80 123 68 152 84

No role 14 23 2 3 28 47 2 3 20 33 5 8 62 34 9 5

Samikshya -2015 27

Sl.

No. Indicators/ Isuues Response

Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar Total

Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef, % Aft. %

ii Marriage of grownup

sons and daughters Independe

ntly 0 0 8 13 1 2 4 7 4 7 5 8 5 3 17 9

Jointly 45 75 47 78 32 53 55 92 40 67 50 83 117 65 152 84

No role 15 25 5 8 27 45 1 2 16 27 5 8 58 32 11 6

iii Purchase of durable

households goods and

assets like clothing

and other utensils

Independe

ntly 0 0 6 10 0 0 1 2 4 7 6 10 4 2 13 7

Jointly 14 23 50 83 45 75 53 88 44 73 48 80 103 57 151 84

No role 46 77 4 7 15 25 6 10 12 20 6 10 73 41 16 9

iv Adoption of family

planning measures

Independe

ntly 0 0 2 33 1 2 1 2 1 2 6 10 2 1 9 5

Jointly 15 25 20 33 30 50 31 52 34 57 41 68 79 44 92 51

No role 45 75 38 63 29 48 28 47 25 42 13 22 99 55 79 44

v Involvement in

community

functions/cooperative

societies or VO

Independe

ntly 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 2 3 8 13 2 1 9 5

Jointly 2 3 2 3 21 35 49 82 8 13 22 37 31 17 73 41

No role 58 97 57 95 39 65 11 18 50 83 30 50 147 82 98 54

vi Medical or Health

basic arrangements Independe

ntly 2 3 5 8 2 3 2 3 5 8 6 10 9 5 13 7

Jointly 28 47 54 90 45 75 52 87 31 52 42 70 104 58 148 82

No role 30 50 1 2 13 22 6 10 24 40 12 20 67 37 19 11

vii Purchase and sale of

land Independe

ntly 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 7 0 0 5 3

Jointly 15 25 25 42 12 20 44 73 8 13 31 52 35 19 100 56

No role 45 75 34 57 48 80 16 27 52 87 25 42 145 81 75 42

viii Burrowing and

lending money Independe

ntly 1 2 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 5 3 5 5 3 6 3

Jointly 40 67 55 92 45 75 56 93 38 63 49 82 123 68 160 89

No role 19 32 3 5 14 23 3 5 19 32 8 13 52 29 14 8

Mobility

The mobility is the synonymous of progress. For the rural women

independence in different issues of mobility is one of the important indicators

of women’s empowerment. The findings in this aspect were tabulated in

Table-6. It was revealed that almost all the sample entrepreneurs either visit

the market independently (54%) or jointly in groups or with family members

(45%). So far as going to health centre or hospital, majority of the sample

entrepreneurs (94%) have either to go with their in-laws or parental family

Samikshya -2015 28

members. Very few visits health centers independently. As regards visiting

friends and relatives and attending women meeting the majority have to do

it, jointly with their family members. As regards entertainments concerned

such as visiting a theater/ seeing a jatra in the locality 22% expressed total

restriction while 37% have the opportunity to avail this facility jointly with

the family members. 41% expressed that they have their independence to see

with movie/ theater but with known acquainted friends. Regarding visit to

PRI’s 28% expressed they do not attend, while 38% have visited those places

jointly with their male members of the family & 34% independently. It is a

good sign that 70% have expressed their participation in the Panchayat

meetings jointly with other members while 16% have affirmed their

participation independently. The index of empowerment for this indicator

before their participation in the SHG was 31.0 which registered an increase

56.4 .after their involvement in the SHG activities.

Table-6 Responses to different issues of Indicators of Mobility of

entrepreneur before and after participation in the SHG Activities

Sl.

No. Indicators/ Issues Response Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar Total

Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef, % Aft. %

i Visiting market

places for sale and

purchase

Independently 21 35 32 53 21 35 34 57 21 35 31 52 63 35 97 54

Jointly 10 17 27 45 7 12 25 42 36 60 29 48 53 29 81 45

No role 29 48 1 2 32 53 1 2 3 5 0 0 64 36 2 1

ii Going to health

centre/hospital Independently 2 3 3 5 4 7 4 7 4 7 4 7 10 6 11 6

Jointly 34 57 57 95 56 93 56 93 40 67 56 93 130 72 169 94

No role 24 40 0 0 0 0 0 0 16 27 0 0 40 22 0 0

iii Visiting

friends/relatives Independently 7 12 14 23 17 28 21 35 1 2 5 8 25 14 40 22

Jointly 25 42 40 67 35 58 38 63 34 57 50 83 94 52 128 71

No role 28 47 6 10 8 13 1 2 25 42 5 8 61 34 12 7

iv Attending women's

meeting Independently 1 2 2 3 1 2 8 13 2 3 10 17 4 2 20 11

Jointly 16 27 55 92 45 75 50 83 10 17 40 67 71 39 145 81

No role 43 72 3 5 14 23 2 3 38 63 10 17 95 53 15 8

v Going to

movie/theatre/Jatra Independently 31 52 40 67 8 13 25 42 3 5 8 13 42 23 73 41

Jointly 10 17 11 18 14 23 18 30 26 43 38 63 50 28 67 37

No role 19 32 9 15 38 63 17 28 31 52 14 23 88 49 40 22

vi Visiting places

outside the village Independently 15 25 31 52 11 18 22 37 5 8 9 15 31 17 62 34

Jointly 5 8 10 17 15 25 19 32 21 35 39 65 41 23 68 38

No role 40 67 9 15 34 57 19 32 34 57 12 20 108 60 40 22

vii Visiting GP

Office/Panchayat

Samiti Office

Independently 2 3 21 35 5 8 15 25 3 5 9 15 10 6 45 25

Jointly 9 15 31 52 6 10 30 50 14 23 23 38 29 16 84 47

No role 49 82 8 13 49 82 15 25 43 72 28 47 141 78 51 28

viii Attending Panchayat

Meeting Independently 2 3 8 13 4 7 11 18 5 8 10 17 11 6 29 16

Jointly 36 60 51 85 11 18 44 73 24 40 31 52 71 39 126 70

No role 22 37 1 2 45 75 5 8 40 67 19 32 107 59 25 14

Samikshya -2015 29

Reproductive Right

In the rural set up the uneducated women usually do have little say in

determining the reproductive behavior and practices. But this is a important

for the health and nutrition of the women. Therefore the independence of the

rural women in these practices is important for empowerment. The majority

of the sample entrepreneurs (78%) have expressed that they have a role in

following two-child norm while the remaining 22% do not have any role. So

far as birth spacing a concerned the majority (58%) have expressed that they

do not have any role. Similarly 88% have expressed they do not have any role

to decide about abortion. It emerged that in this regard the entrepreneurs

have a change of attitude and perception in the above mentioned aspects after

joining in SHG. The index of empowerment on this indicator increases from

31.2 to 47.2 after their participation in SHG activities.

Table 7: Responses to different issues of Indicators of Reproductive

Rights of entrepreneur before and after participation in

the SHG Activities

Sl.

No.

Indicators/ Issues Res-

ponse

Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar Total

Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef, % Aft. %

i Are You following

two child norms

Yes 25 42 53 88 32 53 48 80 20 33 39 65 77 43 140 78

No 35 18 7 12 28 47 12 20 40 67 21 35 103 57 40 22

ii

Is there any

reasonable gaps

between births

Yes 15 25 27 45 20 33 27 45 15 25 21 35 50 28 75 42

No 45 75 33 55 40 67 33 55 45 75 39 65 130 72 105 58

iii Right to abortion

Yes 0 0 4 7 0 0 10 17 2 3 8 13 2 1 22 12

No 60 100 56 93 60 100 50 83 58 97 52 87 178 99 158 88

iv

Discrimination

between male and

female child

Yes 9 15 19 32 39 65 34 57 24 40 26 43 72 40 79 44

No 51 85 41 68 21 35 26 43 36 60 44 73 108 60 111 62

Participation in Rural Development Programme

Coming out of the domestic sector and being involved in the development

activities in the area not only improves the image of women but also brings

Samikshya -2015 30

empowerment in the society. This also helps them in widening their level of

knowledge and awareness about their development activities. The

involvement of women in different aspect of this indicator has been tabulated

in the Table-8 only 17% of the entrepreneurs expressed their involvement in

school committees, 27% in local women organization like Mahila Samities

etc., 34% in NGO activities and 14% in the co-operative societies and

Development Committees. However 54% have expressed their involvement in

Grama-sabha. This is a good trend that even though in small number the

rural women are coming forward to participate in the developmental

activities. The index of empowerment was only 9, which increased to 31.6

after their participation in the SHG activities.

Table-8 Responses to different issues of Indicators of Activities

Participation in Rural Dev. Programmes of entrepreneur

before & after participation in SHG

Indicators/ Issues Res-

ponse

Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar Total

Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef. % Aft. % Bef, % Aft. %

i Involvement in

school committee Yes 2 3 9 15 0 0 9 15 0 0 13 22 2 1 31 17

No 58 97 51 85 60 100 51 85 60 100 47 78 178 99 149 83

ii Involvement in

local Women's

Organisation

Yes 6 10 14 23 5 8 22 37 4 7 12 20 15 8 48 27

No 54 90 46 77 55 92 38 63 56 93 48 80 165 92 132 73

iii Involvement in the

activities of

NGO/VO

Yes 0 0 12 20 2 3 30 50 2 3 20 33 4 2 62 34

No 60 100 48 80 58 97 30 50 58 97 40 67 176 98 118 66

iv Involvement in

Cooperative society Yes 0 0 4 7 0 0 11 18 0 10 17 0 0 25 14

No 60 100 56 93 60 100 49 82 0 50 83 120 67 155 86

v Involvement in

Development

Committee

Yes 4 7 5 8 7 12 12 20 2 3 9 15 13 7 26 14

No 56 93 55 92 53 88 48 80 58 97 51 85 167 93 154 86

vi Involvement in

Gramsabha for

selection of

beneficiaries

Yes 17 28 35 58 10 17 34 57 8 13 29 48 35 19 98 54

No 43 72 25 42 50 83 26 43 52 87 31 52 145 81 82 46

Combining the above 8 indicators of empowerment the overall

indicators of empowerment was computed for the situation that existed prior

to and after their involvement in SHG activities. The different indicators

were given due weights for the purpose according to their importance in the

Samikshya -2015 31

rural context. The overall index was 41.1 earlier which increased to 66.7 after

joining in SHG and taking up entrepreneurial activities.

In the Focus Group Discussion the members of WSHGs expressed that

their level of awareness and knowledge on various aspects of social and

economic issues concerning them increased significantly and independent

earning even though small in amount have enhanced their status in the

family. These factors have contributed to their empowerment. But they still

feel the need, a support and encouragement and patronage for sustaining the

SHG and micro enterprise activities. The women empowerment indices before

and after taking up income generating activities on different indicators along

with overall empowerment index (District wise) in Table 9.

Table : 9 Socio-Economic Empowerment Index before forming the

WSHG and after taking up Income Generating Activities

through WSHGs

Sl. No.

Indicators/ Issues Index of Indicator

Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar Total

Indicators Before After Before After Before After Before After

1 Economic Security 57.5 90.5 62.3 92.2 50.7 82.8 56.8 88.5

2 Exposure to information 21.3 58.2 35.8 78.1 13.3 55.7 23.4 64.0

3 Social and Legal Awareness 63.6 76.2 64.7 83.1 35.6 71.8 54.6 77.0

4 Freedom from family domination 51.3 61.0 54.9 63.7 47.1 59.5 51.1 61.4

5 Decision making capacity 18.7 35.4 27.7 42.6 26.5 41.6 24.3 39.9

6 Mobility 29.7 61.8 30.9 58.0 32.4 49.3 31.0 56.4

7 Reproductive Rights 22.0 45.9 43.3 53.5 28.4 42.2 31.2 47.2

8 Participation in Rural

Development Programmes 11.4 27.3 9.4 38.3 6.2 29.3 9.0 31.6

9 Overall Empowerment Index 41.2 65.6 48.0 72.8 34.0 61.9 41.1 66.7

Some Descriptive Statistics of scores of the entrepreneurs on indicators

of Empowerment before and after the participation in the activities were

calculated and presented in table-10. The mean score was 32.94 before, which

increased to 53.63 after their involvement and participation in the SHG

activities. The normal Z test indicated highly significant difference between

the two scores. The median was 32.26 before, which increased to 53.23 after

their participation in the SHG activities. Thus half of the responded have

scores more than 53.63 and half below that in the socio-economic

empowerment scale.

Samikshya -2015 32

Table 10 : Descriptive Statistics of Scores of the Entrepreneurs on

Indicators of Empowerment Before and After

participation in the SHG Activities

Sl. No. Descriptive Statistics Name of the Districts Total

Ganjam Dhenkanal Keonjhar

Before After Before After Before After Before After

1 Mean Score 31.8 54.14 36.82 55.94 30.19 50.81 32.94 53.63

2 Median Score 32.26 54.84 37.90 56.45 30.64 50.00 32.26 53.23

3 Standard Deviation 6.37 6.99 5.6 7.22 5.97 8.80 5.98 7.96

4 Coefficient of Variation 19.75 12.90 14.78 12.90 19.48 17.32 18.54 14.84

In order to test the significance of difference between the levels of

empowerment of rural women entrepreneurs between the three sample

districts, F- test was conducted. The F value was computed at 6.85 at (2, 177)

degrees of freedom, which was much less than the tabulated value of 99.5.

Thus there was no significant difference between the mean scores of the rural

women entrepreneurs of the three sample districts.

In the FGDs, the women members were vocal and they were of the

views that their participation in the SHG brought out a significant change in

their perception and attitude of different social and political aspects. Most

important is that this has built up their confidence to assert their rights not

only in the family but also in the society. The economic earnings, even though

small that gives them a different status in their family. However they have

enumerated a large number of problems and suggestions for improving the

SHG movement by way of bridging the present bottlenecks.

