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Volume 17 Number 4

Winter 2009

Published by the New York State Horticultural Society

Volume 17 Number

Winter 200

Published by the New York State Horticultural Society

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• Representing the

industry in matters of

public policy

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NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 1

5 11 15 19 23

COVER: Blueberries with Phomopsis

Canker. Photos courtesy Cathy

Heidenreich and Kevin Iungerman.

Contents

NEW YORK Fruit Quarterly WINTER 2009

5 Nutrient Requirements of ‘Gala’/M.26

Apple Trees for High Yield and Quality

Lailiang Cheng and Richard Raba

11 Fertigation for Apple Trees

in the Pacifi c Northwest

Denise Neilsen and Gerry Neilsen

15 Antioxidant contents and activity in

SmartFresh-treated ‘Empire’ apples

during air and controlled atmosphere storage

Fanjaniaina Fawbush, Jackie Nock and Chris Watkins

19 Results of a New York Blueberry Survey

Juliet E. Carroll, Marc Fuchs and Kerik Cox

23 Assessing Azinphos-methyl Resistance in

New York State Codling Moth Populations

Peter Jentsch, Frank Zeoli & Deborah Breth

EditorialManaged New York Apple Varieties: Are You Ready to Control Your Destiny?

Hopefully by now you are aware of Cornell University’s intent

to introduce two new apple varieties under a managed license

contract with an exclusive partner. Prior to this announcement

by Cornell, a group of apple growers representing all major production

regions in New York State met last Winter and Spring and subsequently

formed New York Apple Growers LLC (NYAG) whose primary focus

was to gain exclusive rights to new and exciting Cornell releases. All

apple growers in New York State, who pay AMO dues, were mailed

a notice in August regarding the formation of NYAG, which is a new

grower-owned corporation whose primary mission and objectives

are as follows:

NYAG Mission: To manage the release of new advanced apple

varieties and market these varieties at an accelerated pace that delivers

profi t and long term sustainability to our members and licensing

partners and to overwhelm our fresh apple consumers with a positive

fresh apple eating experience.

Objectives• To introduce outstanding new apple cultivars to the

marketplace

• To allow any NYS Apple Grower the opportunity to become a

member during the founding year

• To enhance New York State apple grower sustainability, growth,

and long term competitiveness

• To secure exclusive variety contracts that allow its members and

licensing partners to profi t from the growing and selling of these

varieties

• To invest funding directly into the Cornell apple breeding

program

Currently NYAG and Cornell are undergoing negotiations for exclusive

rights contracts and it is our desire to have these contracts completed by

the end of January. After this we will begin the process of raising capital,

creating a defi ned corporate structure, creating variety evaluation and

quality programs, creating a nursery production plan, developing a

detailed marketing plan and working on all other necessary details

involved with the creation of a new entity. Additionally, NYAG wishes

to increase our grower board by at least fi ve new growers. If you are

interested, please contact one of the current board members in your

district listed below.

What Action Should New York Apple Growers Take Now?Th e initial grower response to the formation of NYAG has been

very positive and it is the current board’s goal to get as many quality

growers aboard to make NYAG a success. New York growers must now

begin to contemplate what their involvement will be with NYAG. All

growers from grower operations of all sizes will be invited to become

members of the grower-owned corporation during the founding year.

Capital investments will be acreage based and the minimum and

maximum amounts of acreage each grower can obtain are currently

being evaluated.

Th e question for growers to ponder is if and by how much should

they invest in NYAG? Th ere has been a lot of interest in managed

varieties over the past few months and this topic has been reviewed

by many trade journals. Despite all of the opinions of how managed

varieties will perform in the marketplace, the one fact that cannot

be disputed is that the overall quality of the managed variety is the

number one deciding factor. Although there is a tremendous amount

of work to be completed in quality evaluation for the fi rst two Cornell

releases, we are very pleased and excited by the potential of these

(Continued on p.2)

0

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May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.

*

fertigationfertigation periodperiod

1.0

Scheduled to meet evaporative demand

Unscheduled (fixed rate)

6.0

(B)

0

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2 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY


President Walt Blackler, Apple Acres

4633 Cherry Valley Tpk. Lafayette, NY 13084

PH: 315-677-5144 (W); FAX: 315-677-5143

[email protected]

Vice President Peter Barton 55 Apple Tree Lane, Paughquag, NY 12570

PH: 845-227-2306 (W); 845-227-7149 (H)

FX: 845-227-1466; CELL: 845-656-5217

[email protected]

Treasurer/Secretary Bruce Kirby, Little Lake Farm

3120 Densmore Road Albion , NY 14411

PH: 585-589-1922; FAX: 585-589-7872

[email protected]

Executive Director Paul Baker 90 Lake St., Apt 24D, Youngstown, NY 14174

FAX: (716) 219-4089

CELL: 716-807-6827; [email protected]

Admin Assistant Karen Wilson

630 W. North St., Geneva, NY 14456

PH: 315-787-2404; FX: 315) 787-2216


Cornell Director Dr. Terence Robinson, NYSAES

630 W. North Street

Hedrick Hall, Room 125, Geneva, NY 14456

PH: 315-787-2227; FX: 315-787-2216


Director Dan Sievert Lakeview Orchards, Inc.

4941 Lake Road, Burt, NY 14028

PH: 716-778-7491 (W)

FX: 716-778-7466; CELL: 716-870-8968

[email protected]

Director Roderick Dressel, Jr., Dressel Farms

271 Rt 208, New Paltz, NY 12561

PH: 845-255-0693 (W); 845-255-7717 (H)

FX: 845-255-1596; CELL: 845-399-6767

[email protected]

Director Robert DeBadts, Lake Breeze Fruit Farm

6272 Lake Road, Sodus, NY 14551

PH: 315-483-0910 (W), 315-483-9904 (H)

FX: 315-483-8863; CELL: 585-739-1590

[email protected]; (Summer – use FAX only)

Director Tom DeMarree, DeMarree Fruit Farm

7654 Townline Rd.

Williamson, NY 14589

PH: 315-589-9698; FX: 315-589-4965

CELL: 315-576-1244; demarreeff @aol.com

Director Doug Fox, D&L Ventures LLC

4959 Fish Farm Rd., Sodus, NY 14551

PH: 315-483-4556; FX: 315-483-4342

[email protected]

Director William R. Gunnison Gunnison Lakeshore Orchards

3196 NYS Rt. 9W & 22, Crown Point, NY 12928

PH: 518-597-3363 (W); 518-597-3817(H)

FAX: 518-597-3134; CELL: 518-572-4642

[email protected]

Director John Ivison, Helena Chemical Co.

165 S. Platt St, Suite 100

Albion, NY 14411; PH: 585-589-4195 (W)

FX: 585-589-0257; CELL: 585-509-2262

[email protected]

Director Chuck Mead, Mead Orchards LLC

15 Scism Rd., Tivoli, NY 12583

PH: 845-756-5641 (W); CELL: 845-389-0731

FAX: 845-756-4008

[email protected]

APPLE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ADVISORY BOARD 2008

Chairman Walt Blackler, Apple Acres

4633 Cherry Valley Tpk. Lafayette, NY 13084

PH: 315-677-5144 (W); FAX: 315-677-5143

[email protected]

Alan Burr 7577 Slayton Settlement Road, Gasport, NY 14067

PH: 585-772-2469; [email protected]

Steve Clarke 40 Clarkes Lane, Milton, NY 12547


Rod Farrow 12786 Kendrick Road, Waterport, NY 14571

PH: 585-589-7022

Mason Forrence 2740 Route 22, Peru, NY 12972


Ted Furber, Cherry Lawn Farms

8099 GLover Rd., Sodus, NY 14551

PH: 315-483-8529

Dan McCarthy NY State Dept. of Agriculture & Markets

10B Airline Drive, Albany, NY 12235


Peter Ten Eyck, Indian Ladder Farms

342 Altamont Road

Altamont, NY 12009


Robert Deemer, Dr. Pepper/Snapple Group

4363 Rte.104

Williamson, NY 14589

PH: 315-589-9695 ext. 713

NYS BERRY GROWERS BOARD MEMBERS

Chair Dale Riggs, Stonewall Hill Farm

15370 NY Rt 22, Stephentown, NY 12168


Treasurer Tony Emmi, Emmi Farms

1572 S. Ivy Trail, Baldwinsville, NY 13027


Executive Secretary Paul Baker 90 Lake St., Apt 24D, Youngstown, NY 14174

FAX: (716) 219-4089


Jim Bauman, Bauman Farms

1340 Five Mile Line Rd., Webster, NY 14580

PH: 585-671-5857

Bob Brown III, Brown’s Berry Patch

14264 Rooseveldt Highway, Waterport, NY 14571

PH: 585-682-5569

Bruce Carson, Carson’s Bloomin’ Berries

2328 Reed Rd.

Bergen, NY 14416


Jim Coulter, Coulter Farms

3871 N. Ridge Road, Lockport, NY 14094


John Hand, Hand Melon Farm

533 Wilber Ave., Greenwich, NY 12834


Craig Michaloski, Green Acres Farm

3480 Latta Road, Rochester, NY 14612


Terry Mosher, Mosher Farms

RD #1 Box 69, Bouckville, NY 13310


Greg Spoth, Greg’s U-Pick

9270 Lapp Rd., Clarence Center, NY 14032


Alan Tomion, Tomion Farms

3024 Ferguson Corners Rd., Penn Yan, NY 14527


Tony Weis, Weiss Farms

7828 East Eden Road, Eden, NY 14057


NEW YORK Fruit Quarterly WINTER 2009 • VOLUME 17 • NUMBER 4

WINTER 2009 • VOLUME 17 • NUMBER 4This publication is a joint eff ort of the New York State Horticultural Society, Cornell University’s New York State Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva, the New York State Apple Research and Development Program, and the NYSBGA.

Editors Terence Robinson and Steve Hoying

Dept. of Horticultural Sciences

New York State Agricultural Experiment Station

Geneva, New York 14456-0462

PH: 315-787-2227; FX: 315-787-2216

[email protected]

[email protected]

Subscriptions Karen Wilson & Advertising NYSHS, 630 W. North St., Geneva, NY 14456


Design Elaine L. Gotham, Gotham City Design, Naples, NY


Production Communications Services, NYSAES, Geneva, NY


NEW YORK Fruit Quarterly

(Editorial, cont.)selections. In order to command shelf space

in an ever increasing competitive market, we

feel continued variety improvement will be

necessary. NYAG is off ering an opportunity for

growers to get on board in the managed variety

system; our business plan ensures continued

investment into the long-term future to create

superior varieties. As a result, when conducting

your fi nancial planning activities for 2010 and

beyond, we pose the question: How can you not

aff ord to get involved with NYAG?

More details will continue to evolve with

NYAG through the winter so stay tuned for the

communication of more information. If you

have any questions or ideas for consideration,

please feel free to contact a board member in

your district.

Sincerely,

New York Apple Growers,

LLC Executive Board:

Chairman: Roger Lamont,

[email protected]

Vice Chairman: Jeff Crist

jeff @cristapples.com

Treasurer: Walt Blackler

[email protected]

Secretary: Bob Norris,

[email protected]

Member Relations: Mason Forrence,

[email protected]

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Nutrient management plays a more important role in

ensuring good tree growth, cropping and fruit quality

for apple trees on dwarfi ng rootstocks in high-density

plantings than for

those on vigor-

ous rootstocks as

dwarf apple trees

crop earlier and

have higher yield

and smaller root

systems. With the

development of

leaf nutrient anal-

ysis and its wide

adoption for diag-

nosis of tree nutri-

ent status (Bould,

1966; Stiles and

Reid, 1991; Neilsen

and Neilsen, 2003),

fertilization prac-

tices in orchards

are now routinely adjusted by comparing leaf analysis results

against the optimal range of leaf nutrient concentrations. How-

ever, eff ective nutrient management to these dwarf trees still

requires a good understanding of their nutrient demand in terms

of amount and timing because optimal leaf nutrient concentra-

tions do not refl ect the actual amount and timing of tree nutrient

requirements.

Due to the diffi culty of destructive sampling of entire trees

multiple times during the annual cycle of tree growth and de-

velopment, the actual demand of dwarf apple trees for all the

macro- and micro-nutrients in terms of timing and amount has

not been examined in detail. In this study, we took an approach

of growing apple trees in sand culture to achieve optimal tree

nutrient status, high yield and good quality, and using sequential

excavation of entire trees to determine the magnitude and sea-

sonal patterns of the accumulation of macro- and micro-nutrients

in apple trees on dwarfi ng rootstocks. Th e sand culture system

eliminates competition for nutrients between any adjacent trees

grown in the fi eld in high-density plantings, and allows good

control of nutrient supply and better recovery of the entire root

system at excavation.

Experimental ProceduresSix-year-old Gala/M.26 trees were grown in 55-L plastic containers

in acid-washed sand (pH 6.2) at a spacing 3.5 by 11.0 feet (1129

trees/acre) at Cornell Orchards. Th ese trees were trained as tall

spindles. Th ey had produced regular crops over the previous three

years. Nutrient supply to these trees was based on a previous study

(Xia et al., 2009). Briefl y, all trees were fertigated with four liters

of 15N-ammonium nitrate (210 ppm N) balanced with all other

nutrients in Hoagland’s #2 solution twice a week from May 2 to one

month before fruit harvest except during active shoot growth when

the trees were fertigated three times per week. Fertigation contin-

ued from one month before harvest to fruit harvest but nitrogen

was provided at half the concentration for the fi rst two weeks and

then was completed omitted from the fertigation solution in the

two weeks immediately preceding fruit harvest. After fruit harvest,

each tree was fertigated with four liters of the Hoagland’s solution

at an N concentration of 210 ppm twice (September 22 and Oc-

tober 2). Each tree received a total of 30 grams of actual nitrogen

during the entire growing season (equivalent to 75 lbs actual N

per acre). Th e cropload of these trees was adjusted to 8.2 fruit per

cm2 trunk cross-sectional area via hand-thinning at 10mm king

fruit (104 fruit per tree), and this cropload was maintained to fruit

harvest. Irrigation was provided with two spray sticks per tree and

the trees were well watered throughout the growing season. No

foliar application of nutrients was applied to these trees. All the

trees received standard disease and insect control throughout the

growing season. A copper spray was put on at budbreak to control

fi re blight, but the spray made it diffi cult to accurately determine

the accumulation patterns of total Cu in the new growth and the

whole tree during the early part of the season.

