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Transcript of Voltaire VII
8/20/2019 Voltaire VII
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E D I T I O N D E L A P A C I F I C A T I O N
T H E W O R K S O F
VOLTAIRE A CONTEMPORARY VERSION
W ITH NOTES BY TOBIAS SMOLLETT, R EVISED AND MODERNIZED
NEW TRANSLATIONS BY W ILLIAM F. FLEMING, AND AN
INTRODUCTION BY OLIVER H. G. LEIGH
A CRITIQUE AND BIOGRAPHY
BY
T H E R T . H O N . J O H N M O R L E Y
F O R T Y - T H R E E V O L U M E S
ONE HUNDRED ANS SIXTY-EIGHT DESIGNS, COMPRISINGS REPRODUCTIONS
OF RARE OLD ENGRAVINGS, STEEL PLATES, PHOTOGRAVURES,
AND CURIOUS FAC-SIMILES
VOLUME VII
AKRON, OHIO
THE WERNER COMPANY
1!"
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The WORKS of VOLTAIRE
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EDITION DE LA PACIFICATION
Limited to one thousand sets
for America and reat !ritain"
#!et$een t$o ser%ants of &umanit'( $ho a))eared
ei*hteen hundred 'ears a)art( the rf +, a m'sterious re-ation"
. / / / Let us sa' it $ith a sentiment of
)rofound res)ect0 1ES2S WEPT0 VOLTAIRE S3ILED"
Of that di%ine tear and of that human smi-e is com)osed the
s$eetness of the )resent ci%i-i4ation"#
VICTOR &2O"
VOLTAIRE RECEIVES 3 3 E" O5ERINA6 AT
L"E7 DEL8ICES
EDITION DE LA PACIFICATION
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T&E WORKS OF
VO LTAI R E
A CONTE3PORAR6 VERSION
WIT& NOTES !6 TO!IAS S3OLLETT( REVISED AND 3ODERNI9ED
NEW TRANSLATIONS !6 WILLIA3 F" FLE3IN( AND AN
INTROD2CTION !6 OLIVER &" " LEI&
A CRITI:2E AND !IORAP&6
!6
T&E RT" &ON" 1O&N 3ORLE6
FORT68T&REE VOL23ES
ONE &2NDRED AND SI;T68EI&T DESINS( CO3PRISIN REPROD2CTIONS
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OF RARE OLD ENRAVINS( ST!!L PLATES( P&OTORAV2RES(
A3D C2RIO2S FAC8<I3IL!S
VOL23E V&
AKRON( O&IO
T&E WERNER CO3PAN6
=>?@
COP6RI&T =>?=
!6 E" R" Du3oNT
OWNED !6
T&E WEENER CO3PAIS5T
AKRON( O&IO
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T&E WERNER CO3PAN6
AKRON( O&iO
Stac
AnneB
P:
?<
E<S@
I>O@
if8 8
VOLTAIRE
A P&ILOSOP&ICAL DICTIONAR6
IN TEN VOL23ES
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VOL" III"
CANNI!ALS CO2NCILS
LIST OF PLATES
VOL" VII
PAE
VOLTAIRE5S RECEPTION OF 3ADA3E D5EPINA6
AT LES DELICES " " " Frontis)iece
T&E DEAT& OF COLIN6 """" 7
CAT&ERINE II" OF R2SSIA """" =7
%
T&E AL3ONER AND T&E ANA!APTIST " "
A P&ILOSOP&ICAL DICTIONAR6"
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CANNI!ALS"
SECTION I"
WE &AVE s)oen of -o%e" It is hard to )ass from
)eo)-e issin* to )eo)-e eatin* one another" It is(
ho$e%er( ut too true that there ha%e een cannia-s"
We ha%e found them in America G the' are( )erha)s(
sti-- to e found G and the C'c-o)s $ere not the on-'
indi%idua-s in antiHuit' $ho sometimes fed on human
esh" 1u%ena- re-ates that amon* the E*')tians
that $ise )eo)-e( so reno$ned for their -a$s those
)ious $orshi))ers of crocodi-es and onions the
Tent'rites ate one of their enemies $ho had fa--en
into their hands" &e does not te-- this ta-e on hear8
sa'G the crime $as committed a-most efore his
e'es G he $as then in E*')t( and not far from Ten8
t'ra" On this occasion he Huotes the ascons and
the Sa*untines( $ho former-' fed on the esh of
their countr'men"
In =< four sa%a*es $ere rou*ht from the 3is8
sissi))i to Fontaine-eau( $ith $hom I had the honor
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of con%ersin*" There $as amon* them a -ad' of the
countr'( $hom I ased if she had eaten menG she
ans$ered( $ith *reat sim)-icit' that she had" I a)8
)eared some$hat scanda-i4ed G on $hich she eB8
<
@ Phi-oso)hica-
cused herse-f ' sa'in* that it $as etter to eat one5s
dead enem' than to -ea%e him to e de%oured '
$i-d easts( and that the conHuerors deser%ed to ha%e
the )reference" We i-- our nei*hors in att-es( or
sirmishes G and( for the meanest consideration( )ro8
%ide mea-s for the cro$s and the $orms" There is
the horrorG there is the crime" What matters it(
$hen a man is dead( $hether he is eaten ' a so-dier(
or ' a do* and a cro$J
We ha%e more res)ect for the dead than for the
-i%in*" It $ou-d e etter to res)ect oth the one and
the other" The nations ca--ed )o-ished ha%e done
ri*ht in not )uttin* their %anHuished enemies on the
s)it G for if $e $ere a--o$ed to eat our nei*hors( $e
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shou-d soon eat our countr'men( $hich $ou-d e
rather unfortunate for the socia- %irtues" !ut )o-8
ished nations ha%e not a-$a's een so G the' $ere a--
for a -on* time sa%a*e G and( in the innite numer
of re%o-utions $hich this *-oe has under*one( man8
ind ha%e een sometimes numerous and sometimes
scarce" It has een $ith human ein*s as it no$
is $ith e-e)hants( -ions( or ti*ers( the race of $hich
has %er' much decreased" In times $hen a countr'
$as ut thin-' inhaited ' men( the' had fe$ arts G
the' $ere hunters" The custom of eatin* $hat the'
had i--ed easi-' -ed them to treat their enemies -ie
their sta*s and their oars" It $as su)erstition that
caused human %ictims to e immo-ated G it $as neces8
sit' that caused them to e eaten"
Which is the *reater crime to assem-e )ious-'
Dictionar'"
to*ether to )-un*e a nife into the heart of a *ir-
adorned $ith --ets( or to eat a $orth-ess man $ho
has een i--ed in our o$n defenceJ
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6et $e ha%e man' more instances of *ir-s and
o's sacriced than of *ir-s and o's eaten" A-most
e%er' nation of $hich $e no$ an'thin* has sacri8
ced o's and *ir-s" The 1e$s immo-ated them"
This $as ca--ed the AnathemaG it $as a rea- sacri8
ceG and in Le%iticus it is ordained that the -i%in*
sou-s $hich sha-- e de%oted sha-- not e s)ared G ut
it is not in an' manner )rescried that the' sha-- e
eaten G this is on-' threatened" 3oses te--s the 1e$s
that un-ess the' oser%e his ceremonies the' sha--
not on-' ha%e the itch( ut the mothers sha-- eat their
chi-dren" It is true that in the time of E4eie- the
1e$s must ha%e een accustomed to eat human esh G
for( in his thirt'8ninth cha)ter( he forete--s to them
that od $i-- cause them to eat( not on-' the horses
of their enemies( ut moreo%er the horsemen and the
rest of the $arriors" And( indeed( $h' shou-d not
the 1e$s ha%e een cannia-s J It $as the on-' thin*
$antin* to mae the )eo)-e of od the most aom8
ina-e )eo)-e u)on earth"
SECTION II"
In the essa' on the #3anners and S)irit of Na8
tions# $e read the fo--o$in* sin*u-ar )assa*e 0
#&errera assures us that the 3eBicans ate the human
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%ictims $hom the' immo-ated" 3ost of the rst
tra%e--ers and missionaries sa' that the !ra4i-ians(
the Cariees( the IroHuois( the &urons( and some
7 Phi-oso)hica-
other tries( ate their ca)ti%es taen in $ar G and the'
do not consider this as the )ractice of some indi%id8
ua-s a-one( ut as a nationa- usa*e" So man' $riters(
ancient and modern( ha%e s)oen of cannia-s( that
it is dicu-t to den' their eBistence" A huntin*
)eo)-e( -ie the !ra4i-ians or the Canadians( not
a-$a's ha%in* a certain susistence( ma' sometimes
ecome cannia-s" Famine and re%en*e accustomed
them to this ind of foodG and $hi-e in the most
ci%i-i4ed a*es $e see the )eo)-e of Paris de%ourin*
the -eedin* remains of 3arsha- d5Ancre( and the
)eo)-e of The &a*ue eatin* the heart of the *rand
)ensionar'( De Witt( $e ou*ht not to e sur)rised
that a momentar' outra*e amon* us has een con8
tinua- amon* sa%a*es"
#The most ancient oos $e ha%e -ea%e no room
to dout that hun*er has dri%en men to this eBcess"
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The )ro)het E4eie-( accordin* to some commen8
tators( )romises to the &ere$s from od that if
the' defend themse-%es $e-- a*ainst the in* of
Persia( the' sha-- eat of 5the esh of horses and of
mi*ht' men"5
#3arco Po-o sa's that in his time in a )art of
Tartar' the ma*icians or )riests it $as the same
thin* had the )ri%i-e*e of eatin* the esh of crim8
ina-s condemned to death" A-- this is shocin* to
the fee-in*s G ut the )icture of humanit' must
often ha%e the same eMect"
#&o$ can it ha%e een that nations constant-'
se)arated from one another ha%e united in so horri-e
Dictionar'" >
a customJ 3ust $e e-ie%e that it is not so aso-ute-'
o))osed to human nature as it a))ears to eJ It is
certain that it has een rare( ut it is eHua--' certain
that it has eBisted" It is not no$n that the Tartars
and the 1e$s often ate their fe--o$ creatures" Durin*
the sie*es of Sancerre and Paris( in our re-i*ious
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$ars( hun*er and des)air com)e--ed mothers to feed
on the esh of their chi-dren" The charita-e Las
Casas( isho) of Chia)a( sa's that this horror $as
committed in America( on-' ' some nations amon*
$hom he had not tra%e--ed" Dam)ierre assures us
that he ne%er met $ith cannia-sG and at this da'
there are not( )erha)s( an' tries $hich retain this
horri-e custom"#
Americus Ves)ucius sa's in one of his -etters that
the !ra4i-ians $ere much astonished $hen he made
them understand that for a -on* time the Euro)eans
had not eaten their )risoners of $ar"
Accordin* to 1u%ena-5s fteenth satire( the as8
cons and the S)aniards had een *ui-t' of this ar8
arit'" &e himse-f $itnessed a simi-ar aomination
in E*')t durin* the consu-ate of 1unius" A Huarre-
ha))enin* et$een the inhaitants of Tent'ra and
those of Omi( the' fou*ht G and an Omian ha%in*
fa--en into the hands of the Tent'rians( the' had
him cooed( and ate him( a-- ut the are ones" !ut
he does not sa' that this $as the usua- custom G on
the contrar'( he s)eas of it as an act of more than
ordinar' fur'"
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The 1esuit Char-e%oiB( $hom I ne$ %er' $e--(
io Phi-oso)hica-
and $ho $as a man of *reat %eracit'( *i%es us c-ear-'
to understand in his #&istor' of Canada(# in $hich
countr' he resided thirt' 'ears( that a-- the nations
of northern America $ere cannia-sG since he re8
mars( as a thin* %er' eBtraordinar'( that in ===
the Acadians did not eat men"
The 1esuit !reeuf re-ates that in =@? the rst
IroHuois that $as con%erted( ha%in* unfortunate-'
*ot drun $ith rand'( $as taen ' the &urons(
then at $ar $ith the IroHuois" The )risoner( a)8
ti4ed ' Father !reeuf ' the name of 1ose)h( $as
condemned to death" &e $as )ut to a thousand tor8
tures( $hich he endured( sin*in* a-- the $hi-e( ac8
cordin* to the custom of his countr'" The' nished
' cuttin* oM a foot( a hand( and -ast-' his headG
after $hich the &urons )ut a-- the memers into a
cau-dron( each one )artoo of them( and a )iece $as
oMered to Father !reeuf"
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Char-e%oiB s)eas in another )-ace of t$ent'8t$o
&urons eaten ' the IroHuois" It cannot( then( e
douted( that in more countries than one( human
nature has reached this -ast )itch of horror G and this
eBecra-e custom must e of the hi*hest antiHuit'G
for $e see in the &o-' Scri)tures that the 1e$s $ere
threatened $ith eatin* their chi-dren if the' did not
oe' their -a$s" The 1e$s are to-d not on-' that
the' sha-- ha%e the itch( and that their $i%es sha--
*i%e themse-%es u) to others( ut a-so that the' sha--
eat their sons and dau*hters in an*uish and de%asta8
tion G that the' sha-- contend $ith one another for
Dictionar'" = =
the eatin* of their chi-dren G and that the husand
$i-- not *i%e to his $ife a morse- of her son( ecause(
he $i-- sa'( he has hard-' enou*h for himse-f"
Some %er' o-d critics do indeed assert that the
!oo of Deuteronom' $as not com)osed unti- after
the sie*e of Samaria ' !enhadad( durin* $hich( it
is said in the Second !oo of Kin*s( that mothers
ate their chi-dren" !ut these critics( in considerin*
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Deuteronom' as a oo $ritten after the sie*e of
Samaria( do ut %erif' this terri-e occurrence"
Others assert that it cou-d not ha))en as it is re-ated
in the Second !oo of Kin*s" It is there said 0 #And
as the in* of Israe- $as )assin* ' u)on the $a--
of Samaria ( there cried a $oman unto him( sa'in*(
5&e-)( m' -ord( O in*"5 And he said( 5If the Lord
do not he-) thee( $hence sha-- I he-) thee J out of the
arn oorJ or out of the $ine8)ressJ5 And the
in* said unto her( 5What ai-eth thee J5 And she an8
s$ered( 5This $oman said unto me( *i%e th' son(
that $e ma' eat him to8da'( and $e sha-- eat m' son
to8morro$" So $e oi-ed m' son( and did eat him G
and I said unto her on the neBt da'( 5i%e th' son(
that $e ma' eat him(5 and she hath hid her son"5 #
These censors assert that it is not -ie-' that $hi-e
Kin* !enhadad $as esie*in* Samaria( Kin* 1oram
)assed Huiet-' ' the $a--( or u)on the $a--( to sett-e
diMerences et$een Samaritan $omen" It is sti--
-ess -ie-' that one chi-d shou-d not ha%e satised
t$o $omen for t$o da's" There must ha%e een
enou*h to feed them for four da's at -east" !ut -et
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= Phi-oso)hica-
these critics reason as the' ma'( $e must e-ie%e
that fathers and mothers ate their chi-dren durin*
the sie*e of Samaria( since it is eB)ress-' foreto-d
in Deuteronom'" The same thin* ha))ened at the
sie*e of 1erusa-em ' Neuchadne44arG and this(
too( $as foreto-d ' E4eie-"
1eremiah eBc-aims( in his #Lamentations# 0 #Sha--
the $omen eat their fruit( and chi-dren of a s)an
-on*J# And in another )-ace0 #The hands of the
)itifu- $omen ha%e sodden their o$n chi-dren"#
&ere ma' e added the $ords of !aruch 0 #3an
has eaten the esh of his son and of his dau*hter"#
This horror is re)eated so often that it cannot ut
e true" Last-'( $e no$ the stor' re-ated in
1ose)hus( of the $oman( $ho fed on the esh of her
son $hen Titus $as esie*in* 1erusa-em" The oo
attriuted to Enoch( cited ' St" 1ude( sa's that the
*iants orn from the commerce of the an*ers $ith the
dau*hters of men $ere the rst cannia-s"
In the ei*hth homi-' attriuted to St" C-ement( St"
Peter( $ho is made to s)ea in it( sa's that these same
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*iants Huenched their thirst $ith human -ood and
ate the esh of their fe--o$ creatures" &ence re8
su-ted( adds the author( ma-adies unti- then un8
no$nG monsters of a-- inds s)run* u) on the
earth G and then it $as that od reso-%ed to dro$n a--
human ind" A-- this sho$s us ho$ uni%ersa- $as
the rei*nin* o)inion of the eBistence of cannia-s"
What St" Peter is made to sa' in St" C-ement5s
homi-' has a )a-)a-e anit' $ith the stor' of
Dictionar'" =
L'caon( one of the o-dest of ree fa-es( and $hich
$e nd in the rst oo of O%id5s #3etamor8
)hoses"#
The #Re-ations of the Indies and China(# $ritten
in the ei*hth centur' ' t$o Aras( and trans-ated
' the Ae Renaudot( is not a oo to $hich im)-icit
credit shou-d e attached G far from it G ut $e must
not reQect a-- these t$o tra%e--ers sa'( es)ecia--'
$hen their testimon' is corroorated ' that of other
authors $ho ha%e merited some e-ief" The' te--
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us that there are in the Indian Sea is-ands )eo)-ed
$ith -acs $ho ate menG the' ca-- these is-ands
Ramni"
3arco Po-o( $ho had not read the $ors of these
t$o Aras( sa's the same thin* four hundred 'ears
after them" Archisho) Na%arette( $ho $as after8
$ards a %o'a*er in the same seas( conrms this ac8
count 0 #Los Euro)eos Hue co*en( es consta$te Hue
%i%os se -os %an comiendo"#
TeBeira asserts that the )eo)-e of 1a%a ate human
esh( $hich aomina-e custom the' had not -eft oM
more than t$o hundred 'ears efore his time" &e
adds that the' did not -earn mi-der manners unti-
the' emraced 3ahometanism"
The same thin* has een said of the )eo)-e of
Pe*u( of the Kars( and of se%era- other African
nations" 3arco Po-o( $hom $e ha%e Qust no$ cited(
sa's that in some Tartar hordes( $hen a crimina- had
een condemned to death the' made a mea- of him 0
#&anno costoro un estia-e e orrii-e costume( che
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= Phi-oso)hica-
Huando a-cuno e *uidicato a morte( -o to-*ono( e cuo8
cono( e man*ian5 se-o"#
What is more eBtraordinar' and incredi-e is that
the t$o Aras attriuted to the Chinese $hat 3arco
Po-o sa's of some of the Tartars 0 that( #in *enera-(
the Chinese eat a-- $ho ha%e een i--ed"# This
aomination is so re)u*nant to Chinese manners(
that it cannot e e-ie%ed" Father Parennin has re8
futed it ' sa'in* that it is un$orth' of refutation"
It must( ho$e%er( e oser%ed that the ei*hth cen8
tur'( the time $hen these Aras $rote their tra%e-s(
$as one of those most disastrous to the Chinese" T$o
hundred thousand Tartars )assed the *reat $a--(
)-undered Pein( and e%er'$here s)read the most
horri-e deso-ation" It is %er' -ie-' that there $as
then a *reat famine( for China $as as )o)u-ous as it
is no$ G and some )oor creatures amon* the -o$est
of the )eo)-e mi*ht eat dead odies" What interest
cou-d these Araians ha%e in in%entin* so dis*ustin*
a fa-eJ Perha)s the'( -ie most other tra%e--ers(
too a )articu-ar instance for a nationa- custom"
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Not to *o so far for eBam)-es( $e ha%e one in our
o$n countr'( in the %er' )ro%ince in $hich I $rite G
it is attested ' our conHueror( our master( 1u-ius
Caesar" &e $as esie*in* A-eBia( in the AuBois"
The esie*ed ein* reso-%ed to defend themse-%es to
the -ast eBtremit'( and $antin* )ro%isions( a *reat
counci- $as assem-ed( in $hich one of the chiefs(
named Crito*natus( )ro)osed that the chi-dren shou-d
e eaten one after another to sustain the stren*th of
Dictionar'" = <
the comatants" &is )ro)osa- $as carried ' a ma8
Qorit' of %oices" Nor is this a-- G Crito*natus in his
haran*ue te--s them that their ancestors had had re8
course to the same ind of sustenance in the $ar $ith
the Cimri and Teutones"
We $i-- conc-ude $ith the testimon' of 3on8
tai*ne" S)eain* of $hat $as to-d him ' the com8
)anions of Vi--e*a*non( returned from !ra4i-( and
of $hat he had seen in France( he certies that the
!ra4i-ians ate their enemies i--ed in $ar( ut mar
$hat fo--o$s 0 #Is it more ararous to eat a man
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$hen dead than to ha%e him roasted ' a s-o$ re(
or torn to )ieces ' do*s and s$ine( as is 'et fresh
in our memories and that not et$een ancient ene8
mies( ut amon* nei*hors and fe--o$8citi4ens and(
$hich is $orse( on )retence of )iet' and re-i*ionJ#
What a Huestion for a )hi-oso)her -ie 3ontai*ne
Then( if Anacreon and Tiu--us had een IroHuois(
the' $ou-d ha%e eaten men A-as a-as
SECTION III"
We--G t$o En*-ishmen ha%e sai-ed round the
$or-d" The' ha%e disco%ered that Ne$ &o--and is
an is-and -ar*er than Euro)e( and that men sti-- eat
one another there( as in Ne$ 9ea-and" Whence come
this race J su))osin* that the' eBist" Are the' de8
scended from the ancient E*')tians( from the ancient
)eo)-e of Ethio)ia( from the Africans( from the In8
dians or from the %u-tures( or the $o-%es J What
a contrast et$een 3arcus Aure-ius( or E)ictetus(
and the cannia-s of Ne$ 9ea-and 6et the' ha%e
= @ Phi-oso)hica-
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the same or*ans( the' are a-ie human ein*s" We
ha%e a-read' treated on this )ro)ert' of the human
race G it ma' not e amiss to add another )ara*ra)h"
The fo--o$in* are St" 1erome5s o$n $ords in one
of his -etters 0 #:uid -oHuar de cateris nationius(
Huum i)se ado-escentu-us in a--ia %iderim Scotos(
*entem !ritannicam( humanis %esci carnius( et Huum
)er si-%as )orcorum *re*es )ecudumHue re)eriant(
tamen )astorum nates et faminarum )a)i--as so-ere
ascindere et has so-as ciorum de-icias aritrariJ#
#What sha-- I sa' of other nations G $hen I m'8
se-f( $hen 'oun*( ha%e seen Scotchmen in au-( $ho(
thou*h the' mi*ht ha%e fed on s$ine and other ani8
ma-s of the forest( chose rather to cut oM the )os8
teriors of the 'ouths and the reasts of the 'oun*
$omen( and considered them as the most de-icious
food"#
Pe--outier( $ho sou*ht for e%er'thin* that mi*ht
do honor to the Ce-ts( too the )ains to contradict
1erome( and to maintain that his credu-it' had een
im)osed on" !ut 1erome s)eas %er' *ra%e-'( and of
$hat he sa$" We ma'( $ith deference( dis)ute $ith
a father of the church aout $hat he has heard G ut
to dout of $hat he has seen is *oin* %er' far" After
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a--( the safest $a' is to dout of e%er'thin*( e%en of
$hat $e ha%e seen ourse-%es"
One $ord more on cannia-ism" In a oo $hich
has had considera-e success amon* the $e--8dis8
)osed $e nd the fo--o$in*( or $ords to the same
eMect0 #In Crom$e--5s time a $oman $ho e)t a
Dictionar'" =
ta--o$ chand-er5s sho) in Du-in so-d eBce--ent can8
d-es( made of the fat of En*-ishmen" After some
time one of her customers com)-ained that the can8
d-es $ere not so *ood" 5Sir said the $oman( 5it is
ecause $e are short of En*-ishmen"5 #
I as $hich $ere the most *ui-t' those $ho as8
sassinated the En*-ish( or the )oor $oman $ho made
cand-es of their fatJ And further( I as $hich $as
the *reatest crime to ha%e En*-ishmen cooed for
dinner( or to use their ta--o$ to *i%e -i*ht at su))er J
It a))ears to me that the *reat e%i- is the ein* i--ed G
it matters -itt-e to us $hether( after death( $e are
roasted on the s)it or are made into cand-es" Indeed(
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no $e--8dis)osed man can e un$i--in* to e usefu-
$hen he is dead"
CASTIN IN 3ETALU"
T&ERE is not an ancient fa-e( not an o-d asurdit'
$hich some sim)-eton $i-- not re%i%e( and that in a
ma*isteria- tone( if it e ut authori4ed ' some
c-assica- or theo-o*ica- $riter"
L'co)hron if I rememer ri*ht-'U re-ates that a
horde of roers $ho had een Qust-' condemned in
Ethio)ia ' Kin* Actisanes to -ose their ears and
noses( ed to the cataracts of the Ni-e and from
thence )enetrated into the Sand' Desert( $here the'
at -en*th ui-t the tem)-e of 1u)iter Ammon"
L'co)hron( and after him Theo)om)us( te--s us
that these anditti( reduced to eBtreme $ant( ha%in*
neither shoes( nor c-othes( nor utensi-s( nor read(
Vo-"
= 7 Phi-oso)hica-
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ethou*ht themse-%es of raisin* a statue of *o-d to
an E*')tian *od" This statue $as ordered one e%en8
in* and made in the course of the ni*ht" A memer
of the uni%ersit' much attached to L'co)hron and
the Ethio)ian roers asserts that nothin* $as more
common in the %enera-e a*es of antiHuit' than to
cast a statue of *o-d in one ni*ht( and after$ards
thro$ it into a re to reduce it to an im)a-)a-e )o$8
der( in order to e s$a--o$ed ' a $ho-e )eo)-e"
!ut $here did these )oor de%i-s( $ithout reeches(
nd so much *o-dJ #What( sir# sa's the man of
-earnin*( #do 'ou for*et that the' had sto-en enou*h
to u' a-- Africa and that their dau*hters5 ear8rin*s
a-one $ere $orth nine mi--ions %e hundred thousand
-i%res of our currenc'J#
!e it so" !ut for castin* a statue a -itt-e )re)ara8
tion is necessar'" 3" Le 3oine em)-o'ed near-' t$o
'ears in castin* that of Louis ;V" #Oh ut this
1u)iter Ammon $as at most ut three feet hi*h"
o to an' )e$tererG $i-- he not mae 'ou ha-f a
do4en )-ates in a da' J#
Sir( a statue of 1u)iter is harder to mae than
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)e$ter )-ates( and I e%en dout $hether 'our thie%es
had $here$ith to mae )-ates so Huic-'( c-e%er as
the' mi*ht e at )i-ferin*" It is not %er' -ie-' that
the' had the necessar' a))aratus G the' had more
need to )ro%ide themse-%es $ith mea-" I res)ect L'8
co)hron much( ut this )rofound ree and his 'et
more )rofound commentators no$ so -itt-e of the
arts the' are so -earned in a-- that is use-ess( and so
Dictionar'" =>
i*norant in a-- that concerns the necessaries and con8
%eniences of -ife( )rofessions( trades( and dai-' occu8
)ations that $e $i-- tae this o))ortunit' of inform8
in* them ho$ a meta- *ure is cast" This is an
o)eration $hich the' $i-- nd neither in L'co)hron(
nor in 3anetho( nor e%en in St" Thomas5s dream"
I omit man' other )re)arations $hich the enc'c-o8
)aedists( es)ecia--' 3" Diderot( ha%e eB)-ained much
etter than I cou-d do( in the $or $hich must im8
morta-i4e their *-or' as $e-- as a-- the arts" !ut to
form a c-ear idea of the )rocess of this art the artist
must e seen at $or" No one can e%er -earn in a
oo to $ea%e stocin*s( nor to )o-ish diamonds( nor
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to $or ta)estr'" Arts and trades are -earned on-'
' eBam)-e and )ractice"
CATO"
ON S2ICIDE( AND T&E A!!E ST" C6RAN5S !OOK LEITI8
3ATIN S2ICIDE"
T&E in*enious La 3otte sa's of Cato( in one of
his )hi-oso)hica- rather than )oetica- odes 0
Caton( dine dme )-us e#*a-e t
Sous rheureuB %ainHueur de Pharsa-e(
Eut souMert Hue Rome )-idt G
3ais( inca)a-e de se rendre(
II rieut )as -a force d 5attendre
2n )ardon Hui rhumi-iat"
Stern Cato( $ith more eHua- sou-(
&ad o$ed to Caesar5s $ide contro-
With Rome had to the conHueror o$ed8
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!ut that his s)irit( rou*h and )roud(
&ad not the coura*e to a$ait
A )ardoned foe5s too hum-in* fate"
It $as( I e-ie%e( ecause Cato5s sou- $as a-$a's
O Phi-oso)hica-
eHua-( and retained to the -ast its -o%e for his countr'
and her -a$s that he chose rather to )erish $ith her
than to crouch to the t'rant" &e died as he had -i%ed"
Inca)a-e of surrenderin* And to $hom J To the
enem' of Rome to the man $ho had forci-' roed
the )u-ic treasur' in order to mae $ar u)on his
fe--o$8citi4ens and ens-a%e them ' means of their
o$n mone'" A )ardoned foe It seems as if La
3otte8&oudart $ere s)eain* of some re%o-ted su8
Qect $ho mi*ht ha%e otained his maQest'5s )ardon
' -etters in chancer'"
It seems rather asurd to sa' that Cato s-e$ him8
se-f throu*h $eaness" None ut a stron* mind can
thus surmount the most )o$erfu- instinct of nature"
This stren*th is sometimes that of fren4'( ut a
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frantic man is not $ea"
Suicide is foridden amon*st us ' the canon -a$"
!ut the decreta-s( $hich form the Quris)rudence of a
)art of Euro)e( $ere unno$n to Cato( to !rutus(
to Cassius( to the su-ime Arria( to the Em)eror
Otho( to 3ar Anton'( and the rest of the heroes
of true Rome( $ho )referred a %o-untar' death to a
-ife $hich the' e-ie%ed to e i*nominious"
We( too( i-- ourse-%es( ut it is $hen $e ha%e -ost
our mone'( or in the %er' rare eBcess of foo-ish )as8
sion for an un$orth' oQect" I ha%e no$n $omen
i-- themse-%es for the most stu)id men ima*ina-e"
And sometimes $e i-- ourse-%es $hen $e are in ad
hea-th( $hich action is a rea- $eaness"
Dis*ust $ith our o$n eBistence( $eariness of our8
Dictionar'" =
se-%es is a ma-ad' $hich is -ie$ise a cause of sui8
cide" The remed' is a -itt-e eBercise( music( huntin*(
the )-a'( or an a*reea-e $oman" The man $ho(
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in a t of me-ancho-'( i--s himse-f to8da'( $ou-d
ha%e $ished to -i%e had he $aited a $ee"
I $as a-most an e'e8$itness of a suicide $hich
deser%es the attention of a-- cu-ti%ators of )h'sica-
science" A man of a serious )rofession( of mature
a*e( of re*u-ar conduct( $ithout )assions( and ao%e
indi*ence( i--ed himse-f on Oct" =( =@>( and -eft
to the to$n counci- of the )-ace $here he $as orn( a
$ritten a)o-o*' for his %o-untar' death( $hich it
$as thou*ht )ro)er not to )u-ish -est it shou-d en8
coura*e men to Huit a -ife of $hich so much i-- is
said" Thus far there is nothin* eBtraordinar' G such
instances are a-most e%er' da' to e met $ith" The
astonishin* )art of the stor' is this 0
&is rother and his father had each i--ed himse-f
at the same a*e" What secret dis)osition of or*ans(
$hat s'm)ath'( $hat concurrence of )h'sica- -a$s(
occasions a father and his t$o sons to )erish ' their
o$n hands( and ' the same ind of death( )recise-'
$hen the' ha%e attained such a 'earJ Is it a disease
$hich unfo-ds itse-f successi%e-' in the diMerent
memers of a fami-' as $e often see fathers and
chi-dren die of sma--)oB( consum)tion( or an' other
com)-aint J Three or four *enerations ha%e ecome
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deaf or -ind( *out' or scorutic( at a )redetermined
)eriod"
Ph'sica- or*ani4ation( of $hich mora- is the oM8
Phi-oso)hica-
s)rin*( transmits the same character from father to
son throu*h a succession of a*es" The A))ii $ere
a-$a's hau*ht' and ineBi-e( the Catos a-$a's se8
%ere" The $ho-e -ine of the uises $ere o-d( rash(
factious G com)ounded of the most inso-ent )ride(
and the most seducti%e )o-iteness" From Francis
de uise to him $ho a-one and in si-ence $ent and
)ut himse-f at the head of the )eo)-e of Na)-es( the'
$ere a--( in *ure( in coura*e( and in turn of mind(
ao%e ordinar' men" I ha%e seen $ho-e -en*th )or8
traits of Francis de uise( of the !a-afre( and of his
son 0 the' are a-- siB feet hi*h( $ith the same fea8
tures( the same coura*e and o-dness in the forehead(
the e'e( and the attitude"
This continuit'( this series of ein*s a-ie is sti--
more oser%a-e in anima-s( and if as much care $ere
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taen to )er)etuate ne races of men as some nations
sti-- tae to )re%ent the miBin* of the reeds of their
horses and hounds the *enea-o*' $ou-d e $ritten
in the countenance and dis)-a'ed in the manners"
There ha%e een races of crooed and of siB8n*ered
)eo)-e( as $e see red8haired( thic8-i))ed( -on*8
nosed( and at8nosed races"
!ut that nature shou-d so dis)ose the or*ans of a
$ho-e race that at a certain a*e each indi%idua- of
that fami-' $i-- ha%e a )assion for se-f8destruction
this is a )ro-em $hich a-- the sa*acit' of the most
attenti%e anatomists cannot reso-%e" The eMect is
certain-' a-- )h'sica-( ut it e-on*s to occu-t )h'sics"
Indeed( $hat )rinci)-e is not occu-t J
Dictionar'"
We are not informed( nor is it -ie-' that in the
time of Caesar and the em)erors the inhaitants of
reat !ritain i--ed themse-%es as de-ierate-' as
the' no$ do( $hen the' ha%e the %a)ors $hich the'
denominate the s)-een"
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On the other hand( the Romans( $ho ne%er had
the s)-een( did not hesitate to )ut themse-%es to
death" The' reasoned( the' $ere )hi-oso)hers( and
the )eo)-e of the is-and of !ritain $ere not so" No$(
En*-ish citi4ens are )hi-oso)hers and Roman citi8
4ens are nothin*" The En*-ishman Huits this -ife
)roud-' and disdainfu--' $hen the $him taes him(
ut the Roman must ha%e an indu-*entia in articu-o
mortisG he can neither -i%e nor die"
Sir Wi--iam Tem)-e sa's that a man shou-d de8
)art $hen he has no -on*er an' )-easure in remain8
in*" So died Atticus" 6oun* $omen $ho han* and
dro$n themse-%es for -o%e shou-d then -isten to the
%oice of ho)e( for chan*es are as freHuent in -o%e as
in other aMairs"
An a-most infa--i-e means of sa%in* 'ourse-f
from the desire of se-f8destruction is a-$a's to ha%e
somethin* to do" Creech( the commentator on Lu8
cretius( mared u)on his manuscri)ts 0 #N" !" 3usiG
han* m'se-f $hen I ha%e nished"# &e e)t his
$ord $ith himse-f that he mi*ht ha%e the )-easure of
endin* -ie his author" If he had undertaen a com8
mentar' u)on O%id he $ou-d ha%e -i%ed -on*er"
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Wh' ha%e $e fe$er suicides in the countr' than
in the to$nsJ !ecause in the e-ds on-' the od'
Phi-oso)hica-
suMers G in the to$n it is the mind" The -aorer has
not time to e me-ancho-' G none i-- themse-%es ut