Suggestion towards policy formulation

Capacity building for sustainable WSHGs

Quality, content, coverage of training on group promotion, financial

management of the SHGs is required to be strengthened. For this

purpose a pool of resource persons in each block may be identified and

should be provided specialized training on the above aspects. This pool

should be comprised of personnel from Govt., NGOs and Bank etc. A

directory of such resource persons should be maintained at the district

level.

Samikshya -2015 33

Since the federation of WSHGs in the district of Ganjam has provided

strength to the SHG movement, the WSHGs in other parts should be

encouraged and provided support to build up their own federation so

as to attain sustainability through managing their own affairs.

Sustainable Income Generating Activities.

The income generating activities need to be strengthened by modern

knowledge, input and technology so as to increase production efficiency

and make it remunerative. The technical field staff from agriculture,

veterinary, fisheries, industries, watershed, soil conservation, forestry

need to be sensitized to take active part in the promotion of WSHGs

and provide constant technical support guidance and monitoring of

income generating activities taken up by the women entrepreneurs.

This would be possible through the convergence by the various Govt.

Departments at all levels.

The literacy and numeracy skill of the members of WSHGs need to be

increased. They should be linked to adult literacy programme for the

purpose.

SHG melas at the block, district and State level should be organized at

regular intervals to provide better exposure and exchange of ideas to

the members of WSHGs.

It was observed that the women entrepreneurs have taken up IGAs in

all the sectors, but the primary sector were the most prominent. The

IGAs were also characterized by low investment and low output.

Therefore there is a need to encourage the women entrepreneurs to

take up IGA’s with high investment and high income potential.

Therefore the quantum of credit support should be increased and

adequate awareness on productive income generating activities should

be generated among the women entrepreneurs and it should be backed

by appropriate skill up gradation training. Some exposure visit to the

best practice areas / successful places should be undertaken.

It was observed that there was hardly any cluster approach to income

generating activities. The WSHGs of a particular area may be

encouraged to take up IGAs on a cluster basis so that the concentrated

effort for their capacity building, forward and backward linkages can

be made. The WSHG themselves should be facilitated basing upon the

local resources and infrastructure availability.

Samikshya -2015 34

It was found that formation of the WSHGs by the SHPIs is becoming

target oriented as a result there is a shift of emphasis on quality.

Therefore there is a need to give emphasis on the quality aspects of

group promotion.

The WSHG should be linked to different Govt programmes such as

wage employment, self-employment, infrastructural development,

ICDS MDM and other social welfare programmes etc. Marketing

complexes for procurement the products of WSHGs at strategic

location.

Lack of storage space is an important bottleneck for the women

entrepreneurs in the rural areas. Therefore there should be provision

for creating storage space for raw materials as well as finished

products of the SHGs.

Many of WSHGs have experienced about the non co-operative attitude

of the SHPIs like banks, Govt. officials and NGOs. Hence sensitization

workshop should be organized for the bankers, Govt. officials as well

as for the NGOs and other SHPIs at different levels.

Conclusion

Like other developing countries, since poverty is largely a rural

phenomenon in India, enhancing the economic livelihood of rural population

is extremely important in reducing overall poverty aspects of the country. As

women’s empowerment through micro-enterprise development enables

eradicating the rural poverty in developing economies to a larger extent, this

study focuses towards enhancing the effectiveness of microfinance

approaches assisting women in rural communities and promoting their

meaningful participation in development. Therefore the individuals and

organizations interested in recognizing factors that may involve in effective

rural micro-financing for micro-enterprise development and empowerment

among women, and responsible for policy making towards development of

human resources, can benefit from the empirical findings of this study,

although further empirical evaluations are highly needed in replicating the

findings in different contexts.

Samikshya -2015 35

Sustainable Development and Environmentally Adjusted GDP: Some Issues

Ashok Kumar Pattanayak

Abstract

The paper speaks about the basic concept of sustainable development which depends on

the economic development of a society. The present system of economic accounting lacks

the value of depreciation of natural capital stock that caused due to social/ economic

development in the process of production and consumption.The concept of environmental

accounting system has been developed recently and is yet to be calculated by most of the

countries. The Indian national accounting system has recommended for calculation of

NDP adjusted with environment depletion/degradation arising due to process of

production. The environmentally adjusted NDP is much lower than the economic

accounting NDP. The efforts have been started in many of the countries to calculate the

environmentally adjusted NDP.The development will sustain for future generation if and

only if the environmentally adjusted NDP will be positive. So it is the duty of society to

preserve and protect it for our future generations to sustain.

1.0. Sustainable Development

It is defined as the “Development that meets the needs of the present

without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own

needs.” Development means: Improving people’s material standard of living.

While Sustainable development encompasses Expanding economic progress

without exhausting resources, market expansion, externality factors,

carrying capacity, resource conservation, local self-reliance, basic human

needs, equity, participation, social accountability, appropriate technology etc.

Sustainable development evolve around three basic components like society

and economy and environment, All the aspects are inextricably interlinked

and balanced without compromising the ability of present and future

generations to meet their needs.

2.0. Social development

Social development can be defined as an upward movement featuring

greater levels of energy, efficiency, quality, productivity, complexity,

comprehension, creativity, mastery, enjoyment and accomplishment towards

Samikshya -2015 36

quality of life. . Social development theory attempts to explain qualitative

changes in the structure and framework of society that help the society to

better realize its aims and objectives. Social development is a process of social

change. The basic mechanism driving social change is increasing awareness

leading to better organization for progress of organization to exploit new

openings successfully. The new forms of organization are better able to

harness the available social energies and skills and resources to use the

opportunities to get the intended results. The process of social development

have passed through nomadic, gathering, hunting agrarian, commercial,

industrial, and post-industrial societies.

2.1. Economic development

Social development is associated and depends on the economy of the

society. The festivals, rituals and communal activities of a society are based

on economic activities of the society. It is clear from the sectoral share of SDP

from 1950-51 to 2014-15 that the structural changes of society have moved

from Agriculture to Services through Industrial activity.

Table 1 : Shifting of Share of Broad Sectors to Total GSDP

Year Agriculture Industry Services

1950-51 64.65 9.86 25.49

1960-61 50.54 24.82 24.64

1970-71 55.93 20.44 23.63

1980-81 50.35 23.91 25.74

1990-91 34.10 34.54 31.36

2000-01 26.00 32.86 41.14

2010-11 17.99 34.35 47.66

2011-12 17.20 34.21 48.59

2012-13 18.39 32.72 48.89

2013-14 16.30 33.08 50.62

2014-15 15.39 33.45 51.16

The economic activity is fully dependent and controlled by environment

in agrarian society. In industrial economic activity, the society became less

dependent on environment and takes the opportunity of industry for optimal

use of natural & environmental resources. The society exploits the

Samikshya -2015 37

environment for its better use through modern technology. Then during

further development, the Economic activity grows to a multiple services

sector economic activities using limited primary and secondary products.

2.2. Ecology and Environment

2.2.1. Ecology

Ecology is the scientific analysis and study of interactions among

organisms and their environment. It is an interdisciplinary field that

includes biology and Earth science. Ecology includes the study of

interaction of organisms with each other, other organisms, and with biotic

components of their environment.

2.2.2. Environment

Environment literally means surrounding and everything that affects

an organism during its lifetime. In other words “Environment is sum total of

water, air and land interrelationships among themselves and also with the

human being, other living organisms and property”. It includes all the

physical and biological surrounding and their interactions. Thus environment

is actually global in nature, it is a multidisciplinary subject including physics,

geology, geography, history, economics, physiology, biotechnology, remote

sensing, geophysics, soil science and hydrology.

2.0 The Economic Accounting System

The System of National Accounts (SNA) is the internationally

agreed standard set of recommendations on how to compile measures of

economic activity in accordance with strict accounting conventions based on

economic principles. The recommendations are expressed in terms of a set of

concepts, definitions, classifications and accounting rules that comprise the

internationally agreed standard for measuring such items as gross domestic

product (GDP), the most frequently quoted indicator of economic

performance.

The SNA does not speak about how to calculate the share of

environment in the process of production. It is also silent about the amount

of depletion/degradation of Environment during the process of production.

Samikshya -2015 38

Human Activities: How it affects the Environment.

(1) Agriculture: It is the oldest and widespread occupation of the

people in rural areas. Over the years, there have been notable

changes in the pattern of farming; Manual farming has been

replaced by ‘mechanized farming’ due to the advancement of

different technologies. The changes in the earlier form of agriculture

have been brought by the following ways: (i) Mechanical factors:

Tractors, tube wells and agricultural equipments. (ii) Chemical

factors: Fertilizers and pesticides. The chemical factors have brought

a revolution in the agriculture, as they express growth in a very

short span of time but their affects in the long run are detrimental.

(2) Industrial activities: It generates a huge amount of waste

products which are usually discharged into the water bodies. The

smoke from industries also pollutes the air. Its noise causes noise

pollution too. Processing of wastes from large chemical plant is a

very complex process because many chemicals are produced that

way. In recent years, emphasis is laid on the industrial waste

treatment, for the recovery of useful byproduct. By and large, it

should be kept in mind that no industrial product is more important

than our environment. Nowadays various measures have been taken

to transform industrial waste into profitable products in order to

save our environment as well as money. For example waste papers

can be used to make thick covers of note books. Environment and

Ecology Industrialization is considered the synonym to development

but it is necessary to review the impact of industrialization on

society and environment otherwise it can bring the following

consequences:

1. Ecosystem imbalance,

2. Biodiversity loss,

3. Toxic metal and non-metal discharge,

4. Food chain imbalance,

5. Disturbance of self purification mechanism and

6. Gaseous emissions.

Samikshya -2015 39

3.0. Environment Accounting

System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA)

The System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) is

a multipurpose conceptual framework for describing the interaction between

the economy and the environment, and the stocks and changes in stocks of

environmental assets. Utilizing a systems approach to organizing

environmental and economic information, it covers, as completely as possible,

the stocks and flows that are relevant to the analysis of environmental and

economic issues.

Environmental stocks and flows are considered in a holistic way. The

environment from stock perspective includes all living and non-living

components that comprise the bio-physical environment, encompassing all

types of natural resources and the ecosystems within which they are located,

whereas the environment from flow perspective is seen as the source of all

natural inputs to the economy including natural resource inputs like

minerals, timber, fish, water, etc and other natural inputs absorbed by the

economy such as energy from solar and wind sources and the air used in

combustion processes.

Ecosystem Accounting

Ecosystem Accounting is an approach to the assessment of the

environment through the measurement of ecosystems, and measurement of

the flows of services from ecosystems into economic and other human activity.

Ecosystem accounting has a focus beyond the relationship between

ecosystems and the standard measures of economic activity to encompass

links to other human activity. Accounting for the stocks and flows related to

ecosystems in terms of their quantity and quality. Ecosystem accounting

involves accounting for relatively detailed, sub-national; spatial areas that

can be aggregated to a national territory require the use of a cross-

disciplinary approach to measurement. The development of the accounting

framework, the establishment of the relevant statistical infrastructure, and

the organisation of information are key tasks that cannot be completed within

a single agency.

Samikshya -2015 40

1. SNA Domestic Product lacks Depreciation of Natural Capital Stock.

2. The NDP would be more correctly measured if CFC will include

Depreciation of Natural Capital.

3. The environmentally adjusted NDP will be much lower than the SNA

NDP.

If the SNA Gross Capital Formation (GCF) is lower than the

Depreciation of Natural Capital Stock then it will not be considered as

sustainable development of the economy. An economy’s development is

sustainable over any brief period of time if and only if its wealth increases

over the interval.

4.0 Re-defining the NDP: Green National Accounting

In making NDP operational, the initial step could be to leave the GDP

unchanged as in the current SNA and to take into account only such

components of environmental degradation that arise out of production. The

environmental damage arising out of consumption will prove to be more

difficult. Since there are components of consumption which affect the

environment simply as a byproduct of human existence, it would be necessary

to first have an estimate of the normal or steady state values and take into

account only the deviations.

NDP= GDP-CFC- Environmental degradation that arise out of

production.

5.0 Conclusion

To protect environment from human economic activity the

organisations like Pollution Control Board and Green Tribunals etc have been

constituted for better and effective use of environment without making any

harm to it. Since environment is the base on which the society stands, it is

the duty of society to preserve and protect it for our future generations to

sustain.

Samikshya -2015 41

Status of Housing, Sanitation

and Micro Environment (An experiment towards Swachha Bharat-

A Case Study of Odisha)

Rashmi Ranjan Kanungo

Smt. Indira Garnaik

Abstract

Housing and availability of household amenities is considered to be the most

valuable economic asset and is an important indicator of lifestyle and socio-economic

status. Although we are approaching forwards 60yrs of independence, still a majority of

people have been deprived of standard housing, without access to basic minimum

facilities of drinking water, sanitation and public hygiene etc. which requires utmost

attention. The access to basic amenities like housing condition, drinking water and toilet

facility, etc. are the determinants of quality of life. As per 69th round NSS, state sample

result. 26.74% of households in rural Odisha and 4.1% households in urban Odisha have

no access to electricity, 7.7% rural households have no access to drinking water within

500 meters distance from their dwelling unit. 80.52% households in rural Odisha have

no access to toilet facility whereas 22.45% urban households are without access to toilet

facility .This paper attempts to study the availability of housing and household amenities

in Odisha comprising both of urban and rural areas.

1. Introduction

Development of any nation depends upon its capability to produce

goods and services and generate income, to uplift the livelihood status of its

inhabitants. A person staying in a healthy and sustainable environment can

naturally contribute much more to the development process than his

counterpart is as unhealthy environment. The availability of basic living

facilities like drinking water, bathroom, latrine, housing etc. to each

individual of a nation is thus a-priori requirement for its growth and

development. At the same time with rapidly growing population, it is perhaps

the most difficult task of the respective governments, especially in the

developing countries, to create sustainable infrastructure for ensuring decent

living of its inhabitants.

Samikshya -2015 42

House is considered to be the most valuable economic asset and is an

important lifestyle and socio-economic status. It focus on the consumption

pattern of both rural and urban people and access to the other amenities.

