Volume18▪2020–2021

HARMONIA TheJournaloftheGraduateAssociationofMusicologistsundTheorists(GAMuT)

HARMONIA

Volume18▪2020–2021

TheJournaloftheGraduateAssociationofMusicologistsundTheoristsatthe

UniversityofNorthTexas

EditorialBoardLeviWalls,Editor

YiyiGao,AssociateEditorAmyCooper,AssociateEditor

FacultyReviewersDr.DavidHeetderksDr.BrianWright

GAMuTExecutiveCommitteePeterKohanski,PresidentRachelGain,VicePresidentCamilaZimmerman,Secretary

EmilyHicks,Treasurer

GAMuTFacultyAdvisorDr.RebeccaGeoffroy-Schwinden

Harmonia is the in-house journal of the Graduate Association ofMusicologists und Theorists (GAMuT) at the University of NorthTexas. The objective of GAMuT is to provide a forum for theprofessional development of the graduate student community, andtheannualpublicationofHarmoniafunctionsinsupportofthisgoal.The membership of GAMuT would like to extend its sincereappreciationtoDr.DavidHeetderks,andDr.BrianWright for theirserviceasfacultyreviewersforthisvolumeofHarmonia.Congratulations to Júlia Coelho,whose paper “JoachimBurmeister,WolfgangSchonsleder,andChristianBernhard:TheoryorTheoriesofMusical-Rhetorical Figures?” was the winner of the 2020–2021GrahamH.PhippsPaperAward.For information about submitting an article to Harmonia, pleasecontactmusic.gamut@unt.edu.

http://mhte.music.unt.edu/gamut

HARMONIA Volume18▪2020–2021

TheJournaloftheGraduateAssociationof

MusicologistsundTheoristsattheUniversityofNorthTexas

CONTENTSJoachimBurmeister,WolfgangSchonsleder,andChristianBernhard:TheoryorTheoriesofMusical-RhetoricalFigures? JÚLIACOELHO GrahamH.PhippsPaperAwardWinnerARealSalsero:ACaseStudyinDenton’sSalsaDanceScene

STACEYKEYAbouttheContributors

129

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JoachimBurmeister,WolfgangSchonsleder,andChristianBernhard:TheoryorTheories

ofMusical-RhetoricalFigures?JÚLIACOELHO

Introduction

Theemphasisontherelationshipbetweenrhetoricandmusicin the seventeenth century left a lasting mark on Western musictheoryinthecenturiesthatfollowed.Thelinkbetweenthesetwoartshasexistedsinceantiquity,withthinkerssuchasAristotle,Cicero,andQuintilianus establishing analogies between these disciplines.Quintilianus,forinstance,heldupmusic’sexpressivityasamodeltothe orator, although the opposite correlation became the mostfrequentintheModernera.1Musico-rhetoricalreferenceswerealsopresent in the music theory of the Middle Ages. However, it wasduring the Renaissance period that such a relationship gainedconsiderable strength, with the growing importance of rhetoric inhumanistic education stimulated by the rediscovery of treatises bythe above-mentioned ancient rhetoricians and philoso-phers.2Rhetoricthusbecameasignificantcompositionaldirectiveinshapingtheaestheticsofmusicalworksinthisera.

Thecloseconnectionbetweenmusicandrhetoric isseen in

the emergence of theories onmusico-rhetorical figures in the latesixteenthandearlyseventeenthcenturies—withintricatesystemsinthe German musico-rhetorical tradition—and continuing into theeighteenthcentury.Inthisarticle,Iexploretherelationshipbetweenthesetwodisciplineswithintheseventeenth-centuryGermanhistoryofmusictheorycontextwiththeuseofthemusico-rhetoricalfiguresby three theorists: Joachim Burmeister (1564–1629), WolfgangSchonsleder (1602–1680), and Christoph Bernhard (1628–1692). Ifocusonthesewriters’contributionstomusicapoetica,andhowtheirdifferent backgrounds and approaches demonstrate that therewasnotaunifiedsystemofmusico-rhetoricalfigures,despitethesharedideas between their theories. Burmeister comes from a LutheranLateinschule perspective and adopts a prescriptive approach ofClassical(verbal)rhetoric termsapplieddirectlytomusical figures,whileSchonslederchoosesinsteadaninductiveapproachregardingaffect expression in musical composition, influenced by a Jesuit

1SeeAristidesQuintilianus,Institutiooratoria,vol.I,trans.H.Butler(CambridgeMA:HarvardUniversityPress,1920),165–77forhisdiscussiononmusicandrhetoric,referencedinPatrickMcCreless,“MusicandRhetoric,”inTheCambridgeHistoryofWesternMusicTheory,ed.ThomasChristensen(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2002),847.2Quintilianus’sInstitutiooratoriawasrediscoveredin1416;Aristotle’sTheArtofRhetoric,aswellassomelosttreatisesofCicero,werelikewiserecoveredaroundthistime.

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tradition. Bernhard also offers his contribution to the theories ofmusicalrhetoricalfigures:likeBurmeister,hecomesfromaLutheranbackground, although the influenceBernhard received from Italiantheorists, composers, and newly emerging vocal styles helped himreshapetheideaofmusicapoeticainthelateseventeenthcentury.ToBernhard, style and dissonance are, respectively, the guidingprinciplesandcompositionaldevicesforaffectexpressioninmusic.Withsuchvarietyofperspectivesregardingmusicalfigures,Isuggestusing the expression “Theories ofmusico-rhetorical figures” ratherthanitssingular.Thissubtlebutimportantterminologicaldifferencebetterencapsulatesthe lackofuniformityfoundinapproachestoakeyconceptinGermanmusicapoetica.

Buildingon theworksofDietrichBartel,PatrickMcCreless,

and Massimo DiSandro, the aim of this article is to explore theintricaciesandnuancesoftheseventeenth-centurymusicapoeticainGermany outside of the broader umbrella of a “single theory” ofmusico-rhetorical figures.3 Within this history of music theorycontext, I analyze how the three authors have brought up diverseperspectivesandguidingprinciples,dividingthisstudyintofivemainparts:afterprovidingthegeneralframeworkofmusicapoetica,Ifocuson Burmeister’s theoretical standpoint based on his Classical andLutheranbackgrounds(withintheLateinschuleframe),foundinghismusicapoeticaprinciplesinverbalrhetoricrules.After,IproceedtoanalyzetheJesuitpointofviewofaffectanditsmainguidingcriteriain Schonsleder’s approach (later expanded by Jesuit AthanasiusKircher). I then return to the Lutheran outlook by considering theItalianinfluencesofBernhard,who,inlieuofClassicalrhetoric,usesdissonanceasanimportantcompositionaldevicetoexpressorshapeaffect in music and conceives style as the criterion for theclassification ofmusical figures. In the last portion of this article, IbrieflyaddresstheoveralldirectioninwhichGermanmusicapoeticaeventuallywent, given thewaningof the rhetorical tradition in theeighteenthcenturywiththeoristssuchasJohannesMattheson(1681–1764).Despitethislastaspect,theimportanceoftheaforementionedseventeenth-century authors is undeniable. Among them, Schon-sleder’scontributiondeservesconsiderableattention,as ithasthusfar been understudiedwithin the scholarship onmusico-rhetoricalfigures.Theseauthorshelpedshape theconversationssurroundingmusica poetica and the relationship between music and rhetoric;furthermore, whether directly or indirectly, they anticipated thedevelopmentoftheeighteenth-centuryAffektenlehren.4

3SeeMcCreless,“MusicandRhetoric;”DietrichBartel,MusicaPoetica:Musical-RhetoricalFiguresinGermanBaroqueMusic(Lincoln,NE;London:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2009);andPietroCeroneandWolfgangSchonsleder,MusicalInterpretationofTextinVocalPolyphony,ed.MassimoDiSandro,trans.JúliaCoelho(Avellino:EdizioniPasitea,2017).4SeeGeorgeBuelow,“JohannMatthesonandtheinventiooftheAffektenlehre,”inNewMatthesonStudies,editedbyGeorgeL.Buelow,and

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Rhetoric&Music–MusicaPoeticaIn traditional rhetoric, there are five canons established

duringtheearlyRomanperiod:inventio,dispositio,elocutio,memoria,andpronunciatio.Ofthese,thefirstthreerepresentthefundamentalelements of rhetoric. Inventio pertains to a systematic search forarguments,dispositioreferstotheirorganization,andelocutio(alsonameddecoratio)concernsthearguments’expressionandstyle.Thelatter refers to figures of speech and is related to eloquence,encompassing an idea of “excess” to Classicalwriters.5 Despite thedifferences between the systems of Burmeister, Schonsleder, andBernhard,theyallstemfromtheClassicalconceptofelocutio,whichwere then adapted tomusic:musico-rhetorical figures are used todepictthemeaningsofwordsandhaveastheirbasisthecorrelationbetweenrhetoricalfiguresofspeechandsimilarmusicalfigures.TheformercomesfromtheClassicalworksconventionofteachingoratorsto embellish their ideas with rhetorical imagery, i.e., elocutio ordecoratio.Byanalogy,musico-rhetorical figures refer to verbal andmusicalembellishmentscalledornamenta,atermusedbyBurmeisterinexpandingtheconceptofmusicapoeticaandhelpingbringrhetoricterminologyintothefieldsofcompositionaltechniquesandmusicalanalysis.

Theappearanceoffiguresinmusic(ornamenta)comesfromtheattempttojustifyirregularorevenincorrectcontrapuntalwriting,despitethedifferenttheoreticalperspectives(asdiscussedinfurtherdetaillaterinthisarticle).Eventhoughtheinstancesinwhichthesefigures occurred were contrary to counterpoint rules, they weresuitabletoexpressthetext’saffect;therefore,itbecamejustifiabletobreak the compositional rules. As in the Monteverdi-Artusicontroversy, “the music becomes a servant of the text,” although(German) musica poetica did not always perfectly align with theseconda prattica principles as followed in Italy.6 In the words of

HansJoachimMarx(Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986),393–408.Toreaditsprimarysource,seeJohannMattheson,DervollkommeneCapellmeister,editedandtranslatedbyErnestCharlesHarris,Ph.D.dissertation(GeorgePeabodyCollegeforTeachers,1969).5SeeMcCreless,“MusicandRhetoric,”847–51.6ToGiulioCesareMonteverdi,“bySecondPractice,…he[ClaudioMonteverdi]understandstheonethatturnsontheperfectionofthemelody,thatis,theonethatconsidersharmonynotcommanding,butcommanded,andmakesthewordsthemistressoftheharmony.”GiulioCesareMonteverdi,SourceReadings:ClassicalAntiquitythroughRomantic,ed.byOliverStrunk(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1950),408–10.OriginalinClaudioMonteverdi:lettere,dedicheeprefazioni,ed.DomenicoDe’Paoli(Rome:EdizioniDeSantis,1973),399.AccordingtotheAccademiadellaCrusca,“Affetto”isa“passionofthesoul,bornofthedesireforgood,andthehatredforevil.”[Original:“Passioned’animo,natadaldesideriodelbene,edall’odiodelmale”].SeeAccademiadellaCrusca[Online],“Affetto,”accessedOctober2020.http://www.lessicografia.it/Controller?lemma=affetto.For

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McCreless, rhetoric “gained a strong foothold inmusic only in theGermantradition.UnliketheGermantheorists,they[Italian,French,andBritishtheorists]donotattempttocorrelaterhetoricalprincipleswithmusic-theoreticalones.”7WiththeexceptionofGioseffoZarlino,they conceived “their music-theoretical business in musical, notrhetoricalterms,”whichisinstarkcontrastwiththeearlystagesoftheGermanmusicapoetica.8

Theories ofmusico-rhetorical figures do not always offer aunifiedterminologybetweendifferentauthors.Somemusicalfiguresthat might signify a similar idea or affect are often given asubstantially different name from theorist to theorist. The issue,however,goesfarbeyondmerenomenclature:frequentlythewriter’sdiverse influences—such as Lutheran and Lateinschule tradition,Jesuitdoctrine,or(anadaptionof)Italiansecondaprattica—tendedto shape different ideas on how to explain and categorizemusico-rhetorical figures, their association with rhetoric, and how theyexpress a particular affect. Beyond terminology and traditions, theideaof“figure”itselfcouldalsodivergeconceptuallybetweenauthors.While to some it referred to overall musical ideas, to others itpertainedtoornamentsandembellishingnotes;further,itcouldalsosignifyeffect—andaffect.Themusicapoeticawasindeed,toborrowMcCreless’s words, “hardly a monolithic system” due to the manynuancesbetweentheorists’ideasandtheirdiverseinfluences.9

OneofthechangesobservedinthehistoryofGermanmusica

poetica was the gradual shift over the seventeenth century fromdocere/probare[toteach]towardsmovere/flectere[tomove](whiledelectare/conciliare[todelight]wasneveritsultimategoal).Suchashiftresultedfromthegrowinginterestintheaffectsorpassionsandtheir expression in rhetoric,music, and poetics. Consequently, thischange also entailed a preference for elocutio over inventio anddispositio.10Suchmodificationsovertimecanbeobservedthroughajuxtaposition of Burmeister’s strong emphasis on Classical verbalrhetorictermsappliedtomusicandthesubsequentincreasedinterestin affect and style used in musical text, such as in the theories ofSchonslederandBernhard,whohelpedre-shapethemusicapoeticatradition.

furtherinsightregardingtheconceptof“affetto”(asaffectionsorpassions)inModernItalyinitsgenesis,seeAndrewDell’Antonio,ListeningasSpiritualPracticeinEarlyModernItaly(Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2011),andSaraM.Pecknold,“Relics,ProcessionsandtheSoundingofAffections:BarbaraStrozzi,theArchduchessofInnsbruck,andSaintAnthonyofPadua,”YaleJournalofMusic&Religion2,No.2.(September24,2016),77–94.7McCreless,“MusicandRhetoric,”852.8SeeMcCreless,“MusicandRhetoric,”852.9McCreless,“MusicandRhetoric,”853.10SeeMcCreless,“MusicandRhetoric,”andBrianVickers,InDefenceofRhetoric(Oxford:ClarendonPress,2002),282.