At each of the 7 key developmental stages throughout the

annual growth cycle (budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf growth,

end of shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, fruit harvest,

and after leaf fall), a set of four trees was excavated. Each tree

was partitioned to spurs, shoots, spur leaves, shoot leaves, fruit,

one year-old stem, branches, trunk, upper shank, lower shank

and roots. All the samples were dried in a forced-air oven, and

the dry weight of each tissue was recorded. Each sample was

ground twice to pass a 40 mesh screen and measured for N, P, K,

Ca, Mg, S, B, Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn using combustion analysis and

inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry. Total N, P,

K, Ca, Mg, S, B, Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn in each organ type and the

whole tree were calculated based on its concentration and dry

weight data.

ResultsFruit yield, size and quality at harvest. Fruit yield was 18.8 kg per

tree (equivalent to 1113 bushels/acre) with an average fruit size

of 181 g. Fruit soluble solids concentration was 14.5% and fruit

fi rmness was 16.8 lbs.

This paper was presented at the 2009 Cornell In-depth Fruit School on Mineral Nutrition.

“Shoots and leaves have a high demand

period for nutrients from bloom to end

of shoot growth whereas fruits have

a high demand period from the end

of shoot growth to fruit harvest. Our

research has shown that at harvest,

fruit contain more K than any other

nutrient followed by N, Ca, Mg, P, Fe,

S, Mn, B, Zn, and Cu. Understanding

tree nutrient requirements will help

in developing improved fertilization

programs in apple orchards.”

Nutrient Requirements of ‘Gala’/M.26

Apple Trees for High Yield and QualityLailiang Cheng and Richard Raba

Departments of Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY

Figure 1. The concentration of nitrogen (A), phosphorus (B), potassium (C),

calcium (D), magnesium (E), sulfur (F), boron (G), zinc (H), iron (I)

and manganese (J) in leaves and fruit of 6-year-old ‘Gala’/‘M.26’

apple trees from bloom to fruit harvest. The fi ve points in each

line correspond with bloom, end of spur leaf growth, end of

shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, and fruit harvest,

respectively. Each point is mean ± SE of four replicates.


Leaf and fruit nutrient status. Th e concentration of N, P, K,

S, Zn and Fe in both leaves and fruit decreased from bloom to

fruit harvest, with concentrations being higher in leaves than in

fruit from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest (Figure 1A,

B, C, F, H and I). Th e concentration of Ca, Mg, and Mn in leaves

decreased from bloom to the end of spur leaf growth, and then

increased thereafter, whereas fruit Ca, Mg, and Mn concentra-

tions decreased from bloom to fruit harvest (Figure 1D, E, and J).

Th e B concentration was higher in fruit than in leaves at bloom,

but both had similar B concentrations from the end of spur leaf

growth to fruit harvest (Figure 1G).

Leaf samples taken at the regular time recommended for

nutrient analysis (90 days after bloom), and fruit samples taken

at harvest, showed that both leaf and fruit nutrient status were

in the satisfactory range for this cultivar (Table 1).

Dry matter accumulation and partitioning. Total dry matter

of the tree showed an expolinear increase from budbreak to fruit

harvest, with a net dry matter gain of 4.3 kg (Figure 2). Total dry

matter of shoots and leaves increased rapidly from bloom to the

end of shoot growth in early July, and then remained unchanged

till fruit harvest. Th e total dry matter in shoots and leaves at fruit

harvest only accounted for about 17.3% of the net dry matter

gain of the whole tree from budbreak to fruit harvest. Total dry

matter of fruit increased slowly from bloom to the end of shoot

growth, then rapidly in a linear fashion till fruit harvest. Th e to-

tal dry matter of fruit accounted for about 72.2% of the net dry

matter gain of the whole tree. At fruit harvest, approximately

10.5% of the net dry matter gain was found in the woody peren-

nial parts (branches, central leader, shank and roots) of the tree.

No signifi cant increase was observed in the dry matter of roots

between budbreak and fruit harvest.

Accumulation of nutrients in the whole tree. Total tree N

increased very rapidly from bloom to the end of shoot growth,

and then continued to increase, but at a slower rate to fruit har-

vest (Figure 3A). Total P, K, Ca, Mg, S and B in the tree increased

slightly from budbreak to bloom and then in a near linear manner

from bloom to fruit harvest, although accumulation of Ca, Mg,

and B slowed starting from one month before harvest (Figure

3B-G). Both total Zn and total Mn in the tree showed a gradual

increase from budbreak to the end of spur leaf growth, and then

a rapid increase till one month before fruit harvest, followed by

a slow increase to fruit harvest (Figure 3H, J). Total Fe in the

tree increased rapidly from bloom to the end of shoot growth,

followed by a slower

increase till fruit har-

vest (Figure 3I).

Th e net gains of

total N, P, K, Ca, Mg,

and S from budbreak

to fruit harvest were

19.8, 3.3, 36.0, 14.2,

4.4 and 1.6 g/tree, and

those for B, Zn, Cu,

Mn, and Fe were 93.6,

60.9, 46.5, 184.8 and

148.7 mg/tree, which

were equivalent to

49.3, 8.2, 89.4, 35.4,

10.9 and 4.0 lbs/acre

for N, P, K, Ca, Mg,

and S, and 105.7, 68.8,

52.5, 208.6 and 167.9

grams/acre for B, Zn,

Cu, Mn, and Fe at a

Table 1. Leaf and fruit nutrient status. Leaf nutrients were from samples

taken on August 9, 2006. Fruit nutrients were from the samples

taken at harvest (September 13, 2006). Macronutrients are

expressed as % dry weight whereas micronutrients are in ppm.

Macronutrients (%)

Tissue N P K Ca Mg S

Leaves 2.00 0.18 1.61 1.10 0.39 0.13 Fruit 0.25 0.06 0.80 0.05 0.04 0.02

Micronutrients (ppm)

Tissue B Zn Cu Mn Fe

Leaves 27.3 27.3 8.3 143.8 83.5 Fruit 21.8 3.5 3.8 7.8 25.3

Figure 2. Dry matter accumulation of the

whole tree, shoots and leaves, and

fruit of 6-year-old ‘Gala/M.26’ trees

from budbreak to fruit harvest in

the 2006 growing season. The six

points in each line correspond with

budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf

growth, end of shoot growth, rapid

fruit expansion period, and fruit

harvest, respectively. Each point is

mean ± SE of four replicates.

Figure 3. Total accumulation of nitrogen (A), phosphorus (B), potassium

(C), calcium (D), magnesium (E), sulfur (F), boron (G), zinc (H),

iron (I) and manganese (J) in 6-year-old ‘Gala/M.26’ apple trees

from budbreak to fruit harvest. The six points in each line

correspond with budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf growth, end

of shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, and fruit harvest,



tree density of 1129 trees/acre (Table 2).

Accumulation of nutrients in the new growth (fruit, shoots

and leaves) Because fruit and shoots and leaves are the most dy-

namic parts of the tree, determining their nutrient accumulation

patterns may help us understand their diff erential requirements

for nutrients.

Total N in shoots and leaves followed the same pattern as

dry matter (Figures 2, 4A). It increased slowly from budbreak to

bloom, very rapidly from bloom to the end of shoot growth, and

then remained unchanged till fruit harvest. In contrast, total

N in fruit increased gradually from bloom to the end of shoot

growth, and then increased rapidly till fruit harvest. Th e increase

of total N in fruit from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest

made up 65.4% of fruit N accumulation, and accounted for all of

the increase in total N in the new growth, because the total N

in shoots and leaves did not change during this period. At fruit

harvest, total N in fruit accounted for 37.6% of N in new growth.

Total N in new growth showed almost the same pattern as total N

in the whole tree (Figs. 3A, 4A), and total N in new growth at fruit

harvest accounted for 100% of net N accumulation in the whole

tree from budbreak to fruit harvest. Th e accumulation patterns

of total S in shoots and leaves and fruit were similar to those for

total N (Figure 4F). At fruit harvest, total S in fruit accounted for

42.6% of S in new growth, and total S in new growth accounted

for 91.8% of its net gain in the whole tree from budbreak to fruit

harvest.

Total P, K, B and Fe in shoots and leaves increased very rapidly

from bloom to the end of shoot growth, then remained unchanged

till fruit harvest (Figure 4B, C, G, I). In contrast, total P, K, B and

Fe in fruit increased gradually from budbreak to the end of shoot

growth, and then rapidly in a linear fashion till fruit harvest. Th e

increase of P, K, B and Fe in fruit from the end of shoot growth

to fruit harvest made up 74.9%, 77.4%, 77.2%, and 61.0% of their

total amount at fruit harvest, respectively. Total P, K, B and Fe in

fruit at fruit harvest accounted for 60.7%, 71.3%, 77.7% and 60.4%

of their total amount in new growth, respectively. Total P, K, B,

and Fe in new growth showed a linear or near linear increase

from bloom to fruit harvest. Total P, K, B, and Fe in new growth

at fruit harvest accounted for 97.6%, 96.7%, 93.3%, and 87.2% of

their net accumulation in the whole tree from budbreak to fruit

harvest, respectively.

Total Ca and Mn in new growth showed a slight increase from

budbreak to bloom, then a very rapid increase from bloom to one

month before harvest, followed by a slow increase to fruit harvest

(Figure 4D, J). Total Ca and Mn in shoots and leaves accounted

for most of the total Ca and Mn in new growth. Total Ca and

Mn in fruit increased throughout the entire fruit growth period,

with 61.7% and 73.3% of their respective accumulation occurring

from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest. However, total Ca

and Mn in fruit at harvest, however, accounted for only 14.0%

and 17.8% of the total Ca and Mn in new growth, respectively.

At fruit harvest, total Ca and Mn in new growth accounted for

77.8% and 73.2% of their net accumulation in the whole tree from

budbreak to fruit harvest, respectively.

Both total Mg and total Zn in shoots and leaves increased rap-

idly from bloom to the end of shoot growth, and then increased

slowly till fruit harvest (Figure 4E, H). In contrast, total Mg and

total Zn in fruit increased slowly from bloom to the end of shoot

growth and then rapidly from the end of shoot growth to fruit

harvest, with 67.8% and 58.1% of the total accumulation taking

place during the latter period. Total Mg and total Zn in fruit at

fruit harvest accounted for 31.3% and 30.8% of the total Mg and

total Zn in new growth, respectively. Total Mg and total Zn in

new growth at fruit harvest accounted for 90.4% and 58.1% of

Table 2. Net accumulation of nutrients in the entire tree from budbreak

to harvest, and the total accumulation of nutrients in new

growth (shoots, leaves and fruit) at harvest at a fruit yield of

1113 bushels/acre (52.45 metric tons per hectare).

Macronutrients (lbs/acre)

N P K Ca Mg S

Net gain 49.3 8.2 89.4 35.4 10.9 4.0 New growth 50.7 8.0 86.5 27.5 9.9 3.7

Micronutrients (grams/acre)

B Zn Cu Mn Fe

Net gain 105.7 68.8 52.5 208.6 167.9 New growth 98.6 40.0 23.0 152.6 146.5


their net accumulation in the whole tree from budbreak to fruit

harvest, respectively.

DiscussionSince the trees used in this study had optimal nutrient levels

in both leaves and fruit (Table 1, Figure 1) and they produced

a high fruit yield (equivalent to 52.45 metric tons per hectare)

with good fruit size and quality, the observed accumulation of

nutrients represents the nutrient requirements of these trees.

Th e net accumulation of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S in the whole tree

from budbreak to fruit harvest was 19.8, 3.3, 36.0, 14.2, 4.4 and

1.6 g/tree and that for B, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe was 93.6, 60.9, 46.5,

184.8 and 148.7 mg/tree, which was equivalent to 49.3, 8.2, 89.4,

35.4, 10.9 and 4.0 lbs per acre for N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S and 105.7,

68.8, 52.5, 208.6 and 167.9 grams per acre for B, Zn, Cu, Mn, and

Fe at a tree density of 1129 trees per acre. Th is study, for the fi rst

time, has generated a comprehensive nutrient accumulation data

Figure 4. Total accumulation of nitrogen (A), phosphorus (B), potassium

(C), calcium (D), magnesium (E), sulfur (F), boron (G), zinc (H), iron

(I) and manganese (J) in shoots and leaves, fruit, and new growth

(fruit plus shoots and leaves) of 6-year-old ‘Gala’/‘M.26’ apple

trees from budbreak to fruit harvest. The six points in each line

correspond with budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf growth, end

of shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, and fruit harvest,


set for ‘Gala’/‘M.26’ trees trained in tall spindle. It is interesting

to note that the accumulation of nutrients in new growth (fruit

plus shoots and leaves) accounted for over 90% of the net gain for

total N, P, K, Mg, S, and B in the entire tree and a large propor-

tion of the net gain for Ca, Zn, Mn, and Fe (ranging from 58.1%

in Zn to 87.2% in Fe) from budbreak to fruit harvest in this study

(Table 2). Th erefore, future studies of this type might gain most

of the information on tree nutrient needs by just focusing on new

growth (fruit, shoots and leaves).