Household assets and amenities focuses on household’s quality of life. It is an

important goal of Indian Developmental Planning. Housing is one of the three

basic needs of human life and an important indicator of social welfare. This

paper will focus on the lifestyles of each and every household and their

housing condition and household amenities such as, drinking water facility,

toilet facility, electricity connection etc. reflects a household quality of life.

Houseless is a growing major problem across the world in both rural

and urban parts due to poverty, unemployment, low income, costly land and

building materials, decreasing size of land holdings. Housing is a means to

provide shelter and security and is considered as a bare necessity of life. It

requires an environment is created, used and maintained for the physical,

social and economic well-being and quality of life of individuals and

households. As far as the houses are concerned these are just the human

structures which are meant to live in, work or store things. However, the term

basic amenities refers to the source of drinking water, sanitation, electricity

and other basic facilities available to households provided by the

governmental and non-governmental bodies. These household amenities are

also determined by the economic context and also for the development.

Housing conditions, availability of drinking water, toilet facility, access to

electricity etc contribute to the health improvement of the people and

determines the quality in life of the society. This addresses on major themes

such as providing a description on household’s standard of living as measured

by basic amenities such as access to water sanitation, and electricity.

Housing and household amenities play an important role in our day to

day life. In this paper we will be able to see the day to day lifestyles of the

households by focusing on their access to amenities such as drinking water,

toilet facility, electricity, and the condition of the houses. The provision of

basic services such as piped water, sanitation, electricity to all has been the

quintessence of Developmental Planning.

Samikshya -2015 43

2.Source and Description of data

The present study was conducted on the basis of primary data collected

during 69th round NSS, 2012. The survey work was conducted by Directorate

of Economics and Statistics, Odisha. A stratified multi stage design has been

adopted for the 69th round survey. First stage stratum is the district and first

stage unit (FSU) is census village, 2001 for rural and UFS blocks for urban

.Number of FSU for rural was 212 and 84 for urban sector. Total number of

sample households for rural sector was 2532 and for urban sector 1056.

3.Methodology

In this study we have distributed all households of Odisha into two

status viz good and not good. A composite variable S has been defined

depending on three pre-defined variables of housing condition (X), sanitation

i.e. access to latrine facilities(Y) and drinking water facilities (Z).

i.e. S= f (X, Y,Z)

Where the housing condition variable X is good or satisfactoryor bad

depending upon the housing structure which is defined in para 4.1.1.

The sanitation variable Y is access to latrine facility i.e facilities with

Latrine or without latrine defined in para4.3.

The variable of drinking water facilities Z is based on the distance to

drinking water facilities within 500 meters or more than 500 meters from the

dwelling unit.

Mathematically we can describe the variable S as

S = f (X, Y, Z), which is an index function i.e.

S=1 indicates status is good i.e. when X is good, Y is accessible

and Z is less `than500 meters to drinking water facility

S =0 then status is not good i.e. when S is other than 1 i.e. X,Y

and Z don’t satisfy any of the condition for S=1

Samikshya -2015 44

4. Concept and Terminology

4.1 Housing Characteristics

Housing characteristics is an important facet of condition of living of a

household. Housing characteristics includes ‘type of structure of house and

condition of structure etc.

Dwelling unit: It is defined as the accommodation availed of by a household

for its residential purpose. It may be an entire structure or a part thereof or

consisting of more than one structure. The dwelling unit covers all pucca,

semi-pucca and katcha structure used by a household.

Pucca structure: was one whose walls and roofs were made of pucca

materials such as cement, concrete, oven burnt bricks, hollow cement / ash

bricks, stone, stone blocks, jack boards (cement plastered reeds), iron, zinc or

other metal sheets, timber and tiles etc.

katcha structure : A structure which had walls and roof made of non-pucca

materials was regarded as a katcha structure where unburnt bricks, bamboo,

mud, grass, leaves, reeds, thatch, etc. were considered as ‘non-pucca’

materials.

Semi-pucca structure:All the other type of structures was considered as

‘semi-pucca’ structure.

4.1.1 Housing Condition

Apart from structure of the house, information on condition of the

house was also collected. Three types of condition of structure were considered

viz. (i) good (ii) satisfactory, and (iii) bad. If the structure did not require any

immediate repairs major or minor it was considered as in ‘good’ condition

whereas if the structure required immediate minor repairs but not major

repairs, it was considered as in ‘satisfactory’ condition. If the structure of the

building required immediate major repairs without which it might be unsafe

for habitation or required to be demolished and rebuilt, it was considered as

in ‘bad’ condition.

Samikshya -2015 45

4.1.2 Use of house

Type of use of a house is another important housing characteristics. In

this survey three types of uses of a house were considered viz. (i) residential

only (ii) residential_cum_commercial, and (iii) residential_cum_others.

4.2 Distance from drinking water facilities

Travelling a considerable distance to reach the principal source of

drinking water outside the premises, is definitely a disadvantage as compared

to having drinking water facility within household premises. Here we have

considered the distance from drinking water facilities within 500 meters or

more than 500 meters from the dwelling unit.

4.3 Sanitation

For this study ‘access to latrine’ is defined in relation to the latrine that

could be used by the majority of the household members, irrespective of

whether it was being used or not. Information was collected on whether the

household’s latrine facility was for its exclusive use or was shared with one

or more households in the building, or whether households had to use

public/community latrine with and without payment, or whether the

household did not have access to any latrine at all.

4.4 Electricity for domestic use

Electricity is an important facility to households and has a bearing on

the quality of life of the population. In this survey, information was collected

on availability of electricity to households for domestic use

4.5Micro environment

The environment in which a dwelling unit is located is very important

in maintaining health and hygiene of the members of the households, as well

as, for maintaining environmental balance and overall cleanliness of

surroundings. In this section it was also ascertained whether households had

faced problems of flies/mosquito during last 365 days.

Samikshya -2015 46

4.5.1 Problems of flies/mosquitoes

In this survey, information was collected on problem of flies/mosquitoes

faced by the households during last 365 days. The problem was categorised

as ‘severe’ when it generally disturbed the normal way of life of the

household members, like taking rest, reading, performing

householdchores, etc. Otherwise, the problem was classified as

‘moderate’.

5. Result and Analysis

5.1 Structure type of house

There are three types of structure of dwelling unit defined as pucca,

semi pucca and katcha .

Table: 5.1.1 : NSS region wise Percentage distribution of

households by structure type ( Rural Odisha)

Structure Type NSS region Odisha

Coastal Southern Northern

katcha 38.3 41.37 40.65 40.09

Pucca 46.1 31.17 32.17 36.64

semi pucca 15.6 27.46 27.18 23.27

Figure: 5.1.1

Coastal Southern Northern Odisha

katcha, 38.3

katcha, 41.37

katcha, 40.65

katcha, 40.09

Pucca, 46.1

Pucca, 31.17

Pucca, 32.17

Pucca, 36.64

semi pucca,

15.6

semi pucca, 27.46

semi pucca, 27.18

semi pucca,

REGION WISE STRUCTURE TYPE IN RURAL ODISHA

Samikshya -2015 47

Table:5.1.2 : NSS region wise Percentage distribution of households

by structure type ( Urban Odisha)

Structure Type NSS region Odisha

Coastal Southern Northern

katcha 5.45 7.84 16.74 9.12

Pucca 80.36 76.45 66.23 75.54

semi pucca 14.19 15.72 17.04 15.34

Figure:5.1.2

The result from table 5.1.1and 5.1.2 show that 40.09 percent and 9.12

percent households in rural and urban Odisha respectively had lived in a

house with katcha structure, whereas 36.64 percent and 75.54 percent of the

households in rural and urban areas of Odisha had lived in a house with pucca

structure during 2012.In rural area 23.27 percent and 15.34 percent

households of urban Odisha had lived in a house with semi pucca structure.

In rural areas coastal region had relatively large proportion of households i.e.

46.1% living in a house with pucca structure. Like rural Odisha in urban

Odisha also relatively more households i.e. 80.36 percent households of

coastal region had lived in a house with pucca structure. The result shows

that 41.37 percent households in southern region (comprising KBK district)

of rural Odisha had lived in a house with katcha structure which is highest

among other regions.

Coastal Southern Northern Odisha

katcha, 5.45

katcha, 7.84

katcha,

16.74

katcha, 9.12

Pucca, 80.36

Pucca, 76.45 Pucca,

66.23

Pucca, 75.54

semi pucca, 14.19

semi pucca

, 15.72

semi pucca, 17.04

semi pucca, 15.34

REGION WISE STRUCTURE TYPE IN URBAN ODISHA

Samikshya -2015 48

5.2 Condition of structure of house

Three types of condition of structure were considered viz. (i) good (ii)

satisfactory, and (iii) bad.

Table: 5.2.1 : Sector wise percentage distribution of condition of

houses according to structure in Odisha

Sector Structure katcha Pucca semi pucca

Rural

good 4.51 50.37 15.44

satisfactory 36.19 44.94 63.9

bad 59.3 4.68 20.67

Urban

good 4.29 61.01 20.37

satisfactory 22.73 34.67 64.94

bad 72.98 4.32 14.69

Figure: 5.2.1

Figure: 5.2.2

katcha Pucca semi pucca

good, 4.51

good, 50.37

good, 15.44

satisfactory, 36.19

satisfactory, 44.94

satisfactory, 63.9

bad, 59.3

bad, 4.68

bad, 20.67

Percentage distribution of condition of Houses according to structure in Rural Odisha

katcha Pucca semi pucca

Urban

Good, 4.29 Good, 61.01

Good, 20.37

Satisfactory, 22.73

Satisfactory,34.67

Satisfactory, 64.94

Bad, 72.98 Bad, 4.32

Bad, 14.69

Percentage distribution of condition of Houses according to structure in Urban Odisha

Samikshya -2015 49

Table 5.2.1 shows percentage distribution of houses by condition of

structure for different structure types in Odisha during 2012 .The table shows

that 59.3 percent houses in rural Odisha and 72.98 percent houses in urban

Odisha with katcha structure type were in bad condition. In both rural and

urban Odisha percentage of houses in good condition with katcha structure

was almost same i.e. 4.51% and 4.29% respectively. Percentage of houses in

good condition with pucca structure is relatively high in urban Odisha i.e.

61.01% than rural Odisha (50.37%). Condition of houses as satisfactory are

more in semi pucca structure type in both rural and urban Odisha i.e. 63.9%

and 64.94% respectively.

5.3 Use of house

Three types of uses of a house were considered viz. (i) residential only

(ii) residential_cum_commercial, and (iii) residential_cum_others.

Table:5.3.1 : Sector wise percentage distribution of house according to

use in Odisha

Sector residential only residential-cum-

commercial

residential-cum-

others

Rural 98.37 0.94 0.68

Urban 95.86 3.71 0.43

Figure: 5.3.1

residential only, Rural,

residential only, Urban,

residential -cum-

commercial,

residential -cum-

commercial, Urban, 3.71

residential -cum-others,

residential -cum-others,

Sector wise percentage use of House

Samikshya -2015 50

Table 5.3.1 and figure 5.3.1 show percentage of houses by type of use

of house in Odisha. During 2012,98.37 percent houses in rural Odisha had

been used for residential purpose only. The corresponding percentage for

urban Odisha was estimated at 95.86 percent. In urban Odisha 3.71 percent

houses had been used for residential_cum_commercial purpose.

5.4 Distance from drinking water facilities

Travelling a considerable distance to reach the principal source of

drinking water outside the premises, is definitely a disadvantage as compared

to having drinking water facility within household premises.Here we have

considered the distance to drinking water facilities within 500 meters or more

than 500 meters from the dwelling unit.

Table: 5.4.1 : Sector wise percentage distribution of households by

distance to the principal source of drinking water in

Odisha

Sector Distance to the principal source of drinking water

within_500meters More than 500 meters

Rural 92.3 7.7

Urban 99.7 0.3

Rural+Urban 93.63 6.37

Figure: 5.4.1 : Drinking Water Facility

Rural Urban Rural+Urban

within_500meters, 92.3

within_500meters,

99.7

within_500meters, 93.63

More than 500 meters,

7.7

More than 500 meters

0.3 More than 500 meters,

6.37

Drinking water facility

Samikshya -2015 51

As shown in Table 5.4.1,8 households out of 100 households in rural

Odisha travel more than 500 meters distance from their residence to fetch

drinking water. Where 92 households & 99 households out of 100 household

sin rural and urban area respectively walk less than 500 meters to reach the

principal source of drinking water. Considering the combine result of rural

and urban 6 households walk more than half kilometer to fetch drinking

water from the principal source. Result shows that rural people walk

considerable a larger distance than urban people for the precious liquid.

5.5 Sanitation

For this study ‘access to latrine’ is defined in relation to the latrine that

could be used by the majority of the household members, irrespective of

whether it was being used or not. Information was collected on whether the

household’s latrine facility was for its exclusive use or was shared with one

or more households in the building, or whether households had to use

public/community latrine with and without payment, or whether the

household did not have access to any latrine at all.

Table: 5.5.1 : Sector and region wise percentage distribution of

households having no latrine in Odisha

Region Rural Urban

No latrine No latrine

Coastal 70.27 19.07

Southern 91.02 18.88

Northern 80.03 31.56

Odisha 80.52 22.45

Figure5.5.1 : Sector and Region wise percentage of households with No

lartine in Odisha

Samikshya -2015 52

The table 5.5.1shows that 80.52 percent households in rural Odisha

had no latrine facilities. Whereas 22.45 percent urban households in Odisha

had no latrine facilities. Among rural areas of three regions, it is observed

that during 2012 southern region had the highest percentage (91.02) of

households that had no latrine facilities, higher than the all Odisha

percentage (80.52). For urban areas households with no latrine facilities is

highest in northern region i.e. 31.56%.