the id-e the' $ho( in the e'es of the mu-titude( are
so ha))'"
I sha-- here re-ate some suicides that ha%e ha)8
)ened in m' o$n time( se%era- of $hich ha%e a-8
read' een )u-ished in other $ors" The dead ma'
e made usefu- to the -i%in* 0
A !rief Account of Some Sin*u-ar Suicides"
Phi-i) 3ordaunt( cousin8*erman to the ce-erated
ear- of Peterorou*h so $e-- no$n in a-- the Eu8
ro)ean courts( and $ho oasted of ha%in* seen more
)osti--ions and in*s than an' other man $as a
'oun* man of t$ent'8se%en( handsome( $e-- made(
rich( of no-e -ood( $ith the hi*hest )retensions(
and( $hich $as more than a--( adored ' his mis8
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tress( 'et 3ordaunt $as sei4ed $ith a dis*ust for
-ife" &e )aid his dets( $rote to his friends( and
e%en made some %erses on the occasion" &e dis8
)atched himse-f $ith a )isto- $ithout ha%in* *i%en
an' other reason than that his sou- $as tired of his
od' and that $hen $e are dissatised $ith our
aode $e ou*ht to Huit it" It seemed that he $ished
to die ecause he $as dis*usted $ith his *ood for8
tune"
In =@ Richard Smith eBhiited a stran*e s)ec8
tac-e to the $or-d from a %er' diMerent cause" Rich8
ard Smith $as dis*usted $ith rea- misfortune" &e
had een rich( and he $as )oorG he had een in
Dictionar'" <
hea-th( and he $as inrm G he had a $ife $ith $hom
he had nau*ht ut his miser' to share G their on-' re8
mainin* )ro)ert' $as a chi-d in the crad-e" Richard
Smith and !rid*et Smith( $ith common consent(
ha%in* emraced each other tender-' and *i%en their
infant the -ast iss e*an $ith i--in* the )oor chi-d(
after $hich the' han*ed themse-%es to the )osts of
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their ed"
I do not no$ an' other act of co-d8-ooded hor8
ror so striin* as this" !ut the -etter $hich these
unfortunate )ersons $rote to their cousin( 3r"
!rind-e'( efore their death( is as sin*u-ar as their
death itse-f" #We e-ie%e(# sa' the'( #that od $i--
for*i%e us We Huit this -ife ecause $e are
misera-e $ithout resource( and $e ha%e done our
on-' son the ser%ice of i--in* him( -est he shou-d
ecome as unfortunate as ourse-%es # It must
e oser%ed that these )eo)-e( after i--in* their son
throu*h )arenta- tenderness( $rote to recommend
their do* and cat to the care of a friend" It seems
the' thou*ht it easier to mae a cat and do* ha))'
in this -ife than a chi-d( and the' $ou-d not e a ur8
den to their friends"
Lord Scarorou*h Huitted this -ife in =( $ith
the same coo-ness as he had Huitted his oce of 3as8
ter of the &orse" &e $as re)roached( in the &ouse
of Peers( $ith tain* the in*5s )art ecause he had
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a *ood )-ace at court" #3' -ords(# said he( #to )ro%e
to 'ou that m' o)inion is inde)endent of m' )-ace( I
resi*n it this moment"# &e after$ards found him8
@ Phi-oso)hica-
se-f in a )er)-eBin* di-emma et$een a mistress
$hom he -o%ed( ut to $hom he had )romised noth8
in*( and a $oman $hom he esteemed( and to $hom
he had )romised marria*e" &e i--ed himse-f to es8
ca)e from his emarrassment"
These tra*ica- stories $hich s$arm in the En*-ish
ne$s)a)ers( ha%e made the rest of Euro)e thin that(
in En*-and( men i-- themse-%es more $i--in*-' than
e-se$here" &o$e%er( I no$ not ut there are as
man' madmen or heroes to e found in Paris as in
London" Perha)s( if our ne$s)a)ers e)t an eBact
-ist of a-- $ho had een so infatuated as to see their
o$n destruction( and so -amenta-' coura*eous as
to eMect it( $e shou-d( in this )articu-ar( ha%e the
misfortune to ri%a- the En*-ish" !ut our Qourna-s
are more discreet" In such of them as are acno$-8
ed*ed ' the *o%ernment )ri%ate occurrences are
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ne%er eB)osed to )u-ic s-ander"
A-- I can %enture to sa' $ith assurance is that
there is no reason to a))rehend that this ra*e for
se-f8murder $i-- e%er ecome an e)idemica- disorder"
A*ainst this( nature has too $e-- )ro%ided" &o)e and
fear are the )o$erfu- a*ents $hich she often em)-o's
to sta' the hand of the unha))' indi%idua- aout
to strie at his o$n reast" Cardina- Duois $as
once heard to sa' to himse-f 0 #Ki-- th'se-f Co$8
ard( thou darest not#
It is said that there ha%e een countries in $hich
a counci- $as esta-ished to *rant the citi4ens )er8
mission to i-- themse-%es $hen the' had *ood and
Dictionar'"
sucient reasons" I ans$er either that it $as not so
or that those ma*istrates had not much to do"
It mi*ht( indeed( astonish us( and does( I thin(
merit a serious eBamination( that a-most a-- the an8
cient Roman heroes i--ed themse-%es $hen the' had
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-ost a att-e in the ci%i- $ars" !ut I do not nd(
neither in the time of the Lea*ue( nor in that of the
Fronde( nor in the trou-es of Ita-'( nor in those of
En*-and( that an' chief thou*ht )ro)er to die ' his
o$n hand" These chiefs( it is true( $ere Christians(
and there is a *reat diMerence et$een the )rinci)-es
of a Christian $arrior and those of a Pa*an hero"
!ut $h' $ere these men $hom Christianit' re8
strained $hen the' $ou-d ha%e )ut themse-%es to
death( restrained ' nothin* $hen the' chose to
)oison( assassinate( and rin* their conHuered ene8
mies to the scaMo-d J Does not the Christian re-i*ion
forid these murders much more than se-f8murder(
of $hich the Ne$ Testament maes no mention J
The a)ost-es of suicide te-- us that it is Huite a-8
-o$a-e to Huit one5s house $hen one is tired of it"
A*reed( ut most men $ou-d )refer s-ee)in* in a
mean house to -'in* in the o)en air"
I once recei%ed a circu-ar -etter from an En*-ish8
man( in $hich he oMered a )ri4e to an' one $ho
shou-d most satisfactori-' )ro%e that there are occa8
sions on $hich a man mi*ht i-- himse-f" I made no
ans$er0 I had nothin* to )ro%e to him" &e had
on-' to eBamine $hether he -ied etter to die than to
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-i%e"
7 Phi-oso)hica-
Another En*-ishman came to me at Paris in = G
he $as i--( and )romised me that he $ou-d i-- him8
se-f if he $as not cured ' 1u-' ?" &e accordin*-'
*a%e me his e)ita)h in these $ords 0 #Va-ete cum#
#Fare$e-- care# and *a%e me t$ent'8%e -ouis to
*et a sma-- monument erected to him at the end of
the Fauour* St" 3artin" I returned him his mone'
on 1u-' ?( and e)t his e)ita)h"
In m' o$n time the -ast )rince of the house of
Courtenai( $hen %er' o-d( and the -ast ranch of
Lorraine8&arcourt( $hen %er' 'oun*( destro'ed
themse-%es a-most $ithout its ein* heard of" These
occurrences cause a terri-e u)roar the rst da'( ut
$hen the )ro)ert' of the deceased has een di%ided
the' are no -on*er ta-ed of"
The fo--o$in* most remara-e of a-- suicides has
Qust occurred at L'ons( in 1une( =?0 A 'oun*
man $e-- no$n( $ho $as handsome( $e-- made(
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c-e%er( and amia-e( fe-- in -o%e $ith a 'oun* $oman
$hom her )arents $ou-d not *i%e to him" So far
$e ha%e nothin* more than the o)enin* scene of a
comed'( the astonishin* tra*ed' is to fo--o$"
The -o%er roe a -ood8%esse- and the sur*eons
informed him there $as no remed'" &is mistress
en*a*ed to meet him( $ith t$o )isto-s and t$o da*8
*ers in order that( if the )isto-s missed the da**ers
mi*ht the neBt moment )ierce their hearts" The'
emraced each other for the -ast time 0 rose8co-ored
rions $ere tied to the tri**ers of the )isto-s G the
-o%er ho-din* the rion of his mistress5s )isto-( $hi-e
Dictionar'" >
she he-d the rion of his" !oth red at a si*na-
*i%en( and oth fe-- at the same instant"
Of this fact the $ho-e cit' of L'ons is $itness"
Psetus and Arria( 'ou set the eBam)-e( ut 'ou $ere
condemned ' a t'rant( $hi-e -o%e a-one immo-ated
these t$o %ictims"
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La$s A*ainst Suicide"
&as an' -a$( ci%i- or re-i*ious( e%er foridden a
man to i-- himse-f( on )ain of ein* han*ed after
death( or on )ain of ein* damned J It is true that
Vir*i- has said0
ProBimo( deinde tenent mcesti -oca( Hui sii -ethum
Insontes )e)erere manu( -ucemHue )erosi
ProQecere animas" :uam %e--ent ethere in a-to
Nunc et )au)eriem et duros )erferre -aores
Fata ostant( tristiHue )a-us inamai-is unda
A--i*at( et na%ies St'B interfusa coercet"
( -i" %i" %" et seH"
The neBt in )-ace( and )unishment( are the'
Who )rodi*a--' thro$ their sou-s a$a'
Foo-s( $ho re)inin* at their $retched state(
And -oathin* anBious -ife( suorn their fateG
With -ate re)entance no$ the' $ou-d retrie%e
The odies the' forsoo( and $ish to -i%eG
Their )ains and )o%ert' desire to ear(
To %ie$ the -i*ht of hea%en and reathe the %ita- airG
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!ut fate forids( the St'*ian oods o))ose(
And( $ith nine circ-in* streams( the ca)ti%e sou-s inc-ose"
DR6DEN"
Such $as the re-i*ion of some of the )a*ans(
'et( not$ithstandin* the $eariness $hich a$aited
them in the neBt $or-d it $as an honor to Huit this
' i--in* themse-%es so contradictor' are the $a's
of men" And amon* us is not due--in* unfortu8
nate-' sti-- honora-e( thou*h foridden ' reason(
' re-i*ion( and ' e%er' -a$J If Cato and Caesar(
? Phi-oso)hica-
Anton' and Au*ustus( $ere not due--ists it $as not
that the' $ere -ess ra%e than our Frenchmen" If
the due of 3ontmorenc'( 3arsha- de 3ari--ac(
de Thou( CinH83ars( and so man' others( chose
rather to e dra**ed to eBecution in a $a*on( -ie
hi*h$a'men( than to i-- themse-%es -ie Cato and
!rutus( it $as not that the' had -ess coura*e than
those Romans( nor -ess of $hat is ca--ed honor" The
true reason is that at Paris se-f8murder in such cases
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$as not then the fashion G ut it $as the fashion at
Rome"
The $omen of the 3a-aar coast thro$ them8
se-%es( -i%in*( on the funera- )i-es of their husands"
&a%e the'( then( more coura*e than Corne-iaJ NoG
ut in that countr' it is the custom for the $i%es to
urn themse-%es"
In 1a)an it is the custom for a man of honor(
$hen he has een insu-ted ' another man of honor(
to ri) o)en his e--' in the )resence of his enem'
and sa' to him 0 #Do 'ou -ie$ise if thou hast the
heart"# The a**ressor is dishonored for e%er if he
does not immediate-' )-un*e a *reat nife into his
e--'"
The on-' re-i*ion in $hich suicide is foridden '
a c-ear and )ositi%e -a$ is 3ahometanism" In the
fourth sura it is said 0 #Do not i-- 'ourse-f( for
od is mercifu- unto 'ou( and $hosoe%er i--eth
himse-f throu*h ma-ice and $icedness sha-- as8
sured-' e urned in he-- re"#
This is a -itera- trans-ation" The teBt( -ie man'
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Dictionar'" =
other teBts( a))ears to $ant common sense" What
is meant ' #Do not i-- 'ourse-f for od is merci8
fu-#J Perha)s $e are to understand Do not sin
under 'our misfortunes( $hich od ma' a--e%iate 0
do not e so foo-ish as to i-- 'ourse-f to8da' since
'ou ma' e ha))' to8morro$"
#And $hosoe%er i--eth himse-f throu*h ma-ice
and $icedness"# This is 'et more dicu-t to eB8
)-ain" Perha)s( in a-- antiHuit'( this ne%er ha))ened
to an' one ut the Phrasdra of Euri)ides( $ho
han*ed herse-f on )ur)ose to mae Theseus e-ie%e
that she had een forci-' %io-ated ' &i))o-'tus"
In our o$n times a man shot himse-f in the head(
after arran*in* a-- thin*s to mae another man sus8
)ected of the act"
In the )-a' of eor*e Dandin( his Qade of a $ife
threatens him $ith i--in* herse-f to ha%e him
han*ed" Such cases are rare" If 3ahomet foresa$
them he ma' e said to ha%e seen a *reat $a'" The
famous Du%er*er de &aurane( aot of St" C'ran(
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re*arded as the founder of Port Ro'a-( $rote( aout
the 'ear =@?7( a treatise on #Suicide(# $hich has
ecome one of the scarcest oos in Euro)e"
#The Deca-o*ue(# sa's he( #forids us to i--" In
this )rece)t se-f8murder seems no -ess to e com5
)rised than murder of our nei*hor" !ut if there
are cases in $hich it is a--o$a-e to i-- our nei*hor
there -ie$ise are cases in $hich it is a--o$a-e to
i-- ourse-%es"
#We must not mae an attem)t u)on our -i%es
Q Phi-oso)hica-
unti- $e ha%e consu-ted reason" The )u-ic author8
it'( $hich ho-ds the )-ace of od( ma' dis)ose of
our -i%es" The reason of man ma' -ie$ise ho-d the
)-ace of the reason of od0 it is a ra' of the eterna-
-i*ht#
St" C'ran eBtends this ar*ument( $hich ma' e
considered as a mere so)hism( to *reat -en*th( ut
$hen he comes to the eB)-anation and the detai-s
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it is more dicu-t to ans$er him" &e sa's0 #A
man ma' i-- himse-f for the *ood of his )rince(
for that of his countr'( or for that of his re-ations"#
We do not( indeed( see ho$ Codrns or Curtius
cou-d e condemned" No so%erei*n $ou-d dare to
)unish the fami-' of a man $ho had de%oted him8
se-f to death for himG na'( there is not one $ho
$ou-d dare ne*-ect to recom)ense ft" St" Thomas(
efore St" C'ran( had said the same thin*" !ut $e
need neither St" Thomas( nor Cardina- !ona%entura(
nor Dn%er*er de &anrane to te-- us that a man $ho
dies for his countr' is deser%in* of )raise"
The aot of St" C'ran conc-udes that it is a-8
-o$a-e to do for ourse-%es $hat it is no-e to do for
others" A-- mat is ad%anced ' P-utarch( ' Seneca(
' 3ontai*ne( and ' ft' other )hi-oso)hers( in
fa%or of suicide is sucient-' no$n ft is a hac8
ne'ed to)ic a $ornout common)-ace" I see not to
a)o-o*i4e for an act $hich the -a$s condemn( ut
neither the O-d Testament( nor the Ne$ has e%er
foridden man to de)art this -ife $hen it has ecome
insu))orta-e to him" No Roman -a$ condemned
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Dictionar'"
se-f8murderG on the contrar'( the fo--o$in* $as the
-a$ of the Em)eror Antoine( $hich $as ne%er re8
%oed0
#If 'our father or 'our rother not ein* accused
of an' crime i-- himse-f( either to esca)e from
*rief( or throu*h $eariness of -ife( or throu*h de8
s)air( or throu*h menta- deran*ement( his $i-- sha--
e %a-id( or( if he die intestate his heirs sha-- suc8
ceed"#
Not$ithstandin* this humane -a$ of our masters
$e sti-- dra* on a s-ed*e and dri%e a stae throu*h
the od' of a man $ho has died a %o-untar' death G
$e do a-- $e can to mae his memor' infamousG
$e dishonor his fami-' as far as $e are a-eG $e
)unish the son for ha%in* -ost his father( and the
$ido$ for ein* de)ri%ed of her husand"
We e%en conscate the )ro)ert' of the deceased(
$hich is roin* the -i%in* of the )atrimon' $hich
of ri*ht e-on*s to them" This custom is deri%ed
from our canon -a$( $hich de)ri%es of Christian
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uria- such as die a %o-untar' death" &ence it is
conc-uded that $e cannot inherit from a man $ho
is Qud*ed to ha%e no inheritance in hea%en" The
canon -a$( under the head #De Parnitentia# assures
us that 1udas committed a *reater crime in stran*8
-in* himse-f than in se--in* our Lord 1esus Christ"
CELTS"
A3ON those $ho ha%e had the -eisure( the
means( and the coura*e to see for the ori*in of
Vo-
Phi-oso)hica-
nations( there ha%e een some $ho ha%e found that
of our Ce-ts( or at -east $ou-d mae us e-ie%e that
the' had met $ith it" This i--usion ein* the on-'
recom)ense of their immense tra%ai-( $e shou-d not
en%' them its )ossession"
If $e $ish to no$ an'thin* aout the &uns
$ho( indeed( are scarce-' $orth no$in* an'thin*
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aout( for the' ha%e rendered no ser%ice to man8
ind $e nd some s-i*ht notices of those arar8
ians amon* the Chinese that most ancient of a-- na8
tions( after the Indians" From them $e -earn that(
in certain a*es( the &uns $ent -ie famishin*
$o-%es and ra%a*ed countries $hich( e%en at this
da' are re*arded as )-aces of eBi-e and of horror"
This is a %er' me-ancho-'( a %er' misera-e sort of
no$-ed*e" It is( dout-ess( much etter to cu-ti8
%ate a usefu- art at Paris( L'ons( or !ordeauB( than
serious-' to stud' the histor' of the &uns and the
ears" Ne%erthe-ess $e are aided in these researches
' some of the Chinese archi%es"
!ut for the Ce-ts there are no archi%es" We
no$ no more of their antiHuities than $e do of
those of the Samo'eds or the Austra-asians"
We ha%e -earned nothin* aout our ancestors eB8
ce)t from the fe$ $ords $hich their conHueror(
1u-ius Caesar( condescended to sa' of them" &e e8
*ins his #Commentaries# ' di%idin* the au-s
into the !e-*ians( AHuitanians( and Ce-ts"
Whence some of the darin* amon* the erudite
ha%e conc-uded that the Ce-ts $ere the Sc'thians(
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Dictionar'" <
and the' ha%e made these Sc'thio8Ce-ts inc-ude a--
Euro)e" !ut $h' not inc-ude the $ho-e earthJ
Wh' sto) short in so ne a career J
We ha%e a-so een du-' to-d that Noah5s son(
1a)het( came out of the Ar( and $ent $ith a-- s)eed
to )eo)-e a-- those %ast re*ions $ith Ce-ts( $hom he
*o%erned mar%e--ous-' $e--" !ut authors of *reater
modest' refer the ori*in of our Ce-ts to the to$er of
!ae- to the confusion of ton*ues to Corner( of
$hom no one e%er heard unti- the %er' recent )eriod
$hen some $ise men of the West read the name of
Comer in a ad trans-ation of the Se)tua*int"
!ochart( in his #Sacred Chrono-o*'# $hat a
chrono-o*' taes Huite a diMerent turn" Of these
innumera-e hordes of Ce-ts he maes an E*')tian
co-on'( si-fu--' and easi-' -ed ' &ercu-es from
the ferti-e ans of the Ni-e into the forests and
morasses of erman'( $hither( no dout( these co-8
onists carried the arts and the -an*ua*e of E*')t
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and the m'steries of Isis( no trace of $hich has e%er
een found amon* them"
I thin the' are sti-- more to e con*ratu-ated
on their disco%eries( $ho sa' that the Ce-ts of the
mountains of Dau)hin' $ere ca--ed Cottians( from
their Kin* Cottius G that the !erichons $ere named
from their Kin* !etrichG the We-sh( or au-ish(
from their Kin* Wa--us( and the !e-*ians from !a-8
*em( $hich means Huarre-some"
A sti-- ner ori*in is that of the Ce-to8Pannon8
ians( from the Latin $ord )annus( c-oth( for( $e are
@ Phi-oso)hica-
to-d the' dressed themse-%es in o-d )ieces of c-oth
ad-' se$n to*ether( much resem-in* a har-eHuin5s
Qacet" !ut the est ori*in of a-- is( undenia-'( the
to$er of !ae-"
CERE3ONIES TITLES PRECEDENCE"
ALL these thin*s( $hich $ou-d e use-ess and
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im)ertinent in a state of )ure nature( are( in our
corru)t and ridicu-ous state( of *reat ser%ice" Of a--
nations( the Chinese are those $ho ha%e carried the
use of ceremonies to the *reatest -en*th G the' cer8
tain-' ser%e to ca-m as $e-- as to $ear' the mind"
The Chinese )orters and carters are o-i*ed( $hen8
e%er the' occasion the -east hindrance in the streets(
to fa-- on their nees and as one another5s )ardon
accordin* to the )rescried formu-a" This )re%ents
i-- -an*ua*e( -o$s and murders" The' ha%e time
to *ro$ coo- and are then $i--in* to assist one an8
other"
The more free a )eo)-e are( the fe$er ceremonies(
the fe$er ostentatious tit-es( the fe$er demonstra8
tions of annihi-ation in the )resence of a su)erior(
the' )ossess" To Sci)io men said #Sci)io# G to
Caesar( #Caesar# G ut in after times the' said to the
em)erors( #'our maQest'(# #'our di%init'"#
The tit-es of St" Peter and St" Pau- $ere #Peter#
and #Pau-"# Their successors *a%e one another the
tit-e of #'our ho-iness(# $hich is not to e found in
the Acts of the A)ost-es( nor in the $ritin*s of the
disci)-es"
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Dictionar'"
We read in the histor' of erman' that the
dau)hin of France( after$ards Char-es V"( $ent to
the Em)eror Char-es IV" at 3et4 and $as )resented
after Cardina- de Peri*ord"
There has since een a time $hen chance--ors $ent
efore cardina-sG after $hich cardina-s a*ain too
)recedence of chance--ors"
In France the )eers )receded the )rinces of the
-ood( *oin* in the order of their creation( unti- the
consecration of &enr' III"
The di*nit' of )eer $as( unti- that time( so eB8
a-ted that at the ceremon' of the consecration of
E-i4aeth( $ife to Char-es I;"( in =<( descried
' Simon !ouHuet( eche%in of Paris( it is said that
the Hueen5s dames and demoise--es ha%in* handed to
the dame d5honneur the read( $ine and $aB( $ith
the si-%er( for the oMerin* to e )resented to the
Hueen ' the said dame d5honneur( the said dame
d5honneur( ein* a duchess( commanded the dames
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to *o and carr' the oMerin* to the )rincesses them8
se-%es( etc" This dame d5honneur $as the $ife of the
consta-e 3ontmorenc'"
The armchair( the chair $ith a ac( the stoo-( the
ri*ht hand and the -eft $ere for se%era- a*es im8
)ortant )o-itica- matters" I e-ie%e that $e o$e the
ancient etiHuette concernin* armchairs to the circum8
stance that our ararians of ancestors had at most
ut one in a house( and e%en this $as used on-' '
the sic" In some )ro%inces of erman' and En*8
-and an armchair is sti-- ca--ed a sic8chair"
7 Phi-oso)hica-
Lon* after the times of Atti-a and Da*oert( $hen
-uBur' found its $a' into our courts and the *reat
men of the earth had t$o or three armchairs in their
donQons( it $as a no-e distinction to sit u)on one
of these thrones G and a caste--ain $ou-d )-ace amon*
his tit-es ho$ he had *one ha-f a -ea*ue from home
to )a' his court to a count( and ho$ he had een re8
cei%ed in an eas'8chair"
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We see in the 3emoirs of 3ademoise--e that that
au*ust )rincess )assed one8fourth of her -ife amid
the morta- a*onies of dis)utes for the ac8chair"
Were 'ou to sit in a certain a)artment( in a chair( or
on a stoo-( or not to sit at a-- J &ere $as enou*h to
in%o-%e a $ho-e court in intri*ue" 3anners are no$
more eas'G -adies ma' use couches and sofas $ith8
out occasionin* an' disturance in societ'"
When Cardina- de Riche-ieu $as treatin* $ith the
En*-ish amassadors for the marria*e of &enriette
of France $ith Char-es I"( the aMair $as on the )oint
of ein* roen oM on account of a demand made
' the amassadors of t$o or three ste)s more to8
$ards a doorG ut the cardina- remo%ed the di8
cu-t' ' tain* to his ed" &istor' has carefu--'
handed do$n this )recious circumstance" I e-ie%e
that( if it had een )ro)osed to Sci)io to *et et$een
the sheets to recei%e the %isit of &annia-( he $ou-d
ha%e thou*ht the ceremon' somethin* -ie a Qoe"
For a $ho-e centur' the order of carria*es and
tain* the $a-- $ere testimonia-s of *reatness and
the source of )retensions( dis)utes( and conicts" To
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Dictionar'" >
)rocure the )assin* of one carria*e efore another
$as -ooed u)on as a si*na- %ictor'" The amas8
sadors $ent a-on* the streets as if the' $ere con8
tendin* for the )ri4e in the circus G and $hen a S)an8
ish minister had succeeded in main* a Portu*uese
coachman )u-- u)( he sent a courier to 3adrid to
a))rise the in*( his master( of this *reat ad%anta*e"
Our histories re*a-e us $ith ft' )u*i-istic com8
ats for )recedence as that of the )ar-iament $ith
the isho)s5 c-ers at the funera- of &enr' IV"( the
chamre des com)tes $ith the )ar-iament in the ca8
thedra- $hen Louis ;III" *a%e France to the Vir*in(
the due of E)ernon $ith the ee)er of the sea-s(
Du Vair( in the church of St" ermain" The )res8
idents of the enHuetes uMeted Sa%are( the do'en of
the consei--ers de *rand5 chamre( to mae him Huit
his )-ace of honor so much is honor the sou- of mo8
narchica- *o%ernments U ( and four archers $ere
o-i*ed to -a' ho-d of the President !ari--on( $ho
$as eatin* the )oor do'en $ithout merc'" We nd
no contests -ie these in the Areo)a*us( nor in the
Roman senate"
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In )ro)ortion to the ararism of countries or
the $eaness of courts( $e nd ceremon' in %o*ue"
True )o$er and true )o-iteness are ao%e %anit'" We
ma' %enture to e-ie%e that the custom $i-- at -ast e
*i%en u) $hich some amassadors sti-- retain( of
ruinin* themse-%es in order to *o a-on* the streets
in )rocession $ith a fe$ hired carria*es( fresh
)ainted and *i-ded( and )receded ' a fe$ footmen"
O Phi-oso)hica-
This is ca--ed #main* their entr'# G and it is a ne
Qoe to mae 'our entr' into a to$n se%en or ei*ht
months efore 'ou arri%e"
This im)ortant aMair of )uncti-io( $hich consti8
tutes the *reatness of the modern Romans this
science of the numer of ste)s that shou-d e made
in sho$in* in a monsi*nor( in dra$in* or ha-f dra$8
in* a curtain( in $a-in* in a room to the ri*ht or to
the -eft this *reat art( $hich neither Faius norCato
cou-d e%er ima*ine( is e*innin* to sinG and the
train8earers to the cardina-s com)-ain that e%er'8
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thin* indicates a dec-ine"
A French co-one-( ein* at !russe-s a 'ear after
the tain* of that )-ace ' 3arsha- de SaBe( and
ha%in* nothin* to do( reso-%ed to *o to the to$n as8
sem-'" #It is he-d at a )rincess5(# said one to him"
#!e it so(# ans$ered the other( #$hat matters it to
meJ# #!ut on-' )rinces *o thereG are 'ou a
)rinceJ# #Psha$ # said the co-one-( #the' are a %er'
*ood sort of )rinces G I had a do4en of them in m'
anteroom -ast 'ear( $hen $e had taen the to$n(
and the' $ere %er' )o-ite"#
In turnin* o%er the -ea%es of #&orace# I oser%e
this -ine in an e)ist-e to 3aecenas( #Te( du-cis amice
re%isa%n"# #I $i-- come and see 'ou( m' *ood
friend"# This 3aecenas $as the second )erson in the
Roman Em)ire G that is( a man of *reater )o$er and
inuence than the *reatest monarch of modern Eu8
ro)e"
Looin* into the $ors of Cornei--e( I oser%ed
Dictionar'" =
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that in a -etter to the *reat Scuderi( *o%ernor of
Notre Dame de -a arde( etc"( he uses this eB)ression
in reference to Cardina- Riche-ieu 0 #3onsieur the
cardina-( 'our master and mine"# It is( )erha)s( the
rst time that such -an*ua*e has een a))-ied to a
minister( since there ha%e een ministers( in*s and
atterers in the $or-d" The same Peter Cornei--e(
the author of #Cinna(# hum-' dedicates that $or to
the Sieur de 3ontauron( the in*5s treasurer( $hom
in direct terms he com)ares to Au*ustus" I re*ret
that he did not *i%e 3ontauron the tit-e of mon8
sei*neur or m' -ord"
An anecdote is re-ated of an o-d ocer( ut -itt-e
con%ersant $ith the )recedents and formu-as of
%anit'( $ho $rote to the 3arHuis Lou%ois as )-ain
monsieur( ut recei%in* no ans$er( neBt addressed
him under the tit-e of monsei*neur( sti--( ho$e%er(
$ithout eMect( the un-uc' monsieur continuin* to
ran-e in the minister5s heart" &e na--' directed his
-etter #to m' od( m' od Lou%ois# G commencin*
it ' the $ords( #m' od( m' Creator"# Does not
a-- this sucient-' )ro%e that the Romans $ere ma*8
nanimous and modest( and that $e are fri%o-ous and
%ainJ
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#&o$ d5'e do( m' dear friendJ# said a due and
)eer to a *ent-eman" #At 'our ser%ice( m' dear
friend(# re)-ied he G and from that instant his #dear
friend# ecame his im)-aca-e enem'" A *randee of
Portu*a- $as once con%ersin* $ith a S)anish hida-*o
and addressin* him e%er' moment in the terms(
Phi-oso)hica-
#'our eBce--enc'"# The Casti-ian as freHuent-' re8
)-ied( #'our courtes'# %uestra mercedU( a tit-e e8
sto$ed on those $ho ha%e none ' ri*ht" The irri8
tated Portu*uese in return retorted #'our courtes'#
on the S)aniard( $ho then ca--ed the Portu*uese
#'our eBce--enc'"# The Portu*uese( at -en*th
$earied out( demanded( #&o$ is it that 'ou a-$a's
ca-- me 'our courtes'( $hen I ca-- 'ou 'our eBce-8
-enc'( and 'our eBce--enc' $hen I ca-- 'ou 'our
courtes' J# #The reason is(# sa's the Casti-ian $ith
a o$( #that a-- tit-es are eHua- to me( )ro%ided that
there is nothin* eHua- et$een 'ou and me"#
The %anit' of tit-es $as not introduced into our
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northern c-imes of Euro)e ti-- the Romans had e8
come acHuainted $ith Asiatic ma*nicence" The
*reater )art of the so%erei*ns of Asia $ere( and sti--
are( cousins *erman of the sun and the moon G their
suQects dare not mae an' )retension to such hi*h
anit' G and man' a )ro%incia- *o%ernor( $ho st'-es
himse-f #nutme* of conso-ation# and #rose of de8
-i*ht# $ou-d e em)a-ed a-i%e if he $ere to c-aim the
s-i*htest re-ationshi) to the sun and moon"
Constantine $as( I thin( the rst Roman em)eror
$ho o%er$he-med Christian humi-it' in a )a*e of
)om)ous tit-es" It is true that efore his time the
em)erors ore the tit-e of *od( ut the term im)-ied
nothin* simi-ar to $hat $e understand ' it" Di%us
Au*ustus( Di%us TraQanus( meant St" Au*ustus( St"
TraQan" It $as thou*ht on-' conforma-e to the
Dictionar'"
di*nit' of the Roman Em)ire that the sou- of its chief
shou-d( after his death( ascend to hea%en G and it fre8
Huent-' e%en ha))ened that the tit-e of saint( of
*od( $as *ranted to the em)eror ' a sort of antici8
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)ated inheritance" Near-' for the same reason the
rst )atriarchs of the Christian church $ere a-- ca--ed
55'our ho-iness"# The' $ere thus named to remind
them of $hat in fact the' ou*ht to e"
3en sometimes tae u)on themse-%es %er' hum-e
tit-es( )ro%ided the' can otain from others %er' hon8
ora-e ones" 3an' an ae $ho ca--s himse-f rother
eBacts from his mons the tit-e of monsei*neur" The
)o)e st'-es himse-f #ser%ant of the ser%ants of od"#
An honest )riest of &o-stein once addressed a -etter
55to Pius IV"( ser%ant of the ser%ants of od"# &e
after$ards $ent to Rome to ur*e his suit( and the in8
Huisition )ut him in )rison to teach him ho$ to ad8
dress -etters"
Former-' the em)eror a-one had the tit-e of
maQest'" Other so%erei*ns $ere ca--ed 'our hi*h8
ness( 'our serenit'( 'our *race" Louis ;I" $as the
rst in France $ho $as *enera--' ca--ed maQest'( a
tit-e certain-' not -ess suita-e to the di*nit' of a
)o$erfu- hereditar' in*dom than to an e-ecti%e )rin8
ci)a-it'" !ut -on* after him the term hi*hness $as
a))-ied to in*s of FranceG and some -etters to
&enr' III" are sti-- eBtant in $hich he is addressed
' that tit-e" The states of Or-eans oQected to
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:ueen Catherine de 3edici ein* ca--ed maQest'"
Phi-oso)hica-
!ut this -ast denomination *radua--' )re%ai-ed" The
name is indiMerentG it is the )o$er a-one that is
not so"
The erman chancer'( e%er unchan*ea-e in its
state-' forma-ities( has )retended do$n to our o$n
times that no in*s ha%e a ri*ht to a hi*her tit-e than
serenit'" At the ce-erated treat' of West)ha-ia( in
$hich France and S$eden dictated the -a$ to the
ho-' Roman Em)ire( the em)eror5s )-eni)otentiar"s
continua--' )resented Latin memoria-s( in $hich #his
most sacred im)eria- maQest'# ne*otiated $ith the
#most serene in*s of France and S$eden# G $hi-e(
on the other hand( the French and S$edes fai- not to
dec-are that their #sacred maQesties of France and
S$eden# had man' suQects of com)-aint a*ainst the
#most serene em)eror"# Since that )eriod( ho$e%er(
the *reat so%erei*ns ha%e( in re*ard to ran( een
considered as eHua-s( and he a-one $ho eats his
nei*hor is adQud*ed to ha%e the )re8eminence"
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Phi-i) II" $as the rst maQest' in S)ain( for the
serenit' of Char-es V" $as con%erted into maQest'
on-' on account of the em)ire" The chi-dren of
Phi-i) II" $ere the rst hi*hnesses G and after$ards
the' $ere ro'a- hi*hnesses" The due of Or-eans(
