Volume 4 - 20178)_Combined.pdf · Heba A. Bahey El-Deen1, Hala Ibrahim Kassem2, Khaled Ahmed...

Issue 8 October Volume 4 - 2017

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Role of Electromyographic Feedback Stimulation after Achilles Tendon Lengthening in Spastic Hemiplegic Cerebral Palsy

Group Cohesion and Sport Performance

The Swedish Journal of Scientific Research (SJSR) ISSN 2001-9211. Volume 4. Issue 8 . October 2017

The Swedish Journal of Scientific Research • Vol. 4 • Issue 8 • October 2017 1

INTRODUCTION

The limb muscles of the child with hemiplegia must perform a range of functions to accommodate the changing mechanical demands associated with movement in their natural environment. Even during steady –speed locomotion, certain muscles may be

expected to function differently from others. In part, this is likely to be related to differences in their muscle – tendon architecture; for example, the shortening ofAchilles tendon which may be occurred due to muscleimbalance in spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy (Belli,Kyröläinen & Komi, 2002). In spastic hemiplegia, loss ofrecruitment of agonist contraction, or reduced outputparesis, play a major role in impairment of musclefunction (Bohannon & Smith, 1987), which leads tochange in passive properties or shortening of Achillestendon muscles (Hastings et al., 2000).

Equines deformity is a common finding in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy and may be treated by Achilles tendon lengthening (Lee, Lin & Wapner,

Role of Electromyographic Feedback Stimulation after Achilles Tendon Lengthening in Spastic Hemiplegic Cerebral PalsyHeba A. Bahey El-Deen1, Hala Ibrahim Kassem2, Khaled Ahmed Olama3, Alaa NoureldeenKora4

1Associate Professor of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Applied Medical Sciences, AlJouf University, KSA, 2Dean of the Faculty of Physical Therapy, Delta University, 3Professor and Chairperson of Department of Paediatric Physical Therapy, Cairo University, 4Clinical Instructor in the Paediatrics Outpatient Clinic, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University

ABSTRACT

Shortening in Achilles tendon is one of the most common complications in spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy. The present study was conducted to determine the effect of Electromyographic feedback stimulation during two weeks immobilization period after tendo-Achilles lengthening in children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy. Thirty children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy, ranges from seven to nine years in age (x` 8.2430±0.863yr.), represented the sample of the study. They were selected from different hospitals in Cairo, Egypt. The peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors and ankle excursion were measured via using MERAC isokinetic system and electro-gonimeter respectively. The subjects were divided randomly into two groups, Group A (control) received Electromyographic feedback stimulation after removal of plaster cast for two weeks daily in addition to designed physical therapy program, while Group B (study) received Electromyographic feedback stimulation during immobilization period (two weeks) in addition to the same program of Group A. Evaluation for each child of the two groups was conducted immediately after removal of plaster cast and then after two weeks. The results of this study revealed significant improvement in peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors and ankle excursion in favour of group B; also, a significant difference was observed in the results of the two groups immediately after removal of the cast in favour of group B. Improvement occurred in the measuring variables of groups b may be attributed to the effect of Electromyographic feedback stimulation during immobilization which resulted in strengthening in the anterior tibial muscles group which helped in maintain the obtained range of ankle dorsiflexion and preventing the recurrence of tendo-Achilles shortening.

Keywords: Cerebral palsy, EMG feedback, Tendo-achillis lengthening

The Swedish Journal of Scientific Research

Access this article online

Website: http://sjsr.se/

ISSN: 2001-9211

Original Article

Address for correspondence: Alaa Noureldeen Kora, Clinical Instructor in the Paediatrics Outpatient Clinic, Faculty of Physical Therapy, Cairo University, E-mail: [email protected]

El-Deen, et al.: Electromyographic Feedback


1996). Tendo-Achilles lengthening also affects ankle performance, presumably because of the acute change in length –tension relationships of gastrocnemius and soleus muscles (Kaufman & Shaughnessy, 2000; Shaw et al., 1997; Delp, Statler & Carroll, 1995).