5.6 Electricity for domestic use

Electricity is an important facility to households and has a bearing on

the quality of life of the population. In this survey, information was collected

on availability of electricity to households for domestic use

Table: 5.6.1 : Sector wise percentage distribution of households by

electricity connection in Odisha

Sector Electricity connection No electricity connection

Rural 73.26 26.74

Urban 95.9 4.1

Coastal Southern Northern Odisha

Rural No lartine, 70.27

Rural No lartine, 91.02

Rural No lartine, 80.03

Rural No lartine, 80.52

Urban No lartine, 19.07

Urban No lartine, 18.88

Urban No lartine, 31.56

Urban No lartine, 22.45

Sector and Region wise percentage of households with No lartine in Odisha

Samikshya -2015 53

Figure. 5.6.1 : Electricity connection in Odisha for Domestic use

Table 5.6.1 and figure 5.6.1 show sector wise percentage distribution of

households with electricity connection for domestic use in Odisha .It is

observed that during 2012, 73.26 and 95.9 percent households in rural and

urban Odisha respectively had electricity connection for domestic use.

5.7 Micro environment

The nearby environment in which a dwelling unit is located is micro

environment. Micro environment plays an important role in maintaining

health and hygiene of the members of the households, as well as, for

maintaining environmental balance and overall cleanliness of surroundings.

In this section it was also ascertained whether households had faced problems

of flies/mosquito during last 365 days.In the present study, information on

problem of flies/mosquitoes faced by the households during last 365 days has

been taken. The problem was categorised as ‘severe’ when it generally

disturbed the normal way of life of the household members, like taking

rest, reading, performing householdchores, etc. Otherwise, the

problem was classified as ‘moderate’.

Table: 5.7.1 : Percentage distribution of households facing problem

of flies and mosquitoes in Odisha.

Problem of flies Rural Urban

Severe 56.96 61.59

Moderate 43.04 38.41

Rural Urban

Electricity

connection, 73.26

Electricity

connecti

No electricity connection, 26.74

No electricity connectio

n, 4.1

Electricity connection in Odisha for Domestic use

Samikshya -2015 54

Figure: 5.7.1 : Problem of flies/mosquitoes in Odisha

The survey estimated that 56.96 percent rural households and 61.59

percent urban households in Odisha had reported (Table-5.7.1) that they

faced ‘severe’ problems of flies/mosquitoes during last 365 days. 43.04 percent

rural households and 38.41percent urban households reported that the

problem of flies/mosquitoes for them was moderate.

5.8 Status of Household

In the present study all the surveyed households has been categorized

under two status viz. good and not good. Households having house with

good condition, drinking water facility within 500 meters distance of their

dwelling unit and access to latrine has been categorized as ‘good’ in status. In

the reverse side households who do not have house with good condition,

drinking water facility within 500 meters distance of their dwelling unit and

access to latrine has been categorized as ‘not good’ in status .

Table: 5.8.1 : Sector wise percentage distribution of households by

status in Odisha

Sector Status

Good Not good

Rural 11.4 88.6

Urban 38.0 62.0

Rural Urban

severe, 56.96 severe,

61.59

moderate, 43.04

moderate, 38.41

Problem of flies/mosquitoes in Odisha

Samikshya -2015 55

Figure:5.8.1 : Status of Households in Odisha

It is observed fromthe table 5.8.1 and figure 5.8.1 that 87and 62

households out of hundred household’s status is not good in rural and urban

Odisha respectively .Whereas relatively higher percentage of households in

urban Odisha (38%) are in good status than rural households (11.4%).

Conclusion

From the present study it is observed that majority of the houses are

barely livable or in dilapidated condition .Amenities such as access to

electricity , drinking water facility ,latrine facility are major factors in

determining the quality of life for each and every citizen. The problem of

house and housing condition continues to prevail in Odisha since long.From

the analysis it is observed that for housing and household amenities northern

and southern regions are on the lower side in comparison to coastal region.

Rural Urban

Good, 11.4Good, 38

Not good, 88.6

Not good, 62

Status of Households in Odisha

Samikshya -2015 56

Directorate of Export Promotion and Marketing :

The Trade Facilitator for MSME sector in Odisha

Shri B. K. Das

The Directorate of Export Promotion & Marketing is functioning under

the M.S.M.E. Department, Government of Odisha to promote export of goods

from Odisha and to provide marketing assistance to MSEs of the State.

Odisha has all potential to become a major exporting state in the country

because of it’s vast natural resources and locational advantage. The State

has tremendous potentiality for export in the sectors like Agriculture and

Horticulture, Marine, IT, Handloom and Handicraft, Engineering, Minerals,

Metallurgical, Chemical and Allied products.

In the present scenario export promotion has become a matter of

national necessity. In order to make the export promotion activities more

effective in the State, Government of Odisha through the Directorate of

Export Promotion & Marketing takes up various measures which are as

follows :

Renders guidance in export procedures and formalities as per Foreign

Trade Policy.

Disseminates market intelligence and overseas trade enquiries among

the prospective exporters of Odisha for their active participation.

Organizes Seminars / Workshops, training programmes in

collaboration with the Export Promotion Councils and other

promotional organizations to educate the entrepreneurs and to create

export consciousness in the State.

Organizes the participation in the Trade Fairs / Exhibitions both at

national and international level to explore new markets for exporters.

Gives Awards / Prizes to the Best Exporters of Odisha for their

outstanding export performance.

Samikshya -2015 57

Convenes State Level Export Promotion Committee (SLEPC) meeting

from time to time to grant ASIDE funds for export related

infrastructure development in the State.

Collects export data of the State and publishes Directory of Exporters

of Odisha.

Table 1 : Export performance of Odisha during last 5 years

( Value Rs. in crores )

Sl.

No.

Category of products 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14

1 Metallurgical 4561.77 4807.98 4806.68 5382.60 7682.25

2 Engineering /

Chemical & Allied

718.70 612.62 196.21 693.21 3531.21

3 Mineral 5740.14 9836.84 9259.48 3150.76 3546.78

4 Agriculture & Forest 4.17 8.77 0. 02 0.05 2.92

5 Marine 446.79 541.47 521.34 821.06 1820.00

6 Handloom 0.02 0.12 0.01 0.58 0.64

7 Handicraft 0.43 0.71 0.17 0.20 0.85

8 Textile 19.40 28.84 0.01 20.01 10.00

9 Pharmaceutical 01.06 01.45 0.05 0.02 0.93

10 Electronics 1198.84 1254.24 1414.78 2169.94 2300.46

11 Service Providers 5.11 5.84 8.59 7.56 10.00

Total 12696.43 17098.88 16207.34 12245.99 18906.04(P)

Keeping in view of the importance of export from the State and to

incentivize the exporters of Odisha to grow their export business, the

Government of Odisha have been pleased to approve the Odisha Export Policy

2014 to boost the exports from the State.

Quality Control

With the changing techno-economic scenario and economic

liberalization in the country, an industry has to compete with quality and

price to sustain in the market. In view of the financial constraints faced by

the MSEs to establish full fledged laboratory of their own for testing their

products conforming to National / International standards, Government of

Odisha, M.S.M.E. Department has set up six Testing Laboratories at

Industrial Estate, Cuttack, Rourkela, Angul, Berhampur, Bolangir and

Samikshya -2015 58

Balasore which are functioning under the control of Directorate of Export

Promotion and Marketing, Odisha, Bhubaneswar.

Marketing Support

It is the policy of the State Government that Government Departments

and Agencies under the control of the State Govt. purchase their

requirements of store items from industries located inside the state as per

the Industrial Policy of Govt. in order to provide marketing support to SSI

units for purchase of store items from :

(1) Exclusive List – Alist of 16 store items has been reserved for

exclusive purchase from industries located inside the state having

EPM Certification/ISO/ISI Certification by inviting competitive

quotations from such industries.

(2) Rate Contract – Rate contract in respect of specific store items not

in the exclusive list and manufactured by the local MSEs is concluded

by Director, EP&M. State Government Departments and agencies

under the control of state government will purchase the rate contract

items from the rate contract holding MSEs at the price fixed without

inviting tenders. At present, 58 valid rate contract items and 794 rate

contract holder units are operating in our State.

(3) Marketing Assistance through purchase committee meetings

– Director, EP&M or his nominee is a member in the purchase

committee meeting constituted at the level above District level in the

State Govt. Departments and agencies under the control of State

Government in order to ensure marketing support to SSI units.

(4) Concessional testing fees for testing of raw material / finished

products of SSI units - 25% discount / concession in testing fees

are provided for testing of the raw materials/finished products of the

SSI units by the Testing Laboratories of the DEP&M located at

Cuttack, Rourkela, Berhampur, Bolangir, Balasore & Angul.

Samikshya -2015 59

(5) Cancellation of Tender- Director EP&M is empowered to cancel any

tender floated by Govt. purchasing Departments for purchase of store

items which are covered under EP&M rate contract in order to protect

the interest of SSI units.

(6) Purchase of Products of SSI units by Public Sector and other

Central Government Organizations– DEP&M takes up with

PSUs and Heavy Industries through PLAC meeting for procurement

of products manufactured by SSI units to provide marketing support.

Samikshya -2015 60

Minor Irrigation Censuses in Odisha-

A Curtain Raiser Pradeep Kumar Sarangi

Rama Krushna Satapathy

Bigyana Nanda Mohanty

Abstract

An attempt has been made through this paper to analyse the trend and

magnitude of minor irrigation scenario. A comparative analysis has been

made basing on the results of last four censuses of Odisha, some selected states

along with all India i.e. the neighboring state like Andhra Pradesh, Bihar

West Bengal and Punjab being the leading state in Agriculture as well as

Irrigation sector.

Introduction

Odisha is endowed with a rich and vast diversity of natural resources,

water being one of them. Its development and management plays a vital role

in agriculture production. Integrated water management is vital for poverty

reduction, environmental sustenance and sustainable economic development.

Agriculture contributes significantly in the state’s economy. It engages

70% of population for their livelihood. Fragmentation of land is very common

in the state so that average maximum land is owned by the marginal and

small farmers. Agriculture works are mainly depending on the vagaries of

nature. The average annual rain fall of our state is 1451.2M.M. Despite this,

performance in agriculture sector is very much low as comparison to total

agricultural production. Lag in agriculture production is not only due to lack

of technology but also inadequate irrigation facilities which affects the crop

production to a large extent.

State has a share of about 3 percent of the country population but, the

land possesses only 4 percent of the water of the water resources (Government

of India Planning Commission, 2001). The Government of Odisha is giving

more focuses on the development of water source and conservation of the

natural resources. Odisha is facing a big problem in the rapid degradation of

the natural resources (land, water and forest). This degradation can be

visualize through decrease in productivity, increase in soil erosion, increase

in barren land, decrease in area under forest and depletion of ground water

Samikshya -2015 61

level etc.. The climate change is also affecting the livelihood of the people in

terms of the frequent flood and drought which completely destroys the

agriculture productivity.

Water is a precious natural resource. Development of surface as well

as groundwater for increasing the agricultural production to meet the

growing requirement of the State is very important. Despite large scale

industrialization during the plan periods more and more emphasis has been

given on increasing agricultural production. It is essential to mobilise all

efforts to maximise the productivity of agricultural land. One of the major

impediments of full exploitation of the possibility of intensive agriculture is

the lack of assured and dependable irrigation water supply throughout the

year. The rainfall in large parts of the state is low and uncertain in its

distribution. Therefore, there is a strong need for irrigation. The average

yield, which is dependent on effective irrigation, is usually low with high

fluctuations from year to year. The area under irrigation has increased

substantially during the post-independence period and construction of a large

number of major, medium and minor irrigation projects have contributed to

this to a large extent. The minor irrigation schemes provide the farmers with

controlled and timely irrigation which new high yielding varieties of seeds

demand. These schemes are labour intensive, less implementation period and

involve reasonable investments for their commissioning. As part of various

development programmes, innumerable new schemes are being taken up in

the State. As the surface water projects alone are not able to meet the full

demand of water, farmers install wells and tube-wells in their command area

to provide supplementary /augment irrigation.

Minor Irrigation Schemes

All ground water schemes and surface water schemes (both flow and

lift) having cultivable command area up to 2000 ha individually are classified

as Minor Irrigation Schemes. Ground water schemes comprise of dug wells,

dug-cum-bore Wells, borings, private shallow tube wells, filter points and

deep tube wells. The most prevalent Ground Water Schemes in our state

are i) Dug Well, ii) Shallow Tube Well and iii) Deep Tube Well. The

Command area of ground water schemes varies from 1 to 20 hectares. The

State Government provides assistance in installation of such schemes which

confines mainly to technical guidance, custom service for boring and

arrangements for credit facilities at reasonable rates of interest. The

Samikshya -2015 62

subsidies are also made available for installation of these schemes to weaker

sections of farmers. The construction, operation and maintenance of these

schemes are done by the farmers themselves. The deep tube wells which

extend up to the depth of 200 meters or more are designed to give a discharge

of 100 to 200 cubic meters per hour. The Surface Water Schemes comprise

of surface flow schemes and surface lift irrigation schemes. The

surface flow schemes typically consist of tanks, check dams, structures and

can serve as water conservation cum ground water recharge scheme. The

small storage tanks are owned by community or local bodies and generally

have command areas up to 40 hectares. The large storage tanks along with

the distribution system having command area varying from 40 to 2000

hectares are constructed by State Government Department.

Minor Irrigation Statistics

The National Commission on Agriculture examined in detail the status

of minor irrigation in India and observed that although many State

Governments publish some information on the principal irrigation sources

namely wells, tube wells, tanks, etc. in their agricultural statistics reports

but no complete information is available at all India level.

A detailed census of minor irrigation schemes was first recommended

by a sub-committee on irrigation statistics set up by the Planning

Commission in 1970. The National Commission on Agriculture had

recommended that a census of irrigation sources be undertaken along with

the Agricultural Census once in five years. The Technical Committee on

Agricultural Census 1980-81 discussed the list of items in respect of data

relating to minor irrigation proposed to be collected along with the

Agricultural Census in 1980-81. It was considered that the Agricultural

Census data are being compiled from the existing land records in various

States and the information as required do not figure in the land records, and

it would not be possible to collect this information through the main

agricultural census. The scheme of Improvement of Irrigation Statistics was

launched in 1980-81 by the Department of Agriculture. Although census of

minor irrigation works was to be taken up under this scheme, it could not be

conducted till 1985-86. While discussing various issues and problems in the

Samikshya -2015 63

irrigation sector in the Planning Commission in1986, it was stressed that

census of minor irrigation schemes be conducted quinquennially.