rother of Louis ;III"( did not tae u) the tit-e of
ro'a- hi*hness ti-- =@= G then the )rince of Conde
c-aimed that the most serene hi*hness( $hich the
Dues de Vendome did not %enture to assume" The
due of Sa%o'( at that time ro'a- hi*hness( after8
$ards sustituted maQest'" The *rand due of
Dictionar'" <
F-orence did the same( eBce)tin* as to maQest' G and
na--' the c4ar( $ho $as no$n in Euro)e on-' as
the *rand due( dec-ared himse-f em)eror( and $as
reco*ni4ed as such"
Former-' there $ere on-' t$o marHuises in er8
man'( t$o in France and t$o in Ita-'" The marHuis
of !randenur* has ecome a in*( and a *reat
in*" !ut at )resent our Ita-ian and French mar8
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Huises are of a some$hat diMerent s)ecies"
If an Ita-ian citi4en has the honor of *i%in* a din8
ner to the -e*ate of his )ro%ince( and the -e*ate( $hen
drinin*( sa's to him( #3onsieur -e marHuis( to 'our
*ood hea-th(# he sudden-' ecomes a marHuis( he and
his heirs after him( fore%er" If the inhaitant of an'
)ro%ince of France( $hose $ho-e estate consists of
a Huarter )art of a -itt-e deca'ed cast-e8$ard( *oes to
Paris( maes somethin* of a fortune( or carries the
air of ha%in* made one( he is st'-ed in the deeds and
-e*a- instruments in $hich he is concerned #hi*h and
mi*ht' sei*neur( marHuis and count(# and his son
$i-- e denominated ' his notar' #%er' hi*h and
%er' mi*ht' sei*neur(# and as this fri%o-ous amition
is in no $a' inQurious to *o%ernment or ci%i- societ'(
it is )ermitted to tae its course" Some French -ords
oast of em)-o'in* erman arons in their sta-esG
some erman -ords sa' the' ha%e French marHuises
in their itchens G it is not a -on* time since a for8
ei*ner at Na)-es made his coachman a due" Custom
in these cases has more )o$er than ro'a- authorit'"
If 'ou are ut -itt-e no$n at Paris( 'ou ma' there e
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@ Phi-oso)hica-
a count or a marHuis as -on* as 'ou )-ease G if 'ou
are connected $ith the -a$ of nance( thou*h the
in* shou-d confer on 'ou a rea- marHuisate( 'ou $i--
not( therefore( e monsieur -e marHuis" The ce-e8
rated Samue- !ernard $as( in truth( more a count
than %e hundred such as $e often see not )ossessin*
four acres of -and" The in* had con%erted his es8
tate of Couert into a ne count' G 'et if on an' oc8
casion he had ordered himse-f to e announced as
Count !ernard( etc"( he $ou-d ha%e eBcited ursts
of -au*hter" In En*-and it is diMerent G if the in*
confers the tit-e of ear- or aron on a merchant( a--
c-asses address him $ith the desi*nation suita-e to
it $ithout the s-i*htest hesitation" !' )ersons of the
hi*hest irth( ' the in* himse-f( he is ca--ed m'
-ord" It is the same in Ita-' G there is a re*ister e)t
there of monsi*nori" The )o)e himse-f addresses
them under that tit-eG his )h'sician is monsi*nor(
and no one oQects"
In France the tit-e of monsei*neur or m' -ord is a
%er' serious usiness" !efore the time of Cardina-
Riche-ieu a isho) $as on-' #a most re%erend father
in od"#
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!efore the 'ear =@< isho)s did not on8-' not as8
sume the tit-e of monsei*neur themse-%es( ut the'
did not e%en *i%e it to cardina-s" These t$o customs
$ere introduced ' a isho) of Chartres( $ho( in fu--
canonica-s of -a$n and )ur)-e( $ent to ca-- Cardina-
Riche-ieu monsei*neur( on $hich occasion Louis
Dictionar'"
;III" oser%ed that #Chartrain $ou-d not mind
sa-utin* the cardina- au derriere"#
It is on-' since that )eriod that isho)s ha%e
mutua--' a))-ied to each other the tit-e of mon8
sei*neur"
The )u-ic made no oQection to this a))-ication
of itG ut( as it $as a ne$ tit-e( not conferred on
isho)s ' in*s( the' continued to e ca--ed sieurs
in edicts( dec-arations( ordinances and a-- ocia- doc8
umentsG and $hen the counci- $rote to a isho)
the' *a%e him no hi*her tit-e than monsieur"
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The dues and )eers ha%e encountered more di8
cu-t' in acHuirin* )ossession of the tit-e of mon8
sei*neur" The *rande no-esse( and $hat is ca--ed
the *rand roe( decided-' refuse them that distinc8
tion" The hi*hest *ratication of human )ride con8
sists in a man5s recei%in* tit-es of honor from those
$ho concei%e themse-%es his eHua-s G ut to attain
this is eBceedin*-' dicu-t G )ride a-$a's nds )ride
to contend $ith"
When the dues insisted on recei%in* the tit-e of
monsei*neur from the c-ass of *ent-emen( the )resi8
dents of the )ar-iaments reHuired the same from ad8
%ocates and )roctors" A certain )resident actua--'
refused to e -ed ecause his sur*eon ased0 #In
$hich arm $i-- 'ou e -ed( monsieurJ# An o-d
counse--or treated this matter some$hat more *a'-'"
A )-eader $as sa'in* to him( #3onsei*neur( mon8
sieur( 'our secretar'# """" &e sto))ed him short 0
7 Phi-oso)hica-
#6ou ha%e uttered three -unders(# sa's he( #in as
man' $ords" I am not monsei*neur G m' secretar'
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is not monsieurG he is m' c-er"#
To )ut an end to this *rand conict of %anit' it
$i-- e%entua--' e found necessar' to *i%e the tit-e
of monsei*neur to e%er' indi%idua- in the nation G as
$omen( $ho $ere former-' content $ith mademoi8
se--e( are no$ to e ca--ed madame" In S)ain( $hen
a mendicant meets a rother e**ar( he thus accosts
him 0 #&as 'our courtes' taen choco-ate J# This
)o-iteness of -an*ua*e e-e%ates the mind and ee)s
u) the di*nit' of the s)ecies" Caesar and Pom)e'
$ere ca--ed in the senate Caesar and Pom)e'" !ut
these men ne$ nothin* of -ife" The' ended their
-etters $ith %a-e adieu" We( $ho )ossess more
eBa-ted notions( $ere siBt' 'ears a*o #aMectionate
ser%ants#G then #%er' hum-e and %er' oedient#G
and no$ $e #ha%e the honor to e# so" I rea--'
*rie%e for )osterit'( $hich $i-- nd it eBtreme-'
dicu-t to add to these %er' eautifu- formu-as" The
Due d5)ernon( the rst of ascons in )ride(
thou*h far from ein* the rst of statesmen( $rote
on his deathed to Cardina- Riche-ieu and ended his
-etter $ith 0 #6our %er' hum-e and %er' oedient"#
Reco--ectin*( ho$e%er( that the cardina- had used
on-' the )hrase #%er' aMectionate(# he des)atched
an eB)ress to rin* ac the -etter for it had een
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actua--' sent oMU( e*an it ane$( si*ned #%er' aMec8
tionate(# and died in the ed of honor"
We ha%e made man' of these oser%ations e-se8
Dictionar'" >
$here" It is $e--( ho$e%er( to re)eat them( $ere it
on-' to correct some )om)ous )eacocs( $ho $ou-d
strut a$a' their -i%es in contem)ti-' dis)-a'in*
their )-umes and their )ride"
CERTAIN CERTAINT6"
I A3 certain G I ha%e friends G m' fortune is
secure G m' re-ations $i-- ne%er aandon me G I sha--
ha%e Qustice done me G m' $or is *ood( it $i-- e
$e-- recei%ed G $hat is o$in* to me $i-- e )aid G m'
friend $i-- e faithfu-( he has s$orn it G the minister
$i-- ad%ance me he has( ' the $a'( )romised it
a-- these are $ords $hich a man $ho has -i%ed a
short time in the $or-d erases from his dictionar'"
When the Qud*es condemned L5An*-ade( Le
!run( a-as( Sir%en( 3artin( 3ontai--i( and so
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man' others( since acno$-ed*ed to ha%e een inno8
cent( the' $ere certain( or the' ou*ht to ha%e een
certain( that a-- these unha))' men $ere *ui-t' G 'et
the' $ere decei%ed" There are t$o $a's of ein*
decei%edG ' fa-se Qud*ment and se-f8-indness
that of errin* -ie a man of *enius( and that of decid8
in* -ie a foo-"
The Qud*es decei%ed themse-%es -ie men of
*enius in the aMair of L5An*-adeG the' $ere
-inded ' da44-in* a))earances and did not su8
cient-' eBamine the )roai-ities on the other side"
Their $isdom made them e-ie%e it certain that
L5An*-ade had committed a theft( $hich he certain-'
had not committed G and on this misera-e uncertain
Vo-"
<? Phi-oso)hica-
certaint' of the human mind( a *ent-eman $as )ut to
the ordinar' and eBtraordinar' Huestion G suseHuent
thro$n( $ithout succor( into a dun*eon and con8
demned to the *a--e's( $here he died" &is $ife $as
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shut u) in another dun*eon( $ith her dau*hter(
a*ed se%en 'ears( $ho after$ards married a coun8
se--or of the same )ar-iament $hich had condemned
her father to the *a--e's and her mother to anish8
ment"
It is c-ear that the Qud*es $ou-d not ha%e )ro8
nounced this sentence had the' een rea--' certain"
&o$e%er( e%en at the time this sentence $as )assed
se%era- )ersons ne$ that the theft had een com8
mitted ' a )riest named a*nat( associated $ith a
hi*h$a'man( and the innocence of L5An*-ade $as
not reco*ni4ed ti-- after his death"
The' $ere in the same manner certain $hen( ' a
sentence in the rst instance( the' condemned to
the $hee- the innocent Le !run( $ho( ' an arret
)ronounced on his a))ea-( $as roen on the rac(
and died under the torture"
The eBam)-es of a-as and Sir%en are $e-- no$n(
that of 3artin is -ess so" &e $as an honest a*ricu-8
turist near !ar in Lorraine" A %i--ain sto-e his dress
and in this dress murdered a tra%e--er $hom he ne$
to ha%e mone' and $hose route he had $atched"
3artin $as accused( his dress $as a $itness a*ainst
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him G the Qud*es re*arded this e%idence as a cer8
taint'" Not the )ast conduct of the )risoner( a num8
erous fami-' $hom he had rou*ht u) %irtuous-'(
Dictionar'" < =
neither the -itt-e mone' found on him( nor the eB8
treme )roai-it' of his innocence nothin* cou-d
sa%e him" The sua-tern Qud*e made a merit of his
ri*or" &e condemned the innocent %ictim to e
roen on the $hee-( and( ' an unha))' fata-it' the
sentence $as eBecuted to the fu-- eBtent" The senior
3artin is roen a-i%e( ca--in* od to $itness his
innocence to his -ast reath G his fami-' is dis)ersed(
his -itt-e )ro)ert' is conscated( and scarce-' are his
roen memers eB)osed on the *reat road $hen the
assassin $ho had committed the murder and theft is
)ut in )rison for another crime( and confesses on the
rac( to $hich he is condemned in his turn( that he
on-' $as *ui-t' of the crime for $hich 3artin had
suMered torture and death"
3ontai--i( $ho s-e)t $ith his $ife( $as accused
$ith ha%in*( in concert $ith her( i--ed his mother(
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$ho had e%ident-' died of a)o)-eB'" The counci- of
Arras condemned 3ontai--i to eB)ire on the rac(
and his $ife to e urnt" Their innocence $as dis8
co%ered( ut not unti- 3ontai--i had een tortured"
Let us cease ad%ertence to these me-ancho-' ad%en8
tures( $hich mae us *roan at the human condition G
ut -et us continue to -ament the )retended certaint'
of Qud*es( $hen the' )ass such sentences"
There is no certaint'( eBce)t $hen it is )h'sica--'
or mora--' im)ossi-e that the thin* can e other8
$ise" What is a strict demonstration necessar' to
ena-e us to assert that the surface of a s)here is
eHua- to four times the area of its *reat circ-e G and
< Phi-oso)hica-
is not one reHuired to $arrant tain* a$a' the -ife of
a citi4en ' a dis*racefu- )unishmentJ
If such is the misfortune of humanit' that Qud*es
must e contented $ith eBtreme )roai-ities( the'
shou-d at -east consu-t the a*e( the ran( the conduct
of the accused the interest $hich he cou-d ha%e in
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committin* the crime( and the interest of his enemies
to destro' him" E%er' Qud*e shou-d sa' to himse-f 0
Wi-- not )osterit'( $i-- not entire Euro)e condemn
m' sentence J Sha-- I s-ee) tranHui--' $ith m' hands
tainted $ith innocent -ood J Let us )ass from this
horri-e )icture to other eBam)-es of a certaint'
$hich -eads direct-' to error"
Wh' art thou -oaded $ith chains( fanatica- and
unha))' Santon J Wh' hast thou added a -ar*e iron
rin* on th' misera-e scour*eJ It is ecause I am
certain of ein* one da' )-aced in the rst hea%en(
' the side of our *reat )ro)het" A-as( m' friend(
come $ith me to the nei*horhood of 3ount Athos
and thou $i-t see three thousand mendicants $ho are
as certain that thou $i-t *o to the *u-f $hich is under
the narro$ rid*e( as that the' $i-- a-- *o to the rst
hea%en
Sto)( misera-e 3a-aar $ido$( e-ie%e not the
foo- $ho )ersuades 'ou that 'ou sha-- e reunited to
'our husand in a-- the de-i*hts of another $or-d( if
'ou urn 'ourse-f on his funera- )i-e No( I )ersist
in urnin* m'se-f ecause I am certain of -i%in* in
fe-icit' $ith m' husand G m' rahmin to-d me so"
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Let us attend to -ess fri*htfu- certainties( and
Dictionar'" <
$hich ha%e a -itt-e more a))earance of truth" What
is the a*e of 'our friend Christo)her J T$ent'8ei*ht
'ears" I ha%e seen his marria*e contract( and his
a)tisma- re*isterG I ne$ him in his infanc'G he
is t$ent'8ei*ht I am certain of it"
Scarce-' ha%e I heard the ans$er of this man(
so sure of $hat he said( and of t$ent' others $ho
conrmed the same thin*( $hen I -earn that for
secret reasons( and ' a sin*u-ar circumstance the
a)tisma- re*ister of Christo)her has een antedated"
Those to $hom I had s)oen as 'et no$ nothin* of
it( 'et the' ha%e sti-- the same certaint' of that $hich
is not"
If 'ou had ased the $ho-e earth efore the time
of Co)ernicus 0 has the sun risen J has it set to8da' J
a-- men $ou-d ha%e ans$ered 0 We are Huite certain
of it" The' $ere certain and the' $ere in error"
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Witchcraft( di%inations( and )ossessions $ere for
a -on* time the most certain thin*s in the $or-d in
the e'es of societ'" What an innumera-e cro$d of
)eo)-e $ho ha%e seen a-- these ne thin*s and $ho
ha%e een certain of them At )resent this certaint'
is a -itt-e shaen"
A 'oun* man $ho is e*innin* to stud' *eometr'
comes to me G he is on-' at the denition of trian*-es"
Are 'ou not certain( said I to him( that the three
an*-es of a trian*-e are eHua- to t$o ri*ht an*-esJ
&e ans$ered that not on-' $as he not certain of it(
ut that he had not the s-i*htest idea of the )ro)osi8
tion" I demonstrated it to him" &e then ecame
< Phi-oso)hica-
%er' certain of it( and $i-- remain so a-- his -ife"
This is a certaint' %er' diMerent from the othersG
the' $ere on-' )roai-ities and these )roai-ities(
$hen eBamined( ha%e turned out errors( ut mathe8
matica- certaint' is immuta-e and eterna-"
I eBist( I thin( I fee- *rief is a-- that as certain
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as a *eometrica- truthJ 6es( se)tica- as I am( I
a%o$ it" Wh'J It is that these truths are )ro%ed
' the same )rinci)-e that it is im)ossi-e for a thin*
to eBist and not eBist at the same time" I cannot
at the same time fee- and not fee-" A trian*-e can8
not at the same time contain a hundred and ei*ht'
de*rees( $hich are the sum of t$o ri*ht an*-es( and
not contain them" The )h'sica- certaint' of m' eB8
istence( of m' identit'( is of the same %a-ue as mathe8
matica- certaint'( a-thou*h it is of a diMerent ind"
It is not the same $ith the certaint' founded on
a))earances( or on the unanimous testimon' of man8
ind"
!ut ho$( 'ou $i-- sa' to me( are 'ou not certain
that Pein eBists J &a%e 'ou not merchandise from
PeinJ Peo)-e of diMerent countries and diMerent
o)inions ha%e %ehement-' $ritten a*ainst one an8
other $hi-e )reachin* the truth at Pein G then are
'ou not assured of the eBistence of this to$nJ I
ans$er that it is eBtreme-' )roa-e that there ma'
e a cit' of Pein ut I $ou-d not $a*er m' -ife that
such a to$n eBists( and I $ou-d at an' time $a*er
m' -ife that the three an*-es of a trian*-e are eHua-
to t$o ri*ht an*-es"
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Dictionar'" <<
In the#Dictionnaire Enc'c-o)ediHue#a" %er' )-eas8
ant thin* a))ears" It is there maintained that a man
ou*ht to e as certain that 3arsha- SaBe rose from
the dead( if a-- Paris te--s him so( as he is sure that
3arsha- SaBe *ained the att-e of Fonteno'( u)on
the same testimon'" Pra' oser%e the eaut' of this
reasonin* 0 as I e-ie%e a-- Paris $hen it te--s me a
thin* mora--' )ossi-e( I ou*ht to e-ie%e a-- Paris
$hen it te--s me a thin* mora--' and )h'sica--' im8
)ossi-e" A))arent-' the author of this artic-e has
a dis)osition to e risi-e G as to ourse-%es $ho ha%e
on-' undertaen this -itt-e dictionar' to as a fe$
Huestions( $e are %er' far from )ossessin* this %er'
eBtensi%e certaint'"
C&AIN OF CREATED !EINS"
T&E *radation of ein*s risin* from the -o$est
to the reat Su)reme the sca-e of innit' is an
idea that --s us $ith admiration( ut $hen steadi-'
re*arded this )hantom disa))ears( as a))aritions
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$ere $ont to %anish at the cro$in* of the coc"
The ima*ination is )-eased $ith the im)erce)ti-e
transition from rute matter to or*ani4ed matter(
from )-ants to 4oo)h'tes( from 4oo)h'tes to anima-s(
from anima-s to men( from men to *enii( from these
*enii( c-ad in a -i*ht aeria- od'( to immateria- su8
stances of a thousand diMerent orders( risin* from
eaut' to )erfection( u) to od &imse-f" This hier8
arch' is %er' )-easin* to 'oun* men $ho -oo u)on
it as u)on the )o)e and cardina-s( fo--o$ed ' the
<@ Phi-oso)hica-
archisho)s and isho)s( after $hom are the %icars(
curates and )riests( the deacons and sudeacons(
then come the mons( and the ca)uchins rin* u) the
rear"
!ut there is( )erha)s( a some$hat *reater distance
et$een od and &is most )erfect creatures than
et$een the ho-' father and the dean of the sacred
co--e*e" The dean ma' ecome )o)e( ut can the
most )erfect *enii created ' the Su)reme !ein* e8
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come od J Is there not innit' et$een them J
Nor does this chain( this )retended *radation( an'
more eBist in %e*eta-es and anima-s G the )roof is
that some s)ecies of )-ants and anima-s ha%e een
entire-' destro'ed" We ha%e no mureB" The 1e$s
$ere foridden to eat *rin and iBion( these t$o
s)ecies( $hate%er !ochart ma' sa'( ha%e )roa-'
disa))eared from the earth" Where( then( is the
chain J
Su))osin* that $e had not -ost some s)ecies( it is
e%ident that the' ma' e destro'ed" Lions and
rhinoceroses are ecomin* %er' scarce( and if the
rest of the nations had imitated the En*-ish( there
$ou-d not no$ ha%e een a $o-f -eft" It is )roa-e
that there ha%e een races of men $ho are no -on*er
to e found" Wh' shou-d the' not ha%e eBisted as
$e-- as the $hites( the -acs( the Kars( to $hom
nature has *i%en an a)ron of their o$n sin( han*8
in* from the e--' to the midd-e of the thi*h G the
Samo'eds( $hose $omen ha%e ni))-es of a eautifu-
Qet"
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Dictionar'" <
Is there not a manifest %oid et$een the a)e and
man J Is it not eas' to ima*ine a t$o8-e**ed anima-
$ithout feathers ha%in* inte--i*ence $ithout our
sha)e or the use of s)eech one $hich $e cou-d tame(
$hich $ r ou-d ans$er our si*ns( and ser%e us J And
a*ain( et$een this s)ecies and man( cannot $e
ima*ine othersJ
!e'ond man( di%ine P-ato( 'ou )-ace in hea%en
a strin* of ce-estia- sustances( in some of $hich $e
e-ie%e ecause the faith so teaches us" !ut $hat
reason had 'ou to e-ie%e in them J It does not a)8
)ear that 'ou had s)oen $ith the *enius of Soc8
rates( and thou*h &eres( *ood man( rose a*ain on
)ur)ose to te-- 'ou the secrets of the other $or-d( he
to-d 'ou nothin* of these sustances" In the sen8
si-e uni%erse the )retended chain is no -ess inter8
ru)ted"
What *radation( I )ra' 'ou( is there amon* the
)-anetsJ The moon is fort' times sma--er than our
*-oe" Tra%e--in* from the moon throu*h s)ace( 'ou
nd Venus( aout as -ar*e as the earth" From thence
'ou *o to 3ercur'( $hich re%o-%es in an e--i)sis %er'
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diMerent from the circu-ar orit of VenusG it is
t$ent'8se%en times sma--er than the earth( the sun is
a mi--ion times -ar*er( and 3ars is %e times sma--er"
The -atter *oes his round in t$o 'ears( his nei*hor
1u)iter in t$e-%e( and Saturn in thirt' G 'et Saturn(
the most distant of a--( is not so -ar*e as 1u)iter"
Where is the )retended *radation J
And then( ho$( in so man' em)t' s)aces( do 'ou
<7 Phi-oso)hica-
eBtend a chain connectin* the $ho-eJ There can
certain-' e no other than that $hich Ne$ton dis8
co%ered that $hich maes a-- the *-oes of the )-an8
etar' $or-d *ra%itate one to$ards another in the im8
mense %oid"
Oh( much admired P-ato I fear that 'ou ha%e
to-d us nothin* ut fa-es( that 'ou ha%e s)oen to
us on-' as a so)hist Oh( P-ato 'ou ha%e done more
mischief than 'ou are a$are of" &o$ soJ 'ou $i--
as" I $i-- not te-- 'ou"
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C&AIN OR ENERATION OF EVENTS"
T&E )resent( $e sa'( is )re*nant $ith the future G
e%ents are -ined one $ith another ' an in%inci-e
fata-it'" This is the fate $hich( in &omer( is su)e8
rior to 1u)iter himse-f" The master of *ods and men
eB)ress-' dec-ares that he cannot )re%ent his son
Sar)edon from d'in* at the time a))ointed" Sar8
)edon $as orn at the moment $hen it $as neces8
sar' that he shou-d e orn( and cou-d not e orn
at an' other G he cou-d not die e-se$here than efore
Tro'G he cou-d not e uried e-se$here than in
L'cia G his od' must( in the a))ointed time( )roduce
%e*eta-es( $hich must chan*e into the sustance of
some of the L'cians G his heirs must esta-ish a ne$
order of thin*s in his states G that ne$ order must
inuence nei*horin* in*doms G thence must resu-t
a ne$ arran*ement in $ar and in )eace $ith the
nei*hors of L'cia" So that( from -in to -in( the
destin' of the $ho-e earth de)ended on the e-o)e8
Dictionar'" <>
ment of &e-en( $hich had a necessar' connection
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$ith the marria*e of &ecua( $hich( ascendin* to
hi*her e%ents( $as connected $ith the ori*in of
thin*s"
&ad an' one of these occurrences een ordered
other$ise( the resu-t $ou-d ha%e een a diMerent
uni%erse" No$( it $as not )ossi-e for the actua-
uni%erse not to eBist G therefore it $as not )ossi-e
for 1u)iter( 1o%e as he $as( to sa%e the -ife of his
son" We are to-d that this doctrine of necessit' and
fata-it' has een in%ented in our o$n times ' Lei8
nit4( under the name of sucin* reason" It is( ho$8
e%er( of *reat antiHuit'" It is no recent disco%er'
that there is no eMect $ithout a cause and that often
the sma--est cause )roduces the *reatest eMects"
Lord !o-in*roe acno$-ed*es that he $as in8
deted to the )ett' Huarre-s et$een the duchess of
3ar-orou*h and 3rs" 3asham for an o))ortunit'
of conc-udin* the )ri%ate treat' et$een :ueen Anne
and Louis ;IV" This treat' -ed to the )eace of
2trecht G the )eace of 2trecht secured the throne of
S)ain to Phi-i) V" G Phi-i) too Na)-es and Sici-'
from the house of Austria" Thus the S)anish )rince(
$ho is no$ in* of Na)-es( e%ident-' o$es his in*8
dom to 3rs" 3ashamG he $ou-d not ha%e had it(
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nor e%en ha%e een orn( if the duchess of 3ar-or8
ou*h had een more com)-aisant to$ards the Hueen
of En*-andG his eBistence at Na)-es de)ended on
one fo--' more or -ess at the court of London"
EBamine the situations of e%er' )eo)-e u)on
@? Phi-oso)hica-
earth G the' are in -ie manner founded on a train of
occurrences seemin*-' $ithout connection( ut a--
connected" In this immense machine a-- is $hee-(
)u--e'( cord( or s)rin*" It is the same in )h'sica-
order" A $ind -o$in* from the southern seas and
the remotest )arts of Africa rin*s $ith it a )ortion
of the African atmos)here( $hich( fa--in* in sho$ers
in the %a--e's of the A-)s( ferti-i4es our -ands G on
the other hand our north $ind carries our %a)ors
amon* the ne*roesG $e do *ood to uinea( and
uinea to us" The chain eBtends from one end of the
uni%erse to the other"
!ut the truth of this )rinci)-e seems to me to e
stran*e-' ausedG for it is thence conc-uded that
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there is no atom( ho$e%er sma--( the mo%ement of
$hich has not inuenced the actua- arran*ement of
the $ho-e $or-dG that the most tri%ia- accident(
$hether amon* men or anima-s( is an essentia- -in
in the *reat chain of destin'"
Let us understand one another" E%er' eMect e%i8
dent-' has its cause( ascendin* from cause to cause(
into the a'ss of eternit' G ut e%er' cause has not
its eMect( *oin* do$n to the end of a*es" I *rant
that a-- e%ents are )roduced one ' anotherG if the
)ast $as )re*nant $ith the )resent( the )resent is
)re*nant $ith the futureG e%er'thin* is e*otten(
ut e%er'thin* does not e*et" It is a *enea-o*ica-
tree G e%er' house( $e no$( ascends to Adam( ut
man' of the fami-' ha%e died $ithout issue"
The e%ents of this $or-d form a *enea-o*ica- tree"
Dictionar'" @=
It is indis)uta-e that the inhaitants of S)ain and
au- are descended from omer( and the Russians
from his 'oun*er rother 3a*o*( for in ho$ man'
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*reat oos is this *enea-o*' to e found It cannot
then e denied that the *rand Tur( $ho is a-so de8
scended from 3a*o*( is o-i*ed to him for the *ood
eatin* *i%en him in =@> ' the Em)ress Catherine
II" This occurrence is e%ident-' -ined $ith other
*reat e%ents G ut $hether 3a*o* s)at to the ri*ht
or to the -eft near 3ount Caucasus made t$o or
three circ-es in a $e-- or $hether he -a' on his ri*ht
side or his -eft( I do not see that it cou-d ha%e much
inuence on )resent aMairs"
It must e rememered( ecause it is )ro%ed '
Ne$ton( that nature is not a )-enum( and that motion
is not communicated ' co--ision unti- it has made
the tour of the uni%erse" Thro$ a od' of a certain
densit' into $ater( 'ou easi-' ca-cu-ate that at the
end of such a time the mo%ement of this od'( and
that $hich it has *i%en to the $ater( $i-- cease G the
motion $i-- e -ost and rest $i-- e restored" So the
motion )roduced ' 3a*o* in s)ittin* into a $e--
cannot ha%e inuenced $hat is no$ )assin* in 3o-8
da%ia and Wa--achia" Present e%ents( then( are not
the oMs)rin* of a-- )ast e%ents( the' ha%e their direct
-ines( ut $ith a thousand sma-- co--atera- nes the'
ha%e nothin* to do" Once more e it oser%ed that
e%er' ein* has a )arent ut e%er' one has not an
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oMs)rin*"
@ Phi-oso)hica-
C&ANES T&AT &AVE OCC2RRED IN T&E
LO!E"
W&EN $e ha%e seen $ith our o$n e'es a moun8
tain ad%ancin* into a )-ain that is( an immense roc
detached from that mountain( and co%erin* the e-ds(
an entire cast-e uried in the earth( or a s$a--o$ed8
u) ri%er urstin* from e-o$( induita-e mars of
an immense mass of $ater ha%in* once inundated a
countr' no$ inhaited( and so man' traces of other
re%o-utions( $e are e%en more dis)osed to e-ie%e in
the *reat chan*es that ha%e a-tered the face of the
$or-d than a Parisian -ad' $ho no$s that the
sHuare in $hich her house stands $as former-' a
cu-ti%ated e-d( ut a -ad' of Na)-es $ho has seen
the ruins of &ercu-aneum under*round is sti-- -ess
enthra--ed ' the )reQudice $hich -eads us to e-ie%e
that e%er'thin* has a-$a's een as it no$ is"
Was there a *reat urnin* of the $or-d in the time
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of Phaethon J Nothin* is more -ie-'( ut this catas8
tro)he $as no more caused ' the amition of Phae8
thon or the an*er of 1u)iter the Thunderer than at
Lison( in =<<( the Di%ine %en*eance $as dra$n
do$n( the suterraneous res ind-ed( and ha-f the
cit' destro'ed ' the res so often -i*hted there '
the inHuisition esides( $e no$ that 3eHuine4(
Tetuan and considera-e hordes of Aras ha%e een
treated e%en $orse than Lison( thou*h the' had no
inHuisition" The is-and of St" Domin*o( entire-' de8
Dictionar'" @
%astated not -on* a*o( had no more dis)-eased the
reat !ein* than the is-and of CorsicaG a-- is suQect
to eterna- )h'sica- -a$s"
Su-)hur( itumen( nitre( and iron( enc-osed $ithin
the o$e-s of the earth ha%e o%erturned man' a cit'(
o)ened man' a *u-f( and $e are constant-' -ia-e to
these accidents attached to the $a' in $hich this
*-oe is )ut to*ether( Qust as( in man' countries dur8
in* $inter( $e are eB)osed to the attacs of famish8
in* $o-%es and ti*ers" If re( $hich &erac-itus e8
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-ie%ed to e the )rinci)-e of a--( has a-tered the face
of a )art of the earth( Tha-es5s rst )rinci)-e( $ater(
has o)erated as *reat chan*es"
One8ha-f of America is sti-- inundated ' the an8
cient o%ero$in*s of the 3aranon( Rio de -a P-ata(
the St" La$rence( the 3ississi))i( and a-- the ri%ers
)er)etua--' s$e--ed ' the eterna- sno$s of the hi*h8
est mountains in the $or-d( stretchin* from one end
of that continent to the other" These accumu-ated
oods ha%e a-most e%er'$here )roduced %ast
marshes" The nei*horin* -ands ha%e ecome unin8
haita-e( and the earth( $hich the hands of man
shou-d ha%e made fruitfu-( has )roduced on-' )esti8
-ence"
The same thin* ha))ened in China and in E*')t 0
a mu-titude of a*es $ere necessar' to di* cana-s and
dr' the -ands" Add to these -en*thened disasters the
irru)tions of the sea( the -ands it has in%aded and de8
serted( the is-ands it has detached from the continent
and 'ou $i-- nd that from east to $est( from 1a)an
@ Phi-oso)hica-
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to 3ount At-as( it has de%astated more than ei*ht'
thousand sHuare -ea*ues"
The s$a--o$in* u) of the is-and At-antis from
the ocean ma'( $ith as much reason( e considered
historica-( as fau-ous" The sha--o$ness of the At8
-antic as far as the Canaries mi*ht e taen as a )roof
of this *reat e%ent and the Canaries themse-%es for
fra*ments of the is-and At-antis"
P-ato te--s us in his #Timaus# that the E*')tian
)riests( amon* $hom he had tra%e--ed( had in their
)ossession ancient re*isters $hich certied that is8
-and5s *oin* under $ater" P-ato sa's that this catas8
tro)he ha))ened nine thousand 'ears efore his time"
No one $i-- e-ie%e this chrono-o*' on P-ato5s $ord
on-'( ut neither can an' one adduce a*ainst it an'
)h'sica- )roof( nor e%en a historica- testimon' from
an' )rofane $riter"
P-in'( in his third oo( sa's that from time im8
memoria- the )eo)-e of the southern coasts of S)ain
e-ie%ed that the sea had forced a )assa*e et$een
Ca-)e and Ai-a 0 #Indi*ence co-umnar &ercu-is %a8
cant( creduntHue )er fossas eBc-usa antea admisisse
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maria( et rerum natures mutasse faciem"#
An attenti%e tra%e--er ma' con%ince himse-f ' his
o$n e'es that the C'c-ades and the S)orades $ere
once )art of the continent of reece( and es)ecia--'
that Sici-' $as once Qoined to A)u-ia" The t$o
%o-canos of Etna and Vesu%ius ha%in* the same asis
in the sea( the -itt-e *u-f of Char'dis( the on-' dee)
Dictionar'" @<
)art of that sea( the )erfect resem-ance of the t$o
soi-s are incontro%erti-e testimonies" The oods of
Deuca-ion and O*'*es are $e-- no$n( and the
fa-es founded u)on this truth are sti-- more the ta-
of a-- the West"
The ancients ha%e mentioned se%era- de-u*es in
Asia" The one s)oen of ' !erosus ha))ened as
he te--s usU in Cha-dsea( aout four thousand three(
or four hundred 'ears efore the Christian era( and
Asia $as as much inundated $ith fa-es aout this
de-u*e as it $as ' the o%ero$in*s of the Ti*ris
and Eu)hrates( and a-- the ri%ers that fa-- into the
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EuBine"
It is true that such o%ero$in*s cannot co%er the
countr' $ith more than a fe$ feet of $ater( ut the
conseHuent steri-it'( the $ashin* a$a' of houses( and