A reduction in ankle muscle performance following Tendo-Achilles lengthening could be especially problematic for children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy because typically ankle muscle performance is already compromised in this population (Salsich, Brown & Mueller, 2000). Both dorsi- flexor peak torque and passive torque have been reported to be reduced in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy (Mueller, Minor, Schaaf, Strube & Sahrmann, 1995). A further reduction in ankle muscle performance from tendo-Achilles lengthening procedure could have a substantially negative impact on the walking ability of children with hemiplegia who also have loss of protective sensation (Salsich & Mueller, 1997).

Electromyographic feedback stimulation is one of the physiotherapeutic modalities which can be used to modulate muscle tone disturbance and increase the muscle performance (Kim, Cho, Kim & Lee, 2016)

The purpose of this article is to investigate the effect of electromyographic feedback stimulation after Tendo-Achilles lengthening in spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy on ankle dorsiflexion peak torque and ankle excursion.

SUBJECTS, INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCEDURES

Subjects

Thirty children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy, selected from both sexes (13 males and 17 females), ranging in age 7 to 9 years (mean= 8.243 ±0.863 yr) represented the sample of this study. Ten of them were right sided, while twenty were left sided affection. They were operated by tendon-Achilles lengthening with no other disorders. They were selected from different hospitals in Cairo. They were divided randomly into two groups of equal number, each include 15 subjects. Evaluation of each child of the two groups was conducted immediately after removal of plaster cast and then after two weeks. Each group of patients received a specific treatment protocol.

Instrumentation:A) For evaluation

1. MERAC isokinetic system was used for measuring the peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors. The system provides training via applying different modes of muscle exercises. It includes bench, dynamometer provided with a computer system, for testing, recording and printing the results. It provides advanced information about strength, exercises and fatigue. The computer also allows the therapist to control speed, torque and time of every exercise in different directions. The data provided by this system are valid and reliable, due to the presence of stable bench for proper position and dynamometer, proper joint isolation and gravity calibration.

2. Electrogoniometer for measuring ankle excursion. It consisting of a potentiometer fixed at the pivot point of the two arms (Fixed and movable). The potentiometer is connected to a digital millimeter to record the degree of angular displacement. The device is maintained in position via straps, connected to its both arms.

B) For treatment1. Electromyographic feedback electrical

stimulator: Automove AM 706 (biometer international

A.S.) which includes one cable with three Electromyographic electrodes and two stimulating electrodes. The cable was connected to the automove machine via special blug.

2. Tumble Forms (Mats, wedges, Rolls and balls) from Preston©, for the application of the exercises program.

Procedures:A) For evaluation Double blind evaluation of each child in the two

groups was conducted in a warm, well lighted and quit room, immediately after removal of plaster cast and after two weeks of the removal of the cast using MERAC system to measure ankle dorsiflexors peak torque and the electrogoniometer to measure ankle excursion.1. Measuring ankle dorsiflexors peak torque: Using the MERAC system, from sitting

position with the knees flexed at the edge of the machine bench. The pelvic, trunk and



the thigh of the tested limb were stabilized by straps to ensure isolation and to prevent substitution. The child’s back was completely supported on the back support of the bench. The anatomical axis of rotation of the ankle joint was aligned with rotational axis of the dynamometer and the lateral aspect of the leg was placed in parallel alignment with the lever arm of the dynamometer. Subjects were then asked to perform two trials of ankle dorsiflexion without resistance, to be accommodated with system. Then, three trials using the maximum power of ankle dorsiflexion were conducted from full planter flexion. The mean of three trials was then calculated.

2. Ankle excursion: From sitting position on the bed with both

hips and knees in right angles, the fixed arm of the electrogoniometer was placed parallel to the lateral aspect of the leg. The fulcrum just below the lateral malleoli and the movable arm was placed parallel to the longitudinal axis of the fifth metatarsal. The arms of the goniometer were maintained in this position via straps. Each child was then asked to move his/her ankle from full planter flexion to the maximum available range of dorsiflexion, and reached range of motion was recorded.