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From Lutheran Lateinschule to Joachim Burmeister’s MusicaPoetica:VerbalandMusicalRhetoric

Although the integration of the rhetorical and musical

disciplines had been heavily stimulated by Martin Luther (1483–1546)—influenced by the considerable emphasis on linguisticsubjectsduringtheRenaissance—itisonlyaround1600thatamoresystematicuseofprinciplesandtermsappeared:rhetoricalconceptswere applied specifically to music by Lutheran Kantor and Latinteacher Burmeister under the categorymusica poetica.11 The termmusicapoeticaechoestheimportanceofthetriviumelementswithinmusic: it refers to a musical composition for voice, where the“musician-poet” is to present the text in a musical oration,emphasizingtheaspectofrhetoricasitscrucialelement.12Regardingthe origins ofmusica poetica,Luther helped to open theway for asynthesisbetweenmusicaspeculativa/theoricaandmusicapractica,with his concerns regarding the practical use of music.13 Thisapproachfacilitatedmusicapoeticaasathirdcategory,asdefendedbyseventeenth-centurytheoristAndreasHerbst(1588–1666).14

11Forfurtherreadingsonthetermmusicapoetica,seeKarlBraunschweig,“Genealogyand‘MusicaPoetica.’InSeventeenth-andEighteenth-CenturyTheory,”ActaMusicologica73,No.1(2001),45–75.BurmeisterstudiedattheLateinschule,wherehehadhisrhetoricinstructionwithLucasLossius.Lossius’swritingsonrhetoricbecamecrucialtoBurmeister’stheory.Helaterdidhismaster’sinLaw,andworkedasKantorinRostock’smainchurch,followingtheLutherantradition,andteachingbothLatinandmusic.Hewrotethreetreatiseswhereheaddressedtheissueofmusicapoetica,althoughthelastisthemostcompleteone:Hypomnematummusicaepoeticae(1599)[22musico-rhetoricalfigures];Musicaautoschediastike(1601)[25musico-rhetoricalfigures];andMusicaPoetica(1605)[with26figuresintotal].12Bartel,“LutheronMusic:ATheologicalBasisforGermanBaroqueMusic,”inMusicaPoetica,4and20.AlthoughmusicwasthemostimportantdisciplineofthequadriviumtoLuther,thestrongemphasisduringtheRenaissanceonlinguisticdisciplines—namelyrhetoric—permeatedtheLutheranLateinschulecurriculum,facilitatingtheunionbetweenrhetoricandmusic.13Bartel,MusicaPoetica,20.Laterintheeighteenthcentury,JohannGeorgSulzer(1720–79)andJohannForkel(1749–1818)delvedintosuchasynthesisproject.ToSulzer,inChristensen’swords,“theorywouldnecessarilyencompassthose‘practical’elementsoftaxonomyandregulationnecessarytotheinstructionofanyartinadditiontoitsmoreabstracted,normativeprinciples,”andForkel“proposedasystematicprogramofstudyhecalledTheoriederMusikthatseemedtofulfilSulzer’splan.”SeeChristensen,“Introduction,”inWesternMusicTheory,9.14BeforeBurmeister,thistermwasusedforthefirsttimeinthesixteenthcenturybyLutheranNicolausListenius(1513–?),andlaterin1563wasusedasanameofatreatisebyGallusDressler(1533–1580/9),appliedbothasagenreandasadiscipline.

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Considering the specific rhetorical tasks in the Lutherantraditionofadmonishingandedifying thecongregation,on theonehand, and the substantial weight of music as a pedagogical tool(docere/probare[toteach]),ontheother,theultimategoalofmusicinsuchcontextwasnotmovere/flectere(tomove)thelisteners,butrather to help them become receptive to theWord.15 As noted byMcCreless,rhetoricwasalsousedfortextexegesis,whichisevidentinBurmeister’suseoffiguresasananalyticaltool.16Therefore,musicwas“not justapassivereflectionof the textbutanadvocateof thetext:” this principle was one of the main concerns of Lutherantheoristsandcomposers,suchasBurmeister.17 IncontrastwiththeItaliansecondaprattica—despitetheadoptionofsomeItalianterms,genres, and styles later seen inBernhard—theprimary functionofportraying affections for German theorists was not to delight thesenses [delectare / conciliare], as Bartel indicates.18 This aspectconstitutesaconsiderabledifferencebetweentheGermanLutheranand Italian musico-rhetorical theories of the early seventeenthcentury.AsBartelputsit,19

the Italian rejection of music’s numerological andcosmologicalsignificanceinfavorofitsdirectaffectiveandaestheticeffectledtoaformofmusicalexpressionwhich focused on a modern aesthetic principle ofexpressingandstirringtheaffectionsratherthanex-plainingthetext.

Inthetraditionjustdescribed,thetextwasundoubtedlycentraltothecomposition;however, itbecamealmostthefoundationformusicalexpression—insteadof theobjectof thecomposition,as ithappensinsteadintheGermanictraditionduringthesametime.

The contrast between Italian and German perspectives isparticularly evident in Burmeister’s theory of musico-rhetoricalfigures:itslogocentricaffiliation,attemptingtoconstructasystemofrhetoricapplicabletobothmusicandlanguage,takesverbalrhetoricasitsstartingpoint.Inotherwords,Burmeister’sdefinitionsoffiguresseem better suited to (verbal) rhetoric. Such thought was alreadyexpressedbyearlyseventeenth-centurytheoristJohannesNucius(c.1556–1620),whodevelopsaclassificationderivedfromthemusical

15Luthermaintainedthatpreachingalsohappensthroughmusic,especiallywhencombinedwithsacredtext,havingwhathecalleda“Sermoninsound:…Aftertheology,Iaccordtomusicthehighestplaceandthegreatesthonor.”MartinLuther,quotedinBartel,MusicaPoetica,7.16SeeMcCreless,“MusicandRhetoric,”856.SeealsoGeorgeBuelow,BlakeWilson,andPeterHoyt,“RhetoricandMusic,”inGroveMusicOnline(20January2001),accessed1December2020,https://doi-org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.arti-cle.43166.17Bartel,MusicaPoetica,8.18Bartel,MusicaPoetica,59.19Bartel,MusicaPoetica,59.

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figuresthemselves(asdonelaterbyChristophBernhard),insteadoffollowing Burmeister’s theoretical foundation on rhetorical figuresthatstemmeddirectlyfromClassicalantiquity.20

Considering the possible complications of departing from

verbalrhetoricalconceptsandthenapplyingthemtomusic,howdoesoneknowwhenandwheretousefigures,accordingtoBurmeister?Theauthoranswersthequestioninthismanner:21

If the studentwishes to knowwhen andwhere thecompositionistobeadorned[ornamenta]withthesefigures, he is carefully to examine the text of acomposition, especially one which uses the specificornament,andthenadornasimilartextwiththesamefigure. Should he do this in such amanner, the textitselfwillprescribetherules.

This statement demonstrates that text-rhetoric in Burmeister’stheory is prescriptive, presupposing an in-depth knowledge ofClassicallinguisticdisciplinesinthefirstplaceinordertobeabletoidentifysuchfigures.

Although four of Burmeister’s figures are based on directmusical terms instead of on Classical rhetorical ones, all the otherornamenta are rooted in verbal figures of speech (i.e., decoratio),adopting and applying the Greek rhetorical terms to his musicalfigures(asseenintable1).Becauseofthecorrelationbetweenspeechrhetoric terms and musical figures, Burmeister makes a parallelbetween“word”(speech)and“melody”(musical)figuresontheonehand,and“sentence”and“harmony”figuresontheother.22Followingthe two-fold grouping of Classical rhetorical figures into figures ofthought and figures of diction—according to Bartel—Burmeisterdividestheornamentamusicaeintothesetwomainclasses:harmoniaandmelodia.23

Fromthistwo-folddivision,Burmeisterultimatelyassignshis

twenty-six musico-rhetorical figures to three different categories,with the lastonederivingconceptually fromtheother two: figuraeharmoniae (harmonic figures),melodiae (melodic figures),and tamharmoniaequammelodiae(harmonic-melodicfigures).Thefirsttype,

20Bartel,MusicaPoetica,97–98.21JoachimBurmeister,MusicalPoetics,editedbyClaudePalisca,translationandintroductionbyBenitoV.Rivera(NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,1993),56.22SeeBurmeister,MusicalPoetics,andBartel,MusicaPoetica,97.23Bartel,MusicaPoetica,xvii.AccordingtoPseudo-Cicero,“toconferdistinctionuponstyleistorenderitornate,embellishingitbyvariety.Thedivisionsunderdistinctionarefiguresofdictionandfiguresofthought.”Pseudo-Cicero,AdHerennium,4.13.18.,quotedinBartel,MusicaPoetica,xvii.

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harmonicfigures,isappliedtoallvoicesofacompositionandaffectsthe entire structure (called “sentence” in rhetorical speech andharmonia inmusic, according to Burmeister). The second division,melodic figures, pertains to individual voices and constitutes themelody (corresponding to “words” in rhetorical speech); unlikesentence/harmonia, itdoesnotalter theentirestructure.The lastcategory,harmonic-melodicfigures, isusedinmorethanonevoice.As Burmeister explains, this division of figures “transforms onlyindividual voices through identical structuring.”24 The twenty-sixfigurescanbeseeninthefollowingtable:25

24ForacompletelistofallBurmeister’sfiguresthatincludesthosefeaturedinhisothertwotreatises,seeBurmeister,MusicalPoetics,introbyRivera,xxxviii–xlv.25Burmeister,MusicalPoetics,155–89.

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Table 1: Burmeister’s Musico-Rhetorical Figures fromMusicaPoetica(1606)MainCategory

Figure MusicalDefinition RhetoricalDefinition

FiguraeHarmoniae

Fugarealis Imitationinallvoices Noequivalence

Metalepsis Doublefugue(withtwosubjects)

Whenawordisexchangedforacauseoreffect

Hypallage Fuguewithinversion–severalvoices

Inversionofthewordorder

Apocope Incompletefugueinallvoices

Cuttingofaletterorasyllable

Noema Homophonicsectionfortextdeclamation

Wordderivedfromacommonplace

Mimesis Noemainsomeparts

Imitationofsomeone’scharacteristics(ethopoiia)

Analepsis Repeatednoemaonthesamescaledegree

Epanalepsis–repetitionofawordatthebeginningofaverse

Anadiplosis Repeatedmimesis

Duplicationofawordoccurringattheendofaprecedingverseandatthebeginningofthenext

Symblema Passingtoneonaweakbeat

Means“joining;”Noequivalence

Syncopa/syneresis

Dissonantsyncopationonastrongbeat

Cuttingthemiddleofaword

Pleonasmus

Combinationofsymblemaandsyneresis;Increaseofsyncopationsbeforeacadence

Excess;burdeningofthestylewithsuperfluidityofwords

Auxesis

Increaseofnumberofvoicesandheighteningofpitchwithrepetitionoftext

Awordthatexceedsthemeaning;exaggeration

Pathopoeia Useofsemitonesforeigntoakey Varietyofaffections

HypotyposisEnliveningofaparticularwordorsectionoftext

Recountingofaneventasifitwasbeforeone’seyes

Aposiopesis GeneralpauseBecomingsilent;somesentenceiscutoff

AnaplokeRepetitionofashortsectionbyasecondchoir

Ploke–repetitionofawordforaspecialmeaning

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Table1(cont.)MainCategory

Figure MusicalDefinition RhetoricalDefinition

FiguraeMelodiae

Parembole

Twoormorevoiceswithapointofimitation,whileanotherisfree

Parenthesis–somethinginsertedinasentenceasanexplanation

Climax/Klimax

Repetitionofamelodicfragmentonanotherscaledegree(thatis,sequence)