the destruction of catt-e are -osses $hich it reHuires
near-' a centur' to re)air" We no$ ho$ much
the' ha%e cost &o--and( more than the ha-f of $hich
has een -ost since the 'ear =?<?" She is sti-- o-i*ed
to maintain a dai-' conict $ith the e%er8threatenin*
ocean" She has ne%er em)-o'ed so man' so-diers in
resistin* her enemies as she em)-o's -aorers in con8
tinua--' defendin* her a*ainst the assau-ts of a sea
a-$a's read' to s$a--o$ her"
The road from E*')t to Phoenicia( a-on* the or8
ders of Lae Sero( $as once Huite )ractica-e( ut
it has -on* ceased to e so G it is no$ nothin* ut a
Huicsand( moistened ' sta*nant $ater" In short( a
Vo-" 8<
@@ Phi-oso)hica-
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*reat )ortion of the earth $ou-d e no other than a
%ast )oisonous marsh inhaited ' monsters( ut for
the assiduous -aor of the human race"
We sha-- not here s)ea of the uni%ersa- de-u*e
of Noah" Let it suce to read the &o-' Scri)tures
$ith sumission" Noah5s ood $as an incom)rehen8
si-e mirac-e su)ernatura--' $ored ' the Qustice
and *oodness of an ineMa-e Pro%idence $hose $i--
it $as to destro' the $ho-e *ui-t' human race and
form a ne$ and innocent race" If the ne$ race $as
more $iced than the former( and ecame more crim8
ina- from a*e to a*e( from reformation to reforma8
tion( this is ut another eMect of the same Pro%i8
dence( of $hich it is im)ossi-e for us to fathom the
de)ths( the inconcei%a-e m'steries transmitted to the
nations of the West for man' a*es( in the Latin
trans-ation of the Se)tua*int" We sha-- ne%er enter
these a$fu- sanctuaries G our Huestions $i-- e -im8
ited to sim)-e nature"
C&ARACTER"
From the ree $ord si*nif'in* Im)ression( En*ra%in*"
It is $hat nature has en*ra%ed in us"
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CAN WE chan*e our character J 6es( if $e chan*e
our od'" A man orn turu-ent( %io-ent( and in8
eBi-e( ma'( throu*h fa--in* in his o-d a*e into an
a)o)-eB'( ecome -ie a si--'( $ea( timid( )u-in*
chi-d" &is od' is no -on*er the same( ut so -on*
as his ner%es( his -ood( and his marro$ remain in
the same state his dis)osition $i-- not chan*e an'
more than the instinct of a $o-f or a )o-ecat" The
Dictionar'" @
En*-ish author of #The Dis)ensar'(# a )oem much
su)erior to the Ita-ian #Ca)ito-i(# and )erha)s e%en
to !oi-eau5s #Lutrin(# has( as it seems to me( $e--
oser%ed"
&o$ matter( ' the %aried sha)e of )ores(
Or idiots frames( or so-emn senators"
The character is formed of our ideas and our fee-8
in*s" No$ it is Huite c-ear that $e neither *i%e our8
se-%es fee-in*s nor ideas( therefore our character can8
not de)end on ourse-%es" If it did so de)end( e%er'
one $ou-d e )erfect" We cannot *i%e ourse-%es
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tastes( nor ta-ents( $h'( then( shou-d $e *i%e our8
se-%es Hua-itiesJ When $e do not reect $e thin
$e are masters of a-- 0 $hen $e reect $e nd that
$e are masters of nothin*"
If 'ou $ou-d aso-ute-' chan*e a man5s character
)ur*e him $ith di-uents ti-- he is dead" Char-es
;II"( in his i--ness on the $a' to !ender( $as no
-on*er the same man G he $as as tracta-e as a chi-d"
If I ha%e a $r' nose and cat5s e'es I can hide them
ehind a mas( and can I do more $ith the character
that nature has *i%en me J
A man orn %io-ent and )assionate )resents him8
se-f efore Francis L( in* of France( to com)-ain of
a tres)ass" The countenance of the )rince( the re8
s)ectfu- eha%ior of the courtiers( the %er' )-ace he
is in mae a )o$erfu- im)ression u)on this man" &e
mechanica--' casts do$n his e'es( his rude %oice is
softened( he )resents his )etition $ith humi-it'( 'ou
$ou-d thin him as mi-d as at that moment at -eastU
@7 Phi-oso)hica-
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the courtiers a))ear to e( amon* $hom he is often
disconcerted( ut if Francis I" no$s an'thin* of
)h'sio*nom'( he $i-- easi-' disco%er in his e'e(
thou*h do$ncast( *-istenin* $ith a su--en re( in the
eBtended musc-es of his face( in his fast8c-osed -i)s(
that this man is not so mi-d as he is forced to a))ear"
The same man fo--o$s him to Pa%ia( is taen )ris8
oner a-on* $ith him and thro$n into the same dun8
*eon at 3adrid" The maQest' of Francis I" no
-on*er a$es him as efore( he ecomes fami-iar $ith
the oQect of his re%erence" One da'( )u--in* on the
in*5s oots( and ha))enin* to )u-- them on i--( the
in*( soured ' misfortune( *ro$s an*r'( on $hich
our man of courtes' $ishes his maQest' at the de%i-
and thro$s his oots out the $indo$"
SiBtus V" $as ' nature )etu-ant( ostinate(
hau*ht'( im)etuous( %indicti%e( arro*ant" This char8
acter( ho$e%er( seems to ha%e een softened ' the
tria-s of his no%itiate" !ut see him e*innin* to ac8
Huire some inuence in his orderG he ies into a
)assion a*ainst a *uardian and nocs him do$n"
!eho-d him an inHuisitor at Venice( he eBercises his
oce $ith inso-ence" !eho-d him cardina-G he is
)ossessed de--a raia )a)a-eG this ra*e trium)hs
o%er his natura- )ro)ensitiesG he uries his )erson
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and his character in oscurit' and counterfeits hu8
mi-it' and inrmit'" &e is e-ected )o)e( and the
s)rin* $hich )o-ic' had he-d ac no$ acts $ith a--
the force of its -on*8restrained e-asticit'G he is the
)roudest and most des)otic of so%erei*ns"
Dictionar'" @>
Naturam eB)e--as furea( tamen usHue recurret"
&o$e5er eB)e--ed( nature $i-- sti-- return"
Re-i*ion and mora-it' cur the stren*th of the
dis)osition( ut the' cannot destro' it" The drun8
ard in a c-oister( reduced to a Huarter of a )int of
cider each mea- $i-- ne%er more *et drun( ut he
$i-- a-$a's e fond of $ine"
A*e $eaens the characterG it is as an o-d tree
)roducin* on-' a fe$ de*enerate fruits( ut a-$a's
of the same nature( $hich is co%ered $ith nots and
moss and ecomes $orm8eaten( ut is e%er the same(
$hether oa or )ear tree" If $e cou-d chan*e our
character $e cou-d *i%e ourse-%es one and ecome
the master of nature" Can $e *i%e ourse-%es an'8
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thin*J do not $e recei%e e%er'thin*J To stri%e to
animate the indo-ent man $ith )erse%erin* acti%it'(
to free4e $ith a)ath' the oi-in* -ood of the im)et8
uous( to ins)ire a taste for )oetr' into him $ho has
neither taste nor ear $ere as futi-e as to attem)t to
*i%e si*ht to one orn -ind" We )erfect( $e ame-ior8
ate( $e concea- $hat nature has )-aced in us( ut $e
)-ace nothin* there ourse-%es"
An a*ricu-turist is to-d0 #6ou ha%e too man'
sh in this )ond G the' $i-- not thri%e( here are too
man' catt-e in 'our meado$s G the' $i-- $ant *rass
and *ro$ -ean"# After this eBhortation the )ies
come and eat one8ha-f this man5s car)s( the $o-%es
one8ha-f of his shee)( and the rest fatten" And $i--
'ou a))-aud his econom'J This countr'man is
'ourse-f G one of 'our )assions de%ours the rest and
? Phi-oso)hica-
'ou thin 'ou ha%e *ained a trium)h" Do $e not
a-most a-- resem-e the o-d *enera- of ninet'( $ho(
ha%in* found some 'oun* ocers eha%in* in a
rather disorder-' manner $ith some 'oun* $omen(
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said to them in an*er 0 #ent-emen( is this the eB8
am)-e that I set 'ou J#
C&ARIT6"
C&ARITA!LE AND !ENEFICENT INSTIT2TIONS( AL3S8
&O2SES( &OSPITALS( ETC"
CICERO freHuent-' s)eas of uni%ersa- charit'(
charitas humani *enerisG ut it does not a))ear
that the )o-ic' or the enecence of the Romans e%er
induced them to esta-ish charita-e institutions( in
$hich the indi*ent and the sic mi*ht e re-ie%ed at
the eB)ense of the )u-ic" There $as a rece)tac-e
for stran*ers at the )ort of Ostia( ca--ed ;enodo8
ium( St" 1erome renders this Qustice to the Romans"
A-mshouses seem to ha%e een unno$n in ancient
Rome" A more no-e usa*e )re%ai-ed that of su)8
)-'in* the )eo)-e $ith corn" There $ere in Rome
three hundred and t$ent'8se%en )u-ic *ranaries"
This constant -iera-it' )rec-uded an' need of a-ms8
houses" The' $ere stran*ers to necessit'"
Neither $as there an' occasion amon* the Ro8
mans for foundin* charities" None eB)osed their
o$n chi-dren" Those of s-a%es $ere taen care of
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' their masters" Chi-dirth $as not deemed dis8
*racefu- to the dau*hters of citi4ens" The )oorest
fami-ies( maintained ' the re)u-ic and after$ards
Dictionar'" =
' the em)erors( sa$ the susistence of their chi-8
dren secured"
The eB)ression( #charita-e esta-ishment(# maison
de charite( im)-ies a state of indi*ence amon* mod8
ern nations $hich the form of our *o%ernments has
not een a-e to )rec-ude"
The $ord #hos)ita-(# $hich reca--s that of hos)i8
ta-it'( reminds us of a %irtue in hi*h estimation
amon* the rees( no$ no -on*er eBistin* G ut it a-so
eB)resses a %irtue far su)erior" There is a mi*ht'
diMerence et$een -od*in*( maintainin*( and )ro%id8
in* in sicness for a-- aicted a))-icants $hate%er(
and entertainin* in 'our o$n house t$o or three
tra%e--ers ' $hom 'ou mi*ht c-aim a ri*ht to e
entertained in return" &os)ita-it'( after a--( $as
ut an eBchan*e" &os)ita-s are monuments of
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enecence"
It is true that the rees $ere acHuainted $ith
charita-e institutions under the name of ;enodoia(
for stran*ers( Nosocomeia( for the sic( and Ptoia(
for the indi*ent" In Dio*enes Laertius( concernin*
!ion( $e nd this )assa*e 0 #&e suMered much from
the indi*ence of those $ho $ere char*ed $ith the
care of the sic"#
&os)ita-it' amon* friends $as ca--ed IdioBenia(
and amon* stran*ers ProBenia" &ence( the )erson
$ho recei%ed and entertained stran*ers in his house(
in the name of the $ho-e cit'( $as ca--ed ProBenos"
!ut this institution a))ears to ha%e een eBceedin*-'
rare" At the )resent da' there is scarce-' a cit' in
Phi-oso)hica-
Euro)e $ithout its hos)ita-s" The Tories ha%e them
e%en for easts( $hich seems to e carr'in* charit'
rather too far( it $ou-d e etter to for*et the easts
and thin more aout men"
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This )rodi*ious mu-titude of charita-e esta-ish8
ments c-ear-' )ro%es a truth deser%in*G of a-- our at8
tention that man is not so de)ra%ed as e is stated
to e( and that( not$ithstandin* a-- his asurd o)in8
ions( not$ithstandin* a-- the horrors of $ar $inch
transform him into a ferocious east( $e ha%e reason
to consider him as a creature natura--' $e-- dis)osed
and ind( and $ho( -ie other anima-s( ecomes
%icious on-' in )ro)ortion as he is stun* ' )ro%oca8
tion"
The misfortune is that he is )ro%oed too often"
3odern Rome has a-most as man' charita-e in8
stitutions as ancient Rome had trium)ha- arches and
other monuments of conHuest" The most consider8
a-e of them a-- is a an $hich -ends mone' at t$o
)er cent( u)on )-ed*e( and se--s the )ro)ert' if the
orro$er does not redeem it ' an a))ointed time"
This esta-ishment is ca--ed the Archios)eda-e( or
chief hos)ita-" It is said a-$a's to contain $ithin its
$a--s near-' t$o thousand sic( $hich $ou-d e
aout the ftieth )art of the )o)u-ation of Rome for
this one house a-one( $ithout inc-udin* the chi-dren
rou*ht u)( and the )i-*rims -od*ed there" Where are
the com)utations $hich do not reHuire aatementJ
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&as it not een actua--' )u-ished at Rome that
the hos)ita- of the Trinit' had -od*ed and maintained
Dictionar'"
for three da's four hundred and fort' thousand %e
hundred ma-e and t$ent'8%e thousand fema-e )i-8
*rims at the Qui-ee in =@??J &as not 3isson him8
se-f to-d us that the hos)ita- of the Annunciation at
Na)-es )ossesses a renta- of t$o mi--ions in our
mone'J Aout four hundred thousand do--ars"U
&o$e%er( to return( )erha)s a charita-e esta-ish8
ment for )i-*rims $ho are *enera--' mere %a*aonds(
is rather an encoura*ement to id-eness than an act
of humanit'" It is( ho$e%er( a decisi%e e%idence
of humanit' that Rome contains ft' charita-e es8
ta-ishments inc-udin* a-- descri)tions" These
enecent institutions are Huite as usefu- and re8
s)ecta-e as the riches of some monasteries and
cha)e-s are use-ess and ridicu-ous"
To dis)ense food( c-othin*( medicine( and aid of
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e%er' ind( to our rethren( is tru-' meritorious( ut
$hat need can a saint ha%e of *o-d and diamondsJ
What enet resu-ts to manind from #our Lad' oi
Loretto# )ossessin* more *or*eous treasures than
the Turish su-tanJ Loretto is a house of %anit'(
and not of charit'" London( reconin* its charit'
schoo-s( has as man' enecent esta-ishments as
Rome"
The most eautifu- monument of enecence e%er
erected is the &ote- des In%a-ides( founded ' Louis
;IV"
Of a-- hos)ita-s( that in $hich the *reatest num8
er of indi*ent sic are dai-' recei%ed is the &ote-
Dieu of Paris" It freHuent-' contains four or %e
Phi-oso)hica-
thousand inmates at a time" It is at once the rece)ta8
c-e of a-- the dreadfu- i--s to $hich manind are su8
Qect and the tem)-e of true %irtue( $hich consists in
re-ie%in* them"
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It is im)ossi-e to a%oid freHuent-' dra$in* a
contrast et$een a fete at Versai--es or an o)era at
Paris( in $hich a-- the )-easures and a-- the s)-endors
of -ife are comined $ith the most eBHuisite art( and
a &ote- Dieu( $here a-- that is )ainfu-( a-- that is
-oathsome( and e%en death itse-f are accumu-ated in
one mass of horror" Such is the com)osition of *reat
cities !' an admira-e )o-ic' )-easures and -uBur'
are rendered suser%ient to miser' and )ain" The
theatres of Paris )a' on an a%era*e the 'ear-' sum
of a hundred thousand cro$ns to the hos)ita-" It
often ha))ens in these charita-e institutions that the
incon%eniences countera-ance the ad%anta*es" One
)roof of the auses attached to them is that )atients
dread the %er' idea of ein* remo%ed to them"
The &ote- Dieu( for eBam)-e( $as former-' $e--
situated( in the midd-e of the cit'( near the isho)5s
)a-ace" The situation no$ is %er' ad( for the cit'
has ecome o%er*ro$n G four or %e )atients are
cro$ded into e%er' ed( the %ictim of scur%' com8
municates it to his nei*hor and in return recei%es
from him sma--)oB( and a )esti-entia- atmos)here
s)reads incura-e disease and death( not on-' throu*h
the ui-din* destined to restore men to hea-thfu- -ife
ut throu*h a *reat )art of the cit' $hich surrounds
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it"
Dictionar'" <
3" de Chamousset( one of the most %a-ua-e and
acti%e of citi4ens( has com)uted( from accurate au8
thorities( that in the &ote- Dieu( a fourth )art of the
)atients die( an ei*hth in the hos)ita- of Charit'( a
ninth in the London hos)ita-s( and a thirtieth in those
of Versai--es" In the *reat and ce-erated hos)ita- of
L'ons( $hich has -on* een one of the est conducted
in Euro)e( the a%era*e morta-it' has een found to
e on-' one8fteenth" It has een often )ro)osed to
di%ide the &ote- Dieu of Paris into sma--er esta-ish8
ments etter situated( more air'( and sa-urious( ut
mone' has een $antin* to carr' the )-an into eBe8
cution"
Curtae nescio Huid sem)er aest ret"
3one' is a-$a's to e found $hen men are to e
sent to the frontiers to e destro'ed( ut $hen the o8
Qect is to )reser%e them it is no -on*er so" 6et the
&ote- Dieu of Paris has a re%enue amountin* to
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more than a mi--ion fort' thousand )oundsU( and
e%er' da' increasin*( and the Parisians ha%e ri%a--ed
each other in their endo$ments of it"
We cannot he-) remarin* in this )-ace that er8
main !rice( in his #Descri)tion of Paris(# s)eain*
of some -e*acies eHueathed ' the rst )resident(
!e--ie%re( to the ha-- of the &ote- Dieu( named St"
Char-es( sa's 0 #E%er' one ou*ht to read the eauti8
fu- inscri)tion( en*ra%ed in -etters of *o-d on a *rand
mar-e ta-et( and com)osed ' O-i%er Patru( one of
the choicest s)irits of his time( some of $hose )-ead8
in*s are eBtant and in %er' hi*h esteem"
Q@ Phi-oso)hica-
#Whoe%er thou art that enterest this sacred )-ace
them $i-t a-most e%er'$here eho-d traces of the
charit' of the *reat Pom)onne" The *o-d and si-%er
ta)estr' and the eBHuisite furniture $hich former-'
adorned his a)artments are no$( ' a ha))' meta8
mor)hosis( made to minister to the necessities of the
sic" That di%ine man( $ho $as the ornament aiid
de-i*ht of his a*e( e%en in his conict $ith death( con8
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sidered ho$ he mi*ht re-ie%e the aicted" The
-ood of !e--ie%re $as manifested in e%er' action of
his -ife" The *-or' of his emassies is fu-- $e--
no$n(# etc"
The usefu- Chamousset did etter than ermain
!rice( or than O-i%er Patru( #one of the choicest
s)irits of his time"# &e oMered to undertae at his
o$n eB)ense( aced ' a res)onsi-e com)an'( the
fo--o$in* contract0
The administrators of the &ote- Dieu estimated
the cost of e%er' )atient( $hether i--ed or cured( at
ft' -i%res" 3" Chamousset and the com)an' oMered
to undertae the usiness( on recei%in* ft' -i%res
on reco%er' on-'" The deaths $ere to e thro$n out
of the account( of $hich the eB)enses $ere to e
orne ' himse-f"
The )ro)osa- $as so %er' ad%anta*eous that it
$as not acce)ted" It $as feared that he $ou-d not e
a-e to accom)-ish it" E%er' ause attem)ted to e
reformed is the )atrimon' of those $ho ha%e more
inuence than the reformers"
A circumstance no -ess sin*u-ar is that the &ote-
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Dictionar'"
Dieu a-one has the )ri%i-e*e of se--in* meat in Lent(
for its o$n ad%anta*e and it -oses mone' there'"
3" Chamousset )ro)osed to enter into a contract '
$hich the esta-ishment $ou-d *ain G his oMer $as
reQected and the utcher( $ho $as thou*ht to ha%e
su**ested it to him( $as dismissed"
Ainsi che4 -es umains( )ar un aus fata-(
Le ien -e )-us )arfait est -a source du ma-"
Thus serious i--( if tainted ' ause(
The no-est $ors of man $i-- oft )roduce"
C&ARLES I;"
C&ARLES I;"( in* of France( $as( $e are to-d(
a *ood )oet" It is Huite certain that $hi-e he -i%ed
his %erses $ere admired" !rantome does not( in8
deed( te-- us that this in* $as the est )oet in Eu8
ro)e( ut he assures us that #he made %er' *entee-
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Huatrains im)rom)tu( $ithout thinin* for he had
seen se%era- of themU( and $hen it $as $et or
*-oom' $eather( or %er' hot( he $ou-d send for the
)oets into his cainet and )ass his time there $ith
them"#
&ad he a-$a's )assed his time thus( and( ao%e
a--( had he made *ood %erses( $e shou-d not ha%e
had a St" !artho-ome$( he $ou-d not ha%e red $ith
a carine throu*h his $indo$ u)on his o$n su8
Qects( as if the' had een a co%e' of )artrid*es" Is it
not im)ossi-e for a *ood )oet to e a ararian J I
am )ersuaded it is"
These -ines( addressed in his name to Ronsard(
ha%e een attriuted to him 0
7 Phi-oso)hica-
La t're( *ui ra%it)ar de si douB accords(
Te soumets -es es)rits dontQe ifai Hue -es cor)sG
Le maitre e--e fen rend( et tefait introduire
Ou -e )-us er t'ran ne )ent a%oir d 5em)ire"
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The -'re5s de-i*htfu- soft-' s$e--in* -a'
Sudues the mind( I ut the od% s$a'G
3ae thee its master( th' s$eet art can ind
What hau*ht' t'rants cannot ru-e the mind"
These -ines are *ood" !ut are the' his J Are the'
not his )rece)tor5sJ &ere are some of his ro'a-
ima*inin*s( $hich are some$hat diMerent 0
I-fautsui%re ton rot Hui faime )ar sur tous
Pour -es %ers Hui de toi cou-ent ra%es et douB G
Et crois( si tu ne %iens me trou%er a Pontoise(
:u5entre nous ad%iendra une tres8*rande noise"
Kno$( thou must fo--o$ c-ose th' in*( $ho oft
&ath heard( and -o%es thee for( th' %erse so softG
2n-ess thou come and meet me at Pontoise(
!e-ie%e me( I sha-- mae no -itt-e noise"
These are $orth' the author of the massacre of
St" !artho-ome$" Caesar5s -ines on Terence are
$ritten $ith rather more s)irit and tasteG the'
reathe Roman uranit'" In those of Francis I" and
Char-es I;" $e nd the ararism of the Ce-ts"
Wou-d to od that Char-es I;" had $ritten more
%erses( e%en thou*h ad ones For constant a))-i8
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cation to the ne arts softens the manners and dis8
)e-s ferocit'0
Emo--it mores( nee sinit esse feros"
!esides( the French -an*ua*es scarce-' e*an to
tae an' form unti- -on* after Char-es I;" See such
of Francis I"5s -etters as ha%e een )reser%ed 0 #Tout
est )erdu hors I5honneur# #A-- is -ost sa%e honor#
$as $orth' of a che%a-ier" !ut the fo--o$in* is
neither in the st'-e of Cicero nor in that of Caesar 0
T&E 3AeeAORE OF# @T" !ART&OLO3EW
DEAT& OR OOL"ICI3V
Dictionar'" >
#Tout a eure 'nsi Hue Qe me %o-ois mettre o -it
est arri%e La%a- Hui m5a a)orte -a sertenete du -e%e8
ment du sie*e"#
#A-- $as *oin* so $e-- that( $hen I $as *oin* to
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ed La%a- arri%ed( and rou*ht me the certaint' of
the sie*e ein* raised"#
We ha%e -etters from the hand of Louis ;III"(
$hich are no etter $ritten" It is not reHuired of a
in* to $rite -etters -ie P-in'( or %erses -ie Vir*i- G
ut no one can e eBcused from eB)ressin* himse-f
$ith )ro)riet' in his o$n ton*ue" E%er' )rince that
$rites -ie a -ad'5s maid has een i-- educated"
C&INA"
SECTION I"
WE &AVE freHuent-' oser%ed e-se$here( ho$
rash and inQudicious it is to contro%ert $ith an'
nation( such as the Chinese( its authentic )retensions"
There is no house in Euro)e( the antiHuit' of $hich
is so $e-- )ro%ed as that of the Em)ire of China" Let
us *ure to ourse-%es a -earned 3aronite of 3ount
Athos Huestionin* the noi-it' of the 3oro4ini( the
Tie)o-o( and other ancient houses of Venice G of the
)rinces of erman'( of the 3ontmorenc's( the Chat8
i--ons( or the Ta--e'rands( of France( under the )re8
tence that the' are not mentioned in St" Thomas( or
St" !ona%enturc" We must im)each either his sense
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or his sincerit'"
3an' of the -earned of our northern c-imes ha%e
fe-t confounded at the antiHuit' c-aimed ' the Chi8
7? Phi-oso)hica-
nese" The Huestion( ho$e%er( is not one of -earnin*"
Lea%in* a-- the Chinese -iterati( a-- the mandarins(
a-- the em)erors( to acno$-ed*e Fo8hi as one of the
rst $ho *a%e -a$s to China( aout t$o thousand
%e hundred 'ears efore our %u-*ar era G admit that
there must e )eo)-e efore there are in*s" A--o$
that a -on* )eriod of time is necessar' efore a nu8
merous )eo)-e( ha%in* disco%ered the necessar' arts
of -ife( unite in the choice of a common *o%ernor"
!ut if 'ou do not mae these admissions( it is not of
the s-i*htest conseHuence" Whether 'ou a*ree $ith
us or not( $e sha-- a-$a's e-ie%e that t$o and t$o
mae four"
In a $estern )ro%ince( former-' ca--ed Ce-tica(
the -o%e of sin*u-arit' and )aradoB has een carried
so far as to induce some to assert that the Chinese
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$ere on-' an E*')tian( or rather )erha)s a Phoenic8
ian co-on'" It $as attem)ted to )ro%e( in the same
$a' as a thousand other thin*s ha%e een )ro%ed(
that a in* of E*')t( ca--ed 3enes ' the rees(
$as the Chinese Kin* 6u G and that Atoes $as Ki(
' the chan*e of certain -etters" In addition to
$hich( the fo--o$in* is a s)ecimen of the reasonin*
a))-ied to the suQect 0
The E*')tians sometimes -i*hted torches at ni*ht"
The Chinese -i*ht -anterns 0 the Chinese are( there8
fore( e%ident-' a co-on' from E*')t" The 1esuit
Parennin $ho had( at the time( resided %e and
t$ent' 'ears in China( and $as master oth of its
-an*ua*e and its sciences( has reQected a-- these fan8
Dictionar'" 7 =
cies $ith a ha))' miBture of e-e*ance and sarcasm"
A-- the missionaries( and a-- the Chinese( on recei%in*
the inte--i*ence that a countr' in the eBtremit' of
the $est $as de%e-o)in* a ne$ formation of the Chi8
nese Em)ire( treated it $ith a contem)tuous ridicu-e"
Father Parennin re)-ied $ith some$hat more seri8
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ousness0 #6our E*')tians(# said he( #$hen *oin*
to )eo)-e China( must e%ident-' ha%e )assed throu*h
India"# Was India at that time )eo)-ed or not J If
it $as( $ou-d it )ermit a forei*n arm' to )ass
throu*h it J If it $as not( $ou-d not the E*')tians
ha%e sto))ed in IndiaJ Wou-d the' ha%e continued
their Qourne' throu*h arren deserts( and o%er a-8
most im)ractica-e mountains( ti-- the' reached
China( in order to form co-onies there( $hen the'
mi*ht so easi-' ha%e esta-ished them on the ferti-e
ans of the Indus or the an*es J
The com)i-ers of a uni%ersa- histor'( )rinted in
En*-and( ha%e a-so sho$n a dis)osition to di%est the
Chinese of their antiHuit'( ecause the 1esuits $ere
the rst $ho made the $or-d acHuainted $ith China"
This is unHuestiona-' a %er' satisfactor' reason for
sa'in* to a $ho-e nation #6ou are -iars"#
It a))ears to me a %er' im)ortant reection(
$hich ma' e made on the testimon' *i%en ' Con8
fucius( to the antiHuit' of his nation G and $hich is(
that Confucius had no interest in fa-sehood 0 he did
not )retend to e a )ro)het G he c-aimed no ins)ira8
tion 0 he tau*ht no ne$ re-i*ion G he used no de-u8
sionsG attered not the em)eror under $hom he
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Vo-" @
7 Phi-oso)hica-
-i%ed 0 he did not e%en mention him" In short( he is
the on-' founder of institutions amon* manind $ho
$as not fo--o$ed ' a train of $omen"
I ne$ a )hi-oso)her $ho had no other )ortrait
than that of Confucius in his stud'" At the ottom
of it $ere $ritten the fo--o$in* -ines 0
Without assum)tion he eB)-ored the mind(
2n%ei-ed the -i*ht of reason to manindG
S)oe as a sa*e( and ne%er as a seer(
6et( stran*e to sa'( his countr' he-d him dear"
I ha%e read his oos $ith attention G I ha%e made
eBtracts from them G I ha%e found in them nothin*
ut the )urest mora-it'( $ithout the s-i*htest tin*e
of char-atanism" &e -i%ed siB hundred 'ears efore
our %u-*ar era" &is $ors $ere commented on '
the most -earned men of the nation" If he had fa-si8
ed( if he had introduced a fa-se chrono-o*'( if he
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had $ritten of em)erors $ho ne%er eBisted( $ou-d
not some one ha%e een found( in a -earned nation(
$ho $ou-d ha%e reformed his chrono-o*'J One
Chinese on-' has chosen to contradict him( and he
met $ith uni%ersa- eBecration"
Were it $orth our $hi-e( $e mi*ht here com)are
the *reat $a-- of China $ith the monuments of other
nations( $hich ha%e ne%er e%en a))roached itG and
remar( that( in com)arison $ith this eBtensi%e $or(
the )'ramids of E*')t are on-' )ueri-e and use-ess
masses" We mi*ht d$e-- on the thirt'8t$o ec-i)ses
ca-cu-ated in the ancient chrono-o*' of China( t$en8
t'8ei*ht of $hich ha%e een %eried ' the mathema8
ticians of Euro)e" We mi*ht sho$( that the res)ect
Dictionar'" 7
entertained ' the Chinese for their ancestors is an
e%idence that such ancestors ha%e eBistedG and re8
)eat the oser%ation( so often made( that this re%er8
entia- res)ect has in so sma-- de*ree im)eded( amon*
this )eo)-e( the )ro*ress of natura- )hi-oso)h'(
*eometr'( and astronom'"
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It is sucient-' no$n( that the' are( at the )res8
ent da'( $hat $e a-- $ere three hundred 'ears a*o(
%er' i*norant reasoners" The most -earned Chinese
is -ie one of the -earned of Euro)e in the fteenth
centur'( in )ossession of his Aristot-e" !ut it is )os8
si-e to e a %er' ad natura- )hi-oso)her( and at the
same time an eBce--ent mora-ist" It is( in fact( in
mora-it'( in )o-itica- econom'( in a*ricu-ture( in the
necessar' arts of -ife( that the Chinese ha%e made
such ad%ances to$ards )erfection" A-- the rest the'
ha%e een tau*ht ' us 0 in these $e mi*ht $e-- su8
mit to ecome their disci)-es"
Of the EB)u-sion of the 3issionaries from China"
&uman-' s)eain*( inde)endent-' of the ser%ice
$hich the 1esuits mi*ht confer on the Christian re-i8
*ion( are the' not to e re*arded as an i--8fated c-ass
of men( in ha%in* tra%e--ed from so remote a distance
to introduce trou-e and discord into one of the most
eBtended and est8*o%erned in*doms of the $or-d J
And does not their conduct in%o-%e a dreadfu- ause
of the -iera-it' and indu-*ence sho$n ' the Ori8
enta-s( more )articu-ar-' after the torrents of -ood
shed( throu*h their means( in the em)ire of 1a)an J
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7 Phi-oso)hica-
A scene of horror( to )re%ent the conseHuence of
$hich the *o%ernment e-ie%ed it aso-ute-' indis8
)ensa-e to shut their )orts a*ainst a-- forei*ners"
The 1esuits had otained )ermission of the em8
)eror of China( Cam8hi( to teach the Catho-ic re-i8
*ion" The' made use of it( to insti- into the sma--
)ortion of the )eo)-e under their direction( that it
$as incument on them to ser%e no other master than
him $ho $as the %ice*erent of od on earth( and
$ho d$e-t in Ita-' on the ans of a sma-- ri%er
ca--ed the Tier G that e%er' other re-i*ious o)inion(
e%er' other $orshi)( $as an aomination in the si*ht
of od( and $hoe%er did not e-ie%e the 1esuits
$ou-d e )unished ' &im to a-- eternit' G that their
em)eror and enefactor( Cam8hi( $ho cou-d not e%en
)ronounce the name of Christ( as the Chinese -an8
*ua*e )ossesses not the -etter #r(# $ou-d suMer
eterna- damnation G that the Em)eror 6outchin $ou-d
eB)erience( $ithout merc'( the same fateG that a--
the ancestors( oth of Chinese and Tartars( $ou-d
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incur a simi-ar )ena-t' G that their descendants $ou-d
under*o it a-so( as $e-- as the rest of the $or-d G and
that the re%erend fathers( the 1esuits( fe-t a sincere
and )aterna- commiseration for the damnation of so
man' sou-s"
The'( at -en*th( succeeded in main* con%erts of
three )rinces of the Tartar race" In the meantime(
the Em)eror Cam8hi died( to$ards the c-ose of the
'ear =" &e eHueathed the em)ire to his fourth
son( $ho has een so ce-erated throu*h the $ho-e
Dictionar'" 7<
$or-d for the Qustice and the $isdom of his *o%ern8
ment( for the aMection entertained for him ' his
suQects( and for the eB)u-sion of the 1esuits"
The' e*an ' a)ti4in* the three )rinces( and
man' )ersons of their househo-d" These neo)h'tes
had the misfortune to dis)-ease the em)eror on some
)oints $hich mere-' res)ected mi-itar' dut'" Aout
this %er' )eriod the indi*nation of the $ho-e em)ire
a*ainst the missionaries roe out into a ame" A--
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the *o%ernors of )ro%inces( a-- the Co-aos( )resented
memoria-s a*ainst them" The accusations a*ainst
them $ere ur*ed so far that the three )rinces( $ho
had ecome disci)-es of the 1esuits( $ere )ut into
irons"
It is c-ear that the' $ere not treated $ith this
se%erit' sim)-' for ha%in* een a)ti4ed( since the
1esuits themse-%es acno$-ed*e in their -etters( that
the' eB)erienced no %io-ence( and that the' $ere e%en
admitted to an audience of the em)eror( $ho honored
them $ith some )resents" It is e%ident( therefore(
that the Em)eror 6outchin $as no )ersecutor G and(
if the )rinces $ere conned in a )rison on the orders
of Tartar'( $hi-e those $ho had con%erted them
$ere treated so -iera--'( it is a decided )roof that
the' $ere state )risoners( and not mart'rs"
The em)eror( soon after this( 'ie-ded to the su)8
)-ications of a-- his )eo)-e" The' )etitioned that the
1esuits mi*ht e sent a$a'( as their ao-ition has
een since )ra'ed for in France and other countries"