B) For treatment The thirty children with spastic hemiplegic

cerebral palsy representing the sample of this study were divided randomly into two groups of equal numbers (A and B). Group A (Control) received the Electromyographic feedback stimulation after removal of plaster cast for two weeks daily in addition to a designed exercises program, which continued for one hour daily including Neurodevelopmental technique, positioning with special attention to the unaffected side. Group (B) (Study) received the Electromyographic feedback stimulation during the immobilization period (two weeks) through windows in the cast, in addition to the same treatment program as Group A. The Electromyographic feedback stimulation was applied on the middle of the anterior tibial group for picking up the weak signal, coming to these muscles. The signals were propagated inside the machine (Automove AM 706) and feedback as electrical stimulation via two

stimulating electrodes. The treatment session of Electromyographic feedback stimulation was applied for two hours/day for each child.

RESULTS

In this study, the effect of the Electromyographic feedback stimulation after tendo-Achilles lengthening on the ankle dorsiflexors peak torque and ankle excursion was investigated. The raw data of the two groups were statistically analyzed to determine the mean value and standard deviation. The student t-test was then utilized to determine the significance of treatment procedures applied in each group.

1) Ankle dorsiflexors peak torque: Table 1 and Figure 1 shows significant improvement

in the mean values of peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors (N/M) after two weeks of removal of the cast in the two groups when compared to their result immediately after removal of the cast (after two weeks of immobilization period). The

Table 1: Mean values of peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors (N/M) for both control and study groups immediately and after two weeks from cast removal

Control group Study group

After cast removal

After 2 weeks of cast

removal

After cast removal


removal

X̄ ± SD 4.78±2.16 11.73±4.83 9.32±3.17 18.16±2.13

t‑test 3.652 5.723

P <0.001 <0.0001

Sig. Significant Significant

X̄: Mean SD : Standard deviation P: Level of significance Sig.: Significance

Figure 1: Illustrating the Mean values (N/M) of peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors for control and study groups immediately and after two weeks from cast removal



mean values of peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors in the control group immediately after removal of the cast were 4.78±2.16 N/M and 11.43±4.83 N/M after two weeks of cast removed (p<0.001), while the mean values of peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors in the study group immediately after removal of the cast were 9.32±3.17N/M and 18.16±2.13 N/M after two weeks of removal of the cast (p<0.001)

As shows in Table 2 and Figure 2, there was significant improvement of peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors which was denoted by significant increase in the mean value immediately after removal of the cast when comparing the two groups in favour of the study group. The mean value of peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors immediately after removal of the cast for control group was 4.78 ± 2.16 N/M and 9.32 ± 3.17 N/M for study group (p<0.001)

2) Ankle excursion: As showed in Table 2 and Figure 2, there was

significant improvement in the mean values of ankle excursion (degrees) after two weeks of removal of the cast in the two groups, when compared

to their result immediately after removal of the cast (after two weeks of immobilization period). The mean values ankle excursion of the control group immediately after removal of the cast were 17.76±3.52 º and 38.15±4.89 º after two weeks of cast removed (p<0.0001), while the mean values ankle excursion of the study group immediately after removal of the cast were 29.17± 4.39º and 59.93±4.87 º after two weeks of removal of the cast (p<0.0001)

DISCUSSION

Given that ankle dorsiflexion and its control is one of the most difficult motions to regain after Achilles tendon lengthening in spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy and is a key precursor for walking activity, loss of this capability is a primary disabler for gait. Frequently, walking and dorsiflexion movements serve markers for therapeutic intervention (Thikey, Grealy, van Wijck, Barber & Rowe, 2012)

From this study, two lines of evidence clearly support the use of Electromyographic feedback neuromuscular electrical stimulation in the rehabilitation program with individuals after Achilles tendon lengthening in spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy.

In respect to the results of the present study, significant difference was observed when comparing the results immediate after cast removal in the two groups in favour of group B.