Although the trees we used in this study were grown in sand

culture, our data on total nutrient accumulation in fruit (or fruit

nutrient removal at harvest) are very similar to those reported by

Palmer and Dryden (2006) on ‘Royal Gala’, ‘Fuji’ and ‘Braeburn’,

and Drahorad (1999) on several apple cultivars for commercial

apple orchards (Comparison of our data with the data from

Palmer and Dryden on Gala are shown in Table 3), when the fruit

yield was adjusted to the same level. Th is high similarity indicates

that the estimates of nutrient requirements obtained in this study

may be applicable to fi eld-grown trees. If we assume the ratio

between net accumulation of each nutrient in the whole tree from

budbreak to fruit harvest and its amount in fruit remains constant

across the range of fruit yield encountered in commercial apple

production, one can readily calculate the total requirement for

each nutrient at any expected fruit yield by using the data gener-

ated in this study (See Table 4 for an example). It’s clear that the

requirement for each nutrient increases as fruit yield increases.

Of the macronutrients required by ‘Gala’ apple trees, K is the

one whose amount in the fruit at harvest accounted for the largest

proportion of its net gain in the entire tree from budbreak to fruit

harvest, i.e. more than two thirds of the total tree K requirement

was found in fruit although fruit K concentration was only about

half of that in leaves on a dry weight basis (Table 1, Figure 4C).

Because of this large demand for K by fruit, apple trees on dwarf-

ing rootstocks need adequate K supply to achieve high yield and

good quality. However, it is possible that too much K can negatively

aff ect fruit quality as K may compete with the uptake of Ca and

Mg. It should be noted that the widely cited work of Haynes and

Goh (1980) on nutrient budget of apple orchards signifi cantly over-

estimated the amount of K in fruit. Based on the amount of K in

fruit and fruit dry matter reported in Haynes and Goh (1980), the

calculated fruit K concentration would be over 2% on a dry weight

basis. Either the trees used in their experiment were in luxury

consumption of K, or an error was made by the authors (Haynes

and Goh, 1980) in measuring or calculating the total amount of K

in fruit. However, the former does not seem to be the case as leaf

K concentration was only 1.2% at the end of the season.

Table 3. Comparison of total amounts of nutrients in ‘Gala’ fruit at harvest

obtained in this study with those obtained in the Nelson region

of New Zealand by Palmer and Dryden (2006) at a fruit yield of

1113 bushels/acre (52.45 metric tons per hectare).


Study N P K Ca Mg S

Palmer & Dryden (2006) 18.7 4.6 57.8 3.0 2.7 N/A Cheng & Raba (2009) 19.1 4.9 61.6 3.9 3.1 1.5


Study B Zn Cu Mn Fe

Palmer & Dryden (2006) 54.5 10.3 30.7 9.1 31.0 Cheng & Raba (2009) 76.5 12.3 13.3 27.2 88.5


Fruits, shoots and leaves have diff erential nutrient accumula-

tion patterns (Figure 4). Our data indicate that the most rapid ac-

cumulation of all nutrients in shoots and leaves took place during

active shoot growth, from bloom to the end of shoot growth, and

the accumulation pattern of most nutrients corresponded well

with the accumulation of dry matter, with continued accumula-

tion observed only in total Ca and Mn in shoots and leaves after

the end of shoot growth. Nutrient accumulation in fruit largely

followed its dry matter accumulation, and a large proportion of

the nutrient accumulation (ranging from 58.1% of Zn to 77.4 %

of K) occurred from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest.

Th e diff erential patterns of nutrient accumulation between fruit

and shoots and leaves, and the similarity between dry matter ac-

cumulation and accumulation patterns of most nutrients within

each organ (Figures 2B, 4), indicate that nutrient accumulation is

demand-driven. Th e linear increase in both P and K in the whole

tree, and in new growth from bloom to harvest (Figures 3B, C,

4B, C) indicates a constant demand for both nutrients during this

period. Th e demand by shoots and leaves before the end of shoot

growth accounted for a larger proportion of the total demand

for both P and K, whereas the demand by fruit from the end of

shoot growth to fruit harvest made up nearly the entire demand

for new growth and for the whole tree. At fruit harvest, shoots

and leaves had more N, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, and Mn, whereas fruit

had more P, K, B, and Fe. It should be noted that B had the high-

est proportion (77.7%) partitioned to fruit among all nutrients

(Figure 4G) and was the only nutrient that had a much higher

concentration in fruit (fl owers) than in leaves at bloom (Figure

1G), which clearly indicates the importance of B to fruit growth

and development.

Although the Ca concentration in leaf samples taken in early

August was at the lower end of the optimal range, fruit had a

good Ca level with a Ca to Mg ratio at 16 in this study. However,

it should be pointed out that the net accumulation of Ca for the

whole tree from budbreak to fruit harvest obtained in this study

might be an underestimate of Ca requirements for apple cultivars

Table 4. Calculated requirement for each nutrient as a function of fruit

yield (bushels/acre) based on the nutrient requirement data

obtained in this study, assuming that the ratio between net

accumulation of each nutrient in the whole tree from budbreak

to fruit harvest and its amount in fruit remains constant across

the range of fruit yield.


Fruit yield (b/a) N P K Ca Mg S

500 22.1 3.7 40.2 15.9 4.9 1.8 750 33.2 5.5 60.2 23.9 7.3 2.7 1000 44.3 7.4 80.3 31.8 9.8 3.6 1250 55.4 9.2 100.4 39.8 12.2 4.5 1500 66.4 11.1 120.5 47.7 14.7 5.4 1750 77.5 12.9 140.6 55.7 17.1 6.3


Fruit yield (b/a) B Zn Cu Mn Fe

500 47.5 30.9 23.6 93.7 75.4 750 71.2 46.4 35.4 140.6 113.1 1000 95.0 61.8 47.2 187.4 150.9 1250 118.7 77.3 59.0 234.3 188.6 1500 142.5 92.7 70.8 281.1 226.3 1750 166.2 108.2 82.5 328.0 264.0

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haviond-

ay, owe c

deisti

rucaone

it uelp


that are more susceptible to Ca-defi ciency induced disorders rela-

tive to ‘Gala’.

Ca accumulation in ‘Gala’ fruit was found to continue through-

out its entire growth period from bloom to harvest, with 61.7%

of total accumulation occurring from the end of shoot growth to

harvest in this study (Figure 4D). Th is contrasts with some of the

earlier studies suggesting that Ca accumulation primarily takes

place in the fi rst few weeks after bloom (Faust, 1989; Wilkinson,

1968). Th e lack of continued increase in fruit Ca content previ-

ously observed in New York (Faust, 1989) may have been related

to drought conditions during the summer, as most orchards were

not irrigated then. Th e continued accumulation of Ca throughout

fruit growth observed in central Washington under irrigated con-

ditions (Rogers and Batjer, 1954) is also consistent with the idea

that soil moisture may play an important role in determining Ca

accumulation patterns in apple fruit. Wilkinson (1968) observed

that more Ca was accumulated during the cell expansion stage of

fruit development in wet years or under irrigation than in dry years

without irrigation. Th e fact that Ca accumulation occurs during the

entire fruit growth period suggests a wide window for enhancing

fruit Ca levels via irrigation and foliar applications of Ca.

ConclusionsNutrient requirements of ‘Gala’/M.26 trees from budbreak to fruit

harvest are estimated to be 49.3, 8.2, 89.4, 35.4, 10.9 and 4.0 lbs per

acre for N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S, and 105.7, 68.8, 52.5, 208.6 and 167.9

grams per acre for B, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe at a density of 1129 trees/

acre to achieve high yield and good fruit size and quality. Shoots

and leaves and fruit have diff erential patterns of nutrient require-

ments: the high demand period for shoots and leaves is from bloom

to end of shoot growth whereas that for fruit is from the end of

shoot growth to fruit harvest. At harvest, fruit contains more P, K,

B, and Fe whereas shoots and leaves have more N, Ca, Mg, S, Zn,

and Mn. When developing fertilization programs in apple orchards,

soil nutrient availability and tree nutrient status must be taken into

consideration along with tree nutrient requirements.

AcknowledgmentsTh is work was primarily supported by a generous gift from Dr. Da-

vid Zimerman, Cornell Pomology Ph.D. 1954. Additional support

was provided by the New York Apple Research and Development

Program. Th e ‘Gala’ trees used in this study were generously do-

nated by Van Well Nursery in Wenatchee, WA. We thank Andrea

Mason, Louise Gray, Scott Henning, and Cornell Orchard crew for

technical assistance

ReferencesBould, C. 1966. Leaf analysis of deciduous fruits, p. 651-684. In:

N.F. Childers (ed.). Temperate to tropical fruit nutrition. Hort.

Publ., Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.

Cheng, L. and R. Raba. 2009. Accumulation of macro- and

micronutrients and nitrogen demand-supply relationship of

‘Gala’/M.26 trees grown in sand culture. Journal of American

Society for Horticultural Science 134(1): 3-13.

Drahorad, W. 1999. Modern guidelines on fruit tree nutrition.

Compact Fruit Tree 32:66-72.

Faust, M. 1989. Physiology of temperate zone fruit trees. John Wiley

& Sons Inc., New York.

Haynes, R.J. and K.M. Goh. 1980. Distribution and budget of

nutrients in a commercial apple orchard. Plant and Soil

56:445-457.

Neilsen, G. H. and D. Neilsen. 2003. Nutritional requirements of

apple, p267-302. In: Ferree D. C. and I. J. Warrington (eds.).

Apples: Botany, Production and Uses. CABI Publishing,

Cambridge, MA, USA.

Palmer J.W. and G. Dryden. 2006. Fruit mineral removal rates from

New Zealand apple (Malus domestica) orchards in the Nelson

region. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science

34:27-32.

Rogers, B.L. and L.P. Batjer. 1954. Seasonal trends of six nutrient

elements in the fl esh of Winesap and Delicious apple fruits.

Proceedings of American Society for Horticultural Science

63:67-73.

Stiles W. C. and W. S. Reid 1991. Orchard nutrition management.

Cornell Cooperative Extension Bulletin 219.

Wilkinson, B.G. 1968. Mineral composition of apples IX. Uptake

of calcium by the fruit. Journal of the Science of Food and

Agriculture 19:646-647.

Xia, G., L. Cheng, A. N. Lakso, and M. Goffi net. 2009. Eff ects of

nitrogen supply on source-sink balance and fruit size of ‘Gala’

apple trees. Journal of American Society for Horticultural

Science.

Lailiang Cheng is a research and extension professor of Horticulture at Cornell University’s Ithaca Campus. He leads Cornell’s research and extension program in mineral nutrition. Rich Raba is a research technician who works with Dr. Cheng.

YEARS

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“Fertigation has the advantage of

allowing fl exibility in the timing

of nutrient additions, and under

micro-irrigation, targeting the

nutrients into the tree root zone

with higher precision than possible

with sprinkler or rain fed watering.

It is particularly well suited to

high-density production systems.”

Fertigation for Apple Trees

in the Pacifi c NorthwestDenise Neilsen and Gerry Neilsen

Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacifi c Agri-Food Research Centre, Summerland, BC, Canada

Fertigation is the application of nutrients through irriga-

tion lines, during watering. In general, it is more read-

ily adapted for use in micro-irrigation systems such as

micro-sprinkler, micro-

jet and drip than to more

extensive systems such as

sprinkler or furrow. It has

the advantage of allowing

fl exibility in the timing of

nutrient additions, and

under micro-irrigation,

targeting the nutrients

into the tree root zone

with higher precision

than possible with high-

pressure irrigation or

rain-fed watering. It is particularly well suited to high-density

production systems. Injection of nutrients into the irrigation line

can be either passive (Venturi-type) or through pumps, which

can proportion the amount of nutrient added to the fl ow. Th is

paper will emphasize nutrient management with fertigation, not

the design of fertigation systems.

Nutrient uptake by trees is determined by the availability of

nutrients in the soil, interception of nutrients by the roots and by

tree demand. Nutrient availability in the soil is related to native soil

fertility. Soils with a coarse texture (sandy and gravelly) or with low

organic matter content tend to be less fertile than soils that are fi ne

textured (loamy, silty, clayey) or have high organic matter content.

Delivery of nutrients to the tree is aff ected by nutrient mobility.

Mobile nutrients such as nitrogen and boron are dissolved in soil

solution and move easily to roots. Less mobile nutrients such as

calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium are somewhat soluble

but are also easily detached from soil particles. In some soils, potas-

sium also falls into the class of immobile nutrients, which includes,

phosphorus and zinc. Th e immobile nutrients are fi xed onto soil

particles, have low soil solution concentrations and tend to move

slowly to the root by diff usion. Apple trees also have sparse roots

and so cannot easily intercept immobile nutrients. A fi nal factor

is retention in the root zone. For mobile nutrients, movement of

nutrients out of the root zone with water prevents interception; for

immobile nutrients the issue is retaining the nutrient in solution

long enough for root interception and uptake to occur.

Mobile NutrientsNitrogen (N). Careful management of water and nitrogen is

important because fruit trees are very ineffi cient in their use of

nitrogen. A comparison of retention of applied nitrogen in the root

140 160 180 200 220 240

0

20

40

60

80

100

Day of the year

Nitra

te-N

(m

g.l-1

) Fertilizer broadcast

(A)

Day of the year

Nitra

te-N

(m

g.l-1

)

110 130 150 170 190 210 230 0

40

80

120

160

200 (N1

(N3

(B)

Figure 1. Soil solution nitrate-N concentration measured throughout

the growing season at 30cm depth in (A) plot receiving a single

application of broadcast N fertilizer and weekly high impact

sprinkler irrigation and (B) plot receiving daily N fertigation

and drip irrigation at diff erent times N1(triangle) and N3

(square).

zone is shown in Figure 1 and shows how fertigation might help

N fertilizer use effi ciency. Soil solution concentrations of nitrate

nitrogen quickly declined when the fertilizer was broadcast and

sprinkler irrigation was used (Figure 1a). In contrast, an almost

constant concentration in the root zone was maintained when

nitrogen was supplied daily through fertigation at diff erent times

(Figure 1b) allowing nitrogen supply to be managed with more

precision than when broadcast.