Census of Minor Irrigation Projects

The Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India is pursuing its

relentless effort to build up a realistic data base in the minor irrigation sector.

At the instance of the ministry the all India census of minor irrigation projects

have been conducted quinquennially at the state level.

The Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Odisha acts as the Nodal

Agency for conduct of Minor Irrigation Census in the State. In the meantime

four censuses of Minor Irrigation Project have been successfully conducted in

the State as follows. The state level reports have also been prepared and

distributed to the quarters concerned.

Census of M.I Projects Reference year Conducted

1st Census 1986-87 1987-88

2nd Census 1993-94 1995-96

3rd Census 2000-01 2001-02

4th Census 2006-07 2007-08

Objective

Trend analysis for different minor irrigation schemes,

Find out the gap between the irrigation potential created and utilized’

Comparison of results with some selected States and all India.

Methodology

The results of last four Minor Irrigation Censuses of Odisha, the

selected states and all India have been used for compilation .The selective

states for comparison includes the neighboring states, i,e, Andhra Pradesh,

Bihar and West Bengal and Punjab, one of the advanced state in irrigation

along with all India.

Sa

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4 T

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Samikshya -2015 65

Results and Salient Findings:

Comparison of schemes in the state during last four censuses:

The real story of Minor Irrigation Projects during last two decades in

the State may be revealed from the table. It is interesting to note that

schemes grew phenomenally over the period to augment irrigation facilities.

Expansion of the farmer’s-friendly minor irrigation schemes over the period

were meant for greater coverage irrigated area in the state. Growth of the

schemes in ordinal numbers have encouraged in inter-scheme progress also.

The inference could be drawn from the share of different minor irrigation

schemes indicated in the table. The share of Dug Wells has been reduced to

72.27% during 2006-07 from 87.98% during 1986-87.But of all other schemes

has indicated a substantial increase in share.

Culturable Command Area (CCA):

The Culturable Command Area created through the minor irrigation

schemes has substantially increased more than double fold to 14.12 lakh

hectares during 2006-07 from 6.38 lakh hectares during 1986-87 .Share of

individual schemes in terms of CCA is not encouraging. The average CCA

per scheme is also not showing any sign of relief. Barring Dug Wells, all other

schemes are in retarding pace of progress. It calls attention of the

development departments to accelerate effective remedial measures for a

meaningful solution in the sector.

Table – 2 : Culturable Command Area in Odisha (In ha.)

Sl.

No Name of Scheme

1st M.I Census 2nd M.I Census

CCA Average

CCA

per

Scheme

% to

State

Total

CCA Average

CCA

per

Scheme

% to

State

Total

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1 Dug well 84754 0.37 13.29 137694 0.43 13.45

2 Shallow Tube Well 38127 5.46 5.98 71026 3.93 6.94

3 Deep tube Well 42382 18.23 6.65 51699 17.76 5.05

4 Surface Flow 351670 25.88 55.14 568764 23.60 55.56

5 Surface Lift 120861 14.81 18.94 194495 9.44 19.00

Total 637794 2.47 100.00 1023678 2.63 100.00

Samikshya -2015 66

Sl.

No Name of Scheme

3rd M.I Census 4th M.I Census

CCA Average

CCA per

Scheme

% to

State

Total

CCA Average

CCA per

Scheme

% to

State

Total

1 2 9 10 11 12 13 14

1 Dug well 142632 0.40 12.41 160545 0.40 11.38

2 Shallow Tube Well 118031 2.69 10.28 139993 2.30 9.92

3 Deep tube Well 68900 15.00 6.00 86999 14.42 6.16

4 Surface Flow 598101 21.13 52.09 785828 20.17 55.67

5 Surface Lift 220749 6.72 19.22 238156 4.79 16.87

Total 1148413 2.46 100.00 1411521 2.52 100.00

Figure 2 : Culturable Command Area in Minor Irrigation Census in

Odisha

Irrigation Potential Created (IPC)

Commensurate with increase in number of both ground water and

surface water schemes, the gross potential of irrigation has also been

increased more than two folds from 8.27 lakh hectares to 18.05 lakh hectares

over a period of twenty years. The average IPC per scheme which marched

ahead from 3.20 hectare in 1986-87 to 3.60 hectares in the year 1993-94 had

suffered a setback during the course of super cyclone in the state in the year

1999.And the third census was conducted in the state with reference year

2000-01.Thus,the average IPC fallen suddenly to 2.93 hectares. The potential

of irrigation took a recovery path during 2006-07 resulted the average

potential to 3.22 hectares.

0

10

20

30

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Average CCA

Dug well Shallow Tube Well Deep tube Well

Surface Flow Surface Lift

0

20

40

60

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Percentage to State Total

Dug well Shallow Tube Well Deep tube Well

Surface Flow Surface Lift

Samikshya -2015 67

Table – 3 : Irrigation Potential Created (IPC) (In ha.)

Sl.

No Name of Scheme

1st M.I Census 2nd M.I Census Gross IPC % to

State

Total

Average

IPC per

Scheme

Gross

IPC

% to

State

Total

Average

IPC per

Scheme

1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 Dug well 106563 12.89 0.47 206276 14.72 0.64

2 Shallow Tube Well 58098 7.03 8.33 131248 9.36 7.25

3 Deep tube Well 68696 8.31 29.55 82145 5.86 28.22

4 Surface Flow 414396 50.12 30.49 698373 49.84 28.97

5 Surface Lift 178959 21.65 21.93 283300 20.22 13.75

Total 826712 100.00 3.20 1401342 100.00 3.60

Sl.

No Name of Scheme

3rd M.I Census 4th M.I Census Gross IPC % to

State

Total

Average

IPC per

Scheme

Gross IPC % to

State

Total

Average

IPC per

Scheme

1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13

1 Dug well 181728 12.78 0.51 216858 12.01 0.53

2 Shallow Tube Well 152763 10.75 3.48 203516 11.28 3.35

3 Deep tube Well 94215 6.63 20.52 132649 7.35 21.98

4 Surface Flow 689499 48.50 24.36 916727 50.79 23.53

5 Surface Lift 303297 21.34 9.23 335153 18.57 6.74

Total 1421502 100.00 2.93 1804903 100.00 3.22

Figure 3 : Irrigation Potential Created (IPC)in Minor Irrigation

Censuses of Odisha

0

10

20

30

40

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Average IPC

Dug well Shallow Tube Well Deep tube Well

Surface Flow Surface Lift

0

20

40

60

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Percentage to State Total

Dug well Shallow Tube Well Deep tube Well

Surface Flow Surface Lift

Samikshya -2015 68

Irrigation Potential Utilised (IPU):

Utilization of the irrigation potential is a great concern for the

state.57.41% of potential created though minor irrigation schemes was

utilized during 1986-87. During last census, 2006-07,only 44.27% of the

potential was utilized. It is also an alarming situation for the technocrats in

the minor irrigation sector to ponder the reasons behind gradual

deteriorating average potential utilized per scheme. The hiatus between the

potential created and utilized need be bridged up to avail the lost irrigation

benefits for agricultural development in the state.

Table – 4 : Irrigation Potential Utilised (IPU) (In ha.)

Sl.

No Name of Scheme

1st M.I Census 2nd M.I Census

Gross

IPU

% to

State

Total

Average

IPU per

Scheme

Gross

IPU

% to

State

Total

Average

IPU per

Scheme

1 2 2 3 4 5 6 7

1 Dug well 63080 13.29 0.32 91789 13.04 0.34

2 Shallow Tube Well 25284 5.33 4.32 54231 7.70 3.55

3 Deep tube Well 23711 5.00 12.61 14139 2.01 7.58

4 Surface Flow 290423 61.19 23.43 431253 61.26 19.78

5 Surface Lift 72154 15.19 10.05 112592 15.99 6.19

Total 474652 100.00 2.11 704004 100.00 2.18

Sl.

No Name of Scheme

3rd M.I Census 4th M.I Census

Gross

IPU

% to

State

Total

Average

IPU per

Scheme

Gross

IPU

% to

State

Total

Average

IPU per

Scheme

1 2 8 9 10 11 12 13

1 Dug well 77043 12.38 0.22 84351 10.56 0.21

2 Shallow Tube Well 66312 10.66 1.51 92846 11.62 1.53

3 Deep tube Well 11226 1.81 2.44 17593 2.20 2.92

4 Surface Flow 364590 58.59 12.88 482304 60.36 12.38

5 Surface Lift 103068 16.56 3.14 121963 15.26 2.45

Total 622239 100.00 1.28 799057 100.00 1.42

Samikshya -2015 69

Figure 4 : Irrigation Potential Utilised (IPU) in different Minor

Irrigation Censuses in Odisha

Table – 5 : Percentage of Irrigation Potential Utilized over the Census

Census of M.I

Projects

Reference year IPC IPU Percentage of

utilisation

1st 1986-87 827.13 474.065 57.31

2nd 1993-94 1400.96 703.88 50.24

3rd 2000-01 1430.78 622.23 43.49

4th 2006-07 1394.78 799.05 57.29

Results of last four census describe the real story of underutilization of

irrigation potential over the years. During first 57.31% of the potential was

utilized. The utilization of the potential had come down to 50.24% during

second census and further declined to 43.49% during 3rd census. However the

potential has been regain to 57.29% during 4th Census.

Comparison of findings with four other States & all India:

The state witnessed last super cyclone during the year 1999 causing

innumerable loss including the minor irrigation sector. And the very next

year was taken as the reference period for third census All the three

neighboring states ,Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal also fell in the

same pit created by the furious of nature. As such the results of 3rd census

are isolate in comparison to other censuses. However, the slow pace of

progress in the sector during 4th census indicates gradual recovery

0

5

10

15

20

25

Dug well ShallowTubeWell

Deeptube Well

SurfaceFlow

SurfaceLift

Average IPU

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

0

20

40

60

80

Dug well ShallowTubeWell

Deeptube Well

SurfaceFlow

SurfaceLift

Percentage to State Total

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Samikshya -2015 70

Table – 6: Schemes in use, Irrigation potential created &utilized

State

1st

Census

2nd

Census

3rd

Census

4th

Census

1st

Census

2nd

Census

3rd

Census

4th

Census

No. of schemes(‘000) IPC (‘000 ha)

1986-87 1993-94 2000-01 2006-07 1986-87 1993-94 2000-01 2006-07

AP 1392.63 1664.20 2035.69 2305.37 3385.16 4641.25 5251.86 4816.90

Bihar 798.26 1065.47 817.84 663.37 3141.74 4147.33 4227.6 3426.99

Punjab 893.53 959.32 1083.47 1181.11 4772.21 6776.97 6305.14 7382.63

West Bengal 695.32 714.76 809.56 598.06 2359.09 2797.38 3429.31 346.94

Odisha 258.29 388.81 488.00 561.15 827.13 1400.96 1430.78 1394.78

All India 12348.58 12562.34 19752.20 21006.67 41283.69 45444.01 74347.33 78887.60

State

1st Census 2nd Census 3rd Census 4th Census

IPU (‘000 ha)

1986-87 1993-94 2000-01 2006-07

AP 2725.62 3051.62 3379.78 3490.87

Bihar 2879.03 2816.24 2886.43 2425.83

Punjab 4578.64 6150.99 5764.23 6554.00

West Bengal 1760.19 1936.07 1945.63 2400.84

Odisha 474.65 703.88 622.23 799.05

All India 33445.12 35398.56 51969.93 63499.68

Figure 5 : Number of Minor Irrigation Schemes in major states

Figure 6 : Irrigation Potential Created in Minor Irrigation Schemes

in major states

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

AP Bihar Punjab West Bengal Odisha

1st MI Census 2nd MI Census 3rd MI Census 4th MI Census

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

AP Bihar Punjab West Bengal Odisha

1st MI Census 2nd MI Census

3rd MI Census 4th MI Census

Samikshya -2015 71

Figure 7 : Irrigation Potential Utilised in Minor Irrigation Schemes

in major states

Conclusion

The census of Minor Irrigation schemes under RMIS schemes was

conducted with reference year 1986-87 to 2006-07. The census comparison

covered four neighboring states i,e Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and

the leading state in irrigation ,Punjab with Odisha as well as all India. The

overall findings of the result of the state are a mixed picture of progress and

failure in certain fields. Gradual increase in number of different minor

irrigation schemes is a healthy symbol in irrigation sector. But the increase

in number of schemes resulted in diminishing returns .It already high time

to think for farmer-friendly irrigation projects. Gradual off surge in

utilization of the irrigation potential may defeat the very purpose of minor

irrigation. Though the state has managed to maintain its share from 2.09

lakhs during 1986-87 to 2.67 lakh in 2006-07 in spite of its suffering during

third census period still there is a need for appropriate remedial measures to

contain the progress in irrigation. The ultimate aim should be at lease to

minimize the gap between the potential created and utilized in the minor

irrigation sector.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

AP Bihar Punjab West Bengal Odisha

1st MI Census 1986-87 2nd MI Census 1993-94

3rd MI Census 2000-01 4th MI Census 2006-07

Samikshya -2015 72

Suggestions

A successful water resource management is need of the hour. All out

effort should be made for development of minor irrigation projects through

operational training, maintenance, appraisal mechanism Repairing and

maintenance may be accorded top priority to avoid loss of irrigation potential

already created. A meaningful synergy among the developmental agencies,

public and the community is essential to strengthen minor irrigation sector

in the state.

Reference

1. Report on Minor Irrigation Census (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th), Directorate of

Economics and Statistics, Government of Odisha

2. Census of Minor Irrigation Scheme (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th), Government of

India, Ministry of Water Resources and Ganga Rejuvenation

Department.