On average, both control and study dorsiflex ankles and walk better after two weeks of cast removal than immediate after cast removal. This performance indicates an improvement in functional capability representing a transfer of neuromuscular stimulation to functional dorsiflexion task.

Additional support was the improved peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors which was observed after two weeks of cast removal. Once the participants voluntarily attempted to reach ankle dorsiflexion target levels and experienced successful ankle dorsiflexion assisted by potentiating of muscle contraction via electromyographic feedback muscle training, which lead to motor control improvement. This is meaningful result. The ability to dorsiflex ankle is necessary for use of the ankle in walking activities (Dobkin, Firestine, West, Saremi & Woods, 2004).

Figure 2: Illustrating the mean values (degrees) of ankle excursion for control and study groups immediately and after two weeks from cast removal

Table 2: Mean values of ankle excursion (degrees) for control and study groups immediately and after two weeks from cast removal

Control group Study group

After cast removal


removal

After cast removal


removal

X̄ ± SD 17.76±3.52 38.15±4.89 29.17±4.39 59.93±4.87

t‑test 6.724 7.637

P <0.0001 <0.0001

Sig. Significant Significant

X̄: Mean SD : Standard deviation P: Level of significance Sig.: Significance



Regarding the work of Lin (2005), who investigated dorsiflexion in both involved and uninvolved limbs, he noticed that computerized recording of motor performance during ankle dorsiflexion could be helpful to detect subtle improvements in neuromuscular capability.

According to the results of this work, the significant difference in the mean values of peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors and ankle excursion immediate after cast removal between the two groups in favour of group B suggested that electromyographic feedback electrical stimulation assisted the alternative motor pathways and can be recruited and activated to assist the efferent pathway (Chang, 2007).

In the same context, significant improvement was observed in the mean values of all variables after two weeks of cast removal between control and study groups in favour of group B which is supported by Sarlegna & Sainburg, (2009) who stated that Proprioception was appeared to be critical in the transformation of the motor commands muscles.

Nevertheless, a theoretical question about the mechanism still abounds; what mechanism does the Electromyographic feedback electrical stimulation activates that could explain the improved ankle dorsiflexion as well as the increased integrated force value? Of course, a change in the paretic muscles is one part of a possible explanation. However, the restricted treatment time involved and the short training program suggested that a muscle training explanation has limitations as reviewed by Sale (1988); and a significant increase in muscle activity has been shown to occur in a two weeks time frame.

Moreover, multiple representation and redundancy in the system may underline motor recovery after spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy. This explanation takes advantage of the functional equivalence that underlines movements. Functional equivalence refers to the capability of the motor system in achieving a movement goal through multiple routes. Interactions in sensorimotor system may achieve a retro activation of motor commands based on proprioceptive feedback activity from convergent regions (Prochazka, 1989). Thus, the basis for sensorimotor integration theory as mediating mechanism in motor recovery for post- hemiplegic cerebral palsy is appealing.

CONCLUSION

From the obtained results, it can be concluded that the use of Electromyographic feedback electrical stimulation to the anterior tibial muscle group with children with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy after tendo-Achilles lengthening results in significant improvements for peak torque of ankle dorsiflexors and ankle excursion. These findings suggest that Electromyographic feedback electrical stimulation is a beneficial adjunct to the rehabilitation of post operative Achilles tendon lengthening in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy.

REFERENCES

Belli, A., Kyröläinen, H., & Komi, P. (2002). Moment and Power of Lower Limb Joints in Running. International Journal Of Sports Medicine, 23(2), 136-141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1055/s-2002-20136

Bohannon, R., & Smith, M. (1987). Assessment of Strength Deficits in Eight Paretic Upper Extremity Muscle Groups of Stroke Patients with Hemiplegia. Physical Therapy, 67(4), 522-525. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ptj/67.4.522

Chang, S. (2007). A robotic ankle-foot orthosis with integrated electromyography biofeedback control for improving gait symmetry in stroke rehabilitation (Master of Science in Biomedical Engineering). Florida International University.