In irrigated production systems the supply of nitrogen and

water are closely linked. As nitrate is highly mobile, irrigation

This paper was presented at the 2009 Cornell In-depth Fruit School on Mineral Nutrition.


management is key to the retention of nitrate in the root zone

and hence to nitrate availability to the tree. Several strategies can

be employed to reduce the over application of water which leads

to losses of both water and nitrogen beneath the tree root zone.

Th ese include the use of conservative micro-irrigation systems

to reduce total water inputs (Figure 1), the use of irrigation

scheduling techniques to match water supply to demand and

mulching to reduce water losses from the soil surface through

evaporation. Th e eff ect of scheduling irrigation to meet crop

water demand and thereby reducing nitrate losses beneath the

root zone illustrates the relationship between water and nitrogen

management (Figure 2). In this example an automated system,

which is based on estimates of evaporative demand using a

commercially available electronic atmometer (Etgage Co.,

Loveland Colorado) was used to control irrigation. Water (Figure

2a) and nitrate-nitrogen (Figure 2b) losses were greater beneath

the root zone of trees receiving a fi xed irrigation rate than for

those receiving irrigation scheduled to meet evaporative demand

as described above. Th ere were no diff erences in tree growth

between the sets of trees receiving the two types of irrigation.

Effi cient use of nitrogen requires an estimate of the size and

timing of tree N demand. We have used a variety of measurements

to determine the nitrogen demand of dwarf apple tree including

total tree excavation and partitioning, the use of labeled nitrogen

fertilizer and assessment of annual removal in leaves and fruit.

During the fi rst few years after planting, these values ranged

from 8 lb/acre to 38 lb/acre of nitrogen for trees grown on M.9

rootstock that were newly planted to six year-olds respectively.

Recommended rates of fertilizer are often higher ranging from

40 to 100 lb N/acre.

It has been well documented for apple and other fruit trees

that N is withdrawn from foliage prior to leaf fall, stored in woody

tissues and roots and that in spring N is remobilised from stor-

age to support new growth. For apple trees, development of the

spur leaf canopy is largely dependent on remobilised N. Both

remobilisation and current season uptake supply N for shoot leaf

canopy growth and high root uptake commences around bloom.

Fruit N requirements are met mainly by remobilisation during

cell division, but mainly by root uptake during cell expansion.

Th us application of fertilizer N can be timed to match maximum

demand for shoot leaf canopy development, that is, during the six

weeks after bloom, without necessarily having a potential negative

impact on fruit quality by elevating fruit N concentration.

Less Mobile NutrientsPotassium (K). Th e mobility of K in soil is generally reduced

compared to N but greater than P. Th e mobility of surface-

applied K is highest in sandy soils, reduced for soils with high

exchange capacity (higher clay and organic matter content) and

very limited for soils known to fi x K. Potassium defi ciency can

be increased in drip-irrigated orchards on sandy soils where root

distribution can be restricted by poor lateral spread of applied

water. Defi ciency symptoms appear fi rst in spur leaves adjacent

to fruit. Th ese leaves develop an irregular chlorotic leaf surface

during midsummer which progresses into interveinal browning

and marginal leaf scorch by fruit harvest.

However, soil K status at the main rooting depth can be eas-

ily altered. Daily fertigation of K from mid-June to mid-August

at a rate of 15 g (0.83 oz) /tree/year increased the concentration

of K in the soil solution (Figure 3). Th ese application rates were

loss (

L/t

ree

)




*

*

**

00

100100

200200

(A)

loss (

L/t

ree

)




*

*

**

00

100100

200200

Wa

ter

loss (

L/t

ree

)




*

*

**

00

100100

200200

00

100100

200200

(A)

0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0


*


1.0



6.0

(B)

0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0


*


1.0



0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

N lo

ss (

g/t

ree

)


*


1.0



6.0

(B)

Figure 2. Water drainage (A) and N fl ux (B) beneath the root zone in

response to drip irrigation applied at either maximum rate or

scheduled to meet evaporative demand using an atmometer

either maximum rate or scheduled to meet evaporative demand

using an atmometer.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

Soil

solu

tion K

(m

g.l-1

)

0 K

15g K

Year 3Year 2 Year 4Year 1

Figure 3. Soil solution K concentration at 30cm beneath drip emitters in

response to K applications of 0 and 15 g.year-1 per tree.

Figure 4. Fertilizer phosphorus mobility in the soil in response to irrigation.

Amount of water required to move the same amount of fertilizer

6 inches into the root zone.

1.3

30

72.5

3635

0

20

40

60

80

100Fertigated

(17.5g P/tree

~58kg/ha)

Broadcast

(60 kg/ha)

Irri

gati

on

ap

plied

(cm

)

Single

dose

Daily

dose

Skaha loamy sand

Skaha loamy sand

Quincy sand

Wardensilt loamWardensilt loam

Non-calc.

Calc.


suffi cient to prevent the development of defi cient leaf K con-

centrations during the fi rst fi ve years for four apple cultivars on

M.9 rootstock.

Th ere appears to be little eff ect of the form of K fertilizer on

tree response as demonstrated in a three year experiment with

‘Jonagold’ on M.9 rootstock in which K in diff erent forms was fer-

tigated daily over a six week period from late June to mid-August

(Table 1). Th ere were no major diff erences in leaf K concentration

among K forms which was generally above leaf defi ciency levels

(1.3%) regardless of treatment.

Immobile NutrientsPhosphorus (P). Poor downward movement of surface applied

P-fertilizer into the root zone of many orchard soils has long

been recognized. Th e mobility of P through soil can be further

reduced in fi ner-textured and other soils with a high P-sorption

capacity.

Th is is illustrated from fi eld studies in Washington State

and British Columbia which measured changes in soil P values

with depth after surface fertilizer application (Figure 4). To move

P-fertilizers distances as short as six inches requires the applica-

tion of large quantities of water, particularly for calcareous fi ne

textured soils such as the Warden silt loam (Figure 4). Around

30 times the amount of water was required to move P using daily

fertigation or a broadcast application compared with a single

fertigated dose. Th e single fertigated application temporarily

saturates the P fi xing sites in the soil allowing more downward

movement of P. Similar responses occur with high rates of mono-

ammonium phosphate-fertilizer mixed in the planting hole,

especially on fumigated, replanted orchard sites or in orchards

with low available P.

Few responses to broadcast fertilizer P have been reported.

However, fertigation of P in fi rst year results in the same benefi -

cial eff ects associated with planting hole P applications, namely

increased leaf P concentration and improved tree establishment

and initial fruiting. A single annual pulse application of fertilizer

P to fi ve diff erent apple cultivars (Gala, Fuji, Cameo, Ambrosia,

Silken) planted on M.9 rootstock at high densities (3 foot by 10

foot spacing) improved cumulative yield performance of these

cultivars during the fi rst fi ve growing seasons. Th e experiment

tested a range of fertigation treatments including low (28 ppm

N in irrigation water) and high (168 ppm) nitrogen applications,

each applied for four weeks at three diff erent times after bloom

including early (fi rst 4 weeks postbloom), mid season (four-eight

weeks postbloom) and late applications (8-12 weeks postbloom).

Th e treatment involving high early N plus a pulse of P (4.6 oz/

tree of ammonium polyphosphate (10-34-0)) in the week im-

mediately following bloom has produced the most fruit over all

cultivars (Table 2).

Zinc (Zn). Zinc defi ciency is a common problem in apple.

Symptoms of Zn defi ciency are most usually observed in the

spring and include chorosis (yellowing) of the youngest shoot

leaves that are often somewhat undersized and narrower than

normal (referred to as little leaf). Th e defi ciency may also result in

blind bud and rosetting (small basal leaves which form on short-

ened terminals and lateral shoots of current year’s growth).

Zinc occurs in the soil in relatively insoluble forms and is

easily precipitated on solid surfaces of carbonates and iron and

manganese oxides. As a result, it is considered relatively im-

mobile in the soil and a large fraction of Zn applied to the soil

Table 1. Eff ect of K-fertilizer form on K-nutrition of >Jonagold= on M.9

rootstock grown on sandy loam soil, 2000-2002.

Fertigation treatment (Kg/tree) y Mid-July leaf K concentration (% DW)

2000 2001 2002

Control (0g) 1.38c 1.58c 1.46c KCI (15 g ) 1.60b 1.81b 1.73b KCI (30 g ) 1.67ab 1.96b 1.83ab KMag (15 g) 1.66ab 1.89ab 1.74b KMag (30 g) 1.72a 1.98a 1.85ab K2SO4 (30 g) 1.66ab 2.00a 1.91a K thiosulfate (30 g ) 1.76a 2.01a 1.94a Signifi cance **** **** ****

y 15g = 0.83 oz; 30g = 1.66 oz

*,**,***,**** signifi cantly diff erent at p<0.05, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001Within columns diff erent values followed by diff erent letters are signifi cantly diff erent

Table 2. Cumulative yield per tree of apples from 2nd - 5th leaf for selected

treatments averaged over all cultivars (Silken, Cameo, Fuji, Gala

and Ambrosia).

Fertigation Treatment Cultivar Cumulative yield (pounds/tree)

High early N + P pulse All 86.5a High N (all times) All 73.5b

Within columns diff erent values followed by diff erent letters are signifi cantly diff erent

Table 3. Soil chemical changes at 30 cm depth directly beneath the

emitter, in 20 orchards (3-5 years old) receiving drip irrigation

and fertigation with NH4–based fertilizers

pHz Ca (ppm) Mg (ppm) K (ppm) B (ppm)

Between rows 7.0 1235 144 211 0.97 Beneath emitter 6.2 911 114 88 0.19 Signifi cance *** ** ** ** ****

z pH (1:2 soil:water); Ca, Mg, K extracted in 0.25M acetic acid + 0.015M NH4F; B (hot water extractable).*,**,***,**** signifi cantly diff erent at p<0.05, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001

is absorbed by soil particles unless extremely high application

rates are made. Th ere are some diff erences among soils with less

adsorption on noncalcareous sandy soils, which have reduced

capacity to fi x Zn.

Th ere have been limited studies investigating fertigation of

Zn. Zn fertigation research has been undertaken in an experimen-

tal block of four diff erent apple cultivars on M.9 rootstock at the

Pacifi c Agri-Food Research Centre at Summerland, BC (Figure

5). If no Zn was applied (1992 and 1993) all trees, regardless of

cultivar, had leaf Zn concentrations below the 14 ppm defi ciency

threshold. In 1994, application of dormant zinc sulphate and

foliar Zn chelates, postbloom in early summer, resulted in very

high leaf Zn concentrations across cultivars, probably through

contamination from surface residues from the foliar Zn sprays.

Commencing in 1995, eff orts were made to fertigate Zn as zinc

sulphate (36% Zn) dissolved in the irrigation water and applied

for four weeks during the growing season. Th e application rate

ranged from 0.34 oz liquid zinc sulphate (36% Zn) per tree (3.5 g

Zn per tree) in 1995 and 1996 to double these rates in 1997 and

to 1.7 oz liquid zinc sulphate per tree (17.5 g Zn per tree) in 1998.

Regardless of the fertigated Zn application rate, leaf Zn concentra-

tion did not generally increase above defi ciency thresholds for any


cultivar. Since the site was a sandy soil, these results imply

that correction of inadequate Zn nutrition via fertigation

of mineral zinc sulphate will be diffi cult. Fertigation of

more expensive chelated Zn forms may be more eff ective

but have not undergone extensive testing.

Effects Of Fertigation On Soil PropertiesFertigating ammoniacal forms of N and P can aff ect the

base status of soils as transformation of ammonium to

nitrate is an acidifying process, which may also acceler-

ate leaching. Th e widespread nature of this problem was

indicated in a survey of 20 commercial orchards on coarse-

textured soils which had undergone three to fi ve yrs. of

NP-fertigation in British Columbia. Soil pH, extractable

soil bases and soil B measured at 0 to 15 cm depth directly

beneath the drip emitter, were all reduced (Table 3). In re-

sponse to this survey, a soil test was designed to determine

the susceptibility of soils to acidifi cation An acidifi cation

resistance index (ARI) was developed from analysis of

buff er curves for 50 soils of diff ering composition and was

defi ned as the amount of acid required to reduce soil pH

from initial status to pH 5.0. Th ese values were then com-

pared to common soil test analysis data and a relationship

defi ned between the acidifi cation resistance index, soil pH

and soil extractable bases. It was recommended that soils

with a low acidifi cation resistance index be fertigated with

NO3 –based rather than NH4 –based fertilizers.

Denise Neilsen is a research scientist at the Pacifi c Agri-Food Research Centre of Ag Canada in Summerland British Columbia who specializes in orchard nutrient management.

Sodus, NY Florida, NY

(315) 483-9146 (845) 651-5303

Fancher, NY Addison, VT

(585) 589-6330 (802) 759-2022

Milton, NY Cohocton, NY

(845) 795-2177 (585) 384-5221


Antioxidant contents and activity in

SmartFresh-treated ‘Empire’ apples

during air and controlled atmosphere storageFanjaniaina Fawbush, Jackie Nock and Chris Watkins

Department of Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY

“Our results show that 1-MCP has little

eff ect on the concentrations of ascorbic

acid, total phenolics, fl avonoids and

anthocyanins of Empire apples in either

air or CA storage. Total antioxidant

activity in peel tissues of fruit stored in

air was sometimes higher in Smartfresh-

treated fruit than untreated fruit.

However, the health benefi ts of apples

are realized primarily through phenolic

concentrations and these compounds

are stable after harvest. The bottom line

is that ‘an apple a day keeps the doctor

away,’ regardless of storage technology.”