Gradatio–proceedinggraduallyfromonetoanotherword,repeatingthelast

Parrhesia Passing4thor7th

Licentia–Freerpersonalityintheformofasuperiortoremindthemofsomething

HyperboleOversteppingofmodalambitus,upperregister

Hyperbole

HypoboleOversteppingofmodalambitus,lowerregister

Noequivalenceintreatises

FiguraetamHarmoniaequamMelodiae

Congeries Succession5-6-5-63-3-3-3

Severalideaspiledup

Fauxbourdon Fauxbourdon Noequivalence

Anaphora Imitationinsomebutnotallvoices

Samewordatthebeginningofseveralversesforemphasis

Fugaimaginaria Canon Noequivalence

Althoughitisnotfeasibletoprovidehereanin-depthanalysis

ofallBurmeister’smusico-rhetoricalfigures,twocasesshouldsufficetoexemplifythetheorist’sapproach.Thefirstisapocope,whichisaharmoniafigura.Initsmostsimple,literalsense,itmeans“acuttingoff.” In Classical rhetoric, it represents the cutting of a letter or asyllable—Achilli, instead of Achillis, or do instead of doma.26 Theverbatimmeaningisreflectedinbothmusicaland(speech)rhetoricalfigures:intheformersense,itreferstoashorteningofthefinalnotein a voice or in a (quasi-)fugue, resulting in an incomplete fugue.AccordingtoBurmeister,apocopeisa“fuguethatisnotcompletedinallthevoices.Instead,itssubject,interruptedmid-fugue,iscutoffinonevoiceforsomereason,asintheexordiumofOrlandodiLasso’sfivevoicesLegemponemihiDomine.”27Asseeninexample1,thefirst

26Burmeister,MusicalPoetics,163–65.RiveraprovidestheexplanationsofallthecorrespondingClassicalrhetoricdefinitionsinthepagesindicated.27Burmeister,MusicalPoetics,163–65.

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threevoicesfollowoneaftertheotherinpointsofimitation,untiltheword“mihi:”28

Example 1:Burmeister’sApocope in Orlando di Lasso’s Legemponemihi,mm.1–4

Burmeister’s apocope in this context signifies the “unfinishedcomposition/fugue.”AlthoughotherGermantheoristshaveusedthismusicalfigure(suchasJoachimThuringus[(b.latesixteenthcentury),Opuscullum]andJohannGottfriedWalther[(1684–1748),Lexicon]),Burmeister applies it in a fugal context while continuing to use aterminologyderived from figuresof speech.As indicatedbyBartel,the theorist’s concern to identify a specific musical device with a(speech)rhetoricalnameisevident,althoughheadjuststherhetoricaldefinitionstofitthemusicalframework.29 OtherexamplesofBurmeister’sadoptionofspeechtermstomusical figures are the hyperbole and hypobole,which are figuraemelodiae (melodic figures). The former, a “throwing beyond” or“overshooting”intheliteralsenseis“anacceptableoverstatementofthe truth,” inQuintilianus’swords.30Theopposite,hypobole,standsfor “throwing or putting under” and, although it rarely appears inLatintreatisesasarhetoricalfigure,itreferstoan“understatementofthetruth.”Again,BurmeisteradjustsaClassicalfigureofspeechtoamusicaldevicebyascribinga connotationofupwardordownwarddirectionbasedontheprefixes“hyper”and“hypo.”Thus,hyperboleinthiscontextmeans“pushingamelodyupbeyonditsupperboundary”of themode,whereashypobole “ispressingamelodydownbeyond

28ThisexampleistakenfromBurmeister,MusicalPoetics,258–59.Thetextintheoriginalreadsasfollows:“LegemponemihiDomineviamjustificationumtuarumetexquirameamsemper”heretranslatedtoEnglishbyRivera,MusicalPoetics,258–59:“Setbeforemeforalawthewayofthyjustifications,OLord:andIwillalwaysseekafterit.”29Bartel,MusicaPoetica,trans.Rivera,201.30Burmeister,MusicalPoetics,183.SeeBartel,MusicaPoetica,306forthereferenceonQuintilianus(InstitutioVIII.vi.67).

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thebottomlimitofitsambitus.”Burmeisterprovidesexamplesofthisusing,oncemore,OrlandodiLasso’sworks.31Forthecaseofhypobole,the excerpt provided below comes from the composer’s motet Intransietum in thewords “dereliquitme virtusmea.” It occursmorepreciselyontheword“mea”inthebassvoice,reachingafifthbeyondthe bottom of the Hypophrygian ambitus, as seen in the followingexcerpt:32Example2:Burmeister’sHypoboleinOrlandodiLasso’sexcerptfromIntransietum,mm.43–46

In sum,hyper- andhypobole signifya transgressionof the rangeorambitusofamode.AsBartelindicates,“Burmeister’shyperboleandhypobole illustratehis intention toprovide familiarmusicaldeviceswith rhetorical terminology, even if the accompanying rhetoricaldefinitionsarenotapplicable.”33TheliteralmeaningofthetermsinClassical rhetoric is what determines the theorist’s choice ofnomenclatureinmusic.

Burmeister is not the only one making the associationbetweenmusico-rhetoricalfiguresandthetransgressionofamode’sambitus,i.e.,changingbetweenplagalandauthentic:theoristssuchasHerbst (mentioned earlier in this article) addressed similar issues,althoughascribingdifferentnames.Inthelatter’scase,headoptstheterm licentia, while Burmeister uses hyperbole or hypobole, andBernhard chooses, instead, the nomenclaturemutatio toni (i.e., an

31Burmeister,MusicalPoetics,183.32ExampleinBurmeister,MusicalPoetics,297.Rivera’stranslationreadsasfollows:“…Myheartpounds,mystrengthfailsme,mypainiseverwithme…”33Bartel,MusicaPoetica,304.

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irregularalterationof themode)whendiscussingsomevoices thateitherdonot fulfill themode(modusdeficiens)orexceed it (modussuperfluus).34 The main difference between Burmeister and othertheoristssuchasSchonsleder,however, is thattheformerdoesnotexplicitlyrefertoorexplaintheaffectivepotentialoftheseexpressivefigures.35WolfgangSchonsleder’sArchitectoniceMusices:VerbaAffectuum

Approaching the second half of the seventeenth century,German theorists aimed to further explain themechanism throughwhichmusic affected thepassions of its listeners.Gradually,musicwas no longer mainly a reflection of the meaning of texts, but itsemphasisbecameincreasinglymoreonmoving[movere/flectere]theaudiencetoemotionalstatescalledaffections,affects,orpassions.Itiswidelyknownthatthesecametobesystematicallycodifiedinthemid-seventeenthcenturybyRenéDescartesinLesPassionsdel’âme(1649), expanded a year after by Kircher in Musurgia Universale(1650).36However,theJesuitrhetoricaltraditionanditscategoriesofmain affectus have earlier origins, as is evident in Schonsleder’streatise Architectonice musices universalis (1631) published twodecadesprior.37 He followed theaffect categoriesofCarloReggio’sOratorChristianus(1612),asseeninthefollowingtable:38

34Bartel,MusicaPoetica,305.SeeBernhard,Tractatuscompositionisaugmentatus(ca.1657),chapter44,p.91,quotedinBartel,MusicaPoetica,305.35Bartel,MusicaPoetica,305.36DescartesstudiedseveralyearsintheJesuitschoolLaFlèche;formoreinformationregardinghisbackgroundandJesuiteducation,seeAlfredoGatto,“DescartesandtheJesuits,”inJesuitPhilosophyontheEveofModernity,ed.byC.Casalini(Boston-Leiden:Brill,2019),405–25.SeeBartel,MusicaPoetica,36–39forfurtherdiscussionson“AffectionsandTemperaments,”aswellasonKircher.Inthesamepages,Bartelwritesthefollowing:“KircherwasaGermanJesuitandfannerprofessorofsciencesworkinginRome.HisworkisafarmoredetailedandcomprehensivetomethanDescartes’s,incorporatingallfacetsofmusicalinterest.KircherdevotedmuchofhisMusurgiatothesubjectofmusicapathetica,discussedatgreatlengthinthechapterentitled‘Howtheharmonicnumbersarousetheaffections.’Thedesiretolinkmathematics,andthecloselyrelateddisciplineofmedicine,withrhetoricisunmistakable,nowinconjunctionwiththeteachingsofthefourtemperamentsandhumors.37WolfgangSchonslederstudiedwithOrlandodiLasso,whoseworkswerefrequentlyusedasexamplesinBurmeister’sMusicaPoetica.38SeePietroCeroneandWolfgangSchonsleder,MusicalInterpretation,DiSandro(ed.),12–13,whereacomparativelistofbothKircherandSchonsleder’saffectusaredisplayedsidebyside(tablecompiledbyDiSandroandtranslatedbyJúliaCoelhoinMusicalInterpretation).

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Table2:AffectsinJesuitRhetoricalTradition:CarloReggioandSchonsleder

MainAffectsintheJesuitRhetoricalTradition(CarloReggio,OratorChristianus,1612)

Schonsleder’sExamples(Architectonicemusicesuniversalis,1631)

Love–Complacency(Amor–complacentia)

Religiousdevotion(Pietas);Sweetness(Dulcedo)

Desire(Desiderium) Toseek(Quaerere);Clamor(Clamor)

Joy–Delight(Gaudium–Laetitia)

Torejoice(Gaudere);Dance(Saltatio);Tolaugh(Ridere);Foolishness(Stultitia);Toplay(Ludere)

Pain–Sadness(Dolor–Tristitia)

Sigh(Suspirum);Harshness(Duritia);Sadness(Tristitia);Languor(Languor);Patience(Patientia);SenileBoredom(Taediumsenile)

Pity(Misericordia) Pity(Misericordia);Tears(Lacrymae)

Courage–Confidence(Audacia–Confidentia)

Tourge(Invitare);Toincite(Excitare);Tofight(Certare)

Fear(Timor);Stupor(Stupor);Wonder(Admiratio)

Fear-Anguish(Timor-Angustia);Agitation(Turbatio);Coldness(Frigor);Wonder(Admiratio)

Anger(Ira)Anger(Iracundia);Contempt(Contemptio);Terrible(Terribilis)

Inhistreatise,Schonslederwasparticularlyinterestedinthe

expressionofaffects,whichhedefinedas“maximumornament;” inhiswords,theyconsistofadapting“melodiestotheaffectivecontentof the words,” instead of framing them from a Classical rhetoricangle.39ContrarytoBurmeister’sprescriptivemethodology,offeringa list of figures thatoriginated fromClassical rhetoric, Schonslederprefersaninductiveapproachofshowing“byexample,ratherthanby

39Schonslederwritesthefollowing:“Maximumornamentumestverbiseorumqueaffectibusaccommodatemodulos,”inSchonsleder,ArchitectoniceMusicesuniversalisexquamelopoeamperuniversaetsolidafundamentamusicorum,propriamarteeondiscerepossis(Ingolstadt:WilhelmEder,1631),32,quotedinMassimoDiSandro,“Introduction,”inCeroneandSchonsleder,MusicalInterpretation,6.

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rules.”40SchonslederpresentsaseriesofpassagestakenmainlyfromLasso’smotets,alwaysshowinghowdifferentmelodic,harmonic,andrhythmicelementscorrespondtotheemotionevokedbythetext.41

NotonlydoesSchonslederemphasizetheaffectiveaspectas

descriptive—seenaswellinKircher’sworktwentyyearslater—buthe also expands these ideas beyond just affects. He also listsdepictionsofactions,referencestotime,aswellasquantity.Asseenbelow,thesecategoriescanbedividedasfollows:42Table3:Schonsleder’sCategoriesofTextDepiction

Affects/Affections

Joy,Fear,Sadness,Harshness,Glad,Rejoice,Weep,Fear,Shout,SympathizeWith,Regret,Plead,GetAngry,Laugh,Commiserate

Motionandplace

Stay,Jump,Run,Ascend,CalmDown,Climb,Lift,Throw,Descend,Heaven,Abyss,Mountains,Deep,High

Timeandquantity

Quickly,Slowly,Late,Twice,Rapidly,Promptly,IntheMorning,Repeatedly,Often,Rarely,Day,Night

Person’sLifeStages

Infant,Child,OldAge,WithTheirTypicalBehaviors:Humility,Disdain,Cowardice,Pride,Hatred

When analyzing both Kircher’s and Schonsleder’s treatises, itbecomesevidentthattheformerismuchclosertoSchonslederthanto other German theorists of their time. This similarity can beexplainedbecausebothwerepartoftheorderofJesuits,“whosewaysof teachingandpracticingrhetoric focusedspecialattentionon theanalysisofemotionsandonthetechniquesusedtocreatethemintheaudience,”accordingtoDiSandro.43

40DiSandro(ed.),“Introduction,”MusicalInterpretation,6.41SeeDiSandro,“Introduction,”MusicalInterpretation,6–8.42ThislistwasnotmadebySchonslederbutcompiledbyDiSandro,thentranslatedandmadeintoatablebyJúliaCoelhoinDiSandro,“Introduction,”MusicalInterpretation,8.43DiSandro,“Introduction,”MusicalInterpretation,11.Onthistopic,seeAndreaBattistini,“Imanualidiretoricadeigesuiti,”inLa‘RatioStudiorum.’ModelliculturalliepraticheeducativedeiGesuitiinItaliatraCinqueeSeicento,ed.GianPaoloBrizzi(Rome:Bulzoni,1981),77–120.