A-- the triuna-s of China ur*ed their ein* imme8
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7@ Phi-oso)hica-
diate-' sent to 3acao( $hich is considered as a )-ace
$ithout the -imits of the em)ire( and the )ossession
of $hich has a-$a's een -eft to the Portu*uese( $ith
a Chinese *arrison"
6outchin had the humanit' to consu-t the triu8
na-s and *o%ernors( $hether an' dan*er cou-d resu-t
from con%e'in* a-- the 1esuits to the )ro%ince of Can8
ton" Whi-e a$aitin* the re)-'( he ordered three of
them to e introduced to his )resence( and addressed
them in the fo--o$in* $ords( $hich Father Parennin(
$ith *reat in*enuousness( records0 #6our Euro8
)eans( in the )ro%ince of Fo8Kien( intended to ao-8
ish our -a$s( and distured our )eo)-e" The triu8
na-s ha%e denounced them efore me" It is m' )osi8
ti%e dut' to )ro%ide a*ainst such disorders 0 the *ood
of the em)ire reHuires it What $ou-d 'ou
sa' $ere I to send o%er to 'our8 countr' a com)an'
of on4es and -amas to )reach their -a$J &o$
$ou-d 'ou recei%e themJ """" If 'ou decei%ed
m' father( ho)e not a-so to decei%e me 6ou
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$ish to mae the Chinese Christians0 'our -a$( I
$e-- no$( reHuires this of 'ou" !ut in case 'ou
shou-d succeed( $hat shou-d $e ecomeJ the su8
Qects of 'our in*s" Christians e-ie%e none ut 'ou 0
in a time of confusion the' $ou-d -isten to no %oice
ut 'ours" I no$ that( at )resent( there is nothin*
to fear G ut on the arri%a- of a thousand( or )erha)s
ten thousand %esse-s( *reat disturances mi*ht ensue"
#China( on the north( Qoins the in*dom of Russia(
$hich is ' no means contem)ti-e G to the south it
Dictionar'" 7
has the Euro)eans( and their in*doms( $hich are
sti-- more considera-e G and to the $est( the )rinces
of Tartar'( $ith $hom $e ha%e een at $ar ei*ht
'ears Laurence Lan*e( com)anion of
Prince Ismai-oM( amassador from the c4ar( re8
Huested that the Russians mi*ht ha%e )ermission to
esta-ish factories in each of the )ro%inces" The )er8
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mission $as conned to Pein( and $ithin the -imits
of Ca-cas" In -ie manner I )ermit 'ou to remain
here and at Canton as -on* as 'ou a%oid *i%in* an'
cause of com)-aint" Shou-d 'ou *i%e an'( I $i-- not
suMer 'ou to remain either here or at Canton"#
In the other )ro%inces their houses and churches
$ere -e%e--ed to the *round" At -en*th the c-amor
a*ainst them redou-ed" The char*es most strenu8
ous-' insisted u)on a*ainst them $ere( that the'
$eaened the res)ect of chi-dren for their )arents(
' not )a'in* the honors due to ancestors G that the'
indecent-' rou*ht to*ether 'oun* men and $omen
in retired )-aces( $hich the' ca--ed churchesG that
the' made *ir-s nee- efore them( and enc-osed
them $ith their -e*s( and con%ersed $ith them( $hi-e
in this )osture( in undertones" To Chinese de-icac'(
nothin* a))eared more re%o-tin* than this" Their
em)eror( 6outchin( e%en condescended to inform the
1esuits of this factG after $hich he sent a$a' the
*reater )art of the missionaries to 3acao( ut $ith
a-- that )o-ite attention $hich )erha)s the Chinese
a-one are ca)a-e of dis)-a'in*"
Some 1esuits( )ossessed of mathematica- science(
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77 Phi-oso)hica-
$ere retained at Pein G and amon* others( that same
Parennin $hom $e ha%e mentioned G and $ho( ein*
a )erfect master oth of the Chinese and of the Tar8
tar -an*ua*e( had een freHuent-' em)-o'ed as an in8
ter)reter" 3an' of the 1esuits concea-ed themse-%es
in the distant )ro%incesG others e%en in Canton it8
se-f G and the aMair $as conni%ed at"
At -en*th( after the death of the Em)eror 6out8
chin( his son and successor( Kien8Lun*( com)-eted
the satisfaction of the nation ' com)e--in* a-- the
missionaries $ho $ere in concea-ment throu*hout
his em)ire to remo%e to 3acao 0 a so-emn edict )re8
%ented them from e%er returnin*" If an' a))ear(
the' are ci%i--' reHuested to carr' their ta-ents some8
$here e-se" There is nothin* of se%erit'( nothin* of
)ersecution" I ha%e een to-d that( in =@?( a 1esuit
ha%in* *one from Rome to Canton( and een in8
formed a*ainst ' a Dutch factor( the Co-ao *o%8
ernor of Canton had him sent a$a'( )resentin* him
at the same time $ith a )iece of si-( some )ro%isions(
and mone'"
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Of the )retended Atheism of China"
The char*e of Atheism( a--e*ed ' our theo-o*ians
of the $est( a*ainst the Chinese *o%ernment at the
other end of the $or-d( has een freHuent-' eBam8
ined( and is( it must e admitted( the meanest eBcess
of our fo--ies and )edantic inconsistencies" It $as
sometimes )retended( in one of our -earned facu-ties(
that the Chinese triuna-s or )ar-iaments $ere ido-8
Dictionar'" 7>
atrous G sometimes that the' acno$-ed*ed no di%in8
it' $hate%er 0 and these reasoners occasiona--'
)ushed their -o*ic so far as to maintain that the
Chinese $ere( at the same time( atheists and ido-8
aters"
In the month of Octoer( =??( the Soronne de8
c-ared e%er' )ro)osition $hich maintained that the
em)eror and the Co-aos e-ie%ed in od to e hereti8
ca-" !u-' %o-umes $ere com)osed in order to dem8
onstrate( conforma-' to the s'stem of theo-o*ica-
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demonstration( that the Chinese adored nothin* ut
the materia- hea%en"
Ni- )raeter nues ct coe-i numen adorant"
The' $orshi) c-ouds and rmament a-one"
!ut if the' did adore the materia- hea%en( that
$as their od" The' resem-ed the Persians( $ho
are said to ha%e adored the sun 0 the' resem-ed the
ancient Araians( $ho adored the stars 0 the' $ere
neither $orshi))ers of ido-s nor atheists" !ut a
-earned doctor( $hen it is an oQect to denounce from
his tri)od an' )ro)osition as heretica- or onoBious(
does not distin*uish $ith much c-earness"
Those contem)ti-e creatures $ho( in =??( cre8
ated such a disturance aout the materia- hea%en of
the Chinese( did not no$ that( in =@7>( the Chinese(
ha%in* made )eace $ith the Russians at Nic)tchou(
$hich di%ides the t$o em)ires( erected( in Se)tem8
er of the same 'ear( a mar-e monument( on $hich
the fo--o$in* memora-e $ords $ere en*ra%ed in
the Chinese and Latin -an*ua*es 0
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>? Phi-oso)hica-
#Shou-d an' e%er determine to reind-e the ames
of $ar( $e )ra' the so%erei*n rei*n of a-- thin*s(
$ho no$s the heart( to )unish their )erd'(# etc"
A %er' sma-- )ortion of modern histor' is su8
cient to )ut an end to these ridicu-ous dis)utes 0 ut
those $ho e-ie%e that the dut' of man consists in
$ritin* commentaries on St" Thomas( or Scotus( can8
not condescend to inform themse-%es of $hat is *oin*
on amon* the *reat em)ires of the $or-d"
SECTION n"
We tra%e- to China to otain c-a' for )orce-ain(
as if $e had none ourse-%es G stuMs( as if $e $ere
destitute of stuMs G and a sma-- her to e infused in
$ater( as if $e had no sim)-es in our o$n countries"
In return for these enets( $e are desirous of con8
%ertin* the Chinese" It is a %er' commenda-e 4ea- G
ut $e must a%oid contro%ertin* their antiHuit'( and
a-so ca--in* them ido-aters" Shou-d $e thin it $e--
of a ca)uchin( if( after ha%in* een hos)ita-' enter8
tained at the chateau of the 3ontmorenc's( he en8
dea%ored to )ersuade them that the' $ere ne$ no8
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i-it'( -ie the in*5s secretariesG or accused them
of ido-atr'( ecause he found t$o or three statues of
consta-es( for $hom the' cherished the most )ro8
found res)ectJ
The ce-erated Wo-f( )rofessor of mathematics
in the uni%ersit' of &a--e( once de-i%ered an eBce--ent
discourse in )raise of the Chinese )hi-oso)h'" &e
)raised that ancient s)ecies of the human race( diMer8
Dictionar'" >=
in*( as it does( in res)ect to the eard( the e'es( the
nose( the ears( and e%en the reasonin* )o$ers them8
se-%es G he )raised the Chinese( I sa'( for their adora8
tion of a su)reme od( and their -o%e of %irtue" &e
did that Qustice to the em)erors of China( to the tri8
una-s( and to the -iterati" The Qustice done to the
on4es $as of a diMerent ind"
It is necessar' to oser%e( that this Professor
Wo-f had attracted around him a thousand )u)i-s of
a-- nations" In the same uni%ersit' there $as a-so a
)rofessor of theo-o*'( $ho attracted no one" This
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man( maddened at the thou*ht of free4in* to death
in his o$n deserted ha--( formed the desi*n( $hich
undouted-' $as on-' ri*ht and reasona-e( of de8
stro'in* the mathematica- )rofessor" &e scru)-ed
not( accordin* to the )ractice of )ersons -ie himse-f(
to accuse him of not e-ie%in* in od"
Some Euro)ean $riters( $ho had ne%er een in
China( had )retended that the *o%ernment of Pein
$as atheistica-" Wo-f had )raised the )hi-oso)hers
of PeinG therefore Wo-f $as an atheist" En%'
and hatred se-dom construct the est s'--o*isms"
This ar*ument of Lan*e( su))orted ' a )art' and
' a )rotector( $as considered conc-usi%e ' the so%8
erei*n of the countr'( $ho des)atched a forma- di8
-emma to the mathematician" This di-emma *a%e
him the o)tion of Huittin* &a--e in t$ent'8four
hours( or of ein* han*ed G and as Wo-f $as a %er'
accurate reasoner( he did not fai- to Huit" &is $ith8
dra$in* de)ri%ed the in* of t$o or three hundred
> Phi-oso)hica-
thousand cro$ns a 'ear( $hich $ere rou*ht into
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the in*dom in conseHuence of the $ea-th of this
)hi-oso)her5s disci)-es"
This case shou-d con%ince so%erei*ns that the'
shou-d not e o%er read' to -isten to ca-umn'( and
sacrice a *reat man to the madness of a foo-" !ut
-et us return to China"
Wh' shou-d $e concern ourse-%es( $e $ho -i%e at
the eBtremit' of the $est $h' shou-d $e dis)ute
$ith ause and fur'( $hether there $ere fourteen
)rinces or not efore Fo8hi( em)eror of China( and
$hether the said Fo8hi -i%ed three thousand( or t$o
thousand nine hundred 'ears efore our %u-*ar eraJ
I shou-d -ie to see t$o Irishmen Huarre--in* at Du8
-in( aout $ho $as the o$ner( in the t$e-fth centur'(
of the estate I am no$ in )ossession of" Is it not
c-ear( that the' shou-d refer to me( $ho )ossess the
documents and tit-es re-atin* to it J To m' mind( the
case is the same $ith res)ect to the rst em)erors of
China( and the triuna-s of that countr' are the
)ro)er resort u)on the suQect"
Dis)ute as -on* as 'ou )-ease aout the fourteen
)rinces $ho rei*ned efore Fo8hi( 'our %er' interest8
in* dis)ute cannot )ossi-' fai- to )ro%e that China
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increase in numer( ut that freHuent-' instead of
increasin* the' actua--' diminish"
Let us then( $ho are mere-' of 'esterda'( de8
scendants of the Ce-ts( $ho ha%e on-' Qust nished
c-earin* the forests of our sa%a*e territories( suMer
the Chinese and Indians to enQo' in )eace their ne
c-imate and their antiHuit'" Let us( es)ecia--'( cease
ca--in* the em)eror of China( and the soua of the
Deccan( ido-aters" There is no necessit' for ein*
a 4ea-ot in estimatin* Chinese merit" The constitu8
tion of their em)ire is the on-' one entire-' esta8
-ished u)on )aterna- authorit'G the on-' one in
$hich the *o%ernor of a )ro%ince is )unished( if( on
Huittin* his station( he does not recei%e the acc-ama8
tions of the )eo)-e G the on-' one $hich has instituted
re$ards for %irtue( $hi-e( e%er'$here e-se( the so-e
> Phi-oso)hica-
oQect of the -a$s is the )unishment of crime G the
on-' one $hich has caused its -a$s to e ado)ted '
its conHuerors( $hi-e $e are sti-- suQect to the cus8
toms of the !ur*undians( the Frans( and the oths(
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' $hom $e $ere conHuered" 6et( $e must confess(
that the common )eo)-e( *uided ' the on4es( are
eHua--' na%ish $ith our o$nG that e%er'thin* is
so-d enormous-' dear to forei*ners( as amon* our8
se-%es G that( $ith res)ect to the sciences( the Chinese
are Qust $here $e $ere t$o hundred 'ears a*o G that(
-ie us( the' -aor under a thousand ridicu-ous )reQu8
dicesG and that the' e-ie%e in ta-ismans and Qudi8
cia- astro-o*'( as $e -on* did ourse-%es"
We must admit a-so( that the' $ere astonished at
our thermometer( at our method of free4in* uids '
means of sa-t)etre( and at a-- the eB)eriments of
Torrice--i and Otto %on uerice G as $e $ere a-so(
on seein* for the rst time those curious )rocesses"
We add( that their )h'sicians do not cure morta- dis8
eases an' more than our o$n G and that minor dis8
eases( oth here and in China( are cured ' nature
a-one" A-- this( ho$e%er( does not interfere $ith the
fact( that the Chinese( for four thousand 'ears( $hen
$e $ere una-e e%en to read( ne$ e%er'thin* essen8
tia--' usefu- of $hich $e oast at the )resent da'"
I must a*ain re)eat( the re-i*ion of their -earned
is admira-e( and free from su)erstitions( from a8
surd -e*ends( from do*mas insu-tin* oth to reason
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and nature( to $hich the on4es *i%e a thousand dif8
ferent meanin*s( ecause the' rea--' often ha%e none"
Dictionar'" >
The most sim)-e $orshi) has a))eared to them the
est( for a series of fort' centuries" The' are( $hat
$e concei%e Seth( Enoch( and Noah to ha%e eenG
the' are contented to adore one od in communion
$ith the sa*es of the $or-d( $hi-e Euro)e is di%ided
et$een Thomas and !ona%enture( et$een Ca-%in
and Luther( et$een 1ansenius and 3o-ina"
C&RISTIANIT6"
Esta-ishment of Christianit'( in its Ci%i- and
Po-itica- State" Section "
OD FOR!ID that $e shou-d dare to miB the sacred
$ith the )rofane We see not to fathom the de)ths
of the $a's of Pro%idence" We are men( and $e ad8
dress men on-'"
When Anton'( and after him Au*ustus( had *i%en
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1udaea to the Araian( &erod their creature and
their triutar' that )rince( a stran*er amon* the
1e$s( ecame the most )o$erfu- of a-- in*s" &e
had )orts on the 3editerranean Pto-emais and
Asca-onG he ui-t to$nsG he erected a tem)-e to
A)o--o at Rhodes( and one to Au*ustus in Csesarea G
he reui-t that of 1erusa-em from the foundation(
and con%erted it into a stron* citade-" 2nder his
ru-e( Pa-estine enQo'ed )rofound )eace" In short(
ararous as he $as to his fami-'( and t'rannica-
to$ards his )eo)-e( $hose sustance he consumed in
the eBecution of his )roQects( he $as -ooed u)on as
a 3essiah" &e $orshi))ed on-' Caesar( and he $as
a-so $orshi))ed ' the &erodians"
>@ Phi-oso)hica-
The sect of the 1e$s had -on* een s)read in
Euro)e and AsiaG ut its tenets $ere entire-' un8
no$n" No one ne$ an'thin* of the 1e$ish oos(
a-thou*h $e are to-d that some of them had a-read'
een trans-ated into ree( in A-eBandria" The 1e$s
$ere no$n on-' as the Armenians are no$ no$n
to the Turs and Persians( as roers and traders"
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Further( a Tur ne%er taes the trou-e to inHuire(
$hether an Armenian is a Eut'chian( a 1acoite( one
of St" 1ohn5s Christians( or an Arian" The theism of
China( and the much to e res)ected oos of Con8
fucius( $ere sti-- -ess no$n to the nations of the
$est( than the 1e$ish rites"
The Araians( $ho furnished the Romans $ith
the )recious commodities of India( had no more idea
of the theo-o*' of the !rahmins than our sai-ors
$ho *o to Pondicherr' or 3adras" The Indian
$omen had from time immemoria- enQo'ed the )ri%8
i-e*e of urnin* themse-%es on the odies of their
husands G 'et these astonishin* sacrices( $hich are
sti-- )ractised( $ere as unno$n to the 1e$s as the
customs of America" Their oos( $hich s)ea of
o* and 3a*o*( ne%er mention India"
The ancient re-i*ion of 9oroaster $as ce-erated G
ut not therefore the more understood in the Roman
Em)ire" It $as on-' no$n( in *enera-( that the
ma*i admitted a resurrection( a he--( and a )aradise G
$hich doctrine must at that time ha%e made its $a'
to the 1e$s orderin* on Cha-daea G since( in &erod5s
time( Pa-estine $as di%ided et$een the Pharisees(
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Dictionar'" ?(
$ho e*an to e-ie%e the do*ma of the resurrection(
and the Sadducees( $ho re*arded it on-' $ith con8
tem)t"
A-eBandria( the most commercia- cit' in the $ho-e
$or-d( $as )eo)-ed $ith E*')tians( $ho $orshi))ed
Sera)is( and consecrated catsG $ith rees( $ho
)hi-oso)hi4ed G $ith Romans( $ho ru-ed G and $ith
1e$s( $ho amassed $ea-th" A-- these )eo)-e $ere
ea*er-' en*a*ed in mone'8*ettin*( immersed in
)-easure( infuriate $ith fanaticism( main* and un8
main* re-i*ious sects( es)ecia--' durin* the eBterna-
tranHui--it' $hich the' enQo'ed $hen Au*ustus had
shut the tem)-e of 1anus"
The 1e$s $ere di%ided into three )rinci)a- fac8
tions" Of these( the Samaritans ca--ed themse-%es
the most ancient( ecause Samaria then SeasteU
had susisted( $hi-e 1erusa-em( $ith its tem)-e( $as
destro'ed under the !a'-onian in*s" !ut these
Samaritans $ere a miBture of the )eo)-e of Persia
$ith those of Pa-estine"
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The second( and most )o$erfu- faction( $as that
of the &ieroso-'mites" These 1e$s( )ro)er-' so
ca--ed( detested the Samaritans( and $ere detested
' them" Their interests $ere a-- o))osite" The'
$ished that no sacrices shou-d e oMered ut in the
tem)-e of 1erusa-em" Such a restriction $ou-d ha%e
rou*ht a dea- of mone' into their cit' G and( for this
%er' reason( the Samaritans $ou-d sacrice no$here
ut at home" A sma-- )eo)-e( in a sma-- to$n( ma'
ha%e ut one tem)-eG ut $hen a )eo)-e ha%e eB8
Vo-"
>7 Phi-oso)hica-
tended themse-%es o%er a countr' se%ent' -ea*ues
-on*( ' t$ent'8three $ide( as the 1e$s had done
$hen their territor' is a-most as -ar*e and )o)u-ous
as Lan*uedoc or Normand'( it $ou-d e asurd to
ha%e ut one church" What $ou-d the *ood )eo)-e
of 3ont)e--ier sa'( if the' cou-d attend mass no8
$here ut at Tou-ouse J
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The third faction $ere the &e--enic 1e$s( consist8
in* chie' of such as $ere en*a*ed in trade or handi8
craft in E*')t and reece" These had the same in8
terests $ith the Samaritans" Onias( the son of a hi*h
)riest( $ishin* to e a hi*h )riest -ie his father( o8
tained )ermission from Pto-em' Phi-ometor( in* of
E*')t( and in )articu-ar from the in*5s $ife( C-eo8
)atra( to ui-d a 1e$ish tem)-e near !uastis" &e
assured :ueen C-eo)atra that Isaiah had foreto-d
that the Lord shou-d one da' ha%e a tem)-e on that
s)ot G and C-eo)atra( to $hom he made a handsome
)resent( sent him $ord that( since Isaiah had said it(
it must e" This tem)-e $as ca--ed the Onion G and
if Onias $as not a *reat sacricer( he commanded a
troo) of mi-itia" It $as ui-t one hundred and siBt'
'ears efore the Christian era" The 1e$s of 1erusa8
-em a-$a's he-d this Onion in ahorrence( as the' did
the trans-ation ca--ed the Se)tua*int" The' e%en
instituted an eB)iator' feast for these t$o )retended
sacri-e*es" The rais of the Onion( min*-in* $ith
the rees( ecame more -earned in their $a'U
than the rais of 1erusa-em and Samaria G and the
three factions e*an to dis)ute on contro%ersia-
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Dictionar'" >>
Huestions( $hich necessari-' mae men sut-e( fa-se(
and unsocia-"
The E*')tian 1e$s( in order to eHua- the austerit'
of the Essenes( and the 1udates of Pa-estine( esta8
-ished( some time efore the irth of Christianit'( the
sect of the Thera)eutae( $ho( -ie them( de%oted
themse-%es to a sort of monastic -ife( and to morti8
cations" These diMerent societies $ere imitations of
the o-d E*')tian( Persian( Thracian( and ree m's8
teries( $hich had --ed the earth( from the Eu)hrates
and the Ni-e to the Tier" At rst( such as $ere
initiated into these fraternities $ere fe$ in numer(
and $ere -ooed u)on as )ri%i-e*ed men G ut in the
time of Au*ustus( their numer $as %er' consider8
a-e G so that nothin* ut re-i*ion $as ta-ed of( from
S'ria to 3ount At-as and the erman Ocean"
Amidst a-- these sects and $orshi)s( the schoo- of
P-ato had esta-ished itse-f( not in reece a-one( ut
a-so in Rome( and es)ecia--' in E*')t" P-ato had
een considered as ha%in* dra$n his doctrine from
the E*')tians( $ho thou*ht that( in turnin* P-ato5s
ideas to account( his $ord( and the sort of trinit'
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disco%era-e in some of his $ors( the' $ere ut
c-aimin* their o$n"
This )hi-oso)hic s)irit( s)read at that time o%er
a-- the no$n countries of the $est( seems to ha%e
emitted( in the nei*horhood of Pa-estine( at -east a
fe$ s)ars of the s)irit of reasonin*" It is certain
that( in &erod5s time( there $ere dis)utes on the
attriutes of the di%init'( on the immorta-it' of the
ioo Phi-oso)hica-
sou-( and the resurrection of the od'" The 1e$s re8
-ate( that :ueen C-eo)atra ased them $hether $e
$ere to rise a*ain dressed or naed J
The 1e$s( then( $ere reasoners in their $a'" The
eBa**eratin* 1ose)hus $as( for a so-dier( %er'
-earned" Such ein* the case $ith a mi-itar' man(
there must ha%e een man' a -earned man in ci%i- -ife"
&is contem)orar'( Phi-o( $ou-d ha%e had re)uta8
tion( e%en amon* the rees" St" Pau-5s master(
ama-ie-( $as a *reat contro%ersia-ist" The authors
of the #3ishna# $ere )o-'mathists"
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The 1e$ish )o)u-ace discoursed on re-i*ion" As(
at the )resent da'( in S$it4er-and( at ene%a( in er8
man'( in En*-and( and es)ecia--' in the Ce%ennes( $e
nd e%en the meanest of the inhaitants dea-in* in
contro%ers'" Na'( more G men from the dre*s of the
)eo)-e ha%e founded sects0 as FoB( in En*-andG
3iin4er( in erman'G and the rst reformers in
France" Indeed( 3ahomet himse-f( settin* a)art his
*reat coura*e( $as nothin* more than a came-8
dri%er"
Add to these )re-iminaries that( in &erod5s time(
it $as ima*ined( as is e-se$here remared( that the
$or-d $as soon to e at an end" In those da's( )re8
)ared ' di%ine )ro%idence( it )-eased the eterna-
Father to send &is Son u)on earth an adora-e and
incom)rehensi-e m'ster'( $hich $e )resume not to
a))roach"
We on-' sa'( that if 1esus )reached a )ure mor8
a-it' G if Pie announced the in*dom of hea%en as the
Dictionar'" =?=
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re$ard of the QustG if &e had disci)-es attached to
&is )erson and &is %irtuesG if those %er' %irtues
dre$ u)on &im the )ersecutions of the )riests G if(
throu*h ca-umn'( &e $as )ut to a shamefu- death G
&is doctrine( constant-' )reached ' &is disci)-es(
$ou-d necessari-' ha%e a *reat eMect in the $or-d"
Once more -et me re)eat it I s)ea on-' after the
manner of this $or-d( settin* the mu-titude of
mirac-es and )ro)hecies entire-' aside" I maintain
it( that Christianit' $as more -ie-' to )roceed '
&is death( than if &e had not een )ersecuted" 6ou
are astonished that &is disci)-es made other dis8
ci)-es" I shou-d ha%e een much more astonished( if
the' had not rou*ht o%er a *reat man' to their
)art'" Se%ent' indi%idua-s( con%inced of the inno8
cence of their -eader( the )urit' of &is rnanners( and
the ararit' of &is Qud*es( must inuence man' a
fee-in* heart"
St" Pau-( a-one( ecame for $hate%er reasonU the
enem' of his master ama-ie-( must ha%e had it in
his )o$er to rin* 1esus a thousand adherents( e%en
su))osin* 1esus to ha%e een on-' a $orth' and o)8
)ressed man" Pau- $as -earned( e-oHuent( %ehem8
ent( indefati*a-e( si--ed in the ree ton*ue( and
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seconded ' 4ea-ots much more interested than him8
se-f in defendin* their 3aster5s re)utation" St"
Lue $as an A-eBandrian ree( and a man of -et8
ters( for he $as a )h'sician"
The rst cha)ter of 1ohn dis)-a's a P-atonic su8
-imit'( $hich must ha%e een *ratif'in* to the P-a8
= ? Phi-oso)hica-
tonists of A-eBandria" And indeed there $as e%en
formed in that cit' a schoo- founded ' Lue( or '
3ar either the e%an*e-ist or some otherU( and
)er)etuated ' Athena*oras( Pantaenus( Ori*en( and
C-ement a-- -earned and e-oHuent" This schoo- once
esta-ished( it $as im)ossi-e for Christianit' not to
mae ra)id )ro*ress"
reece( S'ria( and E*')t( $ere the scenes of those
ce-erated ancient m'steries( $hich enchanted the
minds of the )eo)-e" The Christians( too( had their
m'steries( in $hich men $ou-d ea*er-' see to e
initiated G and if at rst on-' throu*h curiosit'( this
curiosit' soon ecame )ersuasion" The idea of the
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a))roachin* end of a-- thin*s $as es)ecia--' ca-8
cu-ated to induce the ne$ disci)-es to des)ise the
transitor' *oods of this -ife( $hich $ere so soon to
)erish $ith them" The eBam)-e of the Thera)eutse
$as an incitement to a so-itar' and mortied -ife"
A-- these thin*s( then( )o$erfu--' concurred in the
esta-ishment of the Christian re-i*ion"
The diMerent ocs of this *reat risin* societ'
cou-d not( it is true( a*ree amon* themse-%es" Fift'8
four societies had ft'8four diMerent *os)e-sG a--
secret( -ie their m'steries G a-- unno$n to the en8
ti-es( $ho ne%er sa$ our four canonica- *os)e-s unti-
the end of t$o hundred and ft' 'ears" These %ari8
ous ocs( thou*h di%ided( acno$-ed*ed the same
)astor" Eionites( o))osed to St" Pau- G Na4arenes(
disci)-es of &'meneos( A-eBandros( and &ermo8
*enesG Car)ocratians( !asi-idians( Va-entinians(
Dictionar'" =?
3arcionites( Sae--ians( nostics( 3ontanists a
hundred sects( risin* one a*ainst another( and cast8
in* mutua- re)roaches( $ere ne%erthe-ess a-- united
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in 1esus G a-- ca--ed u)on 1esus G a-- made 1esus the
*reat oQect of their thou*hts( and re$ard of their
tra%ai-s"
The Roman Em)ire( in $hich a-- these societies
$ere formed( at rst )aid no attention to them"
The' $ere no$n at Rome on-' ' the *enera- name
of 1e$s( aout $hom the *o%ernment *a%e itse-f no
concern" The 1e$s had( ' their mone'( acHuired
the ri*ht of tradin*" In the rei*n of Tierius four
thousand of them $ere dri%en out of Rome G in that
of Nero the )eo)-e char*ed them and the ne$ demi8
Christian 1e$s $ith the urnin* of Rome"
The' $ere a*ain eB)e--ed in the rei*n of
C-audius( ut their mone' a-$a's )rocured them re8
admissionG the' $ere Huiet and des)ised" The
Christians of Rome $ere not so numerous as those
of reece( A-eBandria and S'ria" The Romans in
the ear-ier a*es had neither fathers of the church nor
heresiarchs" The farther the' $ere from the irth8
)-ace of Christianit'( the fe$er doctors and $riters
$ere to e found amon* them" The church $as
ree G so much so( that e%er' m'ster'( e%er' rite(
e%er' tenet( $as eB)ressed in the ree ton*ue"
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A-- Christians( $hether ree( S'rian( Roman( or
E*')tian( $ere considered as ha-f 1e$ish" This
$as another reason for concea-in* their oos from
the enti-es( that the' mi*ht remain united and im8
IO Phi-oso)hica-
)enetra-e" Their secret $as more in%io-a-' e)t
than that of the m'steries of Isis or of Ceres G the'
$ere a re)u-ic a)art a state $ithin the state" The'
had no tem)-es( no a-tars( no sacrice( no )u-ic
ceremon'" The' e-ected their secret su)eriors ' a
maQorit' of %oices" These su)eriors( under the tit-e
of ancients( )riests( isho)s( or deacons( mana*ed
the common )urse( too care of the sic and )acied
Huarre-s" Amon* them it $as a shame and a crime
to )-ead efore the triuna-s or to en-ist in the armed
forceG and for a hundred 'ears there $as not a
sin*-e Christian in the armies of the em)ire"
Thus( retired in the midst of the $or-d and un8
no$n e%en $hen the' a))eared( the' esca)ed the
t'rann' of the )roconsu-s and )raetors and $ere free
amid the )u-ic s-a%er'" It is not no$n $ho $rote
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the famous oo entit-ed ,8,T$% #A8 oar @ -a% Ai7aXai#
the A)osto-ica- ConstitutionsU( as it is unno$n
$ho $ere the authors of the ft' reQected *os)e-s( of
the Acts of St" Peter( of the Testament of the T$e-%e
Patriarchs( and of so man' other $ritin*s of the
rst Christians G ut it is -ie-' that the #Constitu8
tions# are of the second centur'" Thou*h fa-se-' at8
triuted to the a)ost-es( the' are %er' %a-ua-e" The'
sho$ us $hat $ere the duties of a isho) chosen '
the Christians( ho$ the' $ere to re%erence him( and
$hat triute the' $ere to )a' him" The isho)
cou-d ha%e ut one $ife( $ho $as to tae *ood care
of his househo-d 0 # QftaJ a%S)a 6S%@QL%o%
Bd-d% TOO Idtou oJBou
Dictionar'" =?<
Rich Christians $ere eBhorted to ado)t the chi-8
dren of )oor ones" Co--ections $ere made for the
$ido$s and or)hansG ut the mone' of sinners
$as reQected G and( nomina--'( an innee)er $as not
)ermitted to *i%e his mite" It is said that the' $ere
re*arded as cheats G for $hich reason %er' fe$ ta%8
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ern8ee)ers $ere Christians" This a-so )re%ented
the Christians from freHuentin* the ta%ernsG thus
com)-etin* their se)aration from the societ' of the
enti-es"
The di*nit' of deaconess ein* attaina-e ' the
$omen( the' $ere the more attached to the Christian
fraternit'" The' $ere consecratedG the isho)
anointin* them on the forehead( as of o-d the 1e$ish
in*s $ere anointed" !' ho$ man' indisso-u-e
ties $ere the Christians ound to*ether
The )ersecutions( $hich $ere ne%er more than
transitor'( did ut ser%e to redou-e their 4ea- and
iname their fer%or G so that( under Dioc-etian( one8
third of the em)ire $as Christian" Such $ere a fe$
of the human causes that contriuted to the )ro*ress
of Christianit'" If to these $e add the di%ine causes(
$hich are to the former as innit' to unit'( there is
on-' one thin* $hich can sur)rise us G that a re-i*ion
so true did not at once eBtend itse-f o%er the t$o
hemis)heres( not eBce)tin* the most sa%a*e is-et"
od &imse-f came do$n from hea%en and died to
redeem manind and eBtir)ate sin fore%er from the
face of the earthG and 'et he -eft the *reater )art
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of manind a )re' to error( to crime( and to the de%i-"
io@ Phi-oso)hica-
This( to our $ea inte--ects( a))ears a fata- contra8
diction" !ut it is not for us to Huestion Pro%idence G
our dut' is to hum-e ourse-%es in the dust efore it"
SECTION II"
Se%era- -earned men ha%e testied their sur)rise
at not ndin* in the historian( F-a%ius 1ose)hus(
an' mention of 1esus ChristG for a-- men of true
-earnin* are no$ a*reed that the short )assa*e re-a8
ti%e to him in that histor' has een inter)o-ated"
The father of F-a%ius 1ose)hus must( ho$e%er( ha%e
een $itness to a-- the mirac-es of 1esus" 1ose)hus
$as of the sacerdota- race and ain to &erod5s $ife(
3ariamne" &e *i%es us -on* detai-s of a-- that
)rince5s actions( 'et sa's not a $ord of the -ife or
death of 1esusG nor does this historian( $ho dis8
*uises none of &erod5s crue-ties( sa' one $ord of
the *enera- massacre of the infants ordered ' him
on hearin* that there $as orn a in* of the 1e$s"
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The ree ca-endar estimates the numer of chi-dren
murdered on this occasion at fourteen thousand"
This is( of a-- actions of a-- t'rants( the most horri8
-e" There is no eBam)-e of it in the histor' of the
$ho-e $or-d"
6et the est $riter the 1e$s ha%e e%er had( the
on-' one esteemed ' the rees and Romans( maes
no mention of an e%ent so sin*u-ar and so fri*htfu-"
&e sa's nothin* of the a))earance of a ne$ star in
the east after the irth of our Sa%iour a ri--iant
)henomenon( $hich cou-d not esca)e the no$-ed*e
Dictionar'" " =?