Samikshya -2015 73

Statistical Thinking and Development Planning

Dr. Bijaya Bhusan Nanda

Abstract

The planning process in development sector involves understanding the system

dynamics, cause and effect relationship, reasons for success and failures, formulating

strategies, implementing the process, monitoring and evaluating the process. Every

stage involves understanding from the data. This is precisely scientific method of

collection, organization, analysis and interpretation of data. Thus it is statistical problem

solving in broad sense from problem formulation to conclusions. The statistical thinking

is the basics of scientific approach and philosophy to problem solving. This paper

discusses the framework of statistical thinking for the enhancement of problem-solving.

This approach would complement the mathematical models used in analysis and address

areas of the process of statistical investigation that the mathematical models do not,

particularly areas requiring the synthesis of problem-contextual and statistical

understanding. This paper is drawn up from the review of literatures and an intensive

study conducted by C. J Wild and M. Pfankuch of department of Statistics, University of

Auckland, New Zealand on developing a framework of statistical thinking in empirical

enquiry. In this paper attempt has been made to link the framework of Statistical thinking

to the development planning process for enhancement of problem solving.

Key words

Causation; Development Planning, Empirical investigation; Statistical

thinking framework; Statisticians' experiences; Students' experiences;

Thinking tools; Variation.

1. What is Statistical Thinking?

Moore (1997) presented the following list of the elements of statistical

thinking, as approved by the Board of the American Statistical Association

(ASA) in response to recommendations from the Joint Curriculum Committee

of the ASA and the Mathematical Association of America: the need for data;

the importance of data production; the omnipresence of variability; the

measuring and modelling of variability. Snee (1990, p. 118) defined statistical

thinking as "thought processes, which recognise that variation is all around

us and present in everything we do, all work is a series of interconnected

processes, and identifying, characterising, quantifying, controlling, and

reducing variation provide opportunities for improvement".

Samikshya -2015 74

2.A Framework for Statistical Thinking

The beauty of Statistics lies in its application to real world problem

solving. All sectors of the society are increasingly relying on data for decision

making. Therefore statistics should be an integral part of theemerging

information era. Statistical investigation is used to expand the ‘context

knowledge’. Thus the ultimate goal of statistical investigation is learning in

the ‘context sphere’ Learning is much more than collecting information. It

involves synthesizing the new ideas and information to the existing ones into

improved understanding. Applied statistics is part of the information

gathering and learning process which, in an ideal world, is undertaken to

inform decisions and actions.

The framework discussed in this paper is based upon review of

literature and intensive interview and discussion with professional

statisticians and students undertaken by C.J Wild and M. Pflankuch (1999)

of Department of Statistics, University of Auckland, New Zealand. One set of

eleven students were individually given a variety of statistically based tasks

ranging from textbook-type tasks to critiquing newspaper articles in two one

hour sessions. They were interviewed while they solved the problems or

reacted to the information. Another set of five students, referred to as "project

students" were leaders of groups of students doing real projects in

organisations which involved taking a vaguely indicated problem through the

statistical enquiry cycle to a solution that could be used by the client. Each

was interviewed for one hour about their project. The six professional

statisticians were interviewed for ninety minutes about "statistical thinking"

and projects they had been involved in. The "project students" and

statisticians interviews were structured around the statistical enquiry cycle

and were in the form of a conversation which reflected on their approach and

thinking during the process of an investigation. The purposee was

investigating the complex thought processes involved in solving real world

problem solving was the subject matter of investigation not the thought

process involved in the development of new methodology or theoretical models

of statistics. It emerged that the thought process that involved in statistical

problem solving is more or less similar though not identical to the fragments

of thinking performed by someone involved in an enquiry. A four dimensional

framework as shown in Fig. 1 have been built up based upon the study.

Samikshya -2015 75

Figure 1 – Four Dimensional Framework for Statistical Thinking

GENERATE

SEEK

CRITICISE

INTERPRET

JUDGE

Dimension -3 (THE INTEROGATIVE CYCLE) magine possibilities for: Plans of attack Explanations/ modes Information requirement

Information and ideas internally externally

Read/hear/see translate Internally summarise Compare

• Connect

Check againstReference points: Internal external

Decide what to: believe Continue to entertain discard

PROBLEM

PLAN

ANALYSIS

DATA

CONCLUSION

Dimension -1 (Investigative Cycle)

• Grasping System dynamics • Defining Problems

Measurement System Sampling design Data Management Piloting & Analysis

Data Exploration Planned Analysis Unplanned Analysis Hypothesis generation

Interpretation Conclusion New Ideas Communication

Samikshya -2015 76

2.1 Dimension – 1: The Investigative Cycle

The first dimension in Fig. l(a) concerns the way one acts and what one

thinks about course of a statistical investigation is called the PPDAC model

(Problem, Plan, Data, Analysis, Conclusions) of MacKay & Oldford (1994).

The thought process revolves around grasping the dynamics of a system,

problem formulation, and planning and measurement issues, data analysis

and interpretation issues. Most problems are embedded in a desire to change

a "system" to improve something. A knowledge-based solution to the real

problem requires better understanding of how a system works and perhaps

also how it will react to changes to input streams, settings or environment.

Certain learning goals must be met to arrive at the desired level of

understanding. A PPDAC investigative cycle is set off to achieve each

learning goal. Knowledge gained and needs identified within these cycles may

initiate further investigative cycles. The conclusions from the investigations

feed into an expanded context-knowledge base which can then inform any

actions.

2.2 Dimension - 2: Types of Thinking

This dimension give a framework of thinking an investigator undergo

during the process of investigation. This is broadly classified into two types,

general types and types fundamental to statistical thinking.

General types of thinking revolves around Strategic thinking that

aimed at deciding upon what to be done further into the future and how to do

it. This includes planning how to attack a task; setting deadlines; division of

labour; and anticipating problems and planning to avoid them. Real statistics

is less about the pursuit of the "correct" answer in some idealistic sense than

about doing the best one can within constraints. This also seek explanation

to the events taking place in the nature and trying to fit out a model of best

fit. It is required to choose the appropriate tools and techniques for data

analysis.

Types fundamental to Statistical Thinking have the following

components:

Samikshya -2015 77

i. Recognition of the need for data: What is obvious may not be true.

The recognition of the inadequacies of personal experiences and

anecdotal evidence leading to a desire to base decisions on deliberately

collected data is a statistical impulse.

ii. Transnumeration: The most fundamental idea in a statistical

approach to learning is that of transforming facts and figures to

underlying stories through forming and changing data representations

of different aspects of a system to arrive at a better understanding of

that system. Transnumeration occurs when we find ways of obtaining

data (through measurement or classification) that capture meaningful

elements of the real system. It pervades all statistical data analysis,

occurring every time we change our way of looking at the data in the

hope that this will convey new meaning to us.

iii. Variation: Thinking which is statistical, in the modern sense anyway,

is concerned with learning and decision making under uncertainty.

Much of that uncertainty stems from omnipresent variation.

iv. Reasoning with model: All thinking uses models. The main

contribution of the discipline of statistics to thinking has been its own

distinctive set of models, or frameworks, for thinking about certain

aspects of investigation in a generic way. There is a need to expand the

reach of our statistical models.

v. Context knowledge, statistical knowledge and synthesis: The raw

materials on which statistical thinking works are statistical

knowledge, context knowledge and the information in data. The

thinking itself is the synthesis of these elements to produce

implications, insights and conjectures. One cannot indulge in

statistical thinking without some context knowledge. One has to bring

to bear all relevant knowledge, regardless of source, on the task in

hand, and then to make connections between existing context-

knowledge and the results of analyses to arrive at meaning. Ideally, all

of this knowledge would be resident in the same brain, but this is often

not possible. Major investigations are team efforts which bring

together people of differing expertise.

Samikshya -2015 78

2.3 Dimension - 3: The Interrogative Cycle

The Interrogative Cycle is a generic thinking process in constant use

in statistical problem solving. From a detailed analysis of the project-

students' and students' transcripts, it appears that the thinker is always in

one of the interrogative states while problem solving. The components

interrogative cycle are discussed below.

i. Generate: This mean imagining and brainstorming to generate

possibilities, as an individual orin a group to search for

possible causes, explanations and mechanisms, to the ways

parts of a system might interrelate and to other building

blocks of mental and statistical models.

ii. Seek: Generation tends to be followed by a seeking or recalling of

information. This may be internal or external. For internal

seeking, we observe people thinking "I know something about

this"and digging in their memories for the relevant

knowledge. External seeking consists of obtaining

information and ideas from sources outside the individual or

team. Working statisticians talk to other people about their

problems--clients, colleagues, context-matter experts, people

"working in the system". Seeking includes reading relevant

literature. At the macro level it includes the collecting of

statistical data, while at a more detailed level it includes

querying the data in hand.

iii.Interpret: By this we mean taking and processing the results of our

seeking. Read/see/hear + Translate + Internally summarise +

Compare + Connect.

iv.Criticise: The criticism phase applied to incoming information and ideas

involves checking for internal consistency and against

reference points. We ask, "Is this right?"'Does this make

sense?""Does this accord with what else I or others know?" We

check against internal reference points arguing with

ourselves, weighing up against our context knowledge,

Samikshya -2015 79

against our statistical knowledge, against the constraints we

are working under, and we anticipate problems that are

consequences of particular choices. We may also check against

external reference points such as: other people (i.e. talk to

clients, colleagues, experts, "workers in the system");

available literature and other data sources(e.g. historical

data).

v. Judge: This is the decision endpoint of criticism. What we keep, what

we discard or ignore, what we continue to tentatively

entertain, what we now believe. We apply judgement to such

things as: the reliability of information; the usefulness of

ideas; the practicality of plans; the "rightness" of

encapsulation; conformance with both context-matter and

statistical understanding; the relative plausibility of

competing explanations; the most likely of a set of possible

scenarios; the need for more research; and the many other

decisions involved in building and reasoning from models.

2.4 Dimension Four: Dispositions

In this subsection, we discuss personal qualities which affect, or even

initiate, entry into a thinking mode. The nature of these dispositions emerged

from the statisticians' interviews and we could subsequently recognise them

at work in the students. We think these elements are generic, but again we

discuss them as we observed them-in the context of statistical problem

solving. The personal traits that are fundamental to statistical problem

solving are i) Curiosity and Awareness, ii) imagination, iii) skepticism, iv)

being logical, v) propensity to seek deeper meaning and vi) perseverance and

v) openness.

3. Development Planning and Statistical process

Disparity exists, in space, in communities, in race etc. Development is

all about identifying, characterising, quantifying, controlling, and reducing

variation through development interventions. This is called development

planning process. Moreover, we have to understand that development work

Samikshya -2015 80

is a series of interconnected processes. The planning process in development

sector involves understanding the system dynamics, cause and effect

relationship, reasons for success and failures, formulating strategies,

implementing the process, monitoring and evaluating the process. Every

stage involves understanding from the data. This is precisely scientific

method of collection, organization, analysis and interpretation of data. Thus

it is statistical problem solving in broad sense from problem formulation to

conclusions. The Statisticians has to understand it very clearly that there role

is not only to collect, organize and present data, but they have to go to the

next steps of analyzing and interpreting and relating the underlying story

beneath the data to understand the development Context. This is the ultimate

goal for application of complete science of Statistics. In order to realize the

goal of Statistics, the Statisticians need to understand the basic framework

of approach to problem solving in the real world situation. This is embodied

in the “Statistical Thinking”. The framework will enhance the capability of

problem solving for improved decision making. The role of the teacher, the

process of learning statistics should be designed so that the students have to

learn to think statistically.

References

1. Moore, D. (1997). New Pedagogy and New Content: The Case of

Statistics. International Statistical Review, 65, 123-165.

2. Snee, R. (1990). Statistical Thinking and its Contribution to Quality.

The American Statistician, 44, 116-121.

3. Pfannkuch, M. & Wild, C. (1998). Statistical thinking and statistical

practice: Themes gleaned from professional statisticians.(unpublished

manuscript).

4. MacKay, R.J. & Oldford, W. (1994). Stat 231 Course Notes Full 1994.

Waterloo: University of Waterloo.

5. Statistical Thinking in Empirical Enquiry, C.J. Wild and M.

Pfannkuch, International Statistical Review (1999), 67,3, 223-265,

Printed In Mexico @ International Statistical Institute

Samikshya -2015 81

Inflation vrs Growth in India – A Critical Analysis

Smt. Anita Dash

Abstract

The growth trajectory of India withstood the global economic slowdown in recent years.

But the national economy have been inflicted with regular price inflation since last

decade. The paper applies statistical tool as technique of interpretation to establish link

between growth and inflation. It also attempts to analyse the food and all commodities

with inflation in the country with statistical models.

Introduction

According to the Social Scientists, Social development is related to the

improvements in health, education, housing, drinking water, etc. and the

standard of living as a whole. Improvement in them may be indirectly related

to economic development because if income increases, people can enjoy better

health, education, nutritional food and housing. But the basic idea is that the

two processes (Economic as well as Social development) may not work in the

same direction. On the other hand, the economic development process may be

based on substitution of social for private activities that leads to more social

inequalities. Therefore to minimize the inequalities, ‘grow the pie’ and ‘share

the pie’ motto should be followed. The Millennium Development Goals (MDG)

of the United Nations drawn up in 2000 set the reduction of poverty by half

of the 1990 level (now adjusted to $1.25) as well as the increment of Gross

Domestic Product (GDP) percapita, by 2015 as the foremost among eight

goals.

“Fundamentally, poverty is a denial of choices and opportunities, a

violation of human dignity. It means lack of basic capacity to participate

effectively in society. It means not having enough to feed and clothe a family,

not having a school or clinic to go to, not having the land on which to grow

one’s food or a job to earn one’s living, not having access to credit. It means

insecurity, powerlessness and exclusion of individuals, households and

communities. It means susceptibility to violence, and it often implies living

on marginal or fragile environments, without access to clean water or

sanitation”. (UN Statement, June 1998 – signed by the heads of all UN

agencies)

Samikshya -2015 82

The World Bank reviewed and proposed revisions in May 2014, to its

poverty calculation methodology and purchasing power parity basis for

measuring poverty worldwide, including India. According to this revised

methodology, the world had 872.3 million people below the new poverty line,

of which 179.6 million people lived in India. In other words, India with 17.5%

of total world's population, had 20.6% share of worlds’ poorest in 2011. (From

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia) In the broader context, India contributes

more people to world poverty than does any other country and changes in the

way of Indian poor are counted can have significant effects on the world

total.(RBI Report)

Although there are many factors that may cause poverty, inflation is

regarded as an influential factor in determining the poverty. The probe of

poverty intensifies even more when prices of commodities in general and food

in particular, increase. (Talukdar’s thesis Report in August 2012.)Again,

several arguments have been made by (Cardoso & Power, 1995, Ravallin,

1998, Brauman, 2004, Choudhury &Choudhury, 2008 and many more

scholars in support of the view that inflation increases poverty.