Many consumers think that vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is

the major antioxidant in fruits and vegetables, but in

fact it is increasingly recognized that phenolic com-

pounds often rep-

resent the majority

of health-related

antioxidant activ-

ity in plant prod-

ucts. Th e phenolic

compounds also

contribute to ap-

pearance, as well

as taste and fl avor.

Apples are one of

the best sources

of antioxidant and

p h e n o l i c co m -

pounds of all fruit,

and are especially

beneficial to our

diet because they

are available year-

round. Research

from the Cornell laboratories of Drs. Cy Lee and Rui Hai Liu,

as well as elsewhere, has shown that apples provide protection

against cardiovascular disease and various cancers. Of the top 25

fruits consumed in the United States, apples are the number one

source of phenolics in the American diet and provide Americans

with 33% of the phenolics they consume (Boyer and Liu, 2004).

For apples, the major focus on health-related properties

has been on phenolic compounds, including fl avonoids such as

the anthocyanins that are responsible for red color of the fruit.

Apple varieties vary greatly in antioxidant components and indi-

vidual phenolic compounds have diff erent antioxidant potential.

Interestingly, reactions among individual compounds may be

synergistic, and therefore, total antioxidant activities potentially

provide a better estimate of the overall contributions of antioxi-

dant components than individual components alone. Phenolic

and fl avonoid contents are consistently higher in the skin than

in the fl esh, and peel tissues have the highest antioxidant activity

and anti-proliferation activity.

In general, the total phenolic concentrations in both peel

and fl esh tissues of apples remain relatively stable during stor-

age, although individual components may vary. Th e advent of

SmartFresh storage technology based on 1-methylcyclopropene

(1-MCP), an inhibitor of ethylene perception, has raised the

question about its eff ects on the nutritional quality of apple fruit.

Knowledge about responses of fruit in both air and controlled

atmosphere (CA) storage is important. CA can prolong the im-

pact of 1-MCP on both physical and sensory responses of apple

and the two technologies generally are most eff ective when used

in combination.

To date, studies on the eff ects of 1-MCP on antioxidant

components are limited. MacLean et al. (2006) found that 1-MCP

treatment inhibited an increase in chlorogenic acid in peel tissues

of Red Delicious apples during storage, and resulted in higher

fl avonoid concentrations. MacLean et al. (2003) also found that

total antioxidant activity was higher in peels of 1-MCP-treated

than untreated Empire and Red Delicious apples during storage.

Th e total antioxidant activity (DPPH) of Golden Smoothee fl esh

was unaff ected by 1-MCP treatment, but total ascorbic acid con-

centrations were slightly lower after 30 and 90 days of air storage

(Vilaplana et al., 2006).

Th e objective of the current study was to investigate the

eff ects of 1-MCP treatment during air and CA storage on anti-

oxidant components and antioxidant activity of peel and fl esh

tissues of the Empire apple. Th is research was carried out as part

of a PhD program and has been published in full (Fawbush et al.,

2009). Here, we highlight the main fi ndings of importance to the

New York apple industry.

Materials and MethodsTh e Empire apple fruit used in these experiments were all har-

vested on the same day from mature trees growing at the Cornell

University orchards at Lansing. Th e IEC, fl esh fi rmness, SSC and

starch index of the fruit at harvest were 2.7 ppm, 16.6 lb-f, 12.5%

and 5.7 units, respectively. Fruit were randomly sorted into ex-

perimental units for either air or CA storage experiments.

For air storage, four replicates of 100 fruit were pre-cooled

overnight at 33oF and then they were either untreated or treated

with 1 ppm 1-MCP (SmartFresh powder) for 24 hours. Fruit

were stored for up to fi ve months. For CA storage, replicates of

55-60 fruits were cooled overnight at 36oF, and either untreated

or treated with 1ppm 1-MCP. Four replicates of fruit for each

treatment and temperature were stored in steel chambers, with

2 or 3% O2 (with 2% CO2). Final atmosphere regimes were estab-

lished within 48 hours and were maintained within 0.2% of target

atmospheres. CA storage was carried out for 9 months.

This work was supported in part by the New York Apple Research and Development Program.


Ten fruit per treatment replicates were taken at harvest

for assessment of internal ethylene concentration (IEC), fl esh

fi rmness, soluble solids concentration (SSC) and starch pattern

indices. IEC and fi rmness were measured on 10 fruit replicates

after 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 months for the air-stored fruit, and after 4.5

and 9 months for the CA stored fruit, plus 1 day at 68oF. At the

last removal from storage, all remaining fruit were kept at 68oF

for 7 days and then assessed for disorders.

For extraction of phenolic and other compounds, 10 fruit per

treatment replicate were taken on the day of removal of fruit from

air and CA storage. Total phenolics, fl avonoids, anthocyanins,

total antioxidant activity and total ascorbic acid were measured

on apple peel and fl esh using standard procedures as described

by Fawbush et al. (2009).

ResultsAir storage. 1-MCP prevented any increase in the internal

ethylene concentrations (IEC) during storage, while the IEC

in untreated fruit reached 43.9 ppm after 5 months of storage

(Figure 1). Untreated fruit softened during this time to 11.4 lb-f,

compared with 14.0 lb-f in 1-MCP treated fruit (Figure 1). No

storage disorders were observed in air stored fruit.

At harvest, the phenolic concentrations in peel and fl esh tis-

sues were 2.82 and 1.24 g kg-1, respectively (Figure. 2). Overall,

the phenolic concentration was signifi cantly higher (2.56 g kg-1)

in peel tissues of 1-MCP treated fruit than in those of untreated

fruit (2.16 g kg-1). In the fl esh, total phenolic concentrations of

untreated fruit were signifi cantly higher at 0.90 g kg-1 than the

0.84 g kg-1 of 1-MCP treated fruit. No eff ect of storage time was

detected for either tissue type.

Total fl avonoid and anthocyanin concentrations in the peel

were aff ected only by storage time, but the patterns of change were

inconsistent (results not shown). In fl esh tissues, total fl avonoids

were not aff ected by either 1-MCP treatment or storage time.

At harvest, the total ascorbic acid concentrations in the

peel and fl esh were 0.55 and 0.11 g kg-1, respectively, and these

concentrations declined in both untreated and 1-MCP-treated

fruit during storage (Figure 3). Th ere was no signifi cant eff ect of

1-MCP treatment on peel concentrations, although in the fl esh

tissues, the total ascorbic acid concentrations were slightly lower

in 1-MCP-treated tissues than untreated tissues, averaging 0.07

and 0.06 g kg-1, respectively. However, eff ects were evident at

only some time points.

Th e total antioxidant activity in the peel was 2.82 mmol kg-1

at harvest, and overall, the activity in peel tissue from 1-MCP

treated fruit was 2.64 mmol kg-1, compared with 2.12 mmol

kg-1 in untreated fruit. However, diff erences between treatments

were evident only at months 1 to 3 (Figure 3). Total antioxidant

activity in fl esh tissues was also signifi cantly higher in 1-MCP

treated fruit than untreated fruit, averaging 1.14 and 0.95 mmol

kg-1, respectively. Total antioxidant activity was not aff ected by

storage time.

CA storage. Th e IEC was much lower, and fi rmness higher,

in 1-MCP treated fruit than in untreated fruit (Table 1). No ex-

ternal or internal disorders were detected after 4.5 months of CA

storage, but a high incidence of fl esh browning was observed in

fruit after 9 months of storage.

Th e total phenolics, total fl avonoid and ascorbic acid con-

centrations in peel and fl esh tissues were not consistently aff ected

by 1-MCP treatment (Tables 2, 3 and 4). Total anthocyanin

Figure 1. Internal ethylene concentrations (A) and fl esh fi rmness (B) of

Empire apples either untreated or treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP and

stored at 33°F in air for up to 5 months.

Figure 2. Total phenolic concentrations (gallic acid equivalents, mg kg−1) in

peel and fl esh tissues of Empire apples either untreated or treated

with 1 ppm 1-MCP and stored at 33°F in air for up to 5 months.

concentrations in peel tissues were also unaff ected by 1-MCP

treatment (data not shown).

Th e total antioxidant activity in peel tissues was not aff ected

by 1-MCP (Table 5), but the total antioxidant activity was higher in

fl esh tissues of 1-MCP treated than untreated fruit, being 1.40 and

1.25 mmol kg-1, respectively. Interactions among all storage factors

were detected, however, and overall trends were inconsistent.


Table 5. Total antioxidant activity (vitamin C equivalents, mmol kg-1) in

peel and fl esh tissues of Empire apples, either untreated or treated

with 1 ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or

3% oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and 9 months.

Diff erent letters associated with means indicate that there are

diff erences between treatments for a tissue type.

Storage time

(months)

1-MCP Peel Flesh

2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O24.5 - 3.04a 2.66abc 1.32bc 1.52b

+ 2.55abcd 2.72abc 1.86a 1.03d

9 - 2.07cd 2.84ab 1.28bcd 1.32bc+ 1.91d 2.37bcd 1.19cd 1.16cd

Table 1. Internal ethylene concentrations (IEC), fl esh fi rmness and fl esh

browning of Empire apples, either untreated or treated with 1

ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or 3%

oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 a nd 9 months.


diff erences between treatments.

Storage

time

(months)

1-MCP IEC (ppm) Firmness (lb-f) Flesh

browning (%)

2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O24.5 - 167a 216a 13.0c 11.7d 0 0

+ 2.3c 1.5c 15.3a 15.4a 0 0

9 - 234a 170a 11.9d 9.0e 84a 60b+ 32b 56b 14.3b 14.4b 84a 87a

Table 2. Total phenolic concentrations (gallic acid equivalents, g kg-1)

in peel and fl esh tissues of Empire apples, either untreated or

treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres

of 2% or 3% oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and

9 months. Diff erent letters associated with means indicate that

there are diff erences between treatments for a tissue type.

Storage time

(months)

1-MCP Peel Flesh

2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O24.5 - 2.56a 1.81g 0.96bc 1.01abc

+ 2.47b 2.27d 0.90c 1.12a

9 - 2.37c 2.12e 1.08ab 0.66d+ 1.90f 2.15e 0.98bc 1.01abc

Table 3. Total fl avonoid concentrations (catechin equivalents, g kg-1) in

peel and fl esh tissues of Empire apples, either untreated or treated

with 1 ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or

3% oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and 9 months.


diff erences between treatments for a tissue type.

Storage time

(months)

1-MCP Peel Flesh

2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O24.5 - 0.91a 0.88a 0.39b 0.49ab

+ 1.01a 1.14a 0.56a 0.42b

9 - 1.12a 1.17a 0.49ab 0.44b+ 0.92a 1.19a 0.54a 0.49ab

Table 4. Total ascorbic acid concentrations (g kg-1) in peel and fl esh tissues

of Empire apples, either untreated or treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP,

and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or 3% oxygen with

2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and 9 months. Diff erent letters

associated with means indicate that there are diff erences between

treatments for a tissue type.

Storage time

(months)

1-MCP Peel Flesh

2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O24.5 - 0.37a 0.35a 0.11a 0.09bc

+ 0.35a 0.31a 0.10ab 0.09bc

9 - 0.38a 0.33a 0.10ab 0.09bc+ 0.36a 0.33a 0.09bc 0.08c

DiscussionTh e eff ects of storage conditions on antioxidants in the absence

of 1-MCP treatment have been well studied, and in general,

total phenolics, total antioxidant activity and radical scavenging

capacity are stable or increase during storage. Th e results of our

study also largely indicate that concentrations of total pheno-

lics, fl avonoids, anthocyanins and total antioxidant activity are

Figure 4. Total antioxidant activity (vitamin C equivalents, mmol kg−1)

in peel and fl esh tissues of Empire apples either untreated or

treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP and stored at 33°F in air for up to 5

months.

Figure. 3. Total ascorbic acid concentrations (mg kg−1) in peel and fl esh

tissues of Empire apples either untreated or treated with 1 ppm

1-MCP and stored at 33°F in air for up to 5 months.


relatively stable during air and CA storage. However, the eff ects

of 1-MCP on individual phytochemical groups were variable.

In air-stored fruit, total phenolic concentrations were higher in

peel tissues, but lower in fl esh tissues, of 1-MCP treated fruit

compared with untreated fruit. No eff ects of 1-MCP were found

for total fl avonoid or anthocyanin concentrations, except that

fl avonoid concentrations were higher in 1-MCP treated fruit

than untreated fruit during CA storage.

Total antioxidant activity, assayed using a recently developed

method (Adom and Liu, 2005), was higher in both peel and fl esh

tissues of 1-MCP-treated fruit compared with untreated fruit,

although higher only in fl esh tissues of CA-stored fruit. Higher

total antioxidant activity in 1-MCP treated peel tissues of air-

stored Empire and Delicious apples was also found by MacLean

et al. (2003). Th e reasons for higher antioxidant activity in air-

stored 1-MCP-treated fruit are uncertain. Both total phenolic

concentrations and total antioxidant activity were higher in peel

tissues, and these two factors have been strongly correlated with

each other in other studies.

Ascorbic acid concentrations declined in both peel and fl esh

tissues during air storage, while in CA storage, patterns of change

over time were inconsistent, depending on the O2 concentration.

Surprisingly little information is available concerning changes in

ascorbic acid concentrations in apple fruits during storage, espe-

cially in CA, and even less is known about the eff ects of 1-MCP.

Th e signifi cance of decreased ascorbic acid concentrations during

storage with and without 1-MCP-treated fruit in this study and

others is uncertain. Although ascorbic acid is generally considered

to be important in nutrition, it represents a minor component of

the total antioxidant activity of apples. Ascorbic acid, however,

is a critical component of antioxidative processes in plant cells,

interacting enzymatically and non-enzymatically with damaging

oxygen radical and reactive oxygen species.

Conclusion1-MCP delays fruit ripening of Empire apples, but the eff ects

of treatment on phytochemical groups are relatively small. Th e

results show that eating apples, regardless of storage technology,

is the right thing to do to keep the doctor away!