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AnexampleofSchonslederthatdepictsanaffectis“patience,”which can be seen in the example below with the text “Be silentwillingly,endurepatiently:”44Example 3: Schonsleder’s “Patience” (Patientia) in Orlando diLasso’sTacelibenter

The mournful succession D4–E♭4–D4 (mm. 3 and 5, which alsoappears later in other voices), obstructs each time the rest of theharmonyinthecadenceandreceivesaparticularemphasis.Laterinthepiece,thesuccessionofthreecadencesdesignedinthiswayandanevadedcadenceinthebass—afteranillusorygestureofclosure—createa“saturationeffect”thatendsinthestrongfinalcadence:inthisexample, patience represents inmusic the capacity to tolerate thedelay of a well-shaped and complete cadence.45 The chain of

44Schonsleder,MusicalInterpretation,60–61.45Onexpectationofcompleteness,seeLeonardMeyer,EmotionandMeaninginMusic(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1956),135–38and143–56.

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syncopationsontheword“patienter”(patiently),accompaniedinthelower voices by a descending parallel motion, depicts the idea oflanguor and forms a cadential process that Nucius describes ascommissura.46Thereiterationofthisformulasetsthelamentingtonefortheentirepassage.

Another example of an affect that Schonsleder explores is“harshness,”withtheItaliantext“Signoriot’hoconfittosuquestaduracroce”[“Lord,Inailedtheetothisharshcross”],seenintheexamplebelow:47Example 4: Schonsleder’s “Harshness (Duritia)” in JacobPeeters’sSignoriot’hoconfitto

Inthisexcerpt,the“sharpnessofthepain—physicalinthiscase—isexpressedwithaduraharmony(harsh):”48theharshnesscomesfromasuccessionoftwomajorsixthintervalsinmm.2–3(G3–B4andF3–D4)ofexample4onthewords“t’hoconfitto”[“Inailedthee”]andtwo(non-consecutive)major sixths on theword “dura (croce)” [“harsh(cross)”]inmm.5–6(G3–E4andF3–D4).Astheword“dura”appears,theprocessappearsdilated,astoexpresstheprolongedsuffering,andmeanders from the fioriture doubled in those measures. It isimportant to indicate that Schonsleder follows Zarlino’s idea of aharmonicmajorsixthasaduraharmony,particularlywhencombinedwithasuspendedfourththatresolves,respectively,toasixthandtoathird.49Other thanthesuspended fourth, themajor-sixthgesture isaccompanied by yet another indicator of duritia: a suspendedaugmentedfourth(F3–B4)thatresolvestoa5/3chordinmm.2–3.50

46Bartel,MusicaPoetica,419.47Schonsleder,MusicalInterpretation,86.ThescoreandfiguredbassareaccordingtoDiSandro’sedition.48Schonsleder,MusicalInterpretation,86.49SeeSchonsleder,MusicalInterpretation,86,andGioseffoZarlino,LeIstitutioniHarmoniche:nellequalioltralematerieappartenentiallamusica,chapter66(Venice:FrancescoSenese,1561),263.50Schonsleder,MusicalInterpretation,86.

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ThetritoneF–Bbetweentheoutervoicesbringsforth,evenmore,theharshnessaffectandeffect;furthermore,thefalserelationC#4/C5inm.2underlinestheharshnesshighlysuggestedbythetext. Thechoiceoftheseexamples,theirtitleandclassificationsofaffect,aswellastheexplanationsappliedtobothaffectandmusicthatSchonslederprovides,demonstratethattheemphasisisplacedontheaffectiveaspect.RatherthanfollowingClassicalrhetoricalprinciplesand terminology as done by Burmeister, Schonsleder underlinesaffective features in more than thirty musical examples in hisArchitectoniceMusices.ChristopherBernhard’sDissonance,Stylus,andAffect:BetweenGermanandItalianTheories

A text that suggests harshness offers undoubtedlyconsiderabledramatic potential; althoughnotusing the same term“duritia”asSchonsledertorepresentharshness,Bernhardaddressesthisparticularaffect(andmanyothers)inhisTractatuscompositionisaugmentatus (1647). Unlike Schonsleder, however, BernhardrepresentsabridgebetweenGermanLutherantraditionandaspectsof the Italian secondaprattica:hehelped adaptFigurenlehre to thenewer Italian styles through his influence from Italy due to hisdocumentedtripsandstudieswithGiacomoCarissimiandLutherancomposerHeinrichSchütz.51

Bernhardisahighlyinfluentialfigureinadaptingtheconcept

of elocutio in terms of identifying and defining compositionaltechniques. During a time when the solo vocal repertoire exertsincreasingsignificance,Bernhardoffersadifferentperspectiveonthetheoriesofmusico-rhetoricalfigures:insteadofBurmeister’sintentofidentifyingdevicesofmusicalornatusbasedonClassicalrhetoric,orSchonsleder’s direct correlation between the figures and theaffectionsoractions,Bernhardestablishesstyleastheprincipleofhisclassificationsystemandaimstoexplainandlegitimizedissonanceinmusico-rhetorical figures as a compositional device to expressaffect.52

InhisTractatus,Bernhardprovidesthefollowingdefinition:

“[afigureis]acertainwayofemployingdissonances,whichrendersthesenotonlyinoffensivebutratherquiteagreeable,bringingtheskillofthecomposertothelightofday.”53InsteadofclassifyinghisfiguresaccordingtoClassicaltermsoraffectsandactions,Bernhardchoosestodosofollowingthevariousstylesofcontrapuntalcomposition,with

51HeinrichSchützmetandstudiedwithClaudioMonteverdiinVenicein1628.52Bartel,MusicaPoetica,113.53Bernhard,Tractatuscompositionisaugmentatus(1647),ch.16,§3,p.77,quotedinBartel,MusicaPoetica,113.

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aparticularemphasisondissonance,asmentionedabove.Ofthethreestyles,oneiscalledstylusgravis/antiquus,whicharenotesthatdonotmovetooquickly,andwithfewkindsofdissonancetreatment.Asecondcategoryisstylusmodernus/luxurianscommunis,consistingof rather quick notes and strange leaps that arewell suited to stiraffections and imply more kinds of dissonance treatment. Lastly,stylus(luxurians)treatralisaredissonancesthatareoftenrequiredtoexpress the text,and it ismeant to representspeech inmusic.54AsMcCreless points out, one of the advantages of Bernhard’s systemcomparedtoBurmeister’sisitsorganizationbasedon“contrapuntaltreatments that acquire[s] meaning precisely because [it]represent[s]theexpressiveornamentationofaspecificfigureinthesimpler stylusgravis, suchas theembellished stylus recitativus thatoffersmultiple figures.” There is a clear correlation between stylusgravisandprimapratticaaslegitimatestylesperse,andnotsimply“unornamented”musicinthecontextofGermanmusicapoetica.55

Bernhard’s initial classification of the figures according to

compositionalstylesismodelledaftertheItalianstylistictaxonomiesofMarcoScacchi(1600–1662),whodividedthethreefoldsystemofvocalstyles,fromthemostconservativetothemostprogressive,intostylus ecclesiasticus, cubicularis, and scenicus seu theatralis (lit.:church,chamber,andtheatricalstyles).56Thefollowingtabledisplaysthe different figures according to the three styles in Bernhard’ssystem,togetherwiththeirascribedmeaning:57Table 4: Bernhard’s Figures from his Tractatus compositionisaugmentatus(1660)

Style Figure Meaning

Stylusgravis/antiquus

Transitus Passingtoneonaweakbeat

Quasi-Transitus Passingtoneonastrongbeat

Syncopatio(ligatura) Suspension

Quasi-Syncopatio

Noterepeatedonstrongbeat

54SeeBartel,MusicaPoetica,114–16.55McCreless,“MusicandRhetoric,”863–64.56Scacchiincludedtheecclesiasticalstyleandexcludeddanceinhissystem.SeeVicenteCasanovadeAlmeida,“AtradiçãoplatônicanoBreveDiscorsoSopralaMusicaModernadeMarcoScacchi(1649),”ArsHistorica:HistoriografiaeEstudodoOitocentosXI(December2015),37–54.57SeeBartel,“ChristophBernhard,”inMusicaPoetica,112–19.

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Table4(cont.)

Style Figure Meaning

Stylusluxuriansmodernus/communis

Superjectio UpperNeighbor

Anticipationotae Anticipation

Subsumptio Lowerescapetone

VariatioLongnotedecoratedwithshorternotes(passaggio)

Multiplicatio Repetitionofadissonantnote

Prolongatio

Figurewhereadissonancehasalongerdurationthantheprecedingnote

Syncopatiocatachrestica

Ornamentedresolutionofsuspension

Passusduriusculus

Riseorfallofachromaticsemitone

Saltusduriusculus

Useoflargeordissonantleapsnotusedinstylusgravis

Mutatiotoni

Mixingofmodes,eitherwithauthenticorplagalinthesamevoice,orgoingfromonemodetoanotherincomposition

Incoatioimperfecta

Beginningacompositionwithadissonantinterval

Longiquadistantia

Wideseparationofonevoicefromanother

Quaestitionotae

Cuttingofftheendofanoteinordertoseekthenextnotefromalowerneighbor

Cadentiaeduriusculae

Unusualdissonancesbeforefinaltwonotesofacadence

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Table4(cont.)

Fromthis table, itbecomesclear thatnoneofBurmeister’soriginalterminology survives and that musico-rhetorical theory wasbecoming increasingly more a musico-theoretical language, ratherthan relying on verbal rhetoric for organizing principles andidentifying main categories. By Bernhard’s time, the context ofGermanBaroquemusicapoeticawasleaningtowardsasynthesisofthestylesinsteadofaratherdistinctseparationbetweenthem,whichwould allow the “Lutheranmusica poetica greater versatility andeffectiveness in expressing the text through the music,” as Bartelindicates.58

Bernhardplaceshistheoryofmusico-rhetoricalfiguresinthecontext of the stylistic trends of the mid-seventeenth century—includingvocalmusic—allthewhilewithoutbreakingbondswiththepast. In contrast with the previous theorists, Bernhard focuses onexplaining and legitimizing dissonance in a piece throughmusico-rhetorical figures in relationship to affect,while analyzing thenewmusical styles that were emerging during his time. He eventuallyreviseshisthree-folddivisionofstylesinhisAusführlicherBerichtvomGebrauchederCon-undDissonantienandreducesittoonlytwo:stylusgravis(stylusantiquus)andstylusluxurians(stylusmodernus),whichis an even clearer reference to Italian prima and seconda pratticadistinctions. Inhis system,Bernharddemonstrates therelationshipbetween the expressiveordissonantdevices of themodernus style

58Bartel,MusicaPoetica,117.

Style Figure MeaningStylusluxurianstheatralis

Extensio Extremelengtheningofadissonance

Mora Invertedresolutionofasuspension

EllipsisSuppressionofatypicallyrequiredconsonance

Abruptio

Breakingoffofavocallineinsteadofachievingexpectedconsonantresolution

Transitusinversus

Situationinrecitativeinwhichpassingdissonanceisonthestrongbeatorpartofthemeasure

Heterolepsis Leapintoanothervoice

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and the concepts of thegravis,while providing the composerwithexpressive figuresthatcommunicateatextaffectively—including inthecontextofLutheranmusic.59

The excerpts of Schütz’s work that were chosen byBernhard—particularlytheGermanlargesacredconcertoSaulanditspiece “Saul, was verfolgst du mich?”—serve as exemplarycombinationsofthesequalities:treatmentofdissonance,Italianstyle,andaLutheran input.This sacred concertowaswrittenduring theThirtyYears’WarandreflectedtheLutherans’principlesofspreadingtheWordduringa timeof religious conflictwith theCatholics; thedramatic potential of this piece is explored in depth by thecomposer—including in its dissonance treatment and how itaccentuatesthesameaffectdiscussedbySchonsleder:harshness. From the several harmonic and intervallic-related musicalfigures identified by Bernhard, two are particularly relevant toexplaintherelationshipbetweendissonanceandaffect:thecadentiaeduriusculae and the saltus duriusculus. The first figure (“harshcadential note”) consists of a dissonance in the antepenultimatecadentialharmony:60

Cadentiae duriusculae are cadences in which somerather strange dissonances precede the final twonotes.Suchcadencesoccuralmostexclusivelyinvocalsolosandaremostoftenfoundinariasandintriplemeter sections. Should they occur in polyphonicworks,however,theothervoicesmustbesetinsuchamanner that they do not allow any sense ofdisagreement.