of a historian so en-i*htened as 1ose)hus" &e is
a-so si-ent res)ectin* the darness $hich( on our
Sa%iour5s death( co%ered the $ho-e earth for three
hours at midda' the *reat numer of *ra%es that
o)ened at that moment( and the mu-titude of the
Qust that rose a*ain"
The -earned are constant-' e%incin* their sur8
)rise that no Roman historian s)eas of these )rodi8
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*ies( ha))enin* in the em)ire of Tierius( under the
e'es of a Roman *o%ernor and a Roman *arrison(
$ho must ha%e sent to the em)eror and the senate a
detai-ed account of the most miracu-ous e%ent that
manind had e%er heard of" Rome itse-f must ha%e
een )-un*ed for three hours in im)enetra-e dar8
ness G such a )rodi*' $ou-d ha%e had a )-ace in the
anna-s of Rome( and in those of e%er' nation" !ut
it $as not od5s $i-- that these di%ine thin*s shou-d
e $ritten do$n ' their )rofane hands"
The same )ersons a-so nd some dicu-ties in the
*os)e- histor'" The' remar that( in 3atthe$(
1esus Christ te--s the scries and )harisees that a--
the innocent -ood that has een shed u)on earth(
from that of Ae- the 1ust do$n to that of 9achar'(
son of !arac( $hom the' s-e$ et$een the tem)-e
and the a-tar( sha-- e u)on their heads"
There is not sa' the'U in the &ere$ histor'
an' 9achar' s-ain in the tem)-e efore the comin*
of the 3essiah( nor in &is time( ut in the histor'
of the sie*e of 1erusa-em( ' 1ose)hus( there is a
9achar'( son of !arac( s-ain ' the faction of the
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io7 Phi-oso)hica-
9e-otes" This is in the nineteenth cha)ter of the
fourth oo" &ence the' sus)ect that the *os)e-
accordin* to St" 3atthe$ $as $ritten after the
tain* of 1erusa-em ' Titus" !ut e%er' dout(
e%er' oQection of this ind( %anishes $hen it is con8
sidered ho$ *reat a diMerence there must e et$een
oos di%ine-' ins)ired and the oos of men" It
$as od5s )-easure to en%e-o) a-ie in a$fu- o8
scurit' &is irth( &is -ife( and &is death" &is $a's
are in a-- thin*s diMerent from ours"
The -earned ha%e a-so een much tormented '
the diMerence et$een the t$o *enea-o*ies of 1esus
Christ" St" 3atthe$ maes 1ose)h the son of 1aco(
1aco of 3atthan( 3atthan of E-ea4ar" St" Lue( on
the contrar'( sa's that 1ose)h $as the son of &e-i(
&e-i of 3atthat( 3atthat of Le%i( Le%i of 3e-chi(
etc" The' $i-- not reconci-e the ft'8siB )ro*enitors
u) to Araham( *i%en to 1esus ' Lue( $ith the
fort'8t$o other forefathers u) to the same Araham(
*i%en him ' 3atthe$ G and the' are Huite sta**ered
' 3atthe$5s *i%in* on-' fort'8one *enerations(
$hi-e he s)eas of fort'8t$o" The' start other dif8
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cu-ties aout 1esus ein* the son( not of 1ose)h(
ut of 3ar'" The' moreo%er raise some douts re8
s)ectin* our Sa%iour5s mirac-es( Huotin* St" Au8
*ustine( St" &i-ar'( and others( $ho ha%e *i%en to
the accounts of these mirac-es a m'stic or a--e*orica-
senseG as( for eBam)-e( to the * tree cursed and
-asted for not ha%in* orne *s $hen it $as not the
Dictionar'" =?>
* season G the de%i-s sent into the odies of s$ine
in a countr' $here no s$ine $ere e)t G the $ater
chan*ed into $ine at the end of a feast( $hen the
*uests $ere a-read' too much heated" !ut a-- these
-earned critics are confounded ' the faith( $hich
is ut the )urer for their ca%i-s" The so-e desi*n of
this artic-e is to fo--o$ the historica- thread and
*i%e a )recise idea of the facts aout $hich there is
no dis)ute"
First( then( 1esus $as orn under the 3osaic
-a$ G &e $as circumcised accordin* to that -a$ G &e
fu---ed a-- its )rece)ts G &e e)t a-- its feasts G &e
did not re%ea- the m'ster' of &is incarnationG &e
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ne%er to-d the 1e$s &e $as orn of a %ir*in G &e
recei%ed 1ohn5s -essin* in the $aters of the 1ordan(
a ceremon' to $hich %arious of the 1e$s sumitted G
ut &e ne%er a)ti4ed an' one G &e ne%er s)oe of
the se%en sacraments G &e instituted no ecc-esiastica-
hierarch' durin* &is -ife" &e concea-ed from &is
contem)oraries that &e $as the Son of od( e8
*otten from a-- eternit'( consustantia- $ith &is
Father G and that the &o-' host )roceeded from the
Father and the Son" &e did not sa' that &is )erson
$as com)osed of t$o natures and t$o $i--s" &e -eft
these m'steries to e announced to men in the course
of time ' those $ho $ere to e en-i*htened ' the
&o-' host" So -on* as &e -i%ed( &e de)arted in
nothin* from the -a$ of &is fathers" In the e'es of
men &e $as no more than a Qust man( )-easin* to
no Phi-oso)hica-
od( )ersecuted ' the en%ious and condemned to
death ' )reQudiced ma*istrates" &e -eft &is ho-'
church( esta-ished ' &im( to do a-- the rest"
Let us consider the state of re-i*ion in the Roman
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Em)ire at that )eriod" 3'steries and eB)iations
$ere in credit a-most throu*hout the earth" The em8
)erors( the *reat( and the )hi-oso)hers( had( it is
true( no faith in these m'steries G ut the )eo)-e( $ho(
in re-i*ious matters( *i%e the -a$ to the *reat( im8
)osed on them the necessit' of conformin* in a)8
)earance to their $orshi)" To succeed in chainin*
the mu-titude 'ou must seem to $ear the same fet8
ters" Cicero himse-f $as initiated in the E-eusinian
m'steries" The no$-ed*e of on-' one od $as the
)rinci)a- tenet incu-cated in these m'steries and
ma*nicent festi%a-s" It is undenia-e that the
)ra'ers and h'mns handed do$n to us as e-on*in*
to these m'steries are the most )ious and most ad8
mira-e of the re-ics of )a*anism" The Christians(
$ho -ie$ise adored on-' one od( had there'
*reater faci-it' in con%ertin* some of the enti-es"
Some of the )hi-oso)hers of P-ato5s sect ecame
Christians G hence in the three rst centuries the
fathers of the church $ere a-- P-atonists"
The inconsiderate 4ea- of some of them in no
$a' detracts from the fundamenta- truths" St"
1ustin( one of the )rimiti%e fathers( has een re8
)roached $ith ha%in* said( in his commentar' on
Isaiah( that the saints shou-d enQo'( durin* a rei*n
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of a thousand 'ears on earth( e%er' sensua- )-easure"
Dictionar'" = = =
&e has een char*ed $ith crimina-it' in sa'in*( in his
#A)o-o*' for Christianit'(# that od( ha%in* made
the earth( -eft it in the care of the an*e-s( $ho( ha%in*
fa--en in -o%e $ith the $omen( e*ot chi-dren( $hich
are the de%i-s"
Lactantius( $ith other fathers( has een con8
demned for ha%in* su))osed orac-es of the si'-s"
&e asserted that the si'- Er'threa made four ree
-ines( $hich rendered -itera--' are 0
With %e -oa%es and t$o shes
&e sha-- feed %e thousand men in the desertG
And( *atherin* u) the fra*ments that remain(
With them he sha-- -- t$e-%e asets"
The )rimiti%e Christians ha%e een re)roached
$ith in%entin* some acrostic %erses on the name
1esus Christ and attriutin* them to an ancient si'-"
The' ha%e a-so een re)roached $ith for*in* -etters
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from 1esus Christ to the in* of Edessa( dated at a
time $hen there $as no in* in Edessa G $ith ha%in*
for*ed -etters of 3ar'( -etters of Seneca to Pau-(
fa-se *os)e-s( fa-se mirac-es( and a thousand other
im)ostures"
We ha%e( moreo%er( the histor' or *os)e- of the
nati%it' and marria*e of the Vir*in 3ar' G $herein
$e are to-d that she $as rou*ht to the tem)-e at
three 'ears o-d and $a-ed u) the stairs ' herse-f"
It is re-ated that a do%e came do$n from hea%en to
*i%e notice that it $as 1ose)h $ho $as to es)ouse
3ar'" We ha%e the )roto*os)e- of 1ames( rother
of 1esus ' 1ose)h5s rst $ife" It is there said that
== Phi-oso)hica-
$hen 1ose)h com)-ained of 3ar'5s ha%in* ecome
)re*nant in his asence( the )riests made each of
them drin the $ater of Qea-ous'( and oth $ere de8
c-ared innocent"
We ha%e the *os)e- of the Infanc'( attriuted to
St" Thomas" Accordin* to this *os)e-( 1esus( at
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%e 'ears of a*e( amused himse-f( -ie other chi-dren
of the same a*e( $ith mou-din* c-a'( and main* it(
amon* other thin*s( into the form of -itt-e irds"
&e $as re)ro%ed for this( on $hich he *a%e -ife to the
irds( and the' e$ a$a'" Another time( a -itt-e o'
ha%in* eaten him( $as struc dead on the s)ot" We
ha%e a-so another *os)e- of the Infanc' in Araic(
$hich is much more serious"
We ha%e a *os)e- of Nicodemus" This one seems
more $orth' of attention( for $e nd in it the names
of those $ho accused 1esus efore Pi-ate" The'
$ere the )rinci)a- men of the s'na*o*ue Ananias(
Caia)has( Sommas( Damat( ama-ie-( 1udah( Ne)h8
tha-im" In this histor' there are some thin*s that are
eas' to reconci-e $ith the recei%ed *os)e-s( and
others $hich are not e-se$here to e found" We
here nd that the $oman cured of a uB $as ca--ed
Veronica" We a-so nd a-- that 1esus did in he--
$hen &e descended thither" Then $e ha%e the
t$o -etters su))osed to ha%e een $ritten ' Pi-ate
to Tierius concernin* the eBecution of 1esus G ut
their ad Latin )-ain-' sho$s that the' are s)urious"
To such a -en*th $as this fa-se 4ea- carried that %ari8
ous -etters $ere circu-ated attriuted to 1esus Christ"
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Dictionar'" ==
The -etter is sti-- )reser%ed $hich he is said to ha%e
$ritten to A*arus( in* of Edessa G ut( as a-read'
remared( there had at that time ceased to e a in*
of Edessa"
Fift' *os)e-s $ere faricated and $ere after$ards
dec-ared a)ocr')ha-" St" Lue himse-f te--s us that
man' )ersons had com)osed *os)e-s" It has een e8
-ie%ed that there $as one ca--ed the Eterna- os)e-(
concernin* $hich it is said in the A)oca-')se( cha)(
Bi%"( #And I sa$ another an*e- ' in the midst of
hea%en( ha%in* the e%er-astin* *os)e-"# """" In
the thirteenth centur' the Corde-iers( ausin* these
$ords( com)osed an #eterna- *os)e-(# ' $hich the
rei*n of the &o-' host $as to e sustituted for
that of 1esus Christ" !ut ne%er in the ear-' a*es of
the church did an' oo a))ear $ith this tit-e" Let8
ters of the Vir*in $ere -ie$ise in%ented( $ritten to
I*natius the mart'r( to the )eo)-e of 3essina( and
others"
Adias( $ho immediate-' succeeded the a)ost-es(
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$rote their histor'( $ith $hich he miBed u) such
asurd fa-es that in time these histories ecame
$ho--' discredited( a-thou*h the' had at rst a *reat
re)utation" To Adias $e are indeted for the ac8
count of the contest et$een St" Peter and Simon
the ma*ician" There $as at Rome( in rea-it'( a %er'
si-fu- mechanic named Simon( $ho not on-' made
thin*s ' across the sta*e( as $e sti-- see done( ut
moreo%er re%i%ed in his o$n )erson the )rodi*' at8
triuted to Daeda-us" &e made himse-f $in*sG he
Vo-" 7
& Phi-oso)hica-
e$G and( -ie Icarus( he fe--" So sa' P-in' and
Suetonius"
Adias( $ho $as in Asia and $rote in &ere$(
te--s us that Peter and Simon met at Rome in the
rei*n of Nero" A 'oun* man( near-' re-ated to the
em)eror( died( and the $ho-e court e**ed that
Simon $ou-d raise him to -ife" St" Peter )resented
himse-f to )erform the same o)eration" Simon em8
)-o'ed a-- the )o$ers of his art( and he seemed to
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ha%e succeeded( for the dead man mo%ed his head"
#This is not enou*h(# cries PeterG #the dead man
must s)eaG -et Simon -ea%e the edside and $e
sha-- see $hether the 'oun* man is a-i%e"# Simon
$ent aside and the deceased no -on*er stirred( ut
Peter rou*ht him to -ife $ith a sin*-e $ord"
Simon $ent and com)-ained to the em)eror that
a misera-e a-i-ean had taen u)on himse-f to $or
*reater $onders than he" Simon $as confronted
$ith Peter and the' made a tria- of si--" #Te-- me(#
said Simon to Peter( #$hat I am thinin* ofJ# #If(#
returned Peter( #the em)eror $i-- *i%e me a ar-e'
-oaf( thou sha-t nd $hether or not I no$ $hat thou
hast in th' heart"# A -oaf $as *i%en him G Simon
immediate-' caused t$o -ar*e do*s to a))ear and
the' $anted to de%our it" Peter thre$ them the -oaf(
and $hi-e the' $ere eatin* it he said 0 #We--( did I
not no$ th' thou*hts J thou $ou-dst ha%e had th'
do*s de%our me"#
After this rst sittin* it $as )ro)osed that Simon
and Peter shou-d mae a 'in*8match( and tr' $hich
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Dictionar'" ==<
cou-d raise himse-f hi*hest in the air" Simon tried
rstG Peter made the si*n of the cross and do$n
came Simon and roe his -e*s" This stor' $as
imitated from that $hich $e nd in the #Sc)her
to-dos 1cschut(# $here it is said that 1esus &imse-f
e$( and that 1udas( $ho $ou-d ha%e done the same(
fe-- head-on*" Nero( %eBed that Peter had roen
his fa%orite( Simon5s( -e*s( had him crucied $ith his
head do$n$ards" &ence the notion of St" Peter5s res8
idence at Rome( the manner of his eBecution and his
se)u-chre"
The same Adias esta-ished the e-ief that St"
Thomas $ent and )reached Christianit' in India to
Kin* ondafer( and that he $ent thither as an arch8
itect" The numer of oos of this sort( $ritten in
the ear-' a*es of Christianit'( is )rodi*ious"
St" 1erome( and e%en St" Au*ustine( te-- us that
the -etters of Seneca and St" Pau- are Huite authentic"
In the rst of these -etters Seneca ho)es his rother
Pau- is $e-- 0 #!ene te %a-ere( f rater( cu)io"# Pau-
does not $rite Huite so *ood Latin as Seneca0 #I
recei%ed 'our -etters 'esterda'(# sa's he( #$ith Qo'"#
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#Litteras tuas hi-aris acce)t"# #And I $ou-d
ha%e ans$ered them immediate-' had I had the )res8
ence of the 'oun* man $hom I $ou-d ha%e sent $ith
them"# #Si )rcesentiam Qu%en-s hauissem"# 2n8
fortunate-' these -etters( in $hich one $ou-d -oo for
instruction( are nothin* more than com)-iments"
A-- these fa-sehoods( for*ed ' i--8informed and
mistaen-'84ea-ous Christians( $ere in no de*ree
n@ Phi-oso)hica-
)reQudicia- to the truth of Christianit'G the' o8
structed not its )ro*ress G on the contrar'( the' sho$
us that the Christian societ' $as dai-' increasin*
and that each memer $as desirous of hastenin* its
*ro$th"
The Acts of the A)ost-es do not te-- us that the
a)ost-es a*reed on a s'mo-" Indeed( if the' had
)ut to*ether the s'mo- the creed( as $e no$ ca--
itU( St" Lue cou-d not in his histor' ha%e omitted
this essentia- asis of the Christian re-i*ion" The
sustance of the creed is scattered throu*h the *os8
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)e-sG ut the artic-es $ere not co--ected unti- -on*
after"
In short( our creed is( indis)uta-'( the e-ief of
the a)ost-es G ut it $as not $ritten ' them" Ru8
nus( a )riest of AHui-eia( is the rst $ho mentions
itG and a homi-' attriuted to St" Au*ustine is the
rst record of the su))osed $a' in $hich this creed
$as made (8 Peter sa'in*( $hen the' $ere assem-ed(
#I e-ie%e in od the Father A-mi*ht'# Andre$(
#and in 1esus Christ# 1ames( #$ho $as concei%ed
' the &o-' host# G and so of the rest"
This formu-a $as ca--ed in ree s'mo-osG and
in Latin co--atio" On-' it must e oser%ed that the
ree %ersion has it 0 #I e-ie%e in od the Father(
maer of hea%en and earth"# In the Latin( maer(
former( is rendered ' #creatorem"# !ut after$ards(
in trans-atin* the s'mo- of the First Counci- of
Nice( it $as rendered ' #factorem"#
Constantine assem-ed at Nice( o))osite Constan8
Dictionar'" ==
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tino)-e( the rst ecumenica- counci-( o%er $hich O4ius
)resided" The *reat Huestion touchin* the di%init'
of 1esus Christ( $hich so much a*itated the church(
$as there decided" One )art' he-d the o)inion of
Ori*en( $ho sa's in his siBth cha)ter a*ainst Ce-sus(
#We oMer our )ra'ers to od throu*h Christ( $ho
ho-ds the midd-e )-ace et$een natures created and
uncreated G $ho -eads us to the *race of &is Father
and )resents our )ra'ers to the *reat od in Hua-it'
of our hi*h )riest"# These dis)utants a-so rest u)on
man' )assa*es of St" Pau-( some of $hich the'
Huote" The' de)end )articu-ar-' u)on these $ords
of 1esus Christ 0 #3' Father is *reater than I# G
and the' re*ard 1esus as the rst8orn of the crea8
tion G as a )ure emanation of the Su)reme !ein*(
ut not )recise-' as od"
The other side( $ho $ere orthodoB( )roduced
)assa*es more conforma-e to the eterna- di%init' of
1esus G as( for eBam)-e( the fo--o$in* 0 #3' Father
and I are one# G $ords $hich their o))onents inter8
)ret as si*nif'in* 0 #3' Father and I ha%e the same
oQect( the same intention G I ha%e no other $i-- than
that of 3' Father"# A-eBander( isho) of A-eBan8
dria( and after him Athanasius( $ere at the head of
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the orthodoBG and Euseius( isho) of Nicomedia(
$ith se%enteen other isho)s( the )riest Arius( and
man' more )riests( -ed the )art' o))osed to them"
The Huarre- $as at rst eBceedin*-' itter( as St"
A-eBander treated his o))onents as so man' anti8
christs"
= = 7 Phi-oso)hica-
At -ast( after much dis)utation( the &o-' host
decided in the counci-( ' the mouths of t$o hundred
and ninet'8nine isho)s( a*ainst ei*hteen( as fo--o$s 0
#1esus is the on-' Son of odG e*otten of the
Father G -i*ht of -i*ht G %er' od of %er' od G of
one sustance $ith the Father" We e-ie%e a-so in
the &o-' host(# etc" Such $as the decision of the
counci- G and $e )ercei%e ' this fact ho$ the isho)s
carried it o%er the sim)-e )riests" T$o thousand
)ersons of the -atter c-ass $ere of the o)inion of
Arius( accordin* to the account of t$o )atriarchs of
A-eBandria( $ho ha%e $ritten the anna-s of A-eBan8
dria in Araic" Arius $as eBi-ed ' Constantine( as
$as Athanasius soon after( $hen Arius $as reca--ed
to Constantino)-e" 2)on this e%ent St" 3acarius
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)ra'ed so %ehement-' to od to terminate the -ife of
Arius efore he cou-d enter the cathedra-( that od
heard his )ra'er Arius d'in* on his $a' to church
in ?" The Em)eror Constantine ended his -ife in
" &e )-aced his $i-- in the hands of an Arian
)riest and died in the arms of the Arian -eader( Euse8
ius( isho) of Nicomedia( not recei%in* a)tism
unti- on his deathed( and -ea%in* a trium)hant( ut
di%ided church" The )artisans of Athanasius and
of Euseius carried on a crue- $arG and $hat is
ca--ed Arianism $as for a -on* time esta-ished in a--
the )ro%inces of the em)ire"
1u-ian the )hi-oso)her( surnamed the a)ostate(
$ished to stie their di%isions( ut cou-d not suc8
ceed" The second *enera- counci- $as he-d at Con8
Dictionar'" ==>
stantino)-e in =7=" It $as there -aid do$n that the
Counci- of Nice had not decided Huite correct-' in
re*ard to the &o-' host G and it added to the Nicene
creed that #the &o-' host $as the *i%er of -ife and
)roceeded from the Father( and $ith the Father and
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Son is to e $orshi))ed and *-oried"# It $as not
unti- to$ards the ninth centur' that the Latin church
decreed that the &o-' host )roceeded from the
Father and the Son"
In the 'ear =( the third counci-8*enera-( he-d at
E)hesus( decided that 1esus had #t$o natures and
one )erson"# Nestorius( isho) of Constantino)-e(
$ho maintained that the Vir*in 3ar' shou-d e
entit-ed 3other of Christ( $as ca--ed 1udas ' the
counci- G and the #t$o natures# $ere a*ain conrmed
' the counci- of Cha-cedon"
I )ass -i*ht-' o%er the fo--o$in* centuries( $hich
are sucient-' no$n" 2nha))i-'( a-- these dis)utes
-ed to $ars( and the church $as uniform-' o-i*ed
to comat" od( in order to eBercise the )atience of
the faithfu-( a-so a--o$ed the ree and Latin
churches to se)arate in the ninth centur'" &e -ie8
$ise )ermitted in the east no -ess than t$ent'8nine
horri-e schisms $ith the see of Rome"
If there e aout siB hundred mi--ions of men
u)on earth( as certain -earned )ersons )retend( the
ho-' Roman Catho-ic church )ossesses scarce-' siB8
teen mi--ions of them aout a t$ent'8siBth )art
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of the inhaitants of the no$n $or-d"
= ? Phi-oso)hica-
C&RIST3AS"
EVER6 one no$s that this is the feast of the
nati%it' of 1esus" The most ancient feast e)t in the
church( after those of Easter and Pentecost( $as
that of the a)tism of 1esus" There $ere on-' these
three feasts( unti- St" Chr'sostom de-i%ered his
homi-' on Pentecost" We here mae no account of
the feasts of the mart'rs( $hich $ere of a %er' in8
ferior order" That of the a)tism of 1esus $as
named the E)i)han'( an imitation of the rees( $ho
*a%e that name to the feasts $hich the' he-d to com8
memorate the a))earance or manifestation of the
*ods u)on earth since it $as not unti- after his a)8
tism that 1esus e*an to )reach the *os)e-"
We no$ not $hether( aout the end of the fourth
centur'( this feast $as so-emni4ed in the Is-e of
C')rus on the @th of No%emer G ut St" E)i)hanius
maintained that 1esus $as orn on that da'" St"
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C-ement of A-eBandria te--s us that the !asi-idians
he-d this feast on the I<th of the month t'i( $hi-e
others he-d it on the I ith of the same month G that is(
it $as e)t ' some on the -oth of 1anuar'( and '
others on the @th G the -atter o)inion is the one no$
ado)ted" As for the nati%it'( as neither the da' nor
the month nor the 'ear of it $as no$n( it $as not
ce-erated"
Accordin* to the remars $hich $e nd a))ended
to the $ors of the same father( the' $ho ha%e een
the most curious in their researches concernin* the
Dictionar'" ="=
da' on $hich 1esus $as orn( some said that it $as
on the <th of the E*')tian month )achon( ans$er8
in* to the Oth of 3a' G others that it $as the th
or <th of )harmuthi( corres)ondin* to the i:th and
Oth of A)ri-" The -earned 3" de !eausore sa's
that these -atter $ere the da's of St" Va-entine" !e
this as it ma'( E*')t and the East e)t the feast of
the irth of 1esus on the @th of 1anuar'( the same
da' as that of &is a)tism G $ithout it ein* no$n
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at -east $ith certaint'U $hen( or for $hat reason(
this custom commenced"
The o)inion and )ractice of the $estern nations
$ere Huite diMerent from those of the east" The
centuriators of 3a*deur* re)eat a )assa*e in
Theo)hi-us of Caesarea( $hich maes the churches of
au- sa' 0 #Since the irth of Christ is ce-erated on
the <th of Decemer( on $hate%er da' of the $ee
it ma' fa--( so a-so shou-d the resurrection of 1esus
e ce-erated on the <th of 3arch( $hate%er da' of
the $ee it ma' e( the Lord ha%in* risen a*ain on
that da'"#
If this e true( it must e acno$-ed*ed that the
isho)s of au- $ere %er' )rudent and %er' reason8
a-e" !ein* )ersuaded( as a-- the ancients $ere( that
1esus had een crucied on the d of 3arch( and
had risen a*ain on the <th( the' commemorated &is
death on the d and &is resurrection on the <th(
$ithout )a'in* an' re*ard to the oser%ance of the
fu-- moon( $hich $as ori*ina--' a 1e$ish ceremon'(
and $ithout connin* themse-%es to the Sunda'"
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= Phi-oso)hica-
&ad the church imitated them( she $ou-d ha%e
a%oided the -on* and scanda-ous dis)utes $hich
near-' se)arated the East from the West( and $ere
not terminated unti- the First Counci- of Nice"
Some of the -earned conQecture that the Romans
chose the $inter so-stice for ho-din* the irth of
1esus( ecause the sun then e*ins a*ain "to a))roach
our hemis)here" In 1u-ius Caesar5s time the ci%i- and
)o-itica- so-stice $as Bed for the <th of Decemer"
This at Rome $as a festi%a- in ce-eration of the re8
turnin* sun" P-in' te--s us that it $as ca--ed rnmaG
and( -ie Ser%ius( )-aces it on the 7th of the ca-ends
of 1anuar'" This association mi*ht ha%e some con8
nection $ith the choice of the da'( ut it $as not the
ori*in of it" A )assa*e in 1ose)hus e%ident-'
for*edU( three or four errors of the ancients( and a
%er' m'stica- eB)-anation of a sa'in* of St" 1ohn
the !a)tist( determined this choice( as 1ose)h Sca-8
i*er is aout to inform us"
It )-eased the ancients sa's that -earned criticU
to su))ose rst( that 9acharias $as so%erei*n sac8
ricer $hen 1esus $as orn" !ut nothin* is more
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untrue G it is no -on*er e-ie%ed ' an' one( at -east
amon* those of an' information"
Second-' the ancients su))osed that 9acharias
$as in the ho-' of ho-ies( oMerin* incense( $hen the
an*e- a))eared to him and announced the irth of
a son"
Third-' as the so%erei*n sacricer entered the
tem)-e ut once a 'ear( on the da' of eB)iation( $hich
Dictionar'" =
$as the -oth of the 1e$ish month rifri( )art-' ans$er8
in* to the month of Se)temer( the ancients su))osed
that it $as the th G and that after$ards( on the d
or th( 9acharias ha%in* returned home after the
feast( E-i4aeth( his $ife( concei%ed 1ohn the !a)tist G
$hen the feast of the conce)tion of that saint $as
Bed for those da's" As $omen ordinari-' *o $ith
chi-d for t$o hundred and se%ent' or t$o hundred
and se%ent'8four da's( it fo--o$ed that the nati%it'
of 1ohn $as Bed for the th of 1une" Such $as
the ori*in of St" 1ohn5s da'( and of Christmas da'(
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$hich $as re*u-ated ' it"
Fourth-' it $as su))osed that there $ere siB
entire months et$een the conce)tion of 1ohn the
!a)tist and that of 1esus G a-thou*h the an*e- sim8
)-' te--s 3ar' that E-i4aeth $as then in the siBth
month of her )re*nanc' G conseHuent-' the conce)8
tion of 1esus $as Bed for the <th of 3arch G and
from these %arious su))ositions it $as conc-uded
that 1esus must ha%e een orn on the <th of De8
cemer( )recise-' nine months after his conce)tion"
There are man' $onderfu- thin*s in these ar8
ran*ements" It is not one of the -east $orth' of ad8
miration( that the four cardina- )oints of the 'ear
the eHuinoBes and the so-stices( as the' $ere then
Bed $ere mared ' the conce)tions and irths of
1ohn the !a)tist and 1esus" !ut it is 'et more mar8
%e--ous and $orth' of remar( that the so-stice $hen
1esus $as orn is that at $hich the da's e*in to
increase G $hi-e that on $hich 1ohn the !a)tist came
= Phi-oso)hica-
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into the $or-d $as the )eriod at $hich the' e*in to
shorten" The ho-' forerunner had intimated this
in a %er' m'stica- manner( $hen s)eain* of 1esus(
in these $ords 0 #&e must *ro$( and I must ecome
-ess"#
Prudentius a--udes to this in a h'mn on the nati%8
it' of our Lord" 6et St" Leo sa's that in his time
there $ere )ersons in Rome $ho said the feast $as
%enera-e( not so much on account of the irth of
1esus as of the return( and( as the' eB)ressed
it( the ne$ irth of the sun" St" E)i)hanius assures
us it $as fu--' esta-ished that 1esus $as orn on
the @th of 1anuar' G ut St" C-ement of A-eBandria(
much more ancient and more -earned than he( Bes the
irth on the i7th of No%emer( of the t$ent'8ei*hth
'ear of Au*ustus" This is deduced( accordin* to the
1esuit Petau5s remar on St" E)i)hanius( from these
$ords of St" C-ement0 #The $ho-e time from the
irth of 1esus Christ to the death of Commodus $as
a hundred and ninet'8four 'ears( one month and
thirteen da's"# No$ Commodus died( accordin* to
Petau( on the -ast of Decemer( in the 'ear => of
our era G therefore( accordin* to St" C-ement( 1esus
$as orn one month and thirteen da's efore
the -ast of DecemerG conseHuent-'( on the i7th
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of No%emer( in the t$ent'8ei*hth 'ear of the
rei*n of Au*ustus" Concernin* $hich it must e
oser%ed that St" C-ement dates the rei*n of Au8
*ustus on-' from the death of Anton' and the ca)8
ture of A-eBandria( ecause it $as not unti- then that
Dictionar'" =<
Au*ustus $as -eft the so-e master of the em)ire"
Thus $e are no more assured of the 'ear of this
irth than $e are of the month or the da'" Thou*h
St" Lue dec-ares( #that &e had )erfect understand8
in* of a-- thin*s from the %er' rst(# he c-ear-'
sho$s that he did not no$ the eBact a*e of 1esus
$hen &e sa's that( $hen a)ti4ed( &e #e*an to e
aout thirt' 'ears o-d"# Indeed( this e%an*e-ist
maes 1esus orn in the 'ear of the numerin*
$ r hich( accordin* to him( $as made ' C'renus or
C'renius( *o%ernor of S'riaG $hi-e( accordin* to
Tertu--ian( it $as made ' Sentius Saturninus" !ut
Saturninus had Huitted the )ro%ince in the -ast 'ear
of &erod( and( as Tacitus informs us( $as succeeded
' :uinti-ius Varus G and Pu-ius Su-)icius :uirinus
or :uirinius( of $hom it $ou-d seem St" Lue means
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to s)ea( did not succeed :uinti-ius Varus unti- aout
ten 'ears after &erod5s death( $hen Arche-aus( in*
of 1udaea( $as anished ' Au*ustus( as 1ose)hus
te--s us in his #1e$ish AntiHuities"#
It is (true that Tertu--ian( and St" 1ustin efore
him( referred the )a*ans and the heretics of their time
to the )u-ic archi%es containin* the re*isters of this
)retended numerin*G ut Tertu--ian -ie$ise re8
ferred to the )u-ic archi%es for the account of the
darness at noonda' at the time of the )assion of
1esus( as $i-- e seen in the artic-e on #Ec-i)se#G
$here $e ha%e remared the $ant of eBactness in
these t$o fathers( and in simi-ar authorities( in our
oser%ations on a statue $hich St" 1ustin $ho as8
=@ Phi-oso)hica-
sures us that he sa$ it at Rome sa's $as dedicated
to Simon the ma*ician( ut $hich $as in rea-it' dedi8
cated to a *od of the ancient Saines"
These uncertainties( ho$e%er( $i-- eBcite no as8
tonishment $hen it is reco--ected that 1esus $as un8
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no$n to &is disci)-es unti- &e had recei%ed a)8
tism from 1ohn" It is eB)ress-'( #e*innin* $ith
the a)tism of 1esus(# that Peter $i-- ha%e the suc8
cessor of 1udas testif' concernin* 1esusG and( ac8
cordin* to the same Acts( Peter there' understands
the $ho-e time that 1esus had -i%ed $ith them"
C&RONOLO6"
T&E WORLD has -on* dis)uted aout ancient chro8
no-o*'G ut has there e%er een an'J E%er' con8
sidera-e )eo)-e must necessari-' )ossess and )re8
ser%e authentic( $e--8attested re*isters" !ut ho$
fe$ )eo)-e $ere acHuainted $ith the art of $ritin*J
and( amon* the sma-- numer of men $ho cu-ti%ated
this %er' rare art( are an' to e found $ho too the
trou-e to mar t$o dates $ith eBactness J
We ha%e( indeed( in %er' recent times the astro8
nomica- oser%ations of the Chinese and the Cha-8
daeans" The' on-' *o ac aout t$o thousand
'ears( more or -ess( e'ond our era" !ut $hen the
ear-' anna-s of a nation conne themse-%es sim)-' to
communicatin* the information that there $as an
ec-i)se in the rei*n of a certain )rince( $e -earn( cer8
tain-'( that such a )rince eBisted( ut not $hat he
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)erformed"
Dictionar'" =
3oreo%er( the Chinese recon the 'ear in $hich
an em)eror dies as sti-- constitutin* a )art of his
rei*n( unti- the end of it G e%en thou*h he shou-d
die the rst da' of the 'ear( his successor dates the