AcknowledgmentsTh is research was supported by the New York Apple Research

and Development Program, AgroFresh, Inc., and the Cornell

University Agricultural Experiment Station, federal formula

funds, Project NE-1018, received from the Cooperative State

Research, Education and Extension Service, U.S. Department of

Agriculture. We thank Dr. Adom and Dr. Liu for advice on the

total antioxidant assay.

ReferencesAdom, K.K., Liu, R.H., 2005. Rapid peroxyl radical scavenging

capacity (PSC) assay for assessing both hydrophilic and lipo-

philic antioxidants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53, 6572-6580.

Boyer, J., Liu, R., 2004. Apple phytochemicals and their health

benefi ts. Nutr. J. 3, 5.

Fawbush, F., Nock J.F., Watkins, C.B., 2009. Antioxidant contents

and activity of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)-treated

‘Empire’ apples in air and controlled atmosphere storage.

Postharvest Biol. Technol. 52, 30-37.

MacLean, D.D., Murr, D.P., DeEll, J.R., 2003. A modifi ed total

oxyradical scavenging capacity assay for antioxidants in plant

tissues. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 29, 183-194.

MacLean, D.D., Murr, D.P., DeEll, J.R., Horvath, C.R., 2006.

Postharvest variation in apple (Malus domestica Borkh.)

fl avonoids following harvest, storage, and 1-MCP treatment.

J. Agric. Food Chem. 54, 870-878.

Fanjaniaina Fawbush was a graduate student working with Chris Watkins. Jackie Nock is a research support specialist who works with Chris Watkins. Chris Watkins is a research and extension professor in the Department of Horticulture at Cornell’s Ithaca Campus who leads Cornell’s program in postharvest biology of fruit crops.

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Well-managed blueberry plantings can remain

productive for 25 years or more. Canker and dieback

diseases rob plants of fruiting wood and reduce

planting longevity.

Th e t w o m o s t

common canker

diseases identifi ed

b y J . C a r r o l l

i n s p e c i m e n s

submitted to the

plant pathology

diagnostic lab in

the 1980’s were

Phomopsis canker

and Fusicoccum

(Godronia) canker,

prompting her to

undertake a survey

for these diseases.

While cultural practices to manage these two canker diseases are

similar, intensive management to bring the cankers under control

in severely aff ected plantings may need to rely on pathogen-

specifi c fungicide programs over a two to three year period, rather

than a one-size-fi ts-all approach.

Infection by canker fungi causes leaves to turn reddish-

brown, wilt and remain attached to shoots. Typically, symptoms

fi rst occur when fruit is present and temperatures are warm.

Cankers are often found near the base of the aff ected canes, but

can occur higher in the canopy on branches. When pruning

out aff ected canes, look for tan, pink, or brown discoloration in

the wood in cross-section. Fungal spores, produced on infected

wood, spread the diseases within and among the plants so it is

very important to rid the planting of this inoculum.

Fusicoccum spore release occurs during rain events essen-

tially all season long, from bud break to leaf drop, with peak spore

production and release during bloom (Caruso & Ramsdell 1995).

Phomopsis spore release occurs during rain events from blossom

bud swell (pink bud) through late August. As little as 0.15 inch of

rain can trigger spore release. Infections occur within 48 hours

in the presence of free water, warm temperatures (50F-80F), and

susceptible tissues.

Fusicoccum cankers on one-to-two-yr-old canes typically

develop from infections that occurred the previous year, while

those from Phomopsis canker can develop in the same year of

infection. Wounds are not required for infection by Fusicoccum.

Although this is also true for Phomopsis, mechanically wounded

or freeze-damaged stems are more prone to Phomopsis infec-

tion.

Phomopsis cankers are brownish with a lighter brown cen-

ter, while Fusicoccum cankers are redder and may have a target

pattern of alternating bands of light and dark reddish-brown. As

infected stems age, Phomopsis cankers turn gray and the canes

become fl attened because the infected side of the stem fails to

put down new wood.

Management relies principally on proper site selection and

maintaining vigorous plants: proper soil pH, plant nutrition, ir-

rigation, avoiding frost pockets and winter injury. IPM principals

of sanitation and canopy management are paramount. Prune out

diseased and dead canes. Remove prunings from the planting and

destroy them by chopping or burning. Be mindful of restrictions

against burning, but do not neglect the importance of removing

prunings from the planting. Manage the planting to allow for

rapid drying of the plant canopy after rain: manage weeds, prune

out old canes, orient rows with prevailing winds, and select sites

with good air drainage.

Survey MethodsExtension educators in each of the growing regions assisted with

the surveys and received reports on the results found. Th eir co-

operation is gratefully acknowledged; they included:

• Deborah Breth, Cornell Cooperative Extension Lake Ontario

Fruit Program

• Cathy Heidenreich, Department of Horticulture, Cornell

University

• Kevin Iungerman, Cornell Cooperative Extension North-

eastern New York Fruit Program

• Laura McDermott, Department of Horticulture, Cornell

University

• Steven McKay, Cornell Cooperative Extension Hudson Valley

Fruit Program

• Molly Shaw, Southern Tier Ag Team, Tioga County Cornell

Cooperative Extension

During June and July, 33 farms were visited, seven in 2007

(Tioga, Orleans, and Niagara counties) (Carroll 2007b), 12 in 2008

(Essex, Washington, Saratoga, Albany, Columbia, and Dutchess

counties), and 14 in 2009 (Oswego, Onondaga, and Yates coun-

Figure 1. Highbush blueberry plant with high incidence

of Phomopsis canker.


Results of a New York Blueberry

SurveyJuliet E. Carroll1,2, Marc Fuchs2 and Kerik Cox2

1 New York State IPM Program2 Dept. of Plant Pathology and Plant Microbe-BiologyNew York State Ag. Exp. Station, Cornell UniversityGeneva, NY

“Our blueberry survey found that

Phomopsis canker was most frequent

in NY. Tobacco ringspot viruses were

associated with serious decline of

blueberry in NY. Our results have

prompted us to consider research on

fungicide treatments for Phomopsis

canker and to undertake a survey for viral

diseases in blueberry.”

ties). Plantings were traversed randomly, unless specifi c areas

were identifi ed by the grower as having problems, and plants

examined.

Suspicious canes were removed and brought back to the

laboratory for analysis. Subsamples of the canes and branches

were incubated in a moist chamber to encourage sporulation

of fungi which were identifi ed microscopically. Identity of fungi

was based on characteristic size, shape and color of the fungal

fruiting bodies and spores (stroma, pycnidia, acervuli, conidio-

phores, cirrhi, and conidia) (Caruso & Ramsdell 1995, Farr et al.

1989). Samples with suspected virus infection were tested with

virus-specifi c antisera and via indicator plants.

ResultsTh e farms surveyed ranged in size from under one to over 20

acres, with plantings from one to over 25 yrs old. One farm had

long-established plantings still producing well that were pushing

100 years old. Th e majority of the plantings had irrigation. Th ose

with good weed management used sawdust or wood chip mulch

within the plant row. Plantings with vigorous, high-yielding plants

were pruned primarily to remove old canes, allowing canes to

achieve their natural height of fi ve to eight ft (Pritts & Hancock

1992), had drip irrigation, were mulched, and had excellent weed

control.

Phomopsis was the most prevalent canker disease in the

New York blueberry plantings surveyed, especially in Eastern NY

where Fusicoccum was not found. By contrast, in Western NY

farms Fusicoccum canker was more frequently found (Table 1).

Phomopsis canker was associated with the most severely aff ected

plantings with 10-50% infected plants. Typically, incidence of

cankers within a planting was low, ranging from 2-5% infected

plants. When canker incidence was ~10% infected plants, grow-

ers became concerned. Most often only one infected cane was

found per plant, and therefore, the disease would go unnoticed.

But, when incidence in the planting exceeded 10%, several canes

per plant were infected (Figure 1). Severe Phomopsis canker

incidence approaching 50% infected plants was found in three

plantings in NY. On four of the 33 farms surveyed, no canker

diseases were found.

Canker incidence varied among cultivars. It is known

that certain cultivars are very susceptible to Phomopsis canker

(Weymouth, Earliblue, and Berkeley) and to Fusicoccum canker

(Jersey, Earliblue, and Bluecrop) (Pritts et al. 2009). While only

some growers had good records of which cultivars were found

in their plantings, this information can be fundamental to IPM

and to advancing blueberry production in NY.

Botryosphaeria stem blight (Figure 2) was tentatively identi-

fi ed from four farms in NY (Table 1). Th is disease on blueberry

had not been previously described from NY. Th is fungus has a

broad host range, attacking deciduous trees and shrubs includ-

ing maple, birch, sumac, elm, viburnum, apple, buckthorn, etc.)

Management practices for this disease would be similar to those

for the other canker diseases. Twig blights were found associ-

ated with infection by Colletotrichum spp. and Botrytis cinerea,

anthracnose ripe rot and Botrytis blight, respectively, were also

found. A Pestalotia-like fungus was found on a small number

of samples collected in 2007 and 2008 and may be the same as

one reported from blueberry plantings in Chile Pestalotiopsis

clavispora (Espinoza et al 2008).

Mummy berry primary infections can also cause small

Figure 2. Microscopic view of squashed fruiting body and spores of asexual

state of Botryosphaeria dothidea (400X magnifi cation).

Figure 3. Cross-section of mummy-berry-infected immature blueberry

fruit.


Table 1. Prevalence of canker and dieback diseases found in 33 blueberry

farms surveyed during the summers of 2007, 2008, and 2009.

Canker / Dieback W NY

Farms

E NY

Farms

C NY

Farms

Total of

Disease

Phomopsis a 3 12 8 23Fusicoccum b 5 0 4 9Anthracnose c 2 0 3 5

Botryosphaeria d 1 3 0 4

Botrytis e 0 2 1 3Number of Farms 7 12 14

a Phomopsis canker, Phomopsis vaccinii Shear.b Fusicoccum canker or Godronia canker, anamorph (conidial stage) Fusicoccum putrefaciens Shear and teleomorph (ascospore stage) Godronia cassandrae Peck. Ascospore infections are relatively unimportant in the disease cycle.c Twig blight caused by the anthracnose fruit rot or ripe rot pathogens, Colletotri-chum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. or C. acutatum J.H. Simmonds.d Botryosphaeria stem blight, putative identifi cation of Fusicoccum aesculi Corda (conidial stage) of Botryosphaeria dothidea (Moug.:Fr.) Ces. & De Not.e Botrytis blight, Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr.

twig blight symptoms in the

absence of fruit infections.

Lack of fruit infection may

result from dry, hot conditions

following a wet spring, from

fl owering time not coinciding

well with production of spores

on blighted leaves and twigs,

perhaps from early abscis-

sion of infected fruit, or from

well-timed fungicide sprays

protecting blossoms. In 2009,

likely favored by the wet grow-

ing season, mummy berry on

fruit (Figure 3) was found in

half of the plantings visited

and aff ected up to 70% of the

fruit in two of the 14 surveyed

plantings. In prior years it was

found only in one planting in

2007.

Weed management prob-

lems were most frequently

encountered in plantings that

had recently changed hands,

where time allotted to farm

management was insuffi cient,

and where herbicide applica-

tions were poorly timed or

inadequate. Instances where

perennial weeds had en-

croached on plantings, seri-

ous economic impact on yield

resulted. One interesting weed

was found in two Eastern NY

plantings. It was groundnut,

Apios americana, a perennial

vine which grows from edible

tubers (Iungerman 2008) (Fig-

ure 4 ABCD).

Symptoms of viral dis-

ease were found on 12 farms

surveyed and samples brought

back for analysis (Carroll

2007a). Of these, samples from

four farms tested positive for

the presence of tomato ringspot virus (ToRSV) (Figure 5) and ad-

ditional samples from one of these four farms tested positive for

tobacco ringspot virus (TRSV) which causes the disease known

as necrotic ringspot of blueberry (Converse 1987) (Figure 6).

Th e prevalence of virus symptoms in plantings and the concern

expressed by the growers and extension specialists has prompted

the authors to embark next spring on a statewide survey of viral

diseases in blueberries.

DiscussionNew York ranked 10th in the nation in blueberry production, with

700 acres producing 2.3 million pounds valued at $3.37 million

in 2007 (Anonymous 2006). Th e demand for blueberry and blue-

berry products has increased given the interest in foods high in

Figure 4. A, B. Groundnut vines overgrowing blueberry plants. C. Close-up of groundnut vine on blueberry plant.

D. Entire plant showing length of vine and tubers. E. Close-up of infl orescence in leaf axil. F. Groundnut

fl owers. G, H. Edible groundnut tubers.

antioxidants. Th is survey was undertaken primarily to determine

the prevalence of canker pathogens in blueberry plantings, but

also to survey for other problems impacting blueberry production

in NY. It will benefi t our blueberry industry to gain knowledge

about factors that limit production.

Th is survey uncovered Phomopsis canker as a principal

canker disease in NY, being found more often than other canker

diseases and, on three farms, causing severe disease. Canker

management relies almost exclusively on proper pruning and

plant health maintenance. Although Phomopsis canker can be

associated with winter injury, occurring on weakened branches, it

can be a serious primary causes of plant damage, as was found on

three farms. Intensive management to bring cankers under con-

trol in severely aff ected plantings may need to be supplemented



by aggressive fungicide programs

over a two to three year period,

spanning the disease cycle. Re-

search on specifi c treatments for

managing this disease under NY

conditions is needed.

Botryosphaeria stem blight,

previously unreported from NY,

was uncovered by this survey.

Th e importance of mummy berry

as a limiting factor in blueberry

production was also underlined

by the survey. Interestingly, while

the ringspot viruses are soil born

an IPM practice for mummy ber-

ry, which is to bury the mummies,

could contribute to spreading

the nematode vector of ToRSV

and TRSV within and among

plantings. Here is an example

of why it is crucial to know the

pest complex in your blueberry

plantings in order to best apply IPM practices. Virus diseases

can be propagated with infected, symptomless blueberry cuttings

and lead to serious decline of plantings. Research on the extent

and impact of viral diseases in blueberry will be addressed in an

upcoming survey in the spring of 2010.