Inthiscase,thedissonancesshowninthefollowingexamplerendertheharshnessofJesus’sword“verfolgst”(persecution)withacadentiaduriuscula, repeated throughout thepiece in thesolo/duetsparts,with the text “Saul, why do you persecute me?,” as shown in thefollowingexample:61

59Bartel,MusicaPoetica,118.60Bernhard,Tractatus,quotedinBartel,MusicaPoetica,214.61ThisexampleistakenfromJ.PeterBurkholder,DonaldJayGrout,andClaudeV.Palisca,NortonAnthologyofWesternMusic,Vol.1(NewYork:W.W.NortonandCompany,2019),596–607.

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Example5:Bernhard’sCadentiaeduriusculae inSchütz’s “Saul,wasverfolgstdumich?”mm.1–5

Thesame ideaofharshness isconveyedshortlyafter in thesamepiece,thistimewiththesaltusduriusculus,thatis,auseoflargeordissonantleapsnotusedinstylusgravis,asseeninthefollowingexampleinthewords“zulökken”:62Example6:Bernhard’sSaltusduriusculusinSchütz’s“Saul,wasverfolgstdumich?”mm.24–28

Thecadentiaeduriusculae,asdemonstratedinEx.5,areformedbyadissonantstructure,thatis,anunusualdissonanceoccurringbeforethe final notes of a cadence. In the example above, the G minorharmonyispresentedwithaD3andE3aboveitinthesoloistvoices(bassusIandII),creatinga6/5chord.WhenthebassmovesfromaG2toanA2,butthesolovoicesmaintaintheirclashinguppernotes,asustainedfourthiscreated,withnowa5/4abovethebass.AstheE3andD3descendbystepandhalf-stepaccordingly,aD3againstaC#3takesplaceinstead,withtheDworkingasasuspension,creatinga4/3chord.TheanticipationoftheD3onlyresolvestotheDchordinm.5after the 6/5–5/4–4/3 progression takes place on the words“verfolgst du” with E3/D3 and D3/C#3 dissonances, creating the

62HeinrichSchütz,“Saul,wasverfolgstdumich?,”inNortonAnthology,596–607.

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cadentiaduriuscula.AsstatedbyBartel,thismusico-rhetoricalfigurecan only be encountered in Bernhard’s Tractatus. Although itexpressestheideaofharshness/duritiathatwasalreadydiscussedbySchonsleder,thelatterdidnotplaceanemphasisonthetreatmentofdissonances.Bernhard’sconcernto legitimize itsuse,consideredinadmissibleinthestylusgravis,leadstohisdiscussionofdissonanceasacrucialdevicetoexpressaffect.63AfterGermanMusicaPoetica:WhatFollows?FromItsPeaktoItsDecline

Thereisnodoubtthatrhetoricstillplayedacrucialroleinthe

eighteenth-centurytheoreticalsystemsaftermusicapoetica.RhetoricitselfwasstillanessentialpartofGermanschools’education,buttheReformation theology and humanism-based principles became lessprominent, whereas the rational and Enlightenment ideals weregrowing strong during this period. After the eighteenth-centurydeviationfromthestrict,prescriptiveClassicalrhetoricrulesasusedby Burmeister, music’s primary expressive goal became theacquisitionofamusicalunitythatwouldbe“basedonarationalizedconceptofemotionscalledtheaffections,”asscholarGeorgeBuelowsummarizes.64ThetraditionofGermanmusico-rhetoricalfiguresthatwasbasedonelocutio(i.e.,masteryofstylisticelementsandthethirdcanonofclassicalrhetoric)changedbyMattheson’stime.

As with his contemporaries, Mattheson’s approach to this

tradition is marked by a shift from elocutio and musical figures(centralintheconceptofmusicpoeticaoftheseventeenthcentury)to,instead, inventioanddispositio;hediscusseshow loci topici inspiremelodicideasandexpressesadeeperinteresttowardsmusicalform.He describes then different parts of a melody by using the sixdispositio parts (Exordium, narratio, propositio, confirmatio,confutatio, and peroratio [introduction, report, discourse,corroboration,confutation,andconclusion]),buttheemphasisinthiscasewasnotontheverbalrhetoricand,instead,ontheform.Bytheeighteenth century, the attention in rhetoric became increasinglyfocusedonitsmetaphoricalusetoguidetheshapeofmusicalform,instead of a fundamental (and literal) criterion like it was withBurmeister.Therefore,byMattheson’s time, itbecomesobsolete tocontinue associating musico-rhetorical elements to their musicapoeticaorFigurenlehrenroots,becomingincompatiblewiththenewstileGalantorEmpfindsamkeitaesthetics.65

Bytheeighteenthcentury,theprinciplesofClassicalrhetoric

appliedtomusicwerereevaluatedandusedmoreinametaphoricalsense,incontrastwithhowBurmeisterappliedthemwithhismusico-

63Bartel,MusicaPoetica,213.64Buelow,“JohannMatthesonandtheinventiooftheAffektenlehre,”396.65McCreless,“MusicandRhetoric,”870.

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rhetoricalfigures.Theseprincipleswerethususedmoreselectivelyand,byconsequence,multiplenewanalogiesbecamepossible.ThisisevidentinhowMatthesonperceivedmodelsofmusicalorganization.AsscholarPeterHoytexplains,66

Whereas Dressler and Burmeister had only beenwilling to create three-part models of musicalorganization(usingrhetoricalconceptsindividingthework roughly into beginning, middle, and end),Matthesonadvancedadetailedcomparisonofthedacapo aria to the six-part oration. This analogyrequired, among other liberties, that the openingritornello appears as both the exordium and theperoratio, despite the very different functions thesetwocomponentsserveintraditionalrhetoricaltheory.Mattheson justified this departure from the arsoratorio simply by referring to the repetition as amusicalconvention.

Thisuseofrhetoricrepresentsanewdevelopmentintherelationshipbetween rhetoric and music: Mattheson and many of hiscontemporariesregardedmusicalconventionsastakingprecedencebecause“rhetoricnolongerexertedpriorityovermusic,”asneitherdid harmony prevail over melody nor instrumental over vocal(accordingtohistheory),whichreflectedtheaestheticchangesofthisperiod.67Nevertheless,musicandrhetorictoMatthesonstillsharedcommongoals,methodologies,expressivedevices,andprinciplesthatwere equally applicable in both fields, as Bartel indicates.68 It is insearchofthisconceptofexpressivedevicesthattheGermantheoristand other contemporaries sought a balance between melody andrhetoric inorder tobetterexpress theaffections.By theeighteenthcentury,theultimategoalofmusicbecametheexpressionofaffect,anideathatstartedtoslowlygerminatewithitsgradualemphasisinthemid-seventeenthcenturywithSchonsleder,Kircher,andBernhard.Conclusion

The plurality of approaches, principles, outcomes, andframework in the different seventeenth-century musica poeticasystems here analyzed are the reason why I consider “Theories ofmusico-rhetorical figures” amore fitting term instead of coining it

66GeorgeBuelow,BlakeWilson,andPeterHoyt,“RhetoricandMusic.”67Buelow,Wilson,andHoyt,“RhetoricandMusic.”Onmelody,seeMattheson,“OntheArtofCreatingaGoodMelody,DerVollkommeneCapellmeister,469.Oninstrumentalvs.vocalmusic,hestatesthat“thefirstdifference[...]betweenavocalandinstrumentalmelody,consistsinthefactthattheformeris,sotospeak,themother,butthelatterisherdaughter[...].”Mattheson,DerVollkommeneCapellmeister,418–19.68Bartel,MusicaPoetica,143.

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under the guise of a uniform “Theory” during this time. The latterprovestonotrepresentaunifiedsystem,withanemphasiseitheronliteralClassicalrhetorictermsandLutheranism(aswithBurmeister),on theaffective aspectwith a Jesuiticpoint of view (as adoptedbySchonsleder),oronthedissonanceasthemaincompositionaldeviceforaffectexpression,withinbothaLutheranframeworkandItalianinfluence(asinBernhard’sapproach).

Burmeister’sworkonmusicapoetica,comingfromaLutheran

Lateinschule context, was undoubtedly vital in incorporatingrhetoricalaspects intothemusic.MostofBurmeister’s terminologywaseventuallyabandonedbyothertheorists,althoughtherhetoricalconcept applied to music did survive in a mostly revised, re-considered, and expanded form throughout the seventeenth andeighteenth centuries—as seen with the other theorists herediscussed.Onecanobservethattheseothertheorieswereshapedbydifferent criteria, influences, and methodologies, compared toBurmeister’sprescriptiveschoolofthought:amongthesedistinctionsare the inductive approach and affect-based theory rooted in theJesuittraditionwithSchonsleder,andtheItaliantraditionmixedwithLutheranorigins,asinthecaseofBernhard.Thelatter’scriterioninmusicapoeticawasbasedondissonancetreatmenttoexpressaffect,apivotalterminthe“post-musicapoetica”periodwithMatthesonandhis contemporaries in the eighteenth century.Despite themanifestdifferences between the positions of Burmeister, Schonsleder, andBernhard,therearecommonalitiesbetweentheirtheoriesandagreatattention to rhetoric’s potential expressive role in musicalcomposition, aswell as their view onwhat a figure represents: anirregular andartfulmannerutilized todepict andenhancemusicalexpression.

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SelectedBibliography:Almeida,VicenteCasanovade.“AtradiçãoplatônicanoBreveDiscorso

Sopra la Musica Moderna de Marco Scacchi (1649),” ArsHistorica:HistoriografiaeEstudodoOitocentosXI(December2015):37–54.

Bartel,Dietrich.MusicaPoetica:Musical-RhetoricalFiguresinGerman

BaroqueMusic.Lincoln,NE;London:UniversityofNebraskaPress,2009.

Battistini, Andrea. “I manuali di retorica dei gesuiti,” In La ‘Ratio

Studiorum.’ModelliculturalliepraticheeducativedeiGesuitiinItalia tra Cinque e Seicento, ed. Gian Paolo Brizzi, 77–120.Rome:Bulzoni,1981.

Braunschweig,Karl.“Genealogyand‘MusicaPoetica.’InSeventeenth-

andEighteenth-CenturyTheory,”ActaMusicologica73,No.1(2001):45–75.

———.Review-Essay of Dietrich Bartel,Musica Poetica,byDietrich

Bartel.Theoria9,No1(2001):89–103.Buelow, George. “Johann Mattheson and the inventio of the

Affektenlehre.”InNewMatthesonStudies,editedbyGeorgeL.Buelow, and Hans Joachim Marx, 393–408. Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1986.

Burkholder,J.Peter,DonaldJayGrout,andClaudeV.Palisca.Norton

Anthology ofWesternMusic. Vol. 1. NewYork:W.W.NortonandCompany,2019.

Burmeister, Joachim.Musical Poetics, ed. Claude Palisca, trans. and

intro. Benito V. Rivera. New Haven: Yale University Press,1993.

Cerone, Petro, andWolfgang Schonsleder.Musical Interpretation of

Text inVocalPolyphony,ed.MassimoDi Sandro, trans. JúliaCoelho.Avellino:EdizioniPasitea,2017.

Cicero,MarcusTullius.DeoratoreadQuintumfratremlibri tres(55

B.C.),ed.LucasRobiaandFilippoGiuntaI.Florence:ExofficinaPhilippiGiuntae,1514.

———.OntheIdealOrator,trans.JamesMayandJakobWisse.Oxford:

OxfordUniversityPress,2001.

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Dell’Antonio,Andrew.ListeningasSpiritualPracticeinEarlyModernItaly.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2011.

Gatto,Alfredo.“DescartesandtheJesuits.”InJesuitPhilosophyonthe

EveofModernity,ed.C.Casalini,405–25.Boston-Leiden:Brill,2019.

Mattheson, Johann, and Ernest Charles Harris (ed. and trans.).Der

vollkommene Capellmeister. Ph.D. diss., George PeabodyCollegeforTeachers,1969.

McCreless,Patrick.“MusicandRhetoric.”InTheCambridgeHistoryof

Western Music Theory, ed. Thomas Christensen, 847–79.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2002.

Meyer, Leonard Bunce. Emotion and Meaning in Music. Chicago:

UniversityofChicagoPress,1956.Monteverdi,Claudio.Lettere,dedicheeprefazioni,ed.DomenicoDe’

Paoli.Rome:EdizioniDeSantis,1973.