'ear fo--o$in* his death $ith the name of his )re8
decessor" It is not )ossi-e to sho$ more res)ect
for ancestors G nor is it )ossi-e to com)ute time
in a manner more inQudicious in com)arison $ith
modern nations"
We ma' add that the Chinese do not commence
their seBa*enar' c'c-e( into $hich the' ha%e intro8
duced arran*ement( ti-- the rei*n of the Em)eror
-ao( t$o thousand three hundred and ft'8se%en
'ears efore our %u-*ar era" Profound oscurit'
han*s o%er the $ho-e )eriod of time $hich )re8
cedes that e)och"
3en are *enera--' contented $ith an a))roBi8
mation $ith the #)rett' near-'# in e%er' case"
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For eBam)-e( efore the in%ention of $atches(
)eo)-e cou-d -earn the time of da' or ni*ht on-'
a))roBimate-'" In ui-din*( the stones $ere )rett'
near-' he$n to a certain sha)e( the timer )rett'
near-' sHuared( and the -ims of the statue )rett'
near-' chi))ed to a )ro)er nish G a man $as on-'
)rett' near-' acHuainted $ith his nearest nei*hors G
and( not$ithstandin* the )erfection $e ha%e our8
se-%es attained( such is the state of thin*s at )resent
throu*hout the *reater )art of the $or-d"
Let us not then e astonished that there is no8
$here to e found a correct ancient chrono-o*'"
=7 Phi-oso)hica-
That $hich $e ha%e of the Chinese is of considera8
-e %a-ue( $hen com)ared $ith the chrono-o*ica-
-aors of other nations" We ha%e none of the In8
dians( nor of the Persians( and scarce-' an' of the
ancient E*')tians" A-- our s'stems formed on the
histor' of these )eo)-e are as contradictor' as our
s'stems of meta)h'sics"
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The ree O-'m)iads do not commence ti--
se%en hundred and t$ent'8ei*ht 'ears efore our
era of reconin*" 2nti- $e arri%e at them( $e )er8
cei%e on-' a fe$ torches to -i*hten the darness(
such as the era of Naonassar( the $ar et$een
Lacedsemon and 3essene G e%en those e)ochs them8
se-%es are suQects of dis)ute"
Li%' too care not to state in $hat 'ear Romu8
-us e*an his )retended rei*n" The Romans( $ho
$e-- ne$ the uncertaint' of that e)och( $ou-d ha%e
ridicu-ed him had he undertaen to decide it" It
is )ro%ed that the duration of t$o hundred and
fort' 'ears ascried to the se%en rst in*s of
Rome is a %er' fa-se ca-cu-ation" The rst four
centuries of Rome are aso-ute-' destitute of chron8
o-o*'"
If four centuries of the most memora-e em)ire
the $or-d e%er sa$ com)rise on-' an undi*ested
mass of e%ents( miBed u) $ith fa-es( and a-most
$ithout a date( $hat must e the case $ith sma--
nations( shut u) in an oscure corner of the earth(
that ha%e ne%er made an' *ure in the $or-d( not8
$ithstandin* a-- their attem)ts to com)ensate( '
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Dictionar'" =>
)rodi*' and im)osture( for their decienc' in rea-
)o$er and cu-ti%ationJ
Of the Vanit' of S'stems( Particu-ar-' in
Chrono-o*'"
The Ae Condi--ac )erformed a most im)ortant
ser%ice to the human mind $hen he dis)-a'ed the
fa-se )oints of a-- s'stems" If $e ma' e%er ho)e
that $e sha-- one da' nd the road to truth( it can
on-' e after $e ha%e detected a-- those $hich -ead
to error" It is at -east a conso-ation to e at rest(
to e no -on*er seein*( $hen $e )ercei%e that so
man' )hi-oso)hers ha%e sou*ht in %ain"
Chrono-o*' is a co--ection of -adders of $ind"
A-- $ho thou*ht to )ass o%er it as so-id *round
ha%e een immersed" We ha%e( at the )resent time(
t$ent'8four s'stems( not one of $hich is true"
The !a'-onians said( #We recon four hundred
and se%ent'8three thousand 'ears of astronomica-
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oser%ations"# A Parisian( addressin* him( sa's(
#6our account is correct G 'our 'ears consisted each
of a so-ar da' G the' amount to t$e-%e hundred and
ninet'8se%en of ours( from the time of At-as( the
*reat astronomer( in* of Africa( ti-- the arri%a- of
A-eBander at !a'-on"#
!ut( $hate%er our Parisian ma' sa'( no )eo)-e
in the $or-d ha%e e%er confounded a da' $ith a
'earG and the )eo)-e of !a'-on sti-- -ess than
an' other" This Parisian stran*er shou-d ha%e con8
tented himse-f $ith mere-' oser%in* to the Cha-dae8
Vo-" >
=? Phi-oso)hica-
ans0 #6ou are eBa**erators( and our ancestors
$ere i*norant" Nations are eB)osed to too man'
re%o-utions to )ermit their ee)in* a series of four
thousand se%en hundred and thirt'8siB centuries of
astronomica- ca-cu-ations" And( $ith res)ect to
At-as( in* of the 3oors( no one no$s at $hat
time he -i%ed" P'tha*oras mi*ht )retend to ha%e
een a coc( Qust as reasona-' as 'ou ma' oast of
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such a series of oser%ations"#
The *reat )oint of ridicu-e in a-- fantastic chron8
o-o*ies is the arran*ement of a-- the *reat e%ents
of a man5s -ife in )recise order of time( $ithout
ascertainin* that the man himse-f e%er eBisted"
Len*-et re)eats after others( in his chrono-o*ica-
com)i-ation of uni%ersa- histor'( that )recise-' in
the time of Araham( and siB 'ears after the death
of Sarah( $ho $as -itt-e no$n to the rees(
"1u)iter( at the a*e of siBt'8t$o( e*an to rei*n in
Thessa-'G that his rei*n -asted siBt' 'earsG that
he married his sister 1unoG that he $as o-i*ed to
cede the maritime coasts to his rother Ne)tuneG
and that the Titans made $ar a*ainst him" !ut $as
there e%er a 1u)iter J It ne%er occurred to him that
$ith this Huestion he shou-d ha%e e*un"
C&2RC&"
Summar' of the &istor' of the 5Christian Church"
WE S&ALL not eBtend our %ie$s into the de)ths
of theo-o*'" od )reser%e us from such )resum)8
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Dictionar'" ==
tion" &um-e faith a-one is enou*h for us" We
ne%er assume an' other )art than that of mere his8
torians"
In the 'ears that immediate-' fo--o$ed 1esus
Christ( $ho $as at once od and man( there eB8
isted amon* the &ere$s nine re-i*ious schoo-s or
societies Pharisees( Sadducees( Essenians( 1udah8
ites( Thera)eutae( Rechaites( &erodians( the dis8
ci)-es of 1ohn( and the disci)-es of 1esus( named the
#rethren(# the #a-i-eans(# the #e-ie%ers(# $ho
did not assume the name of Christians ti-- aout
the siBteenth 'ear of our era( at AntiochG ein*
directed to its ado)tion ' od himse-f( in $a's un8
no$n to men" The Pharisees e-ie%ed in the
metem)s'chosis" The Sadducees denied the im8
morta-it' of the sou-( and the eBistence of s)irits(
'et e-ie%ed in the Pentateuch"
P-in'( the natura-ist re-'in*( e%ident-'( on the
authorit' of F-a%ius 1ose)hus ca--s the Essenians
#*ens Eterna in Hua nemo nascitur# #a )er)etua-
fami-'( in $hich no one is e%er orn# ecause the
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Essenians %er' rare-' married" The descri)tion
has een since a))-ied to our mons"
It is dicu-t to decide $hether the Essenians or
the 1udahites are s)oen of ' 1ose)hus in the fo-8
-o$in* )assa*e 0 #The' des)ise the e%i-s of the
$or-d G their constanc' ena-es them to trium)h
o%er torments G in an honora-e cause( the' )refer
death to -ife" The' ha%e under*one re and s$ord(
and sumitted to ha%in* their %er' ones crushed(
= Phi-oso)hica-
rather than utter a s'--a-e a*ainst their -e*is-ator(
or eat foridden food"#
It $ou-d seem( from the $ords of 1ose)hus( that
the fore*oin* )ortrait a))-ies to the 1udahites( and
not to the Essenians" #1udas $as the author of a
ne$ sect( com)-ete-' diMerent from the other three G#
that is( the Sadducees( the Pharisees( and the
Essenians" #The' are(# he *oes on( #1e$s '
nation G the' -i%e in harmon' $ith one another( and
consider )-easure to e a %ice"# The natura- mean8
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in* of this -an*ua*e $ou-d induce us to thin that
he is s)eain* of the 1udahites"
&o$e%er that ma' e( these 1udahites $ere no$n
efore the disci)-es of Christ e*an to )ossess con8
sideration and conseHuence in the $or-d" Some
$ea )eo)-e ha%e su))osed them to e heretics( $ho
adored 1udas Iscariot"
The Thera)eutae $ere a societ' diMerent from the
Essenians and the 1udahites" The' resem-ed the
'mnoso)hists and !rahmins of India" #The' )os8
sess(# sa's Phi-o( #a )rinci)-e of di%ine -o%e $hich
eBcites in them an enthusiasm -ie that of the !ac8
chantes and the Cor'antes( and $hich forms them
to that state of contem)-ation to $hich the' as)ire"
This sect ori*inated in A-eBandria( $hich $as en8
tire-' --ed $ith 1e$s( and )re%ai-ed *reat-'
throu*hout E*')t"# The Rechaites sti-- continued
as a sect" The' %o$ed ne%er to drin $ine G and
it is( )ossi-'( from their eBam)-e that 3ahomet
forade that -iHuor to his fo--o$ers"
Dictionar'" =
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The &erodians re*arded &erod( the rst of that
name( as a 3essiah( a messen*er from od( $ho
had reui-t the tem)-e" It is c-ear that the 1e$s at
Rome ce-erated a festi%a- in honor of him( in the
rei*n of Nero( as a))ears from the -ines of Persius 0
#&erodis %enere dies(# etc" Sat" %" =7?"U
# Kin* &erod5s feast( $hen each 1udsean %i-e(
Trims u) his -am) $ith ta--o$ or $ith oi-"#
The disci)-es of 1ohn the !a)tist had s)read
themse-%es a -itt-e in E*')t( ut )rinci)a--' in S'ria(
Araia( and to$ards the Persian *u-f" The' are
reco*ni4ed( at the )resent da'( under the name of
the Christians of St" 1ohn" There $ere some a-so
in Asia 3inor" It is mentioned in the Acts of the
A)ost-es cha)( BiB"U that Pau- met $ith man' of
them at E)hesus" #&a%e 'ou recei%ed(# he ased
them( #the ho-' s)irit J# The' ans$ered him" #We
ha%e not heard e%en that there is a ho-' s)irit"#
#What a)tism( then(# sa's he( #ha%e 'ou re8
cei%edJ# The' ans$ered him( #The a)tism of
1ohn"#
In the meantime the true Christians( as is $e--
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no$n( $ere -a'in* the foundation of the on-' true
re-i*ion" &e $ho contriuted most to stren*then
this risin* societ'( $as Pau-( $ho had himse-f )erse8
cuted it $ith the *reatest %io-ence" &e $as orn
at Tarsus in Ci-icia( and $as educated under one of
the most ce-erated )rofessors amon* the Phari8
sees ama-ie-( a disci)-e of &i--e-" The 1e$s )re8
tend that he Huarre--ed $ith ama-ie-( $ho refused
= Phi-oso)hica-
to -et him ha%e his dau*hter in marria*e" Some
traces of this anecdote are to e found in the seHue-
to the #Acts of St" The-a"# These acts re-ate that
he had a -ar*e forehead( a a-d head( united e'e8
ro$s( an aHui-ine nose( a short and c-ums' *ure(
and crooed -e*s" Lucian( in his dia-o*ue #Phi-o8
)atres# seems to *i%e a %er' simi-ar )ortrait of
him" It has een douted $hether he $as a Roman
citi4en( for at that time the tit-e $as not *i%en to
an' 1e$ G the' had een eB)e--ed from Rome '
Tierius G and Tarsus did not ecome a Roman
co-on' ti-- near-' a hundred 'ears after$ards( under
Caraca--a G as Ce--arius remars in his #eo*ra)h'#
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oo iii"U( and rotius in his #Commentar' on the
Acts5(# to $hom a-one $e need refer"
od( $ho came do$n u)on earth to e an eB8
am)-e in it of humanit' and )o%ert'( *a%e to his
church the most fee-e infanc'( and conducted it in
a state of humi-iation simi-ar to that in $hich he
had himse-f chosen to e orn" A-- the rst e8
-ie%ers $ere oscure )ersons" The' -aored $ith
their hands" The a)ost-e St" Pau- himse-f ac8
no$-ed*es that he *ained his -i%e-ihood ' main*
tents" St" Peter raised from the dead Dorcas( a
sem)stress( $ho made c-othes for the #rethren"#
The assem-' of e-ie%ers met at 1o))a( at the house
of a tanner ca--ed Simon( as a))ears from the ninth
cha)ter of the #Acts of the A)ost-es"#
The e-ie%ers s)read themse-%es secret-' in
reeceG and some of them $ent from reece to
Dictionar'" =<
Rome( amon* the 1e$s( $ho $ere )ermitted ' the
Romans to ha%e a s'na*o*ue" The' did not( at
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rst( se)arate themse-%es from the 1e$s" The'
)ractised circumcision G and( as $e ha%e e-se$here
remared( the rst fteen oscure isho)s of 1eru8
sa-em $ere a-- circumcised( or at -east $ere a-- of
the 1e$ish nation"
When the a)ost-e Pau- too $ith him Timoth'(
$ho $as the son of a heathen father( he circumcised
him himse-f( in the sma-- cit' of L'stra" !ut Titus(
his other disci)-e( cou-d not e induced to sumit to
circumcision" The rethren( or the disci)-es of
1esus( continued united $ith the 1e$s unti- the time
$hen St" Pau- eB)erienced a )ersecution at 1eru8
sa-em( on account of his ha%in* introduced stran*ers
into the tem)-e" &e $as accused ' the 1e$s of
endea%orin* to destro' the -a$ of 3oses ' that of
1esus Christ" It $as $ith a %ie$ to his c-earin*
himse-f from this accusation that the a)ost-e St"
1ames )ro)osed to the a)ost-e Pau- that he shou-d
sha%e his head( and *o and )urif' himse-f in the
tem)-e( $ith four 1e$s( $ho had made a %o$ of
ein* sha%ed" #Tae them $ith 'ou(# sa's 1ames
to him Acts of the A)ost-es BBi"U( #)urif' 'our8
se-f $ith them( and -et the $ho-e $or-d no$ that
$hat has een re)orted concernin* 'ou is fa-se( and
that 'ou continue to oe' the -a$ of 3oses"# Thus(
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then( Pau-( $ho had een at rst the most summar'
)ersecutor of the ho-' societ' esta-ished ' 1esus
Pau-( $ho after$ards endea%ored to *o%ern that
=@ Phi-oso)hica-
risin* societ' Pau- the Christian( 1udai4es( #that
the $or-d ma' no$ that he is ca-umniated $hen
he is char*ed $ith no -on*er fo--o$in* the -a$ of
3oses"#
St" Pau- $as eHua--' char*ed $ith im)iet' and
heres'( and the )ersecution a*ainst him -asted a
-on* time G ut it is )erfect-' c-ear( from the nature
of the char*es( that he had tra%e--ed to 1erusa-em
in order to fu-- the rites of 1udaism"
&e addressed to Faustus these $ords0 #I ha%e
ne%er oMended a*ainst the 1e$ish -a$( nor a*ainst
the tem)-e"# Acts BB%"U The a)ost-es announced
1esus Christ as a Qust man $iced-' )ersecuted( a
)ro)het of od( a son of od( sent to the 1e$s
for the reformation of manners"
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#Circumcision(# sa's the a)ost-e Pau-( # is *ood(
if 'ou oser%e the -a$ G ut if 'ou %io-ate the -a$(
'our circumcision ecomes uncircumcision" If an'
uncircumcised )erson ee) the -a$( he $i-- e as
if circumcised" The true 1e$ is one that is so in8
$ard-'"#
When this a)ost-e s)eas of 1esus Christ in his
e)ist-es( he does not re%ea- the ineMa-e m'ster' of
his consustantia-it' $ith od" #We are de-i%ered
' him(# sa's he( #from the $rath of od" The
*ift of od hath een shed u)on us ' the *race
esto$ed on one man( $ho is 1esus Christ" " " "
Death rei*ned throu*h the sin of one man G the Qust
sha-- rei*n in -ife ' one man( $ho is 1esus Christ"#
Romans %"U
Dictionar'" =
And( in the ei*hth cha)ter0 #We are heirs of
od( and Qoint8heirs of ChristG# and in the siBteenth
cha)ter 0 #To od( $ho is the on-' $ise( e honor
and *-or' throu*h 1esus Christ 6ou are
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1esus Christ5s( and 1esus Christ is od5s"# I Cor"
cha)( iii"U
And( in I Cor" B%" 0 #E%er'thin* is made su8
Qect to him( undouted-'( eBce)tin* od( $ho made
a-- thin*s suQect to him"#
Some dicu-t' has een found in eB)-ainin* the
fo--o$in* )art of the E)ist-e of the Phi-i))ians0
#Do nothin* throu*h %ain *-or'" Let each hum-'
thin others etter than himse-f" !e of the same
mind $ith 1esus Christ( $ho( ein* in the -ieness
of od( assumed not to eHua- himse-f to od"# This
)assa*e a))ears eBceedin*-' $e-- in%esti*ated and
e-ucidated in a -etter( sti-- eBtant( of the churches of
Vienna and L'ons( $ritten in the 'ear ==( and
$hich is a %a-ua-e monument of antiHuit'" In this
-etter the modest' of some e-ie%ers is )raised"
#The' did not $ish(# sa's the -etter( #to assume the
-oft' tit-e of mart'rs( in conseHuence of certain
triu-ationsG after the eBam)-e of 1esus Christ(
$ho( ein* in the -ieness of od( did not assume
the Hua-it' of ein* eHua- to od"# Ori*en( a-so(
in his commentar' on 1ohn( sa's0 #The *reatness
of 1esus shines out more s)-endid-' in conseHuence
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of his se-f8humi-iation than if he had assumed
eHua-it' $ith od"# In fact( the o))osite inter)re8
tation $ou-d e a so-ecism" What sense $ou-d
=7 Phi-oso)hica-
there e in this eBhortation 0 #Thin others su)erior
to 'ourse-%esG imitate 1esus( $ho did not thin it
an assum)tion to e eHua- to odJ# It $ou-d e
an o%ious contradictionG it $ou-d e )uttin* an
eBam)-e of fu-- )retension for an eBam)-e of
modest' G it $ou-d e an oMence a*ainst -o*ic"
Thus did the $isdom of the a)ost-es esta-ish
the risin* church" That $isdom did not chan*e its
character in conseHuence of the dis)ute $hich too
)-ace et$een the a)ost-es Peter( 1ames( and 1ohn(
on one side( and Pau- on the other" This contest
occurred at Antioch" The a)ost-e Peter former-'
Ce)has( or Simon !ar 1ona ate $ith the con%erted
enti-es( and amon* them did not oser%e the cere8
monies of the -a$ and the distinction of meats" &e
and !arnaas( and the other disci)-es( ate indiMer8
ent-' of )or( of anima-s $hich had een stran*-ed(
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Huarre- et$een Pau- and Ce)has $as a )retended
one" &e sa's( in his rst homi-' %o-" iii"U that the'
acted -ie t$o ad%ocates( $ho had $ored them8
se-%es u) to an a))earance of *reat 4ea- and eBas)er8
ation a*ainst each other( to *ain credit $ith their
res)ecti%e c-ients" &e sa's that Peter Ce)has
ein* a))ointed to )reach to the 1e$s( and Pau- to
the enti-es( the' assumed the a))earance of Huar8
re--in* Pau- to *ain the enti-es( and Peter to
*ain the 1e$s" !ut St" Au*ustine is ' no means
of the same o)inion" #I *rie%e(# sa's he( in his
e)ist-e to 1erome( #that so *reat a man shou-d e
the )atron of a -ie"# )atronum mendaciiU"
This dis)ute et$een St" 1erome and St" Au8
*ustine ou*ht not to diminish our %eneration for
them( and sti-- -ess for St" Pau- and St" Peter" As
to $hat remains( if Peter $as destined for the 1e$s(
$ho $ere( after their con%ersion( -ie-' to 1udai4e(
and Pau- for stran*ers( it a))ears )roa-e that
Peter ne%er $ent to Rome" The Acts of the
A)ost-es maes no mention of Peter5s Qourne' to
Ita-'"
&o$e%er that ma' e( it $as aout the siBtieth
'ear of our era that Christians e*an to se)arate
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=? Phi-oso)hica-
from the 1e$ish communion G and it $as this $hich
dre$ u)on them so man' Huarre-s and )ersecutions
from the %arious s'na*o*ues of Rome( reece(
E*')t( and Asia" The' $ere accused of im)iet'
and atheism ' their 1e$ish rethren( $ho eBcom8
municated them in their s'na*o*ues three times
e%er' Saath8da'" !ut in the midst of their )er8
secutions od a-$a's su))orted them"
!' de*rees man' churches $ere formed( and the
se)aration et$een 1e$s and Christians $as com8
)-ete efore the c-ose of the rst centur'" This
se)aration $as unno$n to the Roman *o%ernment"
Neither the senate nor the em)erors of Rome in8
terested themse-%es in those Huarre-s of a sma--
oc of manind( $hich od had hitherto *uided
in oscurit'( and $hich he eBa-ted ' insensi-e
*radations"
Christianit' ecame esta-ished in reece and at
A-eBandria" The Christians had there to contend
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$ith a ne$ set of 1e$s( $ho( in conseHuence of in8
tercourse $ith the rees( had ecome )hi-oso)hers"
This $as the sect of *nosis( or *nostics" Amon*
them $ere some of the ne$ con%erts to Chris8
tianit'" A-- these sects( at that time( enQo'ed com8
)-ete -iert' to do*mati4e( discourse( and $rite(
$hene%er the 1e$ish courtiers( sett-ed at Rome and
A-eBandria( did not rin* an' char*e a*ainst them
efore the ma*istrates" !ut( under Domitian(
Christianit' e*an to *i%e some umra*e to the
*o%ernment"
Dictionar'" ==
The 4ea- of some Christians( $hich $as not ac8
cordin* to no$-ed*e( did not )re%ent the Church
from main* that )ro*ress $hich od destined
from the e*innin*" The Christians( at rst( ce-e8
rated their m'steries in seHuestered houses( and
in ca%es( and durin* the ni*ht" &ence( accordin*
to 3inucius Fe-iB( the tit-e *i%en them of -uci8
fu*aces" Phi-o ca--s them esseens" The names
most freHuent-' a))-ied to them ' the heathens(
durin* the rst four centuries( $ere #a-i-eans# and
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#Na4arenes# G ut that of #Christians# has )re%ai-ed
ao%e a-- others" Neither the hierarch'( nor the
ser%ices of the church( $ere esta-ished a-- at once G
the a)osto-ic times $ere diMerent from those $hich
fo--o$ed"
The mass no$ ce-erated at matins $as the su)8
)er )erformed in the e%enin* G these usa*es chan*ed
in )ro)ortion as the church stren*thened" A more
numerous societ' reHuired more re*u-ations( and
the )rudence of the )astors accommodated itse-f to
times and )-aces" St" 1erome and Euseius re-ate
that $hen the churches recei%ed a re*u-ar form( %e
diMerent orders mi*ht e soon )ercei%ed to eBist
in them su)erintendents( e)isco)a-( $hence ori*8
inate the isho)s G e-ders of the societ'( )res'tero-(
)riests( diaconoi( ser%ants or deacons G )isto-(
e-ie%ers( the initiated that is( the a)ti4ed( $ho
)artici)ated in the su))ers of the a*a)e( or -o%e8
feastsG the catechumens( $ho $ere a$aitin* a)8
tism G and the ener*umens( $ho a$aited their ein*
= Phi-oso)hica-
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eBorcised of demons" In these %e orders( no one
had *arments diMerent from the others( no one $as
ound to ce-iac'G $itness Tertu--ian5s oo( dedi8
cated to his $ife G and $itness a-so the eBam)-e of
the a)ost-es" No )aintin*s or scu-)tures $ere to e
found in their assem-ies durin* the rst t$o cen8
turiesG no a-tarsG and( most certain-'( no ta)ers(
incense( and -ustra- $ater" The Christians carefu--'
concea-ed their oos from the enti-esG the' in8
trusted them on-' to the initiated" E%en the cate8
chumens $ere not )ermitted to recite the Lord5s
)ra'er"
Of the Po$er of EB)e--in* De%i-s( i%en to the
Church"
That $hich most distin*uished the Christians(
and $hich" has continued near-' to our o$n times(
$as the )o$er of eB)e--in* de%i-s $ith the si*n of
the cross" Ori*en( in his treaties a*ainst Ce-sus(
dec-ares at No" = that Antinous( $ho had een
deed ' the em)eror Adrian( )erformed mirac-es
in E*')t ' the )o$er of charms and ma*icG ut
he sa's that the de%i-s came out of the odies of the
)ossessed on the mere utterance of the name of
1esus"
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Tertu--ian *oes fartherG and from the recesses
of Africa( $here he resided( he sa's( in his
#A)o-o*'# cha)( BBiii" #If 'our *ods do not
confess themse-%es to e de%i-s in the )resence of a
true Christian( $e *i%e 'ou fu-- -iert' to shed that
Dictionar'" =
Christian5s -ood"# Can an' demonstration e )os8
si-' c-earerJ
In fact( 1esus Christ sent out his a)ost-es to eB)e-
demons" The 1e$s( -ie$ise( in his time( had the
)o$er of eB)e--in* them G for( $hen 1esus had de8
-i%ered some )ossessed )ersons( and sent the de%i-s
into the odies of a %er' numerous herd of s$ine(
and had )erformed man' other simi-ar cures( the
Pharisees said0 #&e eB)e-s de%i-s throu*h the
)o$er of !ee-4eu"# 1esus re)-ied 0 #!' $hom do
'our sons eB)e- them J# It is incontesta-e that the
1e$s oasted of this )o$er" The' had eBorcists
and eBorcisms" The' in%oed the name of od(
of 1aco( and of Araham" The' )ut consecrated
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than there are demoniacs" !ut od has the so%8
erei*n )o$er of admonishin* manind ' )rodi*ies
at some )articu-ar seasons( and of discontinuin*
those )rodi*ies at others"
Of the 3art'rs of the Church"
When Christians ecame some$hat numerous(
and man' arra'ed themse-%es a*ainst the $orshi)
esta-ished in the Roman Em)ire( the ma*istrates
e*an to eBercise se%erit' a*ainst them( and the )eo8
)-e more )articu-ar-' )ersecuted them" The 1e$s(
$ho )ossessed )articu-ar )ri%i-e*es( and $ho con8
ned themse-%es to their s'na*o*ues( $ere not )er8
secuted" The' $ere )ermitted the free eBercise of
their re-i*ion( as is the case at Rome at the )resent
da'" A-- the diMerent inds of $orshi) scattered
o%er the em)ire $ere to-erated( a-thou*h the senate
did not ado)t them" !ut the Christians( dec-arin*
themse-%es enemies to e%er' other $orshi) than their
o$n( and more es)ecia--' so to that of the em)ire(
$ere often eB)osed to these crue- tria-s"
One of the rst and most distin*uished mart'rs
$as I*natius( isho) of Antioch( $ho $as con8
demned ' the Em)eror TraQan himse-f( at that
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time in Asia( and sent to Rome ' his orders( to e
eB)osed to $i-d easts( at a time $hen other Chris8
Dictionar'" =<
tians $ere not )ersecuted at Rome" It is not no$n
)recise-' $hat char*es $ere a--e*ed a*ainst him e8
fore that em)eror( other$ise so reno$ned for his
c-emenc'" St" I*natius must( necessari-'( ha%e had
%io-ent enemies" Whate%er $ere the )articu-ars of
the case( the histor' of his mart'rdom re-ates that
the name of 1esus Christ $as found en*ra%ed on his
heart in -etters of *o-d G and from this circumstance
it $as that Christians( in some )-aces( assumed the
name of Theo)horus( $hich I*natius had *i%en him8
se-f"
A -etter of his has een )reser%ed in $hich he
entreats the isho)s and Christians to mae no o)8
)osition to his mart'rdom( $hether at the time the'
mi*ht e stron* enou*h to eMect his de-i%erance( or
$hether an' amon* them mi*ht ha%e inuence
enou*h to otain his )ardon" Another remara-e
circumstance is that $hen he $as rou*ht to Rome
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the Christians of that ca)ita- $ent to %isit himG
$hich $ou-d )ro%e c-ear-' that the indi%idua- $as
)unished and not the sect"
The )ersecutions $ere not continued" Ori*en( in
his third oo a*ainst Ce-sus( sa's 0 #The Christians
$ho ha%e suMered death on account of their re8
-i*ion ma' easi-' e numered( for there $ere on-'
a fe$ of them( and mere-' at inter%a-s"#
od $as so mindfu- of his Church that( not$ith8
standin* its enemies( he so ordered circumstances
that it he-d %e counci-s in the rst centur'( siBteen
in the second( and thirt' in the thirdG that is( in8
Vo-" =?
=@ Phi-oso)hica-
e-udin* oth secret and to-erated ones" Those as8
sem-ies $ere sometimes foridden( $hen the $ea
)rudence of the ma*istrates feared that the' mi*t
ecome tumu-tuous" !ut fe$ *enuine documents of
the )roceedin*s efore the )roconsu-s and )raetors
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$ho condemned the Christians to death ha%e een
de-i%ered do$n to us" Such $ou-d e the on-' au8
thorities $hich $ou-d ena-e us to ascertain the
char*es rou*ht a*ainst them( and the )unishments
the' suMered"
We ha%e a fra*ment of Dion'sius of A-eBandria(
in $hich he *i%es the fo--o$in* eBtract of a re*ister(
or of records( of a )roconsu- of E*')t( under the
Em)eror Va-erian 0 #Dion'sius( Faustus 3aBimus(
3arce--us( and Chaeremon( ha%in* een admitted to
the audience( the )refect Emi-ianus thus addressed
them 0 56ou are sucient-' informed throu*h the
conferences $hich I ha%e had $ith 'ou( and a-- that
I ha%e $ritten to 'ou( of the *ood8$i-- $hich our
)rinces ha%e entertained to$ards 'ou" I $ish thus
to re)eat it to 'ou once a*ain" The' mae the
continuance of 'our safet' to de)end u)on 'our8
se-%es( and )-ace 'our destin' in 'our o$n hands"
The' reHuire of 'ou on-' one thin*( $hich reason
demands of e%er' reasona-e )erson name-'( that
'ou adore the *ods $ho )rotect their em)ire( and
aandon that diMerent $orshi)( so contrar' to sense
and nature"5 #
Dion'sius re)-ied( #A-- ha%e not the same *ods G
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and a-- adore those $hom the' thin to e the true
Dictionar'" =
ones"# The )refect 1Emi-ianus re)-ied 0 #I see c-ear-'
that 'ou un*ratefu--' ause the *oodness $hich
the em)erors ha%e sho$n 'ou" This ein* the case(
'ou sha-- no -on*er remain in this cit' G and I no$
order 'ou to e con%e'ed to Ce)hro( in the heart
of Li'a" A*reea-' to the command I ha%e re8
cei%ed from 'our em)eror( that sha-- e the )-ace of
'our anishment" As to $hat remains( thin not to
ho-d 'our assem-ies there( nor to oMer u) 'our
)ra'ers in $hat 'ou ca-- cemeteries" This is )osi8
ti%e-' foridden" I $i-- )ermit it to none"#
Nothin* ears a stron*er im)ress of truth than
this document" We see from it that there $ere
times $hen assem-ies $ere )rohiited" Thus the
Ca-%inists $ere foridden to assem-e in France"
Sometimes ministers or )reachers( $ho he-d assem8
-ies in %io-ation of the -a$s( ha%e suMered e%en '
the a-tar and the racG and since =< siB ha%e
een eBecuted on the *a--o$s" Thus( in En*-and
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and Ire-and( Roman Catho-ics are foridden to ho-d
assem-ies G and( on certain occasions( the de-in8
Huents ha%e suMered death"
Not$ithstandin* these )rohiitions dec-ared '
the Roman -a$s( od ins)ired man' of the em)er8
ors $ith indu-*ence to$ards the Christians" E%en
Dioc-etian( $hom the i*norant consider as a )erse8
cutor Dioc-etian( the rst 'ear of $hose rei*n is
sti-- re*arded as constitutin* the commencement of
the era of mart'rdom( $as( for more than ei*hteen
'ears( the dec-ared )rotector of Christianit'( and
=7 Phi-oso)hica-
man' Christians he-d oces of hi*h conseHuence
aout his )erson" &e e%en married a ChristianG
and( in Nicomedia( the )-ace of his residence( he
)ermitted a s)-endid church to e erected o))osite
his )a-ace"
The Caesar a-erius ha%in* unfortunate-' taen
u) a )reQudice a*ainst the Christians( of $hom he
thou*ht he had reason to com)-ain( inuenced Dio8
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c-etian to destro' the cathedra- of ;icomedia" One
of the Christians( $ith more 4ea- than )rudence(
tore the edict of the em)eror to )ieces G and hence
arose that famous )ersecution( in the course of
$hich more than t$o hundred )ersons $ere eBe8
cuted in the Roman Em)ire( $ithout reconin*
those $hom the ra*e of the common )eo)-e( a-$a's
fanatica- and a-$a's crue-( destro'ed $ithout e%en
the form of -a$"
So *reat has een the numer of actua- mart'rs
that $e shou-d e carefu- ho$ $e shae the truth of
the histor' of those *enuine confessors of our ho-'
re-i*ion ' a dan*erous miBture of fa-es and of
fa-se mart'rs"
The !enedictine Prior DomU Ruinart( for eB8
am)-e( a man other$ise as $e-- informed as he $as
res)ecta-e and de%out( shou-d ha%e se-ected his
*enuine records( his #actes sinceres(# $ith more dis8
cretion" It is not sucient that a manuscri)t(
$hether taen from the ae' of St" !enoit on the
Loire( or from a con%ent of Ce-estines at Paris( cor8
res)onds $ith a manuscri)t of the Feui--ans( to
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Dictionar'" =>
sho$ that the record is authentic G the record shou-d
)ossess a suita-e antiHuit'G shou-d ha%e een e%i8
dent-' $ritten ' contem)oraries G and( moreo%er(
shou-d ear a-- the characters of truth"
&e mi*ht ha%e dis)ensed $ith re-atin* the ad8
%enture of 'oun* Romanus( $hich occurred in ?"