Literature CitedAnonymous. 2008. New York Agricultural Statistics 2007-2008

Annual Bulletin. 88 pp.

Carroll, J. 2007a. Blueberry survey is uncovering viruses in New

York. New York Berry News 6(9):6.

Carroll, J. 2007b. Preliminary survey of blueberry cankers. New

York Berry News 6(8):11-12.

Caruso, F.L. and Ramsdell, D.C., eds. 1995. Compendium of Blue-

berry and Cranberry Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul. 87 pp.

Converse, R.H. 1987. Virus Diseases of Small Fruits. Agriculture

Handbook No. 631. USDA ARS, Washington, DC. 277

pp.

Espinoza, J.G., Briceno, E.X., and Latorre, B.A. 2008. Identifi ca-

tion of species of Botryoshaeria, Pestalotiopsis and Phomop-

sis in blueberry in Chile. Phytopathology 98:S51.

Farr, D.F., Bills, G.F., Chamuris, G.P., and Rossman, A.Y. 1989.

Fungi on Plants and Plant Products in the United States.

APS Press, St. Paul. 1252 pp.

Iungerman, K. 2008. Apios Americana (the groundnut): a major

weed of blueberries. i, NE NY Area Fruit Program, Cornell,

Vol 12, No 7, 2 pp.

Pritts, M.P. and Hancock, J.F. (eds) 1992. Highbush Blueberry Pro-

duction Guide. NRAES-55. NRAES, Ithaca, NY. 200 pp.

Pritts, M., Heidenreich, C., Gardner, R., Helms, M., Smith, W.,

Loeb, G., McDermott, L., Weber, C., McKay, S., Carroll,

J.E., Cox, K., and Bellinder, R. 2009. 2009 Pest Management

Guidelines for Berry Crops. Cornell Cooperative Extension,

Ithaca. 102 pp.

Figure 5. Symptoms on cv. Patriot associated with tomato ringspot virus

infection.

Figure 6. Symptoms of necrotic

ringspot on cv. Bluecrop

associated with tobacco

ringspot virus infection.

AcknowledgementsTh is work was supported with base funding for the Fruit IPM

Coordinator provided by the NYS Department of Agriculture and

Markets. Support from Cornell Cooperative Extension County

Associations and Regional Programs is gratefully acknowledged.

Assistance with virus confi rmation provided by Robert Martin,

USDA-ARS, Corvallis, OR is appreciated.

Photo CreditsFigures 1, 4A, 4B, 4C, and 4D - Kevin Iungerman. Figures 2 and

6 - Juliet Carroll. Figures 3 and 5 - Molly Shaw

Juliet E. Carroll is the Fruit IPM coordinator for the NYS IPM Program in Cornell Cooperative Extension. Marc

Fuchs is a research and extension assistant professor in the Dept. of Plant Pathology at Cornell’s Geneva Experiment Station who specializes in virus diseases. Kerik Cox is a research and extension assistant professor in the Dept. of Plant Pathology at Cornell’s Geneva Experiment Station who specializes in the diseases of tree fruit and berries.

The codling moth (CM) Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus),

a European native, is a principal insect pest of pome

fruit throughout much of the world. A member of the

lepidopteran fam-

ily Tortricidae, it

is a bivoltine moth,

having two gen-

erations in most of

the U.S. including

New York State. A

partial third gen-

eration exists in

the Pacifi c North-

west. Introduced

to the New World

during the earli-

est years of pome

fruit production

the codling moth

has historically been a very diffi cult insect to control. It was

not until the development of the synthetic insecticides, broad-

spectrum materials with extended residual, contact and feeding

effi cacy, that economic damage imposed by this insect was, for

a period, curtailed.

Th e larvae overwinter in cocoons on the trunk and limbs,

emerging as adults during the tight cluster through bloom period

of apple. Shortly after mating, the female deposits her eggs onto

foliage and fruit, giving rise to larva that cause signifi cant feeding

damage to the surface, fl esh, core and seed of the fruit if unman-

aged. A mechanism of survival contributing to the codling moth

persistent success are the well-developed feeding habits of the

larva. Larva emerging from eggs laid onto the fruit often begins

burrowing through the egg covering, directly into the fruit, with

little to no surface activity. To evade toxins present on the surface

or skin of the fruit, the newly emerged larva will chew and excrete

the skin prior to entry, only then proceeding into the fruit to feed.

Th is tactic of fruit skin disposal reduces the amount of toxin the

larva consumes while feeding.

Emergence of the CM fi rst generation larva coincides with

the immigration of adult plum curculio (PC) Conotrachelus

nenuphar (Herbst) into commercial orchards. For more than 50

years, the CM has been eff ectively managed through the use of

the organophosphate class of insecticides against the PC. Later

Figure 1. Eff ect of Guthion 50W (azinphos-methyl) on mortality of adult

codling populations trapped from Western NY orchards, a

laboratory strain (Benzon) and study group baseline (Barnes/

Moffi t).

in the season the second generation of CM larval emergence

overlaps, at least in part, with other principle fruit pests, including

the obliquebanded leafroller (OBLR) Choristoneura rosaceana

(Harris), apple maggot Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), oriental

fruit moth, Grapholita molesta, and the lesser apple worm Gra-

pholita Prunivora Walsh. Management of these insects provides

fair to excellent levels of CM control depending on a number of

management and biotic factors. Recent restrictions placed on the

organophosphate class of insecticides, such as worker re-entry

intervals, lengthened days to harvest and limits on total appli-

cations per season, have substantially reduced late season OP

use. Th is shift in insecticide use may require the control of these

insects through the use of multiple and more species-specifi c

classes of insecticides, and incorporation of mating disruption

to achieve comparable control yet increasing the cost of pome

fruit production.

Insects with multiple generations, which maintain a constant

presence in commercial orchards, are exposed to the selection

pressure insect pest management tool impose. Th is constant

exposure provides the mechanism for insecticide resistance de-

velopment. Over the last two decades codling moth populations

throughout North America have become increasingly tolerant of

pest management practices, with increasing levels of insecticide

resistance to the organophosphate class of chemistries used in

pome fruit pest management. Insecticide resistance to azinphos-

methyl (Guthion) has been well documented in codling moth

populations throughout the western Unites States fruit growing

regions for the past 20 years (Varela, et al., 1993; Reidhl et al.,

1986, Steenwyck and Welter, 1998). Ohio, Michigan and Pennsyl-

vania have seen increasingly high internal lepidopteran damage

levels in harvested fruit. Over the past nine years western New

York processing blocks of apple have seen increasing numbers of

damaged fruit due to internal worm infestations. Infested fruit

sampled from these orchards contained larvae from a complex

of internal worm, consisting of the codling moth, the oriental

fruit moth and the lesser apple worm. In 2002 infestations were

found to contain predominately oriental fruit moth larvae, yet

in 2005, a year in which 100 loads from 60 farms were ticketed


Assessing Azinphos-methyl

Resistance in New York State

Codling Moth PopulationsPeter Jentsch1, Frank Zeoli1 & Deborah Breth2

1Cornell University’s Hudson Valley Laboratory, Highland, NY 2Cornell Cooperative Extension, Albion, NY

“Codling moth populations throughout the

Eastern tree fruit-producing region have

become increasingly tolerant to insect

pest management practices. We have

observed in this study greater tolerance

to azinphos-methyl in adult codling

moth populations trapped in commercial

processing blocks when compared to

Eastern NY commercial fresh market

orchards. ”

This work was supported in part by the New York Apple Research

and Development Program.

from processing centers by USDA inspectors, the predominate

species was and continues to be the codling moth.

Given the dramatic increase in the presence of the internal

worm complex in processing fruit, we were hard-pressed to

ask to the question; ‘Has there been an increase in tolerance

or resistance of the internal worm population in western NY’

or is this simply related to a shift in specifi c practices used in

managing processing apple blocks? Historically, insecticide

resistance development in CM populations has been a

reoccurring and economically devastating event, and as such,

it seemed prudent to investigate state wide CM populations

for levels of susceptibility to commonly used insecticides. In

collaboration with the Lake Ontario Fruit Team (LOFT) and

the Hudson Valley Laboratory, a study was initiated to establish

the insecticidal tolerance of azinphos-methyl in regional adult

codling moth populations given its seasonal use patterns.

A concurrent evaluation was also made of currently used

insecticides to determine the effi cacy of these materials against

susceptible CM adult and 1st instar larva.

To determine insect population levels of resistance to a

specifi c chemical or insecticide class, comparison bioassay

studies to both fi eld collected and susceptible populations to

the specifi c insecticide in question are conducted. In a classic

case study, shortly after azinphos-methyl was released for

use in commercial orchards, Barnes and Moffi t (1963) at the

University of California-Riverside conducted a resistance study

on codling moth populations obtained in commercial and

abandoned orchards. Th ey determined that fi eld populations

of codling moth had a lethal dose or LD90 level of 0.158 μg/μl

of azinphos-methyl, considered to be the standard susceptible

level of mortality to this insecticide. Helmut Riedl conducted a

follow-up study in 1985 to confi rm that New York orchards still

had susceptible populations of codling moth with adults taken

from a site in Geneva, NY exhibiting LD90 levels of 0.350 μg/μl

of azinphos-methyl. Although this concentration was two fold

higher than the Barnes and Moffi t study population, it was not

considered to be resistant.

Results: Adult BioassayIn our first series of tests conducted in 2008-09 on adult codling

moths, we collected adults from four western NY processing

orchards in Williamson and Wolcott and five Hudson Valley

fresh market orchards in Marlboro, Milton, Highland,

Altamont, Burnt Hills to compare levels of susceptibility to

azinphos-methyl. Approximately 20-100 CM traps were set at

each site to collect adults from the 1st generation flight. Moths

flying between dawn and dusk were captured on pheromone

trap cards and returned to the laboratory within 24 hours.

Adults were then treated using 1 μl (micro liter) droplets of

laboratory grade acetone, applied to our control population,

and serial dilutions of 98.9% concentration of azinphos-

methyl (Pestanal; Sigma-Aldrich, Atlanta, GA), dissolved in

acetone to achieve rates of 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6 part per million

concentrations, equivalent to μg/μl (microgram per micro

liter) doses. Applications of these concentrations were made

to the dorsal thoratic plate of the moth with mortality assessed

using two evaluations at 24 and 48 hours after treatment.

Moths were scored as live or dead based on antenna-stimulated

and or probed movement response of the adult. In order to

establish differences in levels of insecticide tolerance, mortality


Figure 2. The concentration of Guthion 50W (azinphos-methyl) required to

produce morality in 90% of the adult codling population trapped

from Eastern (ENY) and Western (WNY) orchards.

Figure 3. Percent mortality of 1st instar laboratory reared susceptible

codling moth larva topically exposed to highest labeled fi eld rate

insecticides.

Figure 4. Percent mortality of 1st instar laboratory reared susceptible codling

moth larva exposed to apple4residue using the highest labeled

fi eld rate insecticide, and the percent of apples to which CM larva

had burrowed after 2 and 24 hours.

0

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80

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100

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40

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ail 3

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Codling Moth Larvae Bioassay (susceptible ‘Benzon’ Colony), NYSAES, Highland NY 2009

Efficacy of Treatments at Highest Labeled Field Rate

Percent Mortality After 24hrs.2Percent Mortality After 2hrs.1

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

1.4

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1.8

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NY Orchard

Azinphos-methyl LD90 Levels of Adult Codling Moth Populations in NY Orchards, 2009

More Susceptible Less Susceptible

curves were used to determine degrees of CM susceptibility

to azinphos-methyl (Figure 1).

From the data generated in this portion of the study we

observed lower levels of susceptibility in all study groups

compared to the previous studies mentioned. Levels of reduced

susceptibility were evident in western NY orchards, primarily

in Verbridge and Williamson (Figure 2). Laboratory reared

populations (‘Benzon susceptible strain’), and populations

collected from most eastern NY orchards exhibited an LD90

of < 0.85 μg/μl for azinphos-methyl with the exception of the

‘Morello’ orchard. Th e western NY strains in Verbridge displayed

an LD90 of 1.86 μg/μl for azinphos-methl, approximately 2.2 fold

less susceptible than the Benzon strain. Given the fi ndings that all

NY strains demonstrated a higher tolerance to azinphos-methyl

compared to that of the Riedl and Barnes/Moffi t studies implies

reduced susceptibility levels across the state, with lower levels

of susceptibility in WNY processing orchards. Th e overall low

levels of azinphos-methyl susceptibility of NYS codling moth

populations coupled with reduced levels of susceptibility in

these processing blocks, may have contributed, at least in part, to

insecticide failure resulting in infested loads observed during the

past seven years. Further evaluations in 2010 will help determine

the degree to which these populations are comprised of tolerant

or resistant population levels of susceptibility.

Results: CM Larval Studies of Insecticide Contact

ActivityAdditional studies were conducted using topical bioassays

on susceptible strains of larva using conventional and new

insecticide chemistries. ‘Benzon’ 1st instar larva were evaluated

for susceptibility to 10 commercial insecticides, in which larva

were placed onto moistened fi lter paper affi xed to the lid of

25 ml plastic cups. Applications to the larvae were then made

using the highest labeled fi eld rate for each product using a

micro-applicator and 1 ml syringe employing 1 μl applications.

Larvae were rated for mortality and evaluated at 2 and 24-hour

intervals. Larva exposed to Guthion 50WP (azinphos-methyl)

exhibited 100% mortality at 2 and 24-hour evaluation intervals,

statistically equivalent to Warrior (lambda-cyhalothrin), Sevin

XLR (carbaryl) and Calypso (thiacloprid), which provided 92.5%

& 100%, 85.0% & 97.5 % and 60.0% & 100.0% mortality levels

respectively (Figure 3).