Pecknold,SaraM.“Relics,ProcessionsandtheSoundingofAffections:Barbara Strozzi, the Archduchess of Innsbruck, and SaintAnthonyofPadua,”YaleJournalofMusic&Religion2,No.2.(September24,2016):77–94.

Quintilianus, Aristides. Institutio oratoria, 4 vols., trans. H. Butler.

CambridgeMA:HarvardUniversityPress,1920.

Schonsleder, Wolfgang. Architectonice Musices universalis ex quamelopoeam per universa et solida fundamenta musicorum,propria marte eondiscere possis. Ingolstadt: Wilhelm Eder,1631.

Strunk, Oliver (ed.). Source Readings: Classical Antiquity through

Romantic.NewYork:W.W.Norton,1950.Vickers,Brian.InDefenceofRhetoric.Oxford:ClarendonPress,2002.Zarlino,Gioseffo.LeIstitutioniHarmoniche:nellequalioltralematerie

appartenentiallamusica.Venice:FrancescoSenese,1561.

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ARealSalsero:ACaseStudyinDenton’sSalsaDanceScene

STACEYKEY

ItisLatinNightattheCantina,hostedbyJairo“Jo”Rojasandhis partner Lakyn Garza. The night opens with a twenty- or thirty-minutelessonpresentingasimplesalsaorbachatapattern,afterwhichthe floor is open to any wishing to dance. Salsa and bachata songsdominate the soundscape but are interspersed with merengue andreggaetonsothatanyonecanfindasongtodanceto.LatinNightisatime when seasoned dancers and newcomers come together over asharedloveofsalsaandbachatadancing.Itisalsoanightwherelocalsandvisitorscancometogethertosharemoves,experiences,andrelax.TheCantinaisagoodplacefordrinkingaswellasdancing,andonLatinNights,dancersandnon-dancingpatronsfillthespace.Seatedattablesoraroundthebar, somepatronsobserveandremarkonthedancingwhile others focus on their drinks and companions. The differencebetweenpatronanddancer ismarked—patrons tendtostayat theirtableswhiledancersmoveeasilybetweenthefloorandbar.DancersofHispanic, Caucasian, and African American ethnicities fill the space,alongwiththoseofnumerousotherbackgrounds.DespiteEnglishbeingthe common language, the dancers speak to each other using theirbodies.

Most,iftheyarelookingtodance,standorsitattablesbythe

edgeofthefloor, facingouttowardthosealreadyonthedancefloor.Bodylanguagespeaksvolumesforthoseinattendance;turningtowardsthefloor,activelymakingeyecontactwithotherdancers,andmovingwiththemusicgenerallyindicateareadinesstodance,ifonecanfindapartner.Facingaway fromthe floor,keepingone’sdistance fromthedancing, or avoiding direct eye contact with dancers may speak offatiguefromapreviousdanceoradislikeofthecurrentsong.Astheymovetogetheronthefloor,dancers’bodiesspeakatadifferentvolume.Close contact between partners, lingering gazes, and smiles say onething;frowns,eyesfocusedonsomethinginthedistance,andlittlebodycontactsaysomethingelseentirely.Thefirstindicatesthatthepartnersare comfortable, relaxed, and enjoying themselves, while the secondspeakstodiscomfortorunfamiliarity,adesiretomaintainseparation,and displeasure. Whether consciously or unconsciously, much of thecommunicationatMulberryCantinaisnon-verbal.Insuchasetting,thebodycannotonlyfunctionasameansofcommunication,butasasignormeasureofauthenticity.

Dancers rarely speakusing only their bodies, however.When

notdancing,IoftensitorstandneardancersfromJo’sgroupandlistentotheirobservationsoftheevent.AsItookabreakfromdancingonenight,awomannexttomenoddedtowardsasmall,dark-skinnedmanwhohadjustenteredandremarkedthathewasagooddancer,buthardto follow. She was not terribly fond of dancing with him, she said,

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becauseheseemedtodanceadifferentstyleofsalsathanshedid;this,sheassumed,wasbecausehewasfromsomewhereintheCaribbean.Irecalled otherdancersmaking similar remarks, bothabout thismanandothersfromoutsideoftheUnitedStates,andwassurprisedbywhatIheard.Wasn’t‘realsalsa’foundinthehomecountriesofthesedancers?Orare there elements in thedance itself that lead tohierarchies? IfJoannaBosse(2013)wasrightandchoosingapartnerwasallaboutauthenticity, then why were dancers here reluctant to choose theseguardians of authentic salsa? Who decided what made a dancerauthentic,anyway?Questionsofauthenticity,ethnicity,andwhat“real”salsaistothedancersattheMulberryCantinaracedthroughmymind,promptingmetodiveintothis“realthing”knownassalsa.

The“RealThing”

Born in New York City under the careful control of FaniaRecordsinthe1960s,1salsamusiccombinedCubansonwithgenressuch as Latin jazz and Puerto Rican plenads to create a pan-Latinmusic that has become symbolic of Latin identity. This identity isproblematic, contested, withmany arguing that it is an essentiallyCubanorPuertoRicangenre,andtyingboththemusicanddancetoperceptions of racial identity as a signifier of authenticity (hereunderstoodas training in regionally specific stylesof salsadancingandtheaccompanyingdisplayofskillandculturalcompetency).Thispracticeofracializingsalsadancethusexcludesnumerousidentitiesand participants regardless of their perceived or actual ethnicidentity,culturalaffiliation,orskilllevel.Despitetheinterconnectednatureofsalsamusicanddance,questionsofauthenticityinsalsaasaculturalphenomenonistoocomplexatopicforthispaper.Assuch,I have chosen to focuson salsadanceas thenexus forquestioningideasofauthenticityamongprofessionaldancersandteachersintheNorthTexas area and its place in theirperformancepraxis.Novicedancersandscholarsoftenconnectauthenticitytoeitherethnicityorto latinidad, a sense of Latin identity based upon shared social,linguistic,andgeopoliticaltiesoranidentityimposedfromwithoutand shaped within Latinx communities.2 However, the structuredinterviews presented here, along with anecdotal evidence andpersonal experience, reveal thatdancers in theDenton salsadancecommunity3 tend to connect authenticity to personal bodily

1SydneyHutchinson,“DancinginPlace:AnIntroduction,”inSalsaWorld:aglobaldanceinlocalcontexts,ed.SydneyHutchinson(Philadelphia:TempleUniversityPress,2014),4.2RosalynNegrón,"NewYorkCity'sLatinoEthnolinguisticRepertoireandtheNegotiationofLatinidadinConversation,"JournalofSociolinguistics18,no.1(2014):88.doi:10.1111/josl.12063.https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/josl.12063.3AsalsacommunityisdefinedbySkinnerasa“looseandflexiblegroupofdancerswhorecognizeeachotherbynameandsight[…]andrefertothemselvesasmembersofthe‘salsacommunity,’asopposedtootherdancecommunities”(Skinner2007,490).

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experienceratherthantoethnically-limitednotionsofidentity.Whilereferred to in jest, latinidad is not used as a measure of(in)authenticity.Inlightofthis,IsuggestthatauthenticitywithintheDenton, Texas, salsa dance community may be more accuratelyunderstood as a bodily phenomenon tied not to race, but to theacquisitionofskillandloveforthedance.

AuthenticatingSalsa

As Sarah Weiss notes, authenticity is problematic and ill-defined.However,ithasbeenvariouslyunderstoodinethnomusico-logicaldiscourseintermsoforiginalityandtrueness.Weisscontendsthat “something that is authentic conforms to an original inreproducing essential features or being done in the same way;somethingthatisauthenticistruetoitsownspiritorcharacterandis,thereforebelievable”.4Thisdefinitionleadsonetobelievethatinordertobeauthenticsalsa,itmustreplicatetheoriginalversionofthedance, both in terms of moves and, as Joanna Bosse notes, ethnicheritage.ThoughdevelopedinNewYorkCitylargelybymusiciansofPuerto Rican descent (termed ‘Nuyorican’ in popular and somescholarlydiscourse),5salsamusicisinfluencedbynumerousmusicalgenres found in theSpanish-speakingportionsof theCaribbean, inadditionto jazzandAfro-Cubantraditions,andcanberhythmicallytracedbacktotheCubansonmontuno.6Morerecently,modernurbangenressuchaship-hophavealsobeguntoinfluencesalsaintermsofbothmusic and sound,7 and thesedevelopments have largely beenembracedbysalsadancers.Otherfusionmusicshavebeenfeaturedinnumerous (semi)professional routines in festivals and congresses,and feature prominently in social dances. Salsa music and dancecommunitieshavespreadaroundtheworld,withestablishedscenes

4SarahWeiss,"ListeningtotheWorldbutHearingOurselves:HybridityandPerceptionsofAuthenticityinWorldMusic,"Ethnomusicology58,no.3(2014):513;JoannaBosse,"SalsaDanceasCosmopolitanFormation:Cooperation,ConflictandCommerceintheMidwestUnitedStates,"EthnomusicologyForum22,no.2(2013):211.5Bosse,2,5.6LeonardoAcosta,"Perspectiveson‘Salsa,’"CENTROJournal16,no.2(2004):8,11.7SydneyHutchinson,“Mamboon2:TheBirthofaNewDanceForminNewYorkCity,”CENTROJournal16,no.2(2004):128;StefanieClaudineBoulila,"SalsaCosmopolitanism?ConsumingRacialisedDifferenceintheEuropeanSocialDanceIndustry,"LeisureStudies37,no.3(2018):247.doi:10.1080/02614367.2017.1405459.http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02614367.2017.1405459.

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in London,8 Ghana,9 and Japan,10 to name but a few, and eachcommunityusessalsa tocreateandnegotiatebroaderethnic,class,andsocialboundariesalonglinesmoreacceptabletodancersineachplace.11 Similarly, the definition and relative importance of‘authenticity’ may vary between communities, as each mayforegroundadifferentstyleofsalsadancingandviewthatstyle(andbyextension,ethnicandcultural lineage)asmoreauthenticorrealthananother.

Thedebateoverwhichstyleorcombinationofstylesmaybe

considered ‘real’ or ‘authentic’ salsa is presented clearly by CindyGarcia (2013), who connects the different styles to a desire toemphasize latinidad. Garcia maintains that, “the wars over salsapracticesarenotsimplycontestationsoverhowtoimagineandputlatinidad intomotion.”12Rather,within thesalsadancecommunity,this “war” is a battle overwhichdancingbodies, definedby social,ethnic,andeconomicstatus,arevaluedandauthenticated, includedandexcludedwithinthegroundsoflatinidad.Itshouldbenotedthatthereisnosingularunderstandingoflatinidadwhichprevailsoverallothersandthattheuseofthistermisgenerallylimitedtoscholars.AsSkinnernotes, themeaning of thedance and the identities createdthrough its study and performance may shift from community tocommunityandfrompersontoperson,13andthisideamaybeappliedtothemeaningoflatinidad.Authenticity,then,maybeunderstoodasthereproductionofideasoflatinidad,asdefinedbyacommunity,totheexclusionofcertainsocioeconomicandethnicgroups.

This understanding of authenticity, as applied to salsa, is

rooted in ethnicized notions which privilege certain forms ofLatinness over the undeniable influences of African and Europeanmusicandethnicities.Atstakeinthisviewistheembodiedexperienceofasubalterncultureasexpressedthroughdance.Whatmakesthedanceauthenticisaconnectiontotheexperienceofmarginalizedpan-Latinidentitywhichmayalsobetiedtoexperiencesofimmigrationandperceivedclasshierarchies.14Inpractice,thisunder-standingofauthenticity in salsa dancing often renders salsa danced by non-

8TamaraJohnson,"SalsaPolitics:Desirability,Marginality,andMobilityinNorthCarolina'sSalsaNightclubs,"AetherVII(2011):103.9ChristeyCarwile,“TheClaveComesHome:SalsaDanceandPan-AfricanIdentityinGhana,”AfricanStudiesReview60,no.2(2017):184–85.doi:10.1017/asr.2017.610KengoIwanaga,“DiffusionandChangeinSalsaDanceStylesinJapan,”inSalsaworld:aglobaldanceinlocalcontexts,ed.SydneyHutchinson(Philadelphia,PA:TempleUniversityPress,2014),200–1.11Bosse,212–13.12CindyGarcia,SalsaCrossings:dancinglatinidadinLosAngeles(Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2013),8.13JonathanSkinner,"TheSalsaClass:AComplexityofGlobalization,CosmopolitansandEmotions,"Identities14,no.4(2007):492.14Bosse,219,222.

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Latinosasapoorsimulacrumoftherealthing,giventhatanyattempttoreproducethisconnectionmaybeseenasculturalappropriation.The exclusionarynature of authenticity as definedbyperceived oractual latinidad makes it problematic in a globalized dancecommunity,forwhilethedancestepsaretiedtoregionalandethnicstylesofmovementandmaybeconsideredauthenticornotonthebasisoftheirconformitytothosestyles,thequalificationofadanceras(in)authenticbasedonlatinidadmustbereconsidered.