Delp, S., Statler, K., & Carroll, N. (1995). Preserving plantar flexion strength after surgical treatment for contracture of the triceps surae: A computer simulation study. Journal Of Orthopaedic Research, 13(1), 96-104. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jor.1100130115

Dobkin, B., Firestine, A., West, M., Saremi, K., & Woods, R. (2004). Ankle dorsiflexion as an fMRI paradigm to assay motor control for walking during rehabilitation. Neuroimage, 23(1), 370-381. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.06.008

Hastings, M., Mueller, M., Sinacore, D., Salsich, G., Engsberg, J., & Johnson, J. (2000). Effects of a Tendo-Achilles Lengthening Procedure on Muscle Function and Gait Characteristics in a Patient With Diabetes Mellitus. Journal Of Orthopaedic & Sports Physical Therapy, 30(2), 85-90. http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2000.30.2.85

Kaufman, K., & Shaughnessy, W. (2000). Computer Simulation of Surgical Treatment for Equinus Deformity in Cerebral Palsy. Journal Of Applied Biomechanics, 16(1), 70-79. http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/jab.16.1.70

Kim, S., Cho, H., Kim, K., & Lee, S. (2016). Effects of ankle biofeedback training on strength, balance, and gait in patients with stroke. Journal Of Physical Therapy Science, 28(9), 2596-2600. http://dx.doi.org/10.1589/jpts.28.2596

Lee, T., Lin, S., & Wapner, K. (1996). Tendo-achilles lengthening and total contact casting for plantar forefoot ulceration in diabetic patients with equinus deformity of the ankle. Operative Techniques In Orthopaedics, 6(4), 222-225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s1048-6666(96)80007-3

Lin, S. (2005). Motor function and joint position sense in relation to gait performance in chronic stroke patients. Archives Of Physical Medicine And Rehabilitation, 86(2), 197-203. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apmr.2004.05.009

Mueller, M., Minor, S., Schaaf, J., Strube, M., & Sahrmann, S. (1995). Relationship of Plantar-Flexor Peak Torque and Dorsiflexion



Range of Motion to Kinetic Variables During Walking. Physical Therapy, 75(8), 684-693. http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ptj/75.8.684

Prochazka, A. (1989). Sensorimotor gain control: A basic strategy of motor systems?. Progress In Neurobiology, 33(4), 281-307. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0301-0082(89)90004-x

Sale, D. (1988). Neural adaptation to resistance training. Medicine & Science In Sports & Exercise, 20(Sup 1), S135-S145. http://dx.doi.org/10.1249/00005768-198810001-00009

Salsich, G., & Mueller, M. (1997). Relationships between measures of function, strength and walking speed in patients with diabetes and transmetatarsal amputation. Clinical Rehabilitation, 11(1), 60-67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/026921559701100109

Salsich, G., Brown, M., & Mueller, M. (2000). Relationships Between Plantar Flexor Muscle Stiffness, Strength, and Range of Motion in Subjects With Diabetes-Peripheral Neuropathy Compared to Age-Matched Controls. Journal Of Orthopaedic & Sports

Physical Therapy, 30(8), 473-483. http://dx.doi.org/10.2519/jospt.2000.30.8.473

Sarlegna, F., & Sainburg, R. (2009). The Roles of Vision and Proprioception in the Planning of Reaching Movements. Advances In Experimental Medicine And Biology, 317-335. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-77064-2_16

Shaw, J., Hsi, W., Ulbrecht, J., Norkitis, A., Becker, M., & Cavanagh, P. (1997). The Mechanism of Plantar Unloading in Total Contact Casts: Implications for Design and Clinical Use. Foot & Ankle International, 18(12), 809-817 http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/107110079701801210

Thikey, H., Grealy, M., van Wijck, F., Barber, M., & Rowe, P. (2012). Augmented visual feedback of movement performance to enhance walking recovery after stroke: study protocol for a pilot randomised controlled trial . Trials, 13(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1745-6215-13-163


Cohesion

Cohesion is indeed essential for collective and individual efficiency

The concept of cohesion deals with mechanisms that tend to bring together individuals from the same group to be more effective in given situations. The work is organized on the study of two types of “variables” called situational or related to the structure of the group. It is shown that cohesion is an essential process that determines performance in collective sport groups.