Results: CM Larval Studies of Insecticide Residual and

Feeding ActivityResidue and feeding studies to ‘Benzon’ 1st instar larvae were

conducted to evaluate 10 commercial insecticides on susceptible

strains of larva. Treated ‘Delicious’ apple were submersed in a

dilute insecticide solution using the highest labeled fi eld rate

of each insecticide for three seconds and held indoors at 70oF,

off ering no exposure to rain or sunlight for 1, 3, 7, 14 and 21-day

periods. Ten (10) 2.5 cm apple discs were removed from two

treated fruit and secured onto the lid of plastic cups, onto which

were placed CM larvae. Th e larvae were evaluated for mortality

and feeding damage 2 and 24 hour intervals (Figures 4-8). Results

demonstrated that larva exposed to azinphos-methyl treated

apple exhibited lower levels of mortality at both the 2 hr and 24

hour evaluation intervals compared to most other insecticides.

Assail 30SG (Acetamiprid), a recently developed neonicotinoid

insecticide, had signifi cantly higher levels of fruit residual activity

against 1st instar larva than other insecticides after 2 hours but

not statistically diff erent from Calypso 4F, Delegate WG, Imidan

70WP or Sevin XLR after 24 hours. Th e least amount of feeding

after 24 hours was observed in the Assail 30SG, Calypso 4F,

Delegate WG, Imidan 70WP, Sevin XLR and Warrior treatments.

However, after 3 days, the organophosphates Guthion 50WP,

Imidan 70WP, Lorsban 75WG and the pyrethroid Warrior

demonstrated increased residual activity with the least amount

of feeding observed in the Assail 30SG, Calypso 4F, Delegate

WG, Guthion 50WP, and Warrior treatments. After seven days,

Delegate WG, Guthion 50WP, Imidan 70WP, and Warrior

demonstrated increased residual activity with the least amount


Figure 5. Percent mortality of 1st instar laboratory reared susceptible

codling moth larva exposed to apple residue using the highest

labeled fi eld rate insecticide, and the percent of apples to which

CM larva had burrowed after 2 and 24 hours.

Figure 6. Results of a 2 and 24 hour evaluation of 1st instar, laboratory

reared susceptible codling moth larva showing percent mortality

of larvae exposed to apple residue using the highest labeled fi eld

rate insecticide after 7 days, and the percent of apples to which

CM larva had burrowed.

Trt

4

Trt

4

Trt

Trt


Efficacy of Treatments 7 Days After Application

Perc

en

t M

ort

ali

ty

Treatment Bioassay conducted on 1st instar codling moth larva transferred to a 2.4 cm diameter red delicious apple disk dipped in a treatment solution and placed in chambers at 70ºF. (Superscript 1.[df = 3, F-value = 2.592, P-value = 0.0068]; 2.[df = 3, F-value = 7.176, P-value = 0.0001]; 3.[df = 3, F-value = 3.716, P-value = 0.0002]; 4.[df = 3, F-value = 5.134, P-value = 0.0001]).

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Aft

er

2h

rs.1

A

fter

24

hrs

.2

c d e

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

a b a b

c d

a b c

a b

d

a

a b c

c d

b c

a a

a b a b

a a

b c

c d e

b

e f e f

Perc

en

t B

urr

ow

ing

A

fter

2h

rs.3

A

fter

24

hrs

.4

Assail

30SG

Belt S

C

Calyps

o 4F

Delega

te W

G

Guthion

50W

P

Imida

n 70W

Lorsb

an 75

WG

Proclai

m

Sevin

XLR P

lus

Warrior

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

b c

a b

a

a b c

b c d

a b

d

a

a

b

a

a b

a

f

b c d

d e f

Assail

30SG

Belt S

C

Calyps

o 4F

Delega

te W

G

Guthion

50W

P

Imida

n 70W

Lorsb

an 75

WG

Proclai

m

Sevin

XLR P

lus

Warrior

b b

4

Trt

Trt

4

Trt

Trt



Perc

en

t M

ort

ality

Treatment Bioassay conducted on 1st instar codling moth larva transferred to a 2.4 cm diameter red delicious apple disk dipped in a treatment solution and placed in chambers at 70ºF.

(Superscript 1.[df = 3, F-value = 1.693, P-value = 0.0896]; 2.[df = 3, F-value = 10.561, P-value = 0.0001]; 3.[df = 3, F-value = 3.328, P-value = 0.0007]; 4.[df = 3, F-value =

9.874, P-value = 0.0001]).

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Aft

er

2h

rs.1

A

fter

24

hrs

.2

b

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

a

a b

b c d c d c d

a b c

a b

b c c

d

a

a

a b c

c

a

c

d

b b

b c

c d

Perc

en

t B

urr

ow

ing

A

fter

2h

rs.3

A

fter

24

hrs

.4

Ass

ail 3

0SG

Belt S

C

Calyp

so 4

F

Deleg

ate

WG

Gut

hion

50W

P

Imidan

70W

Lors

ban

75W

G

Pro

claim

Sev

in X

LR P

lus

War

rior

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

c d

a b

d

a

d

a b c

b c

a

a b c

c b c

a b

a

c d

b

c d

Ass

ail 3

0SG

Belt S

C

Calyp

so 4

F

Deleg

ate

WG

Gut

hion

50W

P

Imidan

70W

Lors

ban

75W

G

Pro

claim

Sev

in X

LR P

lus

War

rior

a b c a b c

of feeding observed in the Assail 30SG, Calypso 4F, Delegate

WG, Guthion 50WP, and Warrior treatments. After 21 days, the

highest level of residual effi cacy was observed with Assail 30SG,

Lorsban 75WG and Proclaim with the least amount of feeding

observed in the Delegate WG treatment, followed by Assail 30SG,

Proclaim, Sevin XLR, Warrior and Calypso 4F treatments.

DiscussionIn this study we’ve observed a 2.2 fold greater tolerance to

azinphos-methyl in adult codling moth populations trapped in

commercial processing blocks when compared to the majority of

Eastern NY commercial fresh market orchards and a susceptible

control group of adult codling moths. Yet, a number of factors

may contribute to the failure of azinpho-methyl to manage the

internal worm complex in other parts of the state. Th ese also

include the loss of insecticides used successively in the past to

manage this insect. One in particular, Lorsban 75WG, a very ef-

fective material when used at petal fall, is no longer available for

use as a foliar insecticide beyond the pre-bloom stage of apple,

thus removing it from use against the 1st generation fl ight of

codling moth. Lorsban has been found by researchers to have

excellent effi cacy against the adult CM, and demonstrates a

negative cross-resistance to azinphos-methyl, allowing it to

maintain eff ectiveness even when resistance to Guthion fails to

control CM (Steenwyck and Welter, 1998). Th e movement of

azinphos-methyl resistant CM individuals from western states

such as Washingtom State and California, to the east by way of

storage bin transport, has also been implicated as the cause of

resistant population build-up, especially in and around process-

ing centers. Another facet of discussion regarding the loss of

CM control includes a possible shift in the emergence pattern of

codling moth later into the season for both generations (Boivin,

1999). Pheromone trapping peaks, often called the ‘B Peaks’, imply

adult emergence delays, and have been observed in trap graphs of

Western and Eastern orchards. A delay in adult and subsequent

larval emergence would prolong the presence of newly hatching

larva beyond prediction models and insecticide residual activity,

allowing for increasing levels of damage.

Another important factor in New York appears to be the

diff erences in fresh market and processing production meth-

ods between regions with regards to application techniques. In

general, apples grown in Western NY sites for processing are

produced in larger acreages often bordering contiguous orchards

of neighboring processing blocks. Large blocks have a tendency

to ‘promote’ endemic populations. Th ese orchards have for many

years exclusively used azinphos-methyl in season long manage-

ment programs. In processing blocks of apple, fruit can be ac-

ceptably sold at reduced visual standards when compared to retail

fresh fruit market standards with regards to color, size and overall

appearance. In some orchards this may have led to reductions in

insecticide rates, alternate row application methods, stretched

intervals, reductions in horticultural practices such as summer

pruning, all of which hinder eff ective insecticide coverage and

subsequent insect control. Th ese practices promote greater in-

sect survival, higher levels of selection pressure with regards to

insecticide resistance development and ultimately less susceptible

strains of insects as we have observed in this study.

Comparatively, apples grown in the Eastern part of the state

are primarily produced for fresh market or pick-your-own sales,

produced in smaller acreages often isolated from other orchards,











surrounded by woodlands and or abandoned orchards. In most

Hudson Valley orchards, the presence of these woodlots or

abandoned orchards lead to higher insect pressure, increasing

insecticide rate requirements. However, the pest complex mi-

grating in from ‘the edge’ typically has greater levels of genetic

diversity leading to greater insecticide susceptibility. Fruit qual-

ity, size and color requirements for fresh market demands me-

thodical management including intensive crop load reductions,

as sales depend on visually appealing large fruit. Intensive crop

load management in fresh market fruit fosters king fruit to set

Trt

Trt

Trt

Trt



Perc

en

t M

ort

ality



2.242, P-value = 0.0194]).

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Aft

er

2h

rs.1

A

fter

24

hrs

.2

d e

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

a

a

a a a

a

a b

b c d

a b a b

a b c d

a

a

b

a b

a

d e

b

b c b

c d

Perc

en

t B

urr

ow

ing

A

fter

2h

rs.3

A

fter

24

hrs

.4

Ass

ail 3

0SG

Belt S

C

Calyp

so 4

F

Deleg

ate

WG

Gut

hion

50W

P

Imidan

70W

Lors

ban

75W

G

Pro

claim

Sev

in X

LR P

lus

War

rior

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

a

a

a

a

c d b c d

d

a b c

a a a a

a

c d e

b c

Ass

ail 3

0SG

Belt S

C

Calyp

so 4

F

Deleg

ate

WG

Gut

hion

50W

P

Imidan

70W

Lors

ban

75W

G

Pro

claim

Sev

in X

LR P

lus

War

rior

a

a b

0

2

4

6

8

Trt

Trt

Trt

Trt



Perc

en

t M

ort

ality



4.570, P-value = 0.0001]).

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

Aft

er

2h

rs.1

A

fter

24

hrs

.2

a

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0

a b

a

a b c

a b c

d

b c

a

a b

b

c

a b

a b

a b

b

a

a b

d

c d c d

b c

d

Perc

en

t B

urr

ow

ing

A

fter

2h

rs.3

A

fter

24

hrs

.4

Ass

ail 3

0SG

Belt S

C

Calyp

so 4

F

Deleg

ate

WG

Gut

hion

50W

P

Imidan

70W

Lors

ban

75W

G

Pro

claim

Sev

in X

LR P

lus

War

rior

100

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

a b c

a b

c d

a

a b

a b

c

a

a

b

a a

a

d

b

d

Ass

ail 3

0SG

Belt S

C

Calyp

so 4

F

Deleg

ate

WG

Gut

hion

50W

P

Imidan

70W

Lors

ban

75W

G

Pro

claim

Sev

in X

LR P

lus

War

rior

a b a b


and remain, while eliciting clustered fruit to drop, signifi cantly

reduces insect harborage that would typically occur in and around

the fruit cluster, off ering insects less protection from insecticide

applications and residue.

ConclusionsTh is study has demonstrated new insecticide chemistries to

exhibit eff ective control of the early instar stages of the codling

moth larva with regards to both mortality and feeding inhibi-

tion. Th rough the rotation of these insecticides, a diff erent class

of pest management tools can target each generation. Th is will

eff ectively reduce the selection pressure exerted by any one ac-

tive ingredient or insecticide class, thus reducing the resistance

potential and prolonging the effi cacy of these new materials for

years to come.

ReferencesBarnes, M.M and H.R. Moffi t. 1963. Resistance to DDT in the

adult codling moth and references curves to Guthion and

Carbaryl. Journal of Economic Entomology 56:722-725.

Boivin, T., J.C. Bouvier, D. Beslay and B. Sauphanor. 1999. Phe-

nological segregation of insecticide resistance alleles in the

codling moth Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae):

a case study of ecological divergences associated with adap-

tive changes in populations. Umr Ecologie Des Invertébrés,

Inra Site Agroparc, 84 914 Avignon Cedex 09, France.

Riedl, H. L. A. Hanson and A. Seaman. 1986. Toxicological re-

sponse of codling moth (lepidoptera: Tortricidae) popula-

tions from California and New York to azinphosmethyl Ag-

riculture, Ecosystems & Environment 16 (3-4): 189-201.

Steenwyk, R.A., S.C. Welter. 1998. Evaluation of Codling Moth

Resistance to Guthion and Lorsban. Proceedings of the

72nd Annual Western Orchard Pest & Disease Management

Conference. Proc. WOPDMC 72:93-94.

Varela, L. G.; Welter, S. C.; Jones, V. P.; Brunner, J. F.; Riedl, H.

1993. Monitoring and Characterization of Insecticide

Resistance Codling Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in

Four Western States. Journal of Economic Entomology 86

(1):1-10.

AcknowledgementsWe gratefully acknowledge the Apple Research Development

Program for funding this project. We also wish to thank the New

York apple producers assisting in the collection of codling moth

adults including orchards in Verbridge, Williamson and Wolcott,

Indian Ladder Farms in Altamont, Truncalli Farm in Marlboro,

Dressel Farm and Moriello Farm in New Paltz, Knights Orchards

in Burnt Hills, the LOFT fruit team for their help and support in

making this project possible.

Peter Jentsch is an Extension Associate in the Department of Entomology at Cornell’s Hudson Valley Laboratory specializing in arthropod management in tree fruits, grapes and vegetables. Frank Zeoli is a research technician at the Hudson Valley Laboratory. Deborah

Breth is an extension specialist on the Lake Ontario Fruit Team of Cornell Cooperative Extension who specializes in integrated pest management.

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