Inflation is price raise of goods and services, which decrease the

purchasing capacity of the people. When the general price level rises, for every

each unit of the currency fewer goods and services can be purchased.

Consequently, the purchasing power of customer would gradually decrease.

In this situation the real value of the currency would loss. According to some

great Indian economists and scholars, the acceptable range of inflation rate

in India lies between 3-7 percent. (Loksabha Secretariat Chronicle).

Therefore, the persistence increase of the year on year inflation rate beyond

the above prescribed limit is hazardous for the overall economic as well as the

social development of our country. Here, it is worth mentioning that, in case

of India with a large share of population that is poor, food price inflation can

be particularly important. This is because poor spend a large proportion of

their income on food (over 50%) based on 61stround NSS survey, analysed in

the planning commission report). These poor people are typically net buyers

of food and their incomes are tend to be fixed.

In India, the Consumer Price Index is arguably a better measure than

the Wholesale Price Index to study changes in prices of final goods demanded

Samikshya -2015 83

by consumers as it gives a much larger weight to food than the other. But my

analysis here is based on Wholesale Price Index due to the following reasons.

a. Historical nationwide measure of Consumer Price Index (including

all sectors) does not exist.

b. Wholesale Price Index is considered as the official measure of the

government of India.

The current series of Wholesale Price Index of India at base 2004-05

constitutes 676 wholesale commodities. The representative commodity basket

is composed of three groups: Primary Articles (20.1% of total weight), Fuel

and Power (14.9%) and Manufactured Products (65%). Food Articles from the

Primary Articles Group account for 14.3% of the total weight. The most

important components of the Manufactured Products Group are Chemicals

and Chemical products (12%); Basic Metals, Alloys and Metal Products

(10.8%); Machinery and Machine Tools (8.9%); Textiles (7.3%) and Transport,

Equipment and Parts (5.2%).

Objective of the Study

The study aims

a. To examine the effect of the year on year inflation rates on the growth

rate of real per capita Gross Domestic Product of India.

b. To examine the linkage between food group and the all commodity

group level inflation rate.

Sources of Data

The time series data on Monthly Wholesale Price Index of all

commodity level as well as of all groups and sub-groups from the year 1971-

72 to 2011-12 has been taken for the calculation of the inflation rates from

the official website of the Economic Advisor, Govt. of India. Again, the time

series data regarding the growth rate of the real per capita GDP of India for

the same period has been taken from the website named w.w.w statistics

times.com.

Samikshya -2015 84

Methodology

The data analysis has been performed by using the statistical methods

such as the year on year annual inflation rates, annual simple growth rates,

partial correlation and the linear regression methods.

First Stage

The correlation analysis between the general level inflation rates

(WPI_AC) and the real per capita GDP growth rates has been depicted in the

Table 1 given below. It conveys us the message that there exists the moderate

inverse relationship (-.416) between the year on year WPI inflation rates and

the growth rate of real per capita Gross Domestic Product of India at the

0.01significance level (2-tailed). From this, it is cleared that the increasing

level of inflation rates of our Nation are responsible for lowering the real

growth of our country India.

Table 1 : Correlation

Correlation between the Growth of Real

Percapita GDP with the inflation of WPI

from the year 1971-72 to 2011-12.

Growth rate of GDP

Percapita India at

CONSTANT price

Inflation of WPI at

All Commodity

Level

Growth rate of

GDP Percapita

India at

CONSTANT

price

Pearson Correlation 1 -.416**

Sig. (2-tailed)

0.007

N 41 41

Inflation of WPI

at All Commodity

Level

Pearson Correlation -.416** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) 0.007

N 41 41

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The impact of the year on year WPI inflation rates on the growth rate

of real per capita Gross Domestic Product of India can be understood more

scientifically from the regression Table 2.1 & 2.2 given below. Here, I have

taken the all commodity level of inflation rates as the independent variable

and the annual growth rates of real per capita gross domestic products as the

dependent variable. It can be predicted from the p value (sig = .007) with the

negative t value (-2.858) from the table 2.2 that indicates that the significant

Samikshya -2015 85

relationship between these two variables is negatively related to each other.

Again, the unstandardized Coefficients value (-0.277) of the Table 2.2

examines that with every unit of increase in the inflation rate is responsible

for the decrease of the growth of the real per capita GDP of India.

Table: 2.1 : Model Summary

Model R R Square Adjusted R

Square

Std. Error of the

Estimate

1 .416a 0.173 0.152 3.17096

a. Predictors: (Constant), Inflation of WPI at All Commodity Level

Table: 2.2 :

Model Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1

(Constant) 5.472 0.899 6.085 0

Inflation of WPI at All

Commodity Level -0.277 0.097 -0.416 -2.858 0.007

a. Dependent Variable: Growth rate of GDP Per capita India at CONSTANT price

Second Stage

The result in this section establish the importance of Food prices in

overall inflation in India. The partial correlation table 3.1 depicts that by

keeping the other groups (the WPI inflation of Fuel & Power group and

Manufactured Product group) under control, the relationship between the

Inflation of WPI at All Commodity Level& the Primary Article group in which

Food items are the major sub groups are very highly as well as positively

correlated (.926) at 0.01 significant level.To be more precise, the table 3.2

given below shows that, by given the WPI inflation of Non-Food Article sub-

group under control, there exists a highly positive relationship (.902) between

the WPI inflation of Primary Article group and WPI inflation of Food Article

sub-group in India. As a whole, it can be concluded that the persistence

increasing inflation rate in respect of the food items has beendeteriorating

the real growth of the economy of India to some extent since four decades.

Samikshya -2015 86

Table: 3.1 : Correlation

Model Unstandardized

Coefficients

Standardized

Coefficients

t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1

(Constant) 5.472 0.899 6.085 0

Inflation of WPI at

All Commodity

Level

-0.277 0.097 -0.416 -2.858 0.007

a. Dependent Variable: Growth rate of GDP Percapita India at CONSTANT price

Table: 3.2 : Correlation

Control Variables WPI inflation

of Primary

Article group

WPI inflation of

FOOD Article sub-

group

WPI

inflation

of Non-

Food

Article

sub-group

WPI

inflation of

Primary

Article group

Correlation 1 0.902

Significance

(2-tailed) . 0

df 0 38

WPI

inflation of

Food Article

sub-group

Correlation 0.902 1

Significance

(2-tailed) 0 .

df 38 0

Table: 4 : In recent years India's Inflation rate has been higher than

world average

2000-07 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2008-12

Average Annual Average

Global Inflation

World 3.9 6 2.4 3.7 4.9 4 4.2

Inflation in India

WPI 5.2 8.1 3.8 9.6 8.9 7.6 7.6

WPI_Food 3.8 8.9 14.6 11.1 7.2 9.1 10.2

WPI_NFMP 4.3 5.7 0.2 6.1 7.3 5.2 4.9

CPI_IW 4.6 9.1 12.2 10.5 8.4 9.9 10

Source : Reference note of Lokasabha Secretariat, 2013

Samikshya -2015 87

Indian Inflation data pertains to financial year,

WPI: Wholesale sale Price Index,

NFMP: Non-food manufactured products,

CPI_IW: Consumer Price Index for Industrial workers.

The above table 4 shows the Indian and the World inflation data from

2000-07 & 2008-12. Comparing the average inflation rates of the India &

World in respect of the two phases (2000-07 & 2008-12), it is cleared that the

Indian general Inflationary average is higher than the world. The average

increase of the Consumer Price Index for Industrial workers is more than

twice in between these periods. Again, WPI inflation in respect of Food groups

increases thrice in relation to the Second phase (2008-12) as compared to the

first (2000-07) phase. Here, it can be said that the level of WPI inflation India

in respect of Food group has been changing more or less in the same pace with

the CPI_IW as more than 50% of the total weights of CPI_IW constitute the

food items.

A recent study by the Asian Development bank (2011) noted that “a 10%

rise in the domestic food prices in the developing countries of Asia risks

creating an additional 64.4 million poor people or increasing the percentage

of poor by 1.9 points”.

Conclusion

The above analysis can be summarised as follows:

Inflation is negatively related with the standard of living of India.

Inflation erodes the value of cash holdings, reduces the real income

& hence lowers the purchasing power.

Inflation inequality is a significant issue of India that needs more

attention as the food price inflation affects the poor more adversely

than inflation in general.

Finally, it is concluded that necessary steps should be taken to reduce

the inflation in general and food in particular with the increase of the

Agricultural productivity of our country as a whole.

Samikshya -2015 88

Social Development in Kalahandi District :

An Observation

Sri Bimbadhar Sethy

Abstract

The paper presents an empirical analysis of social sector developments in

Kalahandi district of Odisha. With brief historical back drop, the paper outlines the

changing pattern of demographic components in the last decade between 2001 &n 2011.

It evaluates the level of social sector developments in the district that include social class

structure, education, health, employment and human development indices.

Introduction

Thousands of years have been passed under the process of social

development but till date in many parts of the world,the real development is

yet to be tangible. Actually, social development is an ongoing process. It is

about putting people at the center of development. This means a commitment

that, development processes need to benefit all section of people and the way

they interact in groups & society and the norms that facilitates such

interaction, shape development processes.

Social-economic development of the people is the process of social and

economic development in a society. Socio-economic development is measured

with indicators, such as GDP, life expectancy, literacy and levels of

employment. Changes in less-tangible factors are also considered, such as

personal dignity, freedom of association, personal safety and freedom from

fear of physical harm, and the extent of participation in civil society. Causes

of socio-economic impacts are, for example, new technologies, changes in laws,

changes in the physical environment and ecological changes. Social

development is the overall development of the society where as the socio-

economic development belongs to development of a particular strata of society

which includes economically weak classes & vulnerable groups of people. Its

approach is epi-centric in nature where as social development has a broad

objective in nature.

Samikshya -2015 89

In the context of Kalahandi district the social development which

includes the socio-economic development of the district depends upon

different factors as population, health, education, poverty, employment etc.

These are the fields which are to be given more thrust for real development

of Kalahandi. Here with the flow of this article some of the data are given

regarding different sectors to understand the past history, present scnariao&

the future prospect of the district which influences the different development

indicators as a whole. Before that, we have to know the historical prospect as

well as the administrative set up of kalahandi district.

Kalahandi a cradle of civilizations is located between 190 8’ N and 200

25’ N Latitude and 820 32’ E and 830 47’ E Longitude. Kalahandi region

having rich cultural heritage has been recognized as repository of art &

culture right from the dawn of history. “Kalahandi” which means the

container of art has a rich legacy in the field of arts, culture, architecture,

literature, song, dance, drama and blessed by beauty of nature. Kalahandi

had variegated identities in different historical epochs like Indravana during

Maurya period, Atavi (4th – 3rd Century B.C.), Maha Kantara (around 4th,

5th Century A.D), Kamalamandala (12th – 13th Century A.D.). It was also

known as Karund in the medieval period.

Coming to the present administrative set up, administratively, the

district is having two sub-divisions and 13 Tahasils. Because of the rural

nature of the district, the district is having very less number of urban local

bodies (ULBs) i.e. one Municipality at the District Headquarter and three

Notified Area Council (NACs) in Kesinga, Junagarh and Dharamgarh. The

district is having 13 community development blocks which encompasses 272

GPs and 2096 inhabited villages.

District Demography

As per 2011 Census, the district is having a total population of 15,

76,869 out of which male and female population are 787,101 and 789,768

respectively. In 2001, total population was 13, 35,494 out of which 6, 67,526

were males and 6, 67,968 females. With regards to Sex Ratio in Kalahandi, it

stood at 1003 per 1000 male as per 2011 census as compared to 1001 in 2001.

The average national sex ratio in India is 940 as per Census 2011. In 2011

Samikshya -2015 90

census, child sex ratio is 957 girls per 1000 boys compared to figure of 984

girls per 1000 boys of 2001 census. The density of population in Kalahandi

district for 2011 is 199 per sq. km. In 2001, the population density was 169

per sq. km. Kalahandi district covers 7,920 sq.km. in area. The population of

the district constitutes 3.76 % of total population of the State. In 2001 census,

this figure was at 3.63 %. There was change of 18.1 % in the population

compared to population as per 2001. In the previous census 2001, Kalahandi

District recorded increase of 18.09 % to its population compared to 1991. Out

of the total Kalahandi population for 2011 census, 7.74 % live in urban regions

of district. In total, 121,987 people live in urban areas of which males are

62,455 and females are 59,532. Sex Ratio in urban region of Kalahandi

district is 953 as per 2011 census. Similarly child sex ratio in Kalahandi

district is 922 in 2011 census. Child population (0-6) in urban region is 13,807

of which males and females are 7,183 and 6,624. Average literacy rate in

Kalahandi district as per census 2011 is 59.2 % of which males and females

are 71.9 % and 46.7 % respectively. In urban region total 88,274 people are

literate of which male and female are 48,847 and 39,427 respectively.

As per 2011 census, 92.26 % population of Kalahandi district live in

rural areas. The number of population living in rural areas is 14,54,882 of

which males and females are 7,24,646 and 7,30,236 respectively. In rural

areas, sex ratio is 1008 females per 1000 males whereas child sex ratio of the

district is 959 girls per 1000 boys. Child population in the age 0-6 is 2,08,763

in rural areas of which males are 1,06,543 and females are 1,02,220. The child

population comprises 14.35 % of total rural population of Kalahandi district.