The leadership approach aims to define the role of certain individuals, known as “leaders”, in the collective functioning of groups. In sports , We questioned , how athletes perceived the actions of coaches in team sports (Serpa & coll., 1991) in terms of compatibility

or preference (Terry 1982; Horne & Carron 1985; Terry & Howe, 1984). Again, these approaches point to the fact that some situations remain more compatible with coach profiles, depending on the characteristics of the leaders (since Lippitt & White, 1965).

The characteristics of cohesion

Carron defines group cohesion as “a dynamic process that is characterized by a group’s tendency to stick together and remain united in pursuit of its goals.”

Another definition is proposed by Festinger (1950) who defines cohesion as “the set of forces that act on the members to make them remain within the group”.

According to these authors, distinct forces act on the members to keep them in the group. The first is the attractiveness of the group, which refers to the individual wish to have interpersonal interactions with other members and the desire to participate in group activities.

The second category of force refers to the benefit that a member can derive from its association with the group. This second category of force is called the force of the means control.

Group Cohesion and Sport PerformanceChérif Nacer-eddine1, Guendouzen Nadir1, Larbi Mohamed2, Bouadjenek Kamal2

1Université M’hamed Bouguera Boumerdes UMBB (Algeria), 2Université Djilali Bounaama Khemis Miliana (Algeria)

ABSTRACT

Several studies have shown a strong relationship between cohesion and performance. According to Carron & al. (2002), the team’s definition will not be victorious. Moreover, Carron (1998) defined the cohesion of a team as “a dynamic process reflected in the tendency of the members of a group to remain close to each other and to remain united in the pursuit of its Objectives and / or satisfaction of their emotional needs “. The publications in the Field of the sciences of the sport is relative to the situations, so-called “collective” remain numerous and well located. They find an anchoring essentially in social psychology on the phenomena of group, from which they derive the methods. They are translated into sport around concepts that revolve mainly around the concepts of “cohesion” (under the impetus of Widemeyer, 1985, and Carron, 1982), and of “leadership” (Chelladurai, 1990). Indeed, there is no such thing as soldering a group to be attached together, in the primary sense of the term, and thus be able to take up a challenge that requires both to surpass itself and to show solidarity, all in a setting outside Of the common, for an unusual purpose.

Keywords: Sport, Performance

The Swedish Journal of Scientific Research

Address for correspondence: Prof. Bouadjenek Kamal, Université Djilali Bounaama Khemis Miliana (Algeria ), E-mail: [email protected]

Access this article online

Website: http://sjsr.se/

ISSN: 2001-9211

Original Article

Nacer-eddine, et al.: Cohesion and Sport Performance


The research carried out in this field has revealed two concepts that allow us to grasp the link between cohesion and the behavior of a group: the distinction between operational cohesion (phases of task execution) and social cohesion. Cohesion is not limited to the emotional and social aspects but also refers to the task.

Operational cohesion and social cohesion are two independent components. Operational cohesion is the degree of collaboration of the members of the group in pursuit of a specific goal.

Social cohesion is the degree of attraction between the members of the group and the degree of satisfaction of the members of this group to evolve together.

These two components are therefore independent in the sense that the members of a group can strive

towards a goal without, however, a strong feeling between the members of this group. The sporting world offers us multiple examples in this sense.

In 1992, Carron and Spink demonstrated that there is a more obvious adherence to a physical activity program when the social cohesion of the group improves (Figure 1).

The determinants of cohesion

Environmental, personal, team and leadership factors are crucial to cohesion within a group and this will strongly influence performance.