What’sinaName?RegionalStylesandAuthenticMovement

JaniceMahinka, citingChrisWashburne,statesthatpatternsofmovement relative to the clave (thebeatunderlying salsamusicanddance)aretiedtoideasofethnicity(basedonwhichpatternsarepreferred by various ethnic communities) and negotiated byindividual dancers, serving as a gauge for judging authenticity.15Bosse(2013,2014)andGarcia(2013)echothisidea,findingtherootsofsalsadancinginCubabywayofNewYorkCity,whiledancers inNorthTexastendtolinksalsadirectlywithCuba.WithinNewYork-styledancing,knownbroadlyason-twoormambo, thequestionofsalsaasanenactmentofethnicitybecomesmorecomplex.Hutchinsoncontends that despite being promoted as a pan-Latin dance, salsashouldbeunderstoodasadistinctlyNuyoricandancestyle,owingtothemajorityofdancers,teachers,andmusiciansbeingofPuertoRicandescent.16

Salsadancingisgenerallydividedintoregionalstyles,suchas

NewYork-style, Cuban salsa or salsa rueda,17 Columbian salsa, LosAngelesstyle,andsoon.Eachstylehascharacteristicmovementsandaesthetics,butperhapsthemostsignificantdifferenceiswhetherthestyle begins “on one” or “on two.” L.A. style, as dancing on-one isknown,beginswithastepforwardonthefirstbeatofaneight-beatsegmentfollowedbyastepbackwardsonthefifthbeat.Salsaon-two,alsoknownasNewYork-styleormambo,beginswithapauseonbeatonefollowedbyastepforwardonbeattwoandastepbackonbeatsix.18 In order to learn the correct positioningof bodies for awidevariety of moves, dancersmay be taught to conceptualize slots orlanes(left,right,orcenter)inwhichtheyandtheirpartnerareabletomove together and separately, with the emphasis placed on linearmovementsofthefeetwithinatheoreticalsquare.Numerousotherdistinctions,suchasthespeedofsteps,themovementofthebodyin

15JaniceL.Mahinka,"TheMusicalityofSalsaDancers:AnEthnographicStudy"(Ph.D.Dissertation,CityUniversityofNewYork,2018),172.16Hutchinson,“Mamboon2,”111.17Cubanstyleischaracterizedbyfastspinsandpartnerscirclingaroundeachotherasopposedtodancinginalinearfashion;itistypicallydancedbyasingularcouple.Whendancedbycouplesarrangedinacirclewithrotatingpartnersandcoordinatedbyacaller,thedanceisknownassalsarueda(O’Brien2016,7,11).18Garcia,25.

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relation to the clave rhythm, the direction of the step (forward orbackwardsasopposedtotheright,left,orangled),andtheemphasisplaced on upper body movement serve to further distinguish theregionalstylesfromeachother.Thefiguresbelowservetoillustratethebasicmovementofthefeetinsalsaon-oneandon-two,whichisthe primary way of distinguishing regional salsa styles. Note thatthese figures do not capture the shifting of the dancer’sweight orindicatepreciseplacementofthefeet.Particularlywhendancingon-two,stepfivemaybeslightlybehindstepsoneandthreedependingonthedancer’smomentumandstepspacing.

Figure1.1:Salsaon-one(L.A.Salsa)1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8L R L R L R á ¡ â â ¡ á Figure1.2:Salsaon-two(NewYorkSalsa)1 2 3 4 5* 6 7 8R L R L R L ¡ á â ¡/â â á *Stepfivemaybeeitherinplaceorslightlybehindtheplacementofsteps1and3.

Jairo (Jo) Rojas, a salsa and bachata instructor based inDenton,TX,andthefounderofSalsawithJo,teacheshisstudentson-one, as many beginning dancers find it easier to begin movingimmediatelythantopauseandfittheirstepstotheclaverhythm.Asmyprincipalsalsa instructorandinterlocutor,Rojas,alongwithhisdancepartnerLakynGarza,hasbuiltagrowingsalsacommunityinDentonwhichfrequentlyinteractswiththelargerdancecommunityintheDallas-FortWorthmetroplex.AccordingtoJairo, theL.A.andNew York-styles are the ones most commonly seen in the UnitedStates,dueinparttosalsa’soriginsinNewYorkbutalsotheeasewithwhichnovicescanpickuptheon-onetimingofL.A.style.19Salsaon-two,however,isoftencitedasmorecloselytiedtothedancesdonebytheimmigrantcommunitiesinNewYorkCity.Theterm“NewYork-stylesalsa”isalabelwhichglossesoverthesheervarietyofdancesperformed and the variations present within them. Numerousdancershaveexplainedtomethattheirpreferenceforon-twosalsaisdue in large part to the perceived freedom ofmovement it offers.Whilebasedlargelyonpersonalcomfortwiththeclaverhythm,thispreferenceissomewhatironicinthat“NewYorkSalsa”emphasizesasense of place linked to the Latin communities of that city whileminimizing the standardization of movement which enabled itscommodification and spread.20 Additionally, such broad terms

19JairoRojas,interviewbyauthor,November6,2019.20Garcia,1–3;Hutchinson,“What’sinaNumber?,”34–47.

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overlook the different ideas of authenticity seen among dancers inNew York and does not account for the preferences of differentcommunitiesorsalsasceneswithinthefiveboroughs.AsHutchinsonnotes, ethnicizedor racialized labels becameattached to salsa as away ofmarking the distinct teachingmethods and styles of danceassociatedwiththemandmayreflectdeepernotionsoflatinidadandauthenticity.

Theimportanceplacedontheauthenticityofregionalstyles

forces one to question whether or not a Latinx dancer mayauthenticallyengageinadifferentregionalstyle.ThisquestionwasraisedbyRojas,ashestated,

I’mfromColombiaandIdon’tevendanceColombiansalsa…sowouldyousayI’mauthentic?Imean,it’sjustdancing. And I don’t think that if youdon’t theway[where]you’re fromorum, it shouldn’tbean issue.Dancingisabouthavingfunandenjoyingyourself,youknowandthen,communicatethatwithotherpeople…Byputtingourselvesintocategories,we’relike‘oh,if you’re not dancing this you’re not authentic,’ it’sjust… I feel like people get discouraged ‘cause theydon’tdanceCubansalsa,‘causethemotherofsalsaisCubansalsa.21This statementmademe aware of deeper issues regarding

ideas of authenticity as it is tied to ethnicity. One of the problemsinherent in calling salsa a pan-Latin dance is that it flattens thelandscapeandglossesoverthenuancesofeachstyleandignoresthegenderedandplace-specifichistoriesandsocialcontextsofthedance.While scholars have largely focused on questions of authenticityregarding latinidad or insider/outsider experience, more researchshouldbedoneoncross-culturalnotionsofauthenticityamongLatinsalsadancers.LearningSalsa,UnlearningLatinidad “Whitepeopledon’tdancelikethat!”OrsoaparticipantintheNorthTexassalsasceneexclaimedinapassingjest.APuertoRicanwoman,shehadbeensurprisedtoseeasmanyCaucasiandancersasLatinx dancers doing salsa at the Mulberry Street Cantina’s LatinNightsanddoingitwell.ThemixofethnicitiespresentattheCantinaonLatinNightsvaries,butingeneraltherearealmostequalnumbersofCaucasianandLatina/odancers.DancersfromMexico,Cuba,Chile,andTexasabound,butquestionsofauthenticityorethnicityarerarelyraisedexceptinjest.Whatisimportanttothesedancersistheskill,thefun,andtheexperienceofthesocialdance.However,thisjoking

21JairoRojas,interviewbyauthor,November6,2019.

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remarkbetraysanumberofideasconcerningsalsaasanexpressionofidentityrootedinthecollectiveexperienceofanethnicgroup.

Thereremainsawidevarietyofviewsonthisdebate,yetitisimportanttonotethattheideaofauthenticityasatraitlearnedbyorinherent solely to a dance’s originators is not unique to the salsaworld. Nazgol Ghandnoosh observes a similar belief among non-African American participants in hip-hop dance but notes that themajorityofthoseespousingauthentichip-hopassomethinginherentinblackdancersarenovices.22Herstudyrevealedthatprofessionaldancersandteacherstendtosharenon-racializedviewsofthedance,focusinginsteadonpersonalskillandexposuretootherdancersanddance styles as a marker of authenticity.23 It seems, then, that asdancers became more advanced in their personal skills and moreexposedtodancersatotherskilllevelsanddancebackgrounds,theyslowlyshedtheirracializednotionsofauthenticityandbecomemoreacceptingofhip-hopasauniversalizeddancegenre.Asimilartrendmaybe seen in salsa,whereperceptionsof authenticity are tied toethnicitybynovicesbutarelesscommonamongprofessionaldancersandteachers.

While some dancers may be content with this idea of

authenticity rooted in ethnicity, Rojas and Jacquad Reeves, aprofessionalsalsaperformerwhoregularlyparticipatesintheNorthTexas dance scene, contest this claim and argue for a broaderunderstandingofauthenticity,onerootedinthebodiesofthedancersthemselves.InordertobetterunderstandtheviewsharedbyRojasand others, I suggest a reframing of authenticity, rooted not inethnicity but in the body as an aggregate of learned traditions,movements, and expressions. YvonneDaniel states that, “Using theculturalconventionsandartisticpatternsthatareatthecoreofthesocialgroupfromwhichthedancetraditionsstems,…bothperform-ersandtouristsareoftenabletoexperienceauthenticitybodilyandthereby,simultaneouslyexpressauthenticityandcreativity.”24Here,thedancer isthe locusofauthenticity insteadofanethnicorsocialidentity. Their grounding and training in the received dance is themarkerofanauthenticinterpretationandperformance,andassuch,innovationthatgrowsoutofabodywhosemovementsarerootedintraditionandinfluencedbytheexperiencesandaestheticpreferencesof thedancermayalsobe consideredauthentic.AsbothRojas andReeves contend, real authenticity may be understood as personal

22NazgolGhandnoosh,"'Cross-Cultural'Practices:InterpretingNon-African-AmericanParticipationinHip-HopDance,"EthnicandRacialStudies33,no.9(2010):1587–8923Ghandnoosh,1592.24YvonnePayneDaniel,"TourismDancePerformancesAuthenticityandCreativity,"AnnalsofTourismResearch23,no.4(1996):795.

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experienceandexpressionwithinthedanceitself,whetheritbeon-oneoron-two,oreven,asReevessuggested,onthree.25

“TheSauce”

Salsa,which translates to “sauce,” is an aptmetaphor for adance both local and global, a dance in which each person bringssomethinguniquetothefloor.IhadheardthewordtranslatedwhenI first began salsa dancing in classes with Rojas, but its use thereindicatedthat Icouldaddmoreflair tomydancing, tospiceupthesauceasitwere.ThemoreIdanced,themoreIadded“spice”tomymoves,andthemorenovicedancersattheCantinabegantoaskaboutmyethnicbackground.IamofmixedAfricanAmericanandEuropeandescent,butLatinxsandotherstendtoassumethatbecauseIdancewell, objectively speaking, ImustbeLatina. Iwasnot surprisedbythis;myphysicalfeaturesareethnicallyambiguous,andmyheritagehas often been misidentified. I believed that the reason for thisassumptionwasbecausethemajorityofdancersattheCantinawereofLatindescent;however,themoreIquestionedtheassumptionthatmydancingabilitymustberootedinaLatinAmericanethnicidentity(mostly made by non-dancers), the more I began to question thenotionofauthenticityorskillindancingasasignifierofethnicity.

Jacquad Reeves has experienced similar, if opposing,

assumptions. A man of Mexican and African American ethnicity,Reeves is slightly below average heightwith long green and blackdreadlocks,darkskinandabouncetohisstep.Asarisingprofessionaldancer,heandhispartner,aLatinanamedFabiola,haveperformedinmultiplesalsacongressesandshowcases,bringingauniqueblendofmamboandsalsatingedwithAfricandancetothefloor.Despitehisobviousskillandloveforthedance,hisname,lackofovertlyHispanicfacialfeatures,andskintoneprovedtobeabarrierforsomedancersearly in his career. In his experience, judgements on perceivedethnicitycancomefromdancersandnon-dancersalike,asherelatesinthefollowinginterviewexcerpt:

Actually,onetime,andthis,thishashappenedtomeandtothisdayIalwaysrememberit,um,wenttothisplace—went to thisplacecalledEmbargo,andum, Isaw these two beautifulwomen and Iwas like ‘youknowwhat, letme go get a dancewith them…’ youknow,Iwasstillfairlynewtothescene,stilltryingtogetmyfeetwet,soIwaslike,youknow,‘hey,wouldyou guys like to dance?’ And one of the ladies hadlookedatme,lookedatmeupanddownandwaslike,‘hellno.’AndIwas like, ‘wow…um…okay’…um, feltthedisrespecttherebecauseyoulookedatmeheadto

25JacquadReeves,interviewbyauthor,November24,2019.Dancingsalsaonthreeisstrictlyhypothetical,forwhichalldancerscanbegrateful.