Literacy rate in rural areas of Kalahandi district is 57.28 % as per census

2011. Male and female literacy stands at 70.43 and 44.34 % respectively. In

total, 713,762 people in rural areas are literate of which males and females

are 4,35,330 and 278,432 respectively.

Female Sex ratio of Kalahandi is 1003 against 1000 male as per 2011

census. Considering state and National average it is certainly encouraging.

However Child sex ratio (0-6 age) is 957 girls against 1000 boys as per 2011

census. This situation is critical in view of the fact that around next decade

male population of the district may surpass female population. We need to be

watchful.

Samikshya -2015 91

As per 1991 census 55308 were female and 565595 were male. From

1901 till 2011 there was population increase of 159.13% which is higher than

state average of 112.9% growth. The details of district demographic profile of

Kalahandi district has been given below.

Demographic Profile of Kalahandi District

Description 2011 Census 2001 Census

Actual Population 15,76,869 13,35,494

Male 7,87,101 6,67,526

Female 7,89,768 6,67,968

Population growth rate 18.07% 18.09%

Area Sq.Km 7,920 7,920

Density / Sq.Km 199 169

Proportion to Odisha Population 3.76% 3.63%

Sex ratio ( Per 1000) 1,003 1,001

Child Sex Ratio (0-6 Age) 957 984

Average Literacy 59.22 45.94

Male literacy 71.90 62.66

Female literacy 46.68 29.28

Total Child Population (0-6 Age) 2,22,570 2,17,889

Male Population (0-6 Age) 1,13,726 1,09,807

Female Population (0-6 Age) 1,08,844 1,08,082

Literates 8,02,036 5,13,383

Male Literates 4,84,177 3,49,473

Child Proportion (0-6 Age) 14.11% 16.32%

Boys Proportion (0-6 Age) 14.45% 16.45%

Girls Proportion (0-6 Age) 13.78% 16.18%

Demography pattern itself is a barrier to social development in

Kalahndi district . Faster growth rate population, rising population density,

abysmally low level of urbanization, very low level of female literacy are the

determinant factors that have direct bearing on development process as well

as human development in the district.

Samikshya -2015 92

Social structure

The social composition of the district is not uniform as it is normally

seen in some other parts of the state. Under chaturbarna [four main caste

segments i.e. Brahmin, Kshetriya, Baisya and Sudra], the district is having a

number of sub-castes. Though, census records caste based distribution of

population, since 1951, there is no such published information which talks

about the socio-economic and cultural practices of different caste and sub-

castes except some research publicaitons. High percentage of STs and SCs

has a bearing on the development of the district due to their poor economic

conditions. Scheduled caste constitutes about 18.2% of the total population.

Scheduled Tribe population in the district constitutes 28.6% of the total

population. Of different tribes found in this district, numerically important

tribes are Kondh, Bhatara, Banjara, Parja, Gond, and Sabar. These tribes

together constitute 97 % of the total tribal population of the district.

Concentration of scheduled tribes is highest in Bhawanipatna sub-division

and lowest in Dharamgarh sub-division.

Regarding Scheduled Caste & Tribe, the details of composite structure

of caste of Kalahandi district has been given below for better understanding.

Composite structure of caste with gender of

Kalahandi District (Census 2011) Population

In

Percentage

Male : 7,87,101 49.92

Female : 7,89,768 50.08

Rural : 14,54,882 92.26

Urban : 1,21,987 7.74

Scheduled Caste : 2,86,580 18.17

Scheduled Caste Male : 1,42,133 49.60

Scheduled Caste Female : 1,44,447 50.40

Scheduled Tribe : 4,49,456 28.50

Scheduled Tribe Male : 2,21,171 49.21

Scheduled Tribe Female : 2,28,285 50.79

Total Population of Kalahandi District : 15,76,869

Samikshya -2015 93

Education

Education is the backbone

of national as well as state

development, which increases

vision and socio-

economic status of human being.

It is widely accepted as an

instrument of social change and

the best defense of a nation. Education is a major indicator of human

development. Modern British system of Education in the district dates back

to the year 1860, when 4 Primary schools were opened in the ex-State of

Kalahandi during the rule of Fatenarayan Deo the 27th king of the Naga

dynasty when the ex-State came under the administrative control of the

Central provinces of East India Company. There has been gradual

improvement in the spread of education in the district. In 1914-15 the total

number of schools rose to 74 which included 1 Middle English school, 20

Upper Primary Boy’s schools, 1 Upper Primary Girl’s school, 47 Lower

Primary Boys’ schools, 3 Lower Primary Girl’s schools, 1 Guru (Teacher)

Training school and 1 Sanskrit Toll. Now the district has 2396 Primary school

followed by 836 Upper Primary schools, 305 Secondary Schools and 30

General Colleges of Junior and Degree level. Apart from this one Medical

College at Jaring in PPP mode, one Govt engineering college near

Singhjharan, one Govt Agriculture College at Bhawanipatna, one poly

technique college at Bhawanipatana & one general midwife & nursing

training school at Kamthana have been established. The table above is an

indicator that after independence and particularly since 1971 on ward there

is developing trend in the field of literacy and education which is helpful in

over all development of the district. There is now special attempt for SC/ST

and women education in the district. Residential schools with all basic

amenities are established in the inaccessible areas of the district in more

numbers.

Kalahandi is primarily an agriculture based economy. Training and

education sector development may be costly. But not to train and educate the

people may be costlier. Expansion of educational and training (vocational0

13.09 19.42

31.08

46.2 60.22

0

20

40

60

80

1971 1981 1991 2001 2011

Literacy Growth status of Kalahandi from 1971 to 2011

Samikshya -2015 94

institution in Kalahandi district from primary to higher education need to be

addressed with priority in order to shift the surplus labour from low

productivity agriculture sector to higher productivity non agriculture sector

and consequently increase economic growth rate.

Health

Health is a prerequisite for human development and is an essential

component for the well being of mankind. The health problems of any

community are influenced by interplay of various factors including social,

economic and political ones. The common beliefs, customs, practices related

to health and disease in turn influence the health seeking behaviour of the

community. Forests and hills and dales occupy a considerable portion of the

district. Being in the Eastern Ghats the rains are regular and abundant. The

water of the rivers and wells is good. But the water of the tanks is usually

polluted due to unhygienic use. The climate is in general not salubrious and

in certain tracts it is malaria prone. Apart from the forest tracts in Madanpur-

Rampur and Lanjigarh which are more familiar to malarias, the climate of

the more open parts in the north and west of Kalahandi Forest Division is

fairly healthy. But the southern hill regions of Thuamul-Rampur and

Lanjigarh have un-bracing climate particularly for persons unaccustomed to

the food and atmosphere of the country. It has a very evil reputation for

malignant terrain and cerebral form of malaria. Malaria and epidemics like

cholera and Meningitis used to visit very often claiming large number of lives

in the past. But due to various public health and preventive measures their

visitations has been put under control. The district is having 1 District HQ

Hospital with 6 bedded ICU, 3 SD Hospitals & Other Hospitals, 16

Community Health Centers, 43 Primary Health Centres, 04 Mobile Health

Units, 525 Hospital Beds, 20 Ayurvedic Dispensaries and 18 Homeopathic

Dispensaries. There are 242 number of sub centers functioning in the

districts. In the district head quarter Hospital a regional diagnosis centre has

been set up. Coming to the institutional birth count of kalahandi district, it

was 28699 in numbers in the year 2011-12. Whereas that onwards the birth

count has become 25873, 25882 & 25469 for 2012-13, 2013-14 & 2014-15

respectively. The table is been given below for better understanding.

Samikshya -2015 95

Number of Birth

Recorded

(Kalahandi)

2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15

In Numbers 28699 25873 25882 25469

Inspiring health care and reducing high mortality in the district are

continuous process in health sector development. But birth control measures

need to be intensified to check the faster growth of population in Kalahandi

district.

Employment

As Kalahandi isan agro based district, majority of population are

depending on agriculture for their day to day bread & butter. Now-a-days,

agriculture department has coined a word called agro entrepreneurwhich is

more suitable for farmers of kalahandi. Apart from Agriculture in the absence

industrialization there is dependency of major section of population on forest

based economy. So far industrialization is concerned Vedanta Alumina at

Lanjigarh is the only large industry however it is limping for survival in the

absence of locally availability of raw material to this unit. But with the

incoming of Indravati project there is an increasing trend in the

establishment of Rice mills in the district. As farming is the major

employment for people of kalahandi district, for better understanding a table

has been given below.

Occupation Composition of Kalahandi District

(Census 2011)

Population In

Percentage

Total Workers to Total Population 7,52,167 47.70

Main Workers to Total Population 3,76,872 23.90

Marginal Workers to Total Population 1,46,649 9.30

Non Workers to Total Population 8,24,702 52.30

Main Workers to Total Workers 3,76,836 50.10

Marginal Workers to Total Workers 2,48,215 33.00

Cultivators to Total Workers 1,45,168 19.30

Agriculture labourers to Total workers 4,37,009 58.10

Household industry workers to total workers 18,804 2.50

Total Population of Kalahandi District : 15,76,869

Samikshya -2015 96

In view of development of infrastructures and Agriculture in the

recent time, there is scope to establish large numbers of Agro based industries

and small units for value addition of Minor forest products and Minor

Agriculture products in the district. This will be help full to create

employment potentialities and over all income of people.

Employment is the prime mover of economy. Agriculture no more

remain remunerative to engage major chunk of labour force with high

productivity. Establishment of industrial corridor, promotion of agro based

industries, commercialization of agriculture crops, markets and training

centres need to accord high priority in the district to create ,ore employment

potential with high labour productivities and income generation.

Human development indicators

Education, Health and Income Generation are the important

indicators that decide the human development of a nation or state or district.

According to State Human Development Report, Odisha, 2011, “the value of

Human Development Index [HDI] for Kalahandi district is 0.606 and state as

whole is 0.579. This may be regarded as a medium level of human

development situation. Of the three components of HDI, the education index

has the medium weight [0.585] whereas the health index has the highest

weight [0.763] and the income index [0.471] lies in between”. An inter district

analysis of HDI rank of Odisha presented in the table which demonstrates a

wide disparity between lowest and highest HDI rank districts with regard to

the health status of inhabitants in those districts.

Health, Income, Education and Human Development Index

Source: Economic Survey, 2013-14

District Health

Index

Income

Index

Education

Index HDI Value

HDI

Rank

Kalahandi 0.763 0.471 0.585 0.606 11

Samikshya -2015 97

Kalahandi was once identified with poverty. However with the

planning process & thrust of government in different sectors there is a sea of

changes in the scenario. Kalahandi is marching ahead in the field of

education, development in agriculture & allied sector & in development of

infrastructures. In the field of agriculture it has emerged as one of the leading

districts in the state with scope for more development, which is also paving

way for establishment of agro based industries. Simultaneously there is

attempt for establishment of large numbers of units for value addition of

minor forest products & minor agriculture products. Development in the field

of education and improvement of infrastructures has also created scope for

establishment of education hubs in the district.

Samikshya -2015 98

Women Development and Welfare in Odisha :

A Relook

Smt Smruti Ranjita Patnaik

Abstract of Paper

The status of women in Odisha is a complex issue. Many women suffers

from discrimination, illiteracy, poverty, obscurantism and exploitation in

Odisha. There are acute gender disparities in terms of literacy, access to

health services and other human development indicators. Odisha attained its

political identity as a province of India on 1st April 1936. All the minimum

needs including education have to be provided. The women population is

49.46% to total population. The Scheduled Tribe (ST) and Scheduled Caste

(SC) constitute about 39.98% of total population. As per 2011 Census the

gender gap in Odisha is 17.60%.

The Government of Odisha has implemented all the welfare schemes

framed by Government of India as well as the State has been giving all the

priority to the women as per the Constitution of India, but still it has been

observed that women are not able to reach to the mainstream of the society

so the state felt the need that is empowering women is not enough, they

should take the initiative to justify the empowerment.

Employment Education and empowerment

Participation of women workers active in farm operations like sowing,

transplanting, weeding, hoeing and harvesting, whereas the majority of male

workers attend to plouging operations. Higher reservation jobs in public

sector is meant for higher women’s employment in administration. The

percentage of women workers in Urban and Rural areas stood at 29.7 and 14.1

percent.. Their share in the total workforce has been consistently increasing

except 1981. Further analysis indicates that the proportion of women in total

main workers has increased from 16.18 percent in 1981 to 17.87 percent in

2011, while the proportion of women marginal workers as compared to total

marginal workers has declined from 85.80 percent in 1981 to 54.52 percent in

2011. This appears to be the outcome of increased literacy among women and

Samikshya -2015 99

higher participation of women in the Service Sector. Women workers

participate actively in farm operations like sowing, transplanting, weeding,

hoeing and harvesting, whereas the majority of male workers attend to

ploughing operations. Wage differentials exist among men and women for the

same type of jobs. Women face wage discrimination at many work sites. The

proportion of women employees in the total workforce of the organised sector

has increased from 6.7 percent in 1970 to 16.5 percent in 2012. Their

proportion in the public sector increased from 4.1 percent in 1972 to 17.7

percent in 2012, but decreased from 18.7 percent to 11.2 percent in the private

sector. The literacy gap of 17 percent among men and women is a matter of

concern for the State. Women participation in politics in Odisha is not

encouraging. The State sets special thrust on training- um-employment-cum-

income-generation activities along with ‘forward' and 'backward' linkages of

credit and marketing facilities so as to make women economically

independent and self-reliant.

Government Policies and Programmes: The State Government is keen to

educate, employ and empower the women in the State with effective

implementation of a series of welfare and development programme. These

programme are as follows:

1. Prevention of Dowry

2. State Commission for Women

3. Odisha State Social Welfare Board (OSSWB)

4. Rajiv Gandhi National Creche for Children of Working & Ailing

Mothers

5. Condensed Course of Education for Adult Women

6. Awareness Generation Project (AGP)

7. Family Counselling Centres

8. Working Women’s Hostels

9. Short Stay Homes

10. Mahila Vikas Samabaya Nigam (MVSN)

11. Mission Shakti