Cohesion and performance

The concept of performance is not limited to winning. It encompasses both positive outcomes and the

Figure 1: Conceptual model of the cohesion of sports teams of Carron



attainment of set goals. For example, a team may set itself the goal of remaining within the same division, and if achieved, it is a performance. Performance can also be related to the notions of transformation and progression, such as improving its lapel top in tenis for example.

Research has invariably shown that there is a strong correlation between cohesion and sport performance. This correlation is stronger for operative cohesion. This relationship between cohesion and performance is circular: if cohesion increases sports performance, success reinforces cohesion.

Similarly, sports groups that demonstrate a high level of cohesion, mainly operative cohesion, increase their collective effectiveness (Kozub and McDonnell, 2000). But this cohesion must be homogeneous, that is to say that the whole of the group must be concerned and not only the best performers. For example, this cohesion must be strong among the team members, but also among the substitutes, if the coach wishes to increase his collective effectiveness.

Thus the victory in a competition does not necessarily return to the constellated team of stars who combine the highest qualities in physical, technical, tactical and mental terms. And there are many examples.

For me, I see the team as a complex machine of skills and emotions where it is difficult to evaluate the mechanisms of stagnation and regression. A team works well if there is a consistent share of links, listening, joy of being together, those things that make one transcend naturally. Look at the 2010 Algeria national football team: the links counted more than the skills.

My concern, when I was coach, was always to extract the best relationship potential from a mix of personalities. On the field, there were warriors, artists, strategists. “

Cohesion in the sports field

Numerous studies conducted in sports show a positive effect of cohesion on performance. If sports teams have a stronger relationship between cohesion and performance than other natural groups (military groups, business groups); The perception of success or failure is more acute (the results of each team in each pool in each division are disseminated by the national or regional media); That sports groups have stronger models of excellence (each tends to reach a

higher sporting level) and a feeling as a larger group (membership in the sports team is a major contributor to the social identity of the players ).

In addition, the sports sector differs from other areas in that the active participation of members in the formulation of group objectives is not necessarily linked to strong cohesion. The cohesion of a sports team does not depend on the joint development of the group’s objectives, which are usually established by the club coach or club president. Thus, in teams, the preferred style of command is the “autocratic” style, only one person, usually the coach, deciding on the choices and behaviors to follow for the entire team.

We see the choice of the coach is not easy. If we could summarize, we would say that between the members of the team, it takes a dose of similarity and a dose of difference. Above all, accept it! Clearly, some coaches designing their team as a group of clones do not admit any differences. There are many examples: the former coach of the Algerian football team Waid Halilositc did not select a player because he refused to obey him, the player refused to be replaced. The similarity of the members of the group can in turn be influenced by cohesion. The tendency for members of a group to seek a uniformity of opinions, attitudes and commitments within the group is more important in cohesive groups. Thus, deviants in terms of opinions tend to be more strongly rejected when the team is cohesive.

Similarly, a newcomer arouses the group because it risks disturbing the homogeneous balance of the team. Thus, the case of a transparent player in one team and resplendent, following a transfer, to another (or vice versa) is not uncommon. The coach must ensure the integration of the new ones by the elders as soon as possible. Is it the new one that takes a year to adapt to the team or does it take a year for the team to accept him ?

Finally, the distinction between social cohesion and cohesion of task (operative) is found in sport. The cohesion-performance relationship observed in collective sports highlights a privileged influence of cohesion of task (operative) without neglecting social cohesion.

How to develop group cohesion and sport performance

Whatever the sector of activity, excellence has become a leitmotiv where each actor is constantly looking



for performance. For many years, the latter has been mainly regarded as an individual process. Nevertheless, behind every individual achievement, every record of an athlete, there is an enormous training work carried out with other athletes, a technical staff, a manager, etc. Moreover, like the exploits in collective sports, it would be incoherent to consider performance without henceforth focusing on the influence of the dominant interpersonal. Thus, in competitive sports, the optimization of group dynamics becomes a major field of activity in the sports psychology sector, as it is recognized as one of the key factors linked to sport excellence.