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toeandyoujustsaidthat,butyouknow,itwasokay.[…]TherewasachickIknewthatwasinclasses. ItwasthisCaucasianlady[…]um…butum…Iremembershewastakinglessons,and…soIjustaskedherIwaslike ‘hey, Iknowyoujustgothere,youjustgotyourshoeson, youknow, let’sdance.’Andof course, youknow, she’s like, ‘oh yeah of course, let’s do it.’ So Idancedrightinfrontofthosewomen,andofcourse,youknowtheylookedathertooandkindoflike,triedto belittle her. It was like, ‘these guys out here,thinkingtheycandance,tryingtodanceourmusic,’allthatotherstuffyouknow.Shewasreallygood,andsowestarteddancing,andassoonastheysawherdolikeabasicdoublespin,liketheirjawsjustdropped.Andthenwestartedfreestyling,youknow,justhittingthebasicSuzyQfootwork,SuzyPlus,andjustright-handturns,left-handturns,youknowjustfeelingthemusicandagain,thesameladywholookedatmeandsaid“hell no,” her jaw had dropped. After we got donedancing,Iwentbacktothemandaskedthefriendtodancewithme—Iwalkeduptothechickwhosejawhad dropped and I went and asked her friendsomethinglike,“doyouwanttodance,”andofcourseshechangedhermind.26AsReevesnotes,initialjudgementsonone’sabilitytodance

may be based on one’s apparent ethnicity, but skill and authenticexpressionofsalsacanunfoldthroughoutthecourseofthedance.Thelackofapparentlatinidad,asGarciawouldsay,causedtheobserverstoquestionhisauthenticity,buthisskillinusingthemusictoexpresshispersonalexperienceofsalsadancingcreatedcognitivedissonancefortheladiesonthesidelines.Theideathatsalsais inthebloodorthat authenticity is a cultural inheritancemaybedeconstructedbyargumentsforthecosmopolitanaspectsofthedance;itslocationinatransnational sphere and the lack of access to a singular originalsourcemay,asKatherineWilsonsuggests,beareasontodisconnectsalsa fromtheLatino/acultureasawaytodeconstructessentialist(racialized)ideasofauthenticity.27However,asReevescontinuedhisstory,itbecameapparentthatdisconnectingsalsafromLatinxcultureandmakingitana-cultural,cosmopolitandanceisnotarealsolutiontotheproblemofexclusionbasedonethnicity.Whileitmaysolvetheimmediate problem of ethnic association/exclusion, it does notaccountforthedifferencebetweenemicandeticunderstandingsof

26JacquadReeves,interviewbyauthor,November24,2019.27KatherineWilson,“Thespaceofsalsa:Theoryandimplicationsofaglobaldancephenomenon,”inLookingatOurselves:Multiculturalism,ConflictandBelonging,ed.KatherineWilson(Oxford:Inter-DisciplinaryPress),241–48,citedinBoulila,246–47.

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authenticitystemmingfromdifferentdegreesof involvementinthedancecommunity.Ashenoted,

Ithinkit’smoresothepeoplewhoarenotinthedanceworld who consider the authentic dance style alsowithinyourethnicity…Thesameladywholookedatmeandsaidhellno,herjawhaddropped.Afterwegotdone dancing, I went back to them and asked thefriend to dance with me—I walked up to the chickwhose jaw had dropped and I went and asked herfriend something like, do youwant todance, andofcourseshechangedhermind.Umm,butyeahso,therearealotoftimeswhere…oof,youknow,butIthinkit’smore so thepeoplewhoarenot in thedanceworldwho consider the authentic dance style also withinyourethnicity.28Thedifference inperspectivebetweenone inside thedance

world andoneoutside is crucial, forwhile thoseon the outside orbeginning to enter into salsa communities may cling to racializednotions of authenticity, those on the inside have entered into acosmopolitanformation,29asBosse(2013)claims,andhavebeguntoembody both the dance and the communal aesthetics which areinstilledinthelearningprocess.Thebody,which,followingDaniels,is the locus of authenticity, becomes authenticated as the dancersbecomesenmeshedintothecosmopolitannetworkofsalsadancingbygroundingthemselvesinthetraditionofdancing.Overthecourseofanightofsalsadancing,whatbecomesclearisthatthebodyisboththemeansofcommunicationandauthenticationforadancer.Bodylanguage and unspoken assumptions regarding skill and perceivedethnicitysayasmuch, ifnotmore, thanwords.Forasassumptionsaboutdancingbodiescancolorperceptionsofauthenticity,theymayalsohaveastronginfluenceonone’schoiceofpartnerandwillingnesstodance.Yet,asRojasnoted,solongassalsaisthefoundationofthemusic and dance, any school or style of salsa could be consideredauthentic.Rojasarguesthat,

Weareintheeraofcollaboration…meaningthatthereisroomnot just forsalseros,butalso fora fusionofAfrocubanandPuertoRicansalsa,there’s,youknow,thereisroomforboth….Wehavetobeopenaboutit…salsahasbeensoinfluencedbyothergenreslikejazz

28JacquadReeves,interviewbyauthor,November24,2019.29Bossedefinescosmopolitanismas"anetworkofsharedandarticulatedvaluesacrossgeographical,racial,andethnicdivides."Thisnetworkconnectspeopleacrossvastdividesandreinforcesrelationshipstocreateakindofsupranationalimaginedcommunity,onenottiedtoaspecificplace,butrathertoacentralsubjectwithwhichallmembersengage(Bosse2013,223).

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andtimbales…soistherea limit?As longasyoucanhear the rhythm of salsa… as long as you have thatfoundationofsalsaandyoucanhearit…It’snotsalsaifyoudon’thavetherootsofthemusic.30TheinterviewswithJairoRojasandJacquadReevesrevealed

anotheraspectofauthenticityinsalsa:whiledancersmaypreferonestyletoanother,theyareoftenfamiliarwithmultiplestylesofsalsainparticularanddancesingeneral.InattendingbothLatinNightsattheMulberryCantinaandsocialdancesheldatothervenues,Ihaveseennumerous dancers moving between the styles based on theirpartners’abilities,thesongbeingplayed,andtheirownpreferences;Ihavealsoseenmovesfromhip-hopandothergenresincorporatedinto salsa both on the social dance floor and in professionalperformance. While there is arguably a difference between theperformanceofsalsaincompetitionorprofessionalperformanceandsalsaasperformedwithinthecontextofthesocialdance,theideaofone ethnicity or even one style of salsa beingmore authentic thananotherbreaksdownwhenoneconsidersthatwhatisexpressedinthe dance is not a formalized set of steps, but rather a basic stepfiltered through the entirety of the dancer’s body. The precisemechanicsofthemovementsareflavoredbythedancer’spreferencesandprior trainingandauthenticatedwithin thecosmopolitansalsacommunityinwhichtheydance.31

“Salsaisthesauce...”

Debates overwhatmakes salsa dancing authentic andwhomay be considered authentic may continue indefinitely, for ideasabout theplaceof ethnicity, latinidad,personality, andauthenticitywill continue toevolve ineverysocial spacewheredancersgather.What has become apparent through this study is that for thosedancersenmeshedintheNorthTexassalsascene,authenticityisnotgenerally tied to ideas of latinidad, ethnicity, or even dancingspecifically on-one as opposed to on-two. Indeed, those identifiers,whichmaynotbeoutwardlyapparent, arenot themost importantaspectsofauthenticsalsatomanydancers.Whatisimportantineachstyle is the experience of ownership over and engagement in theglobaldiscoursesurroundingsalsadance.AsHutchinsonnotes, thevariousnamedstylescameaboutpartiallyasawayofrecognizingtheorigins of each type of salsa, but also as ameans for teachers and

30JairoRojas,interviewbyauthor,November6,2019.31Marksofapprovalanddisapprovalvarygreatlybetweencommunities;individualswhojoinalocalcommunitywithpreviousdanceexperiencemaybringtheirownsignsofapprovalanddisapproval.Approvalmaybenotedwithashoutof“Eso!”orrepeatedrequestsforadancewhiledisapprovalmaybeindicatedwithverbalcorrectionsoron-the-floorinstruction.Beingrefuseddances,orsimplynotbeingasked,cansignalthatadanceriseithernotknownornotadesirablepartner.

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performerstomarkettheiruniquestyles.32Thus,alongsideeconomicaspects,theregionalandracializednamesofthevariousstyleshavebecomemarkersofidentitywhichalloweachcommunitytoengageinandlegitimizethedanceasseenthroughtheirculturallens.

Namingastyleinassociationwithanethnicityorgeographic

locationmaybeawayofenablingdiversecommunitiestoauthentic-catetheirexperienceofthedanceandassertameasureofownershipoversalsaasbothanidentityandanactivity.However,theideathatauthentic salsa is in thebloodor rooted inone’sethnicity tends tobreak down as dancers become enmeshed in the transnationalcosmopolitancommunitieswithwhichtheyinteract.Whilesomemaystill view authentic salsa dancing as a property accessible only tothoseofLatindescent,RojasandReeves,alongwithotherdancersinNorthTexas,seemtotakethisidealightlyandacknowledgethatwhileitmayhavebeenanideatheycameinwith,itwasdispelledbyboththeirowngrowthandtheirinteractionswithotherdancers.Forthem,whatmakesthedanceauthenticisthedancerandtheirabilitytobringthewhole of their dancing experience and their personality to thedancefloor.ThisechoesDaniel’sargumentforthedancer’sbodyasthe locusofauthenticity; insteadof focusingonone’sethnicityorasenseoflatinidad,thedancer’sentireperson(includingtheirtraining,background, skills, and innovations) serves to ground them in thedance and branch out into the global community of salsa dancers.Eachdancingbodyandtheiruniqueunderstandingandexpressionofsalsa, if they are rooted in the dance, may then be consideredauthentic.Or,asJacquadReevesstated,“Salsaisthesauce,we’realljustaddingourowningredientstothepot.”33

32Hutchinson,“What’sinanumber?”,31–37.33JacquadReeves,interviewbyauthor,November24,2019.

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AbouttheContributorsJÚLIACOELHOispursuingaPh.D.inMusicologyandaDMAinVocalPerformance,withrelatedfieldsinEarlyMusicandinMusicTheory.ShehascompletedherMaster’sDegreesinMusicologyandOperaattheUniversityofMissouriandtheConservatoryofAvellinoinItaly.InPortugal,shecompletedherB.A.inPhilosophywithaminorinforeignlanguages. She currently works as a doctoral teaching assistant inMusic History and has been serving as a Musicology studentrepresentativeinGAMuT,aswellasaMusicSenatorintheGraduateStudentCouncil.Shewillserveasthejournaleditorforthe2021–22Harmoniaedition.

Withresearchinterestsin16th-to18th-centuryvocalmusic,musicandrhetoric, and history ofmusic theory, she has presented papers atnationalandinternationalconferencesonClaudioMonteverdiandW.A.Mozart,andhasgivenlecture-recitalsonThomasCampionandonPortuguese music, history, and culture. She has musicologypublications in English, Portuguese, and Italian, namely a peer-reviewed article on Claudio Monteverdi’s Orfeo (2019), a booktranslation from Italian to English on Pietro Cerone andWolfgangSchonsleder(2018),anannotatedtranslationfromEnglishtoItalianofCharlesBurney'saccountonHändel'sMessiah (2015),aswellasFoxKeller’sbookreviewonGenderPhilosophy,ReflectionsonGenderandScience(2010).Shehasrecentlycompletedacollaborativebookchaptercalled"TheArtofLiminality:Sea,Saudade,andLiminality,"inTheLiminalLoop(forthcoming,2021),onthirteenth-centuryGalician-Portuguesecantigasd'amigo.

In addition to her research activities, she teaches a studio of voicestudents and performs weekly at Denton Unitarian UniversalistFellowshipastheSong/HymnLeader,wheresheoftenaccompanieshersingingattheGothicharp,psaltery,orkeyboard.

STACEYKEY isafifthyearPh.D.studentinEthnomusicologyandafellow in the Ethnomusicology areas. She received two ToulouseGraduateSchoolAcademicAchievementScholarships.StaceyholdsaMasterofArts inEthnomusicologyfromtheUniversityofLimerick,Ireland and completed her Bachelor of Arts in Music at GenevaCollege. Her research interests include American popular andreligiousmusic, Irish traditional vocalmusic, andapplied research.HercurrentresearchfocusesonIrishfunerallaments(caoineadh)andtheirmodernincarnations.