“A team of champions will never beat a champion team.” This maxim illustrates group cohesion then defined as “a dynamic process reflected in the tendency of the group to remain united and bound in the pursuit of its objectives and in meeting the emotional needs of its members”

First of all, a group can be really called cohesive if its members take pleasure in working together (social cohesion) and if they work at the same time to achieve a collective goal (operational cohesion). Nowadays, even though internal management practices tend to evolve within companies, the share devoted to the development of well-being and social relations within the working group is still under-exploited.

Thus, when cohesion occurs, very often this is illustrated by a rather high operating cohesion where the members work for the development of their company or club, while carrying out this work in a bland or anxiogenic atmosphere when the collaborators Do not like to be together. It will be understood that this profile of interpersonal dynamics is not conducive to long-term corporate performance. The second element that a manager must be aware of is that group cohesion fluctuates over time as various factors increase or decrease its level. To the knowledge of this second element, the managers must then become aware “nothing is acquired, and everything can still be done”.

But how ? What are these famous factors of influence?

1. Caring Coach Relationship Trained The leadership style of the manager has been recognized for many years as a major source of influence in the functioning of a group, whatever the field of intervention, sport or company. , There are three key factors in leadership that promote group cohesion:

Valorisation, Autonomie and Partage (V.A.P.). Thus, a manager will largely develop the cohesion and productivity of his group if he leaves a margin of initiative and responsibility to his employees, if he values their results, but also their investment, their state of mind, and It remains accessible, open to communication and if it involves its collaborators in certain choices that it may have to make.

2. Carrying out collective values It will be difficult to envisage a group to be cohesive if it has no common connection. Thus, if the values of the company are generally imposed by the context, it is first and foremost necessary that the manager conveys and shares his own values, those in which he believes, to all the members of his group. The task will then lie in the fact that each member shares these values, finds himself there, and flourishes through them. This will make it possible to reinforce the homogeneity of the group in its knowledge to be and thereby strengthen its cohesion.

3. Sharing a common goal One of the fundamentals of group cohesion is the pursuit of a collective goal. As much as it can be a variable “easily” accessible in collective sport, as much, it becomes much more difficult in the world of the company. The primary motivation for everyone is the basic needs that naturally translate into the professional world through the search for wages. However, if it remains an indispensable lever of attractiveness and valorization, the fact remains that remuneration does not guarantee an optimal individual investment. Thus, one of the solutions will be to add to pecuniary valorization the strength of the group in order to induce in each employee a moral investment encouraging him to adopt individual behaviors that are in line with the objective of the group.

In this sense, some high-level coaches in collective sport do not hesitate to do what is called a “sharing of objectives” where a discussion is held within the group to determine together (hence the notion of sharing ) The collective objectives and the means to achieve it. Too often, in the corporate world, the manager will have a tendency to impose individual objectives, to the detriment of a sharing of the objective by all the members of the working group. This in turn implies fundamentally individualistic or even navel-based strategies on the part of the employees, in a total denial of real collaboration and mutual assistance, and even sometimes of professional deontology



Ensuring the working environment If the sports world has fully understood the stakes of the working environment, yet too often, the entrepreneurial logics still hardly combine work and productivity. Thus, as we have been able to mention, the working atmosphere, reflected in particular in the well-being of members of a group in social relations.

Finally, it can be concluded that performance is closely tied to the atmosphere or climate that reigns within the group to create by interaction the coach / trainer and by the realization of the different needs of the members of the group.

That said, the group can be considered as a field of realization of the different social, emotional and material needs of individuals. In my opinion, the task of managers and coaches consists in identifying and categorizing their needs in the first place. The second task, managers and ensure that, the fulfillment of the needs of each member. Can only be achieved through the realization of the needs of the other members of the same group. So the main task of the coach or manager is to create a situation of interdependence between individuals, their needs, and their objectives.

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Volume 4 - 20178)_Combined.pdf · Heba A. Bahey El-Deen1, Hala Ibrahim Kassem2, Khaled Ahmed...

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