This 'oun* Romanus had otained the )ardon of
Dioc-etian( at Antioch" &o$e%er( Ruinart states
that the Qud*e Asc-e)iades condemned him to e
urnt" The 1e$s $ho $ere )resent at the s)ec8
tac-e( derided the 'oun* saint and re)roached the
Christians( that their od( $ho had de-i%ered Shad8
rach( 3eshach( and Aedne*o out of the furnace(
-eft them to e urned G that immediate-'( a-thou*h
the $eather had een as ca-m as )ossi-e( a tremen8
dous storm arose and eBtin*uished the ames G that
the Qud*e then ordered 'oun* Romanus5s ton*ue to
e cut out G that the )rinci)a- sur*eon of the em8
)eror( ein* )resent( ea*er-' acted the )art of eBe8
cutioner( and cut oM the ton*ue at the rootG that
instant-' the 'oun* man( $ho( efore had an im8
)ediment in his s)eech( s)oe $ith )erfect freedom G
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that the em)eror $as astonished that an' one cou-d
s)ea so $e-- $ithout a ton*ue G and that the sur8
*eon( to re)eat the eB)eriment( direct-' cut out the
ton*ue of some 'stander( $ho died on the s)ot"
Euseius( from $hom the !enedictine Ruinart
dre$ his narrati%e( shou-d ha%e so far res)ected the
rea- mirac-es )erformed in the O-d and Ne$ Testa8
ment $hich no one can e%er dout as not to ha%e
= <? Phi-oso)hica-
associated $ith them re-ations so sus)icious( and so
ca-cu-ated to *i%e oMence to $ea minds" This -ast
)ersecution did not eBtend throu*h the em)ire"
There $as at that time some Christianit' in En*8
-and( $hich soon ec-i)sed( to rea))ear after$ards
under the SaBon in*s" The southern districts of
au- and S)ain aounded $ith Christians" The
Caesar Constantius Ch-orus aMorded them *reat )ro8
tection in a-- his )ro%inces" &e had a concuine
$ho $as a Christian( and $ho $as the mother of
Constantine( no$n under the name of St" &e-ena G
for no marria*e $as e%er )ro%ed to ha%e taen )-ace
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et$een themG he e%en di%orced her in the 'eai
>( $hen he married the dau*hter of 3aBimi-ian
&ercu-es G ut she had )reser%ed *reat ascendenc'
o%er his mind( and had ins)ired him $ith a *reat
attachment to our ho-' re-i*ion"
Of the Esta-ishment of the Church 2nder Con8
stantine"
Thus did di%ine Pro%idence )re)are the trium)h
of its church ' $a's a))arent-' conforma-e to
human causes and e%ents" Constantius Ch-orus died
in ?@( at 6or( in En*-and( at a time $hen the
chi-dren he had ' the dau*hter of a Caesar $ere
of tender a*e( and inca)a-e of main* )retensions
to the em)ire" Constantine o-d-' *ot himse-f
e-ected at 6or( ' %e or siB thousand so-diers(
the *reater )art of $hom $ere French and En*-ish"
There $as no )roai-it' that this e-ection( eMected
Dictionar'" =<=
$ithout the consent of Rome( of the senate and the
armies( cou-d stand G ut od *a%e him the %ictor'
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o%er 3aBentius( $ho had een e-ected at Rome(
and de-i%ered him at -ast from a-- his co--ea*ues"
It is not to e dissem-ed that he at rst rendered
himse-f un$orth' of the fa%ors of hea%en( ' mur8
derin* a-- his re-ations( and at -en*th e%en his o$n
$ife and son"
We ma' e )ermitted to dout $hat 9osimus
re-ates on this suQect" &e states that Constantine(
under the tortures of remorse from the )er)etration
of so man' crimes( inHuired of the )ontiMs of the
em)ire( $hether it $ere )ossi-e for him to otain
an' eB)iation( and that the' informed him that the'
ne$ of none" It is )erfect-' true that none $as
found for Nero( and that he did not %enture to as8
sist at the sacred m'steries in reece" &o$e%er(
the Tauroo-ia $ere sti-- oser%ed( and it is di8
cu-t to e-ie%e that an em)eror( su)reme-' )o$erfu-(
cou-d not otain a )riest $ho $ou-d $i--in*-' in8
du-*e him in eB)iator' sacrices" Perha)s( indeed(
it is -ess eas' to e-ie%e that Constantine( occu)ied
as he $as $ith $ar( )o-itic enter)rises( and ami8
tion( and surrounded ' atterers( had time for re8
morse at a--" 9osimus adds that an E*')tian )riest(
$ho had access to his *ate( )romised him the eB)ia8
tion of a-- his crimes in the Christian re-i*ion" It
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has een sus)ected that this )riest $as O4ius( isho)
of Cordo%a"
&o$e%er this mi*ht e( od reser%ed Constan8
Phi-oso)hica-
tine for the )ur)ose of en-i*htenin* his mind( and
to mae him the )rotector of the Church" This
)rince ui-t the cit' of Constantino)-e( $hich e8
came the centre of the em)ire and of the Christian
re-i*ion" The Church then assumed a form of
s)-endor" And $e ma' ho)e that( ein* )uried '
his a)tism( and )enitent at his death( he ma' ha%e
found merc'( a-thou*h he died an Arian" It $ou-d
e not a -itt-e se%ere( $ere a-- the )artisans of oth
the isho)s of the name of Euseius to iricur damna8
tion"
In the 'ear =( efore Constantine resided in his
ne$ cit'( those $ho had )ersecuted the Christians
$ere )unished ' them for their crue-ties" The
Christians thre$ 3aBentius5s $ife into the Orontes G
the' cut the throats of a-- his re-ations( and the'
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massacred( in E*')t and Pa-estine( those ma*is8
trates $ho had most strenuous-' dec-ared a*ainst
Christianit'" The $ido$ and dau*hter of Dioc-e8
tian( ha%in* concea-ed themse-%es at Thessa-onica(
$ere reco*ni4ed( and their odies thro$n into the
sea" It $ou-d certain-' ha%e een desira-e that
the Christians shou-d ha%e fo--o$ed -ess ea*er-' the
cr' of %en*eance G ut it $as the $i-- of od( $ho
)unishes accordin* to Qustice( that( as soon as the
Christians $ere a-e to act $ithout restraint( their
hands shou-d e d'ed in the -ood of their )erse8
cutors"
Constantine summoned to meet at Nice( o))osite
Constantino)-e( the rst ecumenica- counci-( of
Dictionar'" = <
$hich O4ius $as )resident" &ere $as decided the
*rand Huestion that a*itated the Church( re-atin* to
the di%init' of 1esus Christ" It is $e-- no$n ho$
the Church( ha%in* contended for three hundred
'ears a*ainst the ri*hts of the Roman Em)ire( at
-en*th contended a*ainst itse-f( and $as a-$a's mi-i8
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tant and trium)hant"
In the course of time a-most the $ho-e of the
ree church and the $ho-e African church e8
came s-a%es under the Aras( and after$ards under
the Turs( $ho erected the 3ahometan re-i*ion on
the ruins of the Christian" The Roman church su8
sisted( ut a-$a's reein* $ith -ood( throu*h more
than siB centuries of discord et$een the $estern
em)ire and the )riesthood" E%en these Huarre-s
rendered her %er' )o$erfu-" "The isho)s and a8
ots in erman' a-- ecame )rinces G and the )o)es
*radua--' acHuired aso-ute dominion in Rome( and
throu*hout a considera-e territor'" Thus has od
)ro%ed his church( ' humi-iations( ' aictions(
' crimes( and ' s)-endor"
This Latin church( in the siBteenth centur'( -ost
ha-f of erman'( Denmar( S$eden( En*-and(
Scot-and( Ire-and( and the *reater )art of S$it4er8
-and and &o--and" She *ained more territor' in
America ' the conHuests of the S)aniards than
she -ost in Euro)e G ut( $ith more territor'( she has
fe$er suQects"
Di%ine Pro%idence seemed to ca-- u)on 1a)an(
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Siam( India( and China to )-ace themse-%es under
= < Phi-oso)hica-
oedience to the )o)e( in order to recom)ense him
for Asia 3inor( S'ria( reece( E*')t( Africa( Rus8
sia( and the other -ost states $hich $e mentioned"
St" Francis ;a%ier( $ho carried the ho-' *os)e- to
the East Indies and 1a)an( $hen the Portu*uese
$ent thither u)on mercanti-e ad%enture( )erformed
a *reat numer of mirac-es( a-- attested ' the R"
R" P" P" 1esuits" Some state that he resuscitated
nine dead )ersons" !ut R" P" Riadeneira( in his
#F-o$er of the Saints(# -imits himse-f to assertin*
that he resuscitated on-' four" That is sucient"
Pro%idence $as desirous that( in -ess than a hundred
'ears( there shou-d ha%e een thousands of Catho8
-ics in the is-ands of 1a)an" !ut the de%i- so$ed his
tares amon* the *ood *rain" The 1esuits( accord8
in* to $hat is *enera--' e-ie%ed( entered into a
cons)irac'( fo--o$ed ' a ci%i- $ar( in $hich a-- the
Christians $ere eBterminated in =@7" The nation
then c-osed its )orts a*ainst a-- forei*ners eBce)t the
Dutch( $ho $ere considered merchants and not
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Christians( and $ere rst com)e--ed to tram)-e on
the cross in order to *ain -ea%e to se-- their $ares
in the )rison in $hich the' are shut u)( $hen the'
-and at Na*asai"
The Catho-ic( A)osto-ic( and Roman re-i*ion has
ecome )roscried in China in our o$n time( ut
$ith circumstances of -ess crue-t'" The R" R" P" P"
1esuits had not( indeed( resuscitated the dead at the
court of Pein G the' $ere contented $ith teachin*
astronom'( castin* cannon( and ein* mandarins"
Dictionar'" =<<
Their unfortunate dis)utes $ith the Dominicans and
others *a%e such oMence to the *reat Em)eror
6onchin that that )rince( $ho $as Qustice and
*oodness )ersonied( $as -ind enou*h to refuse
)ermission an' -on*er to teach our ho-' re-i*ion(
in res)ect to $hich our missionaries so -itt-e a*reed"
&e eB)e--ed them( ut $ith a indness tru-' )a8
terna-( su))-'in* them $ith means of susistence(
and con%e'ance to the connes of his em)ire"
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A-- Asia( a-- Africa( the ha-f of Euro)e( a-- that
e-on*s to the En*-ish and Dutch in America( a--
the unconHuered American tries( a-- the southern
c-imes( $hich constitute a fth )ortion of the *-oe(
remain the )re' of the demon( in order to fu--
those sacred $ords( #man' are ca--ed( ut fe$ are
chosen"# 3att( BB"( =@"
Of the Si*nication of the Word #Church"# Pic8
ture of the Primiti%e Church" Its De*enerac'"
EBamination into those Societies $hich ha%e At8
tem)ted to Re8esta-ish the Primiti%e Church(
and Particu-ar-' into that of the Primiti%es ca--ed
:uaers"
The term #church# amon* the rees si*nied
the assem-' of the )eo)-e" When the &ere$
oos $ere trans-ated into ree( #s'na*o*ue# $as
rendered ' #church#( and the same term $as em8
)-o'ed to eB)ress the #1e$ish societ'(# the #)o-itica-
con*re*ation(# the #1e$ish assem-'(# the #1e$ish
)eo)-e"# Thus it is said in the !oo of Numers(
= <@ Phi-oso)hica-
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#Wh' hast thou conducted the church into the $i-8
dernessG# and in Deuteronom'( #The eunuch( the
3oaite( and the Ammonite( sha-- not enter the
churchG the Idumseans and the E*')tians sha-- not
enter the church( e%en to the third *eneration"#
1esus Christ sa's( in St" 3atthe$( #If th'
rother ha%e sinned a*ainst thee ha%e oMended
thee reue him( et$een 'ourse-%es" Tae $ith
'ou one or t$o $itnesses( that( from the mouth of
t$o or three $itnesses( e%er'thin* ma' e made
c-ear G and( if he hear not them( com)-ain to the as8
sem-' of the )eo)-e( to the church G and( if he hear
not the church( -et him e to thee as a heathen or
a )u-ican" Veri-'( I sa' unto 'ou( so sha-- it come
to )ass( $hatsoe%er 'e sha-- ind on earth sha-- e
ound in hea%en( and $hatsoe%er 'e sha-- -oose on
earth sha-- e -oosed in hea%en# an i--usion to the
e's of doors $hich c-ose and unc-ose the -atch"
The case is here( that of t$o men( one of $hom
has oMended the other( and )ersists" &e cou-d not
e made to a))ear in the assem-'( in the Christian
church( as there $as none G the )erson a*ainst $hom
his com)anion com)-ained cou-d not e Qud*ed %
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a isho) and )riests $ho $ere not in eBistence G e8
sides $hich( it is to e oser%ed( that neither 1e$ish
)riests nor Christian )riests e%er ecame Qud*es in
Huarre-s et$een )ri%ate )ersons" It $as a matter
of )o-ice" !isho)s did not ecome Qud*es ti-- aout
the time of Va-entinian III"
The commentators ha%e therefore conc-uded that
Dictionar'" =<
the sacred $riter of this *os)e- maes our Lord
s)ea in this )assa*e ' antici)ation that it is an
a--e*or'( a )rediction of $hat $ou-d tae )-ace
$hen the Christian church shou-d e formed and
esta-ished"
Se-den maes an im)ortant remar on this )as8
sa*e( that( amon* the 1e$s( )u-icans or co--ectors
of the ro'a- mone's $ere not eBcommunicated"
The )o)u-ace mi*ht detest them( ut as the' $ere
indis)ensa-e ocers( a))ointed ' the )rince( the
idea had ne%er occurred to an' one of se)aratin*
them from the assem-'" The 1e$s $ere at that
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time under the administration of the )roconsu- of
S'ria( $hose Qurisdiction eBtended to the connes
of a-i-ee( and to the is-and of C')rus( $here he
had de)uties" It $ou-d ha%e een hi*h-' im)ru8
dent in an' to sho$ )u-ic-' their aomination of
the -e*a- ocers of the )roconsu-" InQustice( e%en(
$ou-d ha%e een added to im)rudence( for the
Roman ni*hts eHuestrians $ho farmed the )u8
-ic domain and co--ected Caesar5s mone'( $ere au8
thori4ed ' the -a$s"
St" Au*ustine( in his ei*ht'8rst sermon( ma'
)erha)s su**est reections for com)rehendin* this
)assa*e" &e is s)eain* of those $ho retain their
hatred( $ho are s-o$ to )ardon"
#Ce)isti haere fratrem tuum tanHnam )u-ic8
anum" Li*as i-ium in terraG sed ut Quste a--i*es
%ideG nam in fust a %incu-a dirsum)it Qustitia" Cum
autem correBeris et concorda%eris cum fratre tuo
=<7 Phi-oso)hica-
so-45isti eum in terra"# 6ou e*an to re*ard 'our
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rother as a )u-icanG that is( to ind him on the
earth" !ut e cautious that 'ou ind him Qust-'( for
Qustice reas unQust onds" !ut $hen 'ou ha%e
corrected( and after$ards a*reed $ith 'our rother(
'ou ha%e -oosed him on earth"
From St" Au*ustine5s inter)retation( it seems
that the )erson oMended shut u) the oMender in
)risonG and that it is to e understood that( if the
oMender is )ut in onds on earth( he is a-so in
hea%en-' ondsG ut that if the oMended )erson is
ineBora-e( he ecomes ound himse-f" In St" Au8
*ustine5s eB)-anation there is nothin* $hate%er re8
-atin* to the Church" The $ho-e matter re-ates to
)ardonin* or not )ardonin* an inQur'" St" Au*us8
tine is not s)eain* here of the sacerdota- )o$er of
remittin* sins in the name of od" That is a ri*ht
reco*ni4ed in other )-aces G a ri*ht deri%ed from the
sacrament of confession" St" Au*ustine( )rofound
as he is in t')es and a--e*ories( does not consider
this famous )assa*e as a--udin* to the aso-ution
*i%en or refused ' the ministers of the Roman
Catho-ic Church( in the sacrament of )enance"
Of the #Church# in Christian Societies"
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In the *reater )art of Christian states $e )er8
cei%e no more than four churches the ree( the
Roman( the Lutheran( and the reformed or Ca-%in8
istic" It is thus in erman'" The Primiti%es or
:uaers( the Anaa)tists( the Socinians( the 3em8
Dictionar'" =<>
nonists( the Pietists( the 3ora%ians( the 1e$s( and
others( do not form a church" The 1e$ish re-i*ion
has )reser%ed the desi*nation of s'na*o*ue" The
Christian sects $hich are to-erated ha%e on-' )ri%ate
assem-ies( #con%entic-es"# It is the same in Lon8
don" We do not nd the Catho-ic Church in
S$eden( nor in Denmar( nor in the north of er8
man'( nor in &o--and( nor in three Huarters of
S$it4er-and( nor in the three in*doms of reat
!ritain"
Of the Primiti%e Church( and of Those Who &a%e
Endea%ored to Re8esta-ish It"
The 1e$s( as $e-- as a-- the diMerent )eo)-e of
S'ria( $ere di%ided into man' diMerent con*re*a8
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tions( as $e ha%e a-read' seen" A-- $ere aimed at
a m'stica- )erfection" A ra' of )urer -i*ht shone
u)on the disci)-es of St" 1ohn( $ho sti-- susist near
3osu-" At -ast( the Son of od( announced ' St"
1ohn( a))eared on earth( $hose disci)-es $ere a-8
$a's on a )erfect eHua-it'" 1esus had eB)ress-'
enQoined them( #There sha-- not e an' of 'ou either
rst or -ast I came to ser%e( not to e ser%ed"
"""" &e $ho stri%es to e master o%er others sha--
e their ser%ant"#
One )roof of eHua-it' is that the Christians at
rst too no other desi*nation than that of #reth8
ren"# The' assem-ed in eB)ectation of the s)irit"
The' )ro)hesied $hen the' $ere ins)ired" St"
Pau-( in his rst -etter to the Corinthians( sa's to
=@? Phi-oso)hica-
them( #If( in 'our assem-'( an' one of 'ou ha%e the
*ift of a )sa-m( a doctrine( a re%e-ation( a -an*ua*e(
an inter)retation( -et a-- e done for edication" If
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an' s)ea -an*ua*es( as t$o or three ma' do in suc8
cession( -et there e an inter)reter"
#Let t$o or three )ro)hets s)ea( and the others
Qud*e G and if an'thin* e re%ea-ed to another $hi-e
one is s)eain*( -et the -atter e si-ent G for 'ou ma'
a-- )ro)hes' one ' one( that a-- ma' -earn and a--
eBhortG the s)irit of )ro)hec' is suQect to the
)ro)hetsG for the Lord is a od of )eace
Thus( then( m' rethren( e a-- of 'ou desirous of
)ro)hes'in*( and hinder not the s)eain* of -an8
*ua*es"#
I ha%e trans-ated -itera--'( oth out of re%erence
for the teBt( and to a%oid an' dis)utes aout $ords"
St" Pau-( in the same e)ist-e( admits that $omen
ma' )ro)hes'G a-thou*h( in the fourteenth cha)ter(
he forids their s)eain* in the assem-ies" #E%er'
$oman(# sa's he( #)ra'in* or )ro)hes'in* $ithout
ha%in* a %ei- o%er her head( dishonoreth her head(
for it is the same as if she $ere sha%en"#
It is c-ear( from a-- these )assa*es and from man'
others( that the rst Christians $ere a-- eHua-( not
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mere-' as rethren in 1esus Christ( ut as ha%in*
eHua- *ifts" The s)irit $as communicated to them
eHua--'" The' eHua--' s)oe diMerent -an*ua*es G
the' had eHua--' the *ift of )ro)hes'in*( $ithout
distinction of ran( a*e( or seB"
The a)ost-es $ho instructed the neo)h'tes )os8
Dictionar'" =@=
sessed o%er them( unHuestiona-'( that natura- )re8
eminence $hich the )rece)tor has o%er the )u)i-G
ut of Qurisdiction( of tem)ora- authorit'( of $hat
the $or-d ca--s #honors(# of distinction in dress( of
em-ems of su)eriorit'( assured-' neither the'( nor
those $ho succeeded them( had an'" The' )os8
sessed another( and a %er' diMerent su)eriorit'( that
of )ersuasion"
The rethren )ut their mone' into one common
stoc" Se%en )ersons $ere chosen ' themse-%es
out of their o$n od'( to tae char*e of the ta-es(
and to )ro%ide for the common $ants" The' chose(
in 1erusa-em itse-f( those $hom $e ca-- Ste)hen(
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Phi-i)( Procorus( Nicanor( Timon( Parmenas( and
Nicho-as" It is remara-e that( amon* se%en )er8
sons chosen ' a 1e$ish communit'( siB $ere
rees"
After the time of the a)ost-es $e nd no eB8
am)-e of an' Christian $ho )ossessed an' other
)o$er o%er other Christians than that of instruct8
in*( eBhortin*( eB)e--in* demons from the odies of
#ener*umens(# and )erformin* mirac-es" A-- is
s)iritua- G nothin* sa%ors of $or-d-' )om)" It $as
on-' in the third centur' that the s)irit of )ride(
%anit'( and interest( e*an to e manifested amon*
the e-ie%ers on e%er' side"
The a*a)se had no$ ecome s)-endid festi%a-s(
and attracted re)roach for the -uBur' and )rofusion
$hich attended them" Tertu--ian acno$-ed*es it"
#6es(# sa's he( #$e mae s)-endid and )-entifu-
Vo-" ii
= @ Phi-oso)hica-
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entertainments( ut $as not the same done at the
m'steries of Athens and of E*')tJ Whate%er
-earnin* $e dis)-a'( it is usefu- and )ious( as the
)oor enet ' it"# :uantiscumHue sum)tius con8
stet( -ucrum est )ietatis( si Huidem ino)es refri*erio
isto Qu%amus"
Aout this %er' )eriod( certain societies of Chris8
tians( $ho )ronounced themse-%es more )erfect than
the rest( the 3ontanists( for eBam)-e( $ho oasted
of so man' )ro)hecies and so austere a mora-it' G
$ho re*arded second nu)tia-s as aso-ute adu-teries(
and i*ht from )ersecution as a)ostas'G $ho had
eBhiited in )u-ic ho-' con%u-sions and ecstasies(
and )retended to s)ea $ith od face to face( $ere
con%icted( it $as said( of miBin* the -ood of an in8
fant( a 'ear o-d( $ith the read of the eucharist"
The' rou*ht u)on the true Christians this dreadfu-
re)roach( $hich eB)osed them to )ersecutions"
Their method of )roceedin*( accordin* to St"
Au*ustine( $as this0 the' )riced the $ho-e od'
of the infant $ith )ins and( neadin* u) our $ith
the -ood( made read of it" If an' one died '
eatin* it( the' honored him as a mart'r"
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3anners $ere so corru)ted that the ho-' fathers
$ere incessant-' com)-ainin* of it" &ear $hat St"
C')rian sa's( in his oo concernin* toms 0 #E%er'
)riest(# sa's he( #sees for $ea-th and honor $ith
insatia-e a%idit'" !isho)s are $ithout re-i*ion G
$omen $ithout modest' G na%er' is *enera- G )ro8
fane s$earin* and )erQur' aound G animosities di8
Dictionar'" =@
%ide Christians asunderG isho)s aandon their
)u)i-s to attend the eBchan*e( and otain o)u-ence
' merchandise G in short( $e )-ease ourse-%es a-one(
and eBcite the dis*ust of a-- the rest of the $or-d"#
!efore the occurrence of these scanda-s( the
)riest 5No%atian had een the cause of a %er' dread8
fu- one to the )eo)-e of Rome" &e $as the rst anti8
)o)e" The isho)ric of Rome( a-thou*h secret( and
-ia-e to )ersecution( $as an oQect of amition and
a%arice( on account of the -iera- contriutions of
the Christians( and the authorit' attached to that
hi*h situation"
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We $i-- not here descrie a*ain $hat is contained
in so man' authentic documents( and $hat $e e%er'
da' hear from the mouths of )ersons correct-' in8
formed the )rodi*ious numer of schisms and
$ars G the siB hundred 'ears of erce hosti-it' e8
t$een the em)ire and the )riesthoodG the $ea-th
of nations( o$in* throu*h a thousand channe-s(
sometimes into Rome( sometimes into A%i*non(
$hen the )o)es( for t$o and se%ent' 'ears to*ether(
Bed their residence in that )-ace G the -ood rush8
in* in streams throu*hout Euro)e( either for the in8
terest of a tiara utter-' unno$n to 1esus Christ( or
on account of uninte--i*i-e Huestions $hich &e
ne%er mentioned" Our re-i*ion is not -ess sacred or
-ess di%ine for ha%in* een so de-ed ' *ui-t and
stee)ed in carna*e"
When the fren4' of domination( that dreadfu-
)assion of the human heart( had reached its *reatest
=@ Phi-oso)hica-
eBcess G $hen the mon &i-derand( e-ected isho)
of Rome a*ainst the -a$s( $rested that ca)ita- from
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the em)erors( and forade a-- the isho)s of the $est
from earin* the name of )o)e( in order to a))ro8
)riate it to himse-f a-one G $hen the isho)s of er8
man'( fo--o$in* his eBam)-e( made themse-%es so%8
erei*ns( $hich a-- those of France and En*-and a-so
attem)ted G from those dreadfu- times do$n e%en to
our o$n( certain Christian societies ha%e arisen
$hich( under a hundred diMerent names( ha%e en8
dea%ored to re8esta-ish the )rimiti%e eHua-it' in
Christendom"
!ut $hat had een )ractica-e in a sma-- societ'(
concea-ed from the $or-d( $as no -on*er so in eB8
tensi%e in*doms" The church mi-itant and tri8
um)hant cou-d no -on*er e the church hum-e
and unno$n" The isho)s and the -ar*e( rich( and
)o$erfu- monastic communities( unitin* under the
standards of the ne$ )onticate of Rome( fou*ht at
that time )ro aris et focis( for their hearths and
a-tars" Crusades( armies( sie*es( att-es( ra)ine( tor8
tures( assassinations ' the hand of the eBecutioner(
assassinations ' the hands of )riests of oth the
contendin* )arties( )oisonin*s( de%astations ' re
and s$ord a-- $ere em)-o'ed to su))ort and to
)u-- do$n the ne$ ecc-esiastica- administration G and
the crad-e of the )rimiti%e church $as so hidden as
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to e scarce-' disco%era-e under the -ood and
ones of the s-ain"
Dictionar'" =@<
Of the Primiti%es ca--ed :uaers"
The re-i*ious and ci%i- $ars of reat !ritain
ha%in* deso-ated En*-and( Scot-and( and Ire-and(
in the unfortunate rei*n of Char-es I"( Wi--iam
Penn( son of a %ice8admira-( reso-%ed to *o and es8
ta-ish $hat he ca--ed the )rimiti%e Church on the
shores of North America( in a c-imate $hich a)8
)eared to him to e mi-d and con*enia- to his o$n
manners" &is sect $ent under the denomination of
#:uaers(# a -udicrous desi*nation( ut $hich the'
merited( ' the trem-in* of the od' $hich the'
aMected $hen )reachin*( and ' a nasa- )ronuncia8
tion( such as )ecu-iar-' distin*uished one s)ecies of
mons in the Roman Church( the Ca)uchins" !ut
men ma' oth snue and shae( and 'et e mee(
fru*a-( modest( Qust( and charita-e" No one denies
that this societ' of Primiti%es dis)-a'ed an eBam)-e
of a-- those %irtues"
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Penn sa$ that the En*-ish isho)s and the Pres8
'terians had een the cause of a dreadfu- $ar on
account of a sur)-ice( -a$n s-ee%es( and a -itur*'"
&e $ou-d ha%e neither -itur*'( -a$n( nor sur)-ice"
The a)ost-es had none of them" 1esus Christ had
a)ti4ed none" The associates of Penn dec-ined
a)tism"
The rst e-ie%ers $ere eHua- G these ne$ comers
aimed at ein* so( as far as )ossi-e" The rst dis8
ci)-es recei%ed the s)irit( and s)oe in the assem-' G
the' had no a-tars( no tem)-es( no ornaments( no
ta)ers( incense( or ceremonies" Penn and his fo-8
= @@ Phi-oso)hica-
-o$ers attered themse-%es that the' recei%ed the
s)irit( and the' renounced a-- )om) and ceremon'"
Charit' $as in hi*h esteem $ith the disci)-es of the
Sa%iour G those of Penn formed a common )urse for
assistin* the )oor" Thus these imitators of the
Essenians and rst Christians( a-thou*h in error
$ith res)ect to doctrines and ceremonies( $ere an
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astonishin* mode- of order and mora-s to e%er'
other societ' of Christians"
At -en*th this sin*u-ar man $ent( $ith %e hun8
dred of his fo--o$ers( to form an esta-ishment in
$hat $as at that time the most sa%a*e district of
America" :ueen Christina of S$eden had een de8
sirous of foundin* a co-on' there( $hich( ho$e%er(
had not )ros)ered" The Primiti%es of Penn $ere
more successfu-"
It $as on the ans of the De-a$are( near the
fortieth de*ree of -atitude" This countr' e-on*ed
to the in* of En*-and on-' ecause there $ere no
others $ho c-aimed it( and ecause the )eo)-e $hom
$e ca-- sa%a*es( and $ho mi*ht ha%e cu-ti%ated it(
had a-$a's remained far distant in the recesses of
the forests" If En*-and had )ossessed this countr'
mere-' ' ri*ht of conHuest( Penn and his Prim5
iti%es $ou-d ha%e he-d such an as'-um in horror"
The' -ooed u)on the )retended ri*ht of conHuest
on-' as a %io-ation of the ri*ht of nature( and as
aso-ute roer'"
Kin* Char-es II" made Penn so%erei*n of a--
this $i-d countr' ' a charter *ranted 3arch (
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Dictionar'" =@
=@7=" In the fo--o$in* 'ear Penn )romu-*ated his
code of -a$s" The rst $as com)-ete ci%i- -iert'(
in conseHuence of $hich e%er' co-onist )ossessin*
%e acres of -and ecame a memer of the -e*is-a8
ture" The neBt $as an aso-ute )rohiition a*ainst
ad%ocates and attorne's e%er tain* fees" The third
$as the admission of a-- re-i*ions( and e%en the
)ermission to e%er' inhaitant to $orshi) od in
his o$n house( $ithout e%er tain* )art in )u-ic
$orshi)"
This is the -a$ -ast mentioned( in the terms of
its enactment 0 #Liert' of conscience ein* a
ri*ht $hich a-- men ha%e recei%ed from nature $ith
their %er' ein*( and $hich a-- )eacea-e )ersons
ou*ht to maintain( it is )ositi%e-' esta-ished that
no )erson sha-- e com)e--ed to Qoin in an' )u-ic
eBercise of re-i*ion"
#!ut e%er' one is eB)ress-' a--o$ed fu-- )o$er
to en*a*e free-' in the )u-ic or )ri%ate eBercise of
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his re-i*ion( $ithout incurrin* there' an' trou-e
or im)ediment( under an' )reteBt G )ro%ided that he
acno$-ed*e his e-ief in one on-' eterna- od A-8
mi*ht'( the creator( )reser%er( and *o%ernor of the
uni%erse( and that he fu-- a-- the duties of ci%i-
societ' $hich he is ound to )erform to his fe--o$
citi4ens"#
This -a$ is e%en more indu-*ent( more humane(
than that $hich $as *i%en to the )eo)-e of Caro-ina
' Loce( the P-ato of En*-and( so su)erior to the
P-ato of reece" Loce )ermitted no )u-ic re8
= @7 Phi-oso)hica-
-i*ions eBce)t such as shou-d e a))ro%ed ' se%en
fathers of fami-ies" This is a diMerent sort of $is8
dom from Penn5s"
!ut that $hich reects immorta- honor on oth
-e*is-ators( and $hich shou-d o)erate as an eterna-
eBam)-e to manind( is( that this -iert' of con8
science has not occasioned the -east disturance" It
mi*ht( on the contrar'( e said that od had
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sho$ered do$n the most distin*uished -essin*s on
the co-on' of Penns'-%ania" It consisted( in =@7(
of %e hundred )ersons( and in -ess than a centur'
its )o)u-ation had increased to near-' three hundred
thousand" One ha-f of the co-onists are of the
)rimiti%e re-i*ionG t$ent' diMerent re-i*ions com8
)rise the other ha-f" There are t$e-%e ne cha)e-s
in Phi-ade-)hia( and in other )-aces e%er' house is
a cha)e-" This cit' has deser%ed its name 0 #!roth8
er-' Lo%e"# Se%en other cities( and innumera-e
sma-- to$ns( ourish under this -a$ of concord"
Three hundred %esse-s -ea%e the )ort in the course
of e%er' 'ear"
This state( $hich seems to deser%e )er)etua-
duration( $as %er' near-' destro'ed in the fata- $ar
of =<<( $hen the French( $ith their sa%a*e a--ies
on one side( and the En*-ish( $ith theirs( on the
other( e*an $ith dis)utin* aout some fro4en dis8
tricts of No%a Scotia" The Primiti%es( faithfu- to
their )acic s'stem of Christianit'( dec-ined to tae
u) arms" The sa%a*es i--ed some of their co-onists
on the frontierG the Primiti%es made no re)risa-s"
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Dictionar'" =@>
The' e%en refused( for a -on* time( to )a' the
troo)s" The' addressed the En*-ish *enera- in these
$ords0 #3en are -ie )ieces of c-a'( $hich are
roen to )ieces one a*ainst another" Wh' shou-d
$e aid in reain* one another to )ieces J#
At -ast( in the *enera- assem-' of the -e*is-ature
of Penns'-%ania( the other( re-i*ions )re%ai-edG
troo)s $ere raisedG the Primiti%es contriuted
mone'( ut dec-ined ein* armed" The' otained
their oQect( $hich $as )eace $ith their nei*hors"
These )retended sa%a*es said to them( #Send us a
descendant of the *reat Penn( $ho ne%er decei%ed
usG $ith him $e $i-- treat"# A *randson of that
*reat man $as de)uted( and )eace $as conc-uded"
3an' of the Primiti%es had ne*ro s-a%es to cu-ti8
%ate their estates" !ut the' -ushed at ha%in*( in
this instance( imitated other Christians" The' *a%e
-iert' to their s-a%es in =@>"
At )resent a-- the other co-onists imitate them in
-iert' of conscience( and a-thou*h there are amon*
them Pres'terians and )ersons of the hi*h church
)art'( no one is mo-ested aout his creed" It is this
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$hich has rendered the En*-ish )o$er in America
eHua- to that of S)ain( $ith a-- its mines of *o-d and
si-%er" If an' method cou-d e de%ised to ener%ate
the En*-ish co-onies it $ou-d e to esta-ish in them
the InHuisition"
The eBam)-e of the Primiti%es( ca--ed #:uaers(#
has *i%en rise in Penns'-%ania to a ne$ societ'( in
a district $hich it ca--s Eu)hrates" This is the sect
=? Phi-oso)hica-
of Duners or Dum)ers( a sect much more sec-uded
from the $or-d than Penn5sG a sort of re-i*ious
hos)ita--ers( a-- c-othed uniform-'" 3arried )ersons
are not )ermitted to reside in the cit' of Eu)hrates 0
the' reside in the countr'( $hich the' cu-ti%ate"
The )u-ic treasur' su))-ies a-- their $ants in times
of scarcit'" This societ' administers a)tism on-'
to adu-ts" It reQects the doctrine of ori*ina- sin as
im)ious( and that of the eternit' of )unishment as
ararous" The )urit' of their -i%es )ermits them
not to ima*ine that od $i-- torment &is creatures
crue--' or eterna--'" one astra' in a corner of the
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ne$ $or-d( far from the *reat oc of the Cath8
o-ic Church( the' are( u) to the )resent hour( not8
$ithstandin* this unfortunate error( the most Qust
and most inimita-e of men"
:uarre- et$een the ree and Latin Churches in
Asia and Euro)e"
It has een a matter of -amentation to a-- *ood
men for near-' fourteen centuries that the ree
and Latin Churches ha%e a-$a's een ri%a-s( and
that the roe of 1esus Christ( $hich $as $ithout a
seam( has een continua--' rent asunder" This o))o8
sition is )erfect-' natura-" Rome and Constantino)-e
hate each other" When masters cherish a mutua-
a%ersion( their de)endents entertain no mutua- re8
*ard" The t$o communions ha%e dis)uted on the
su)eriorit' of -an*ua*e( the antiHuit' of sees( on
-earnin*( e-oHuence( and )o$er"
Dictionar'" = =
It is certain that( for a -on* time( the rees )os8
sessed a-- the ad%anta*e" The' oasted that the'
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had een the masters of the Latins( and that the' had
tau*ht them e%er'thin*" The os)e-s $ere $ritten
in ree" There $as not a doctrine( a rite( a m's8
ter'( a usa*e( $hich $as not ree G from the $ord
#a)tism# to the $ord #eucharist# a-- $as ree"
No fathers of the Church $ere no$n eBce)t
amon* the rees ti-- St" 1erome( and e%en he $as
not a Roman( ut a Da-matian" St" Au*ustine( $ho
ourished soon after St" 1erome( $as an African"
The se%en *reat ecumenica- counci-s $ere he-d in
ree cities 0 the isho)s of Rome $ere ne%er )res8
ent at them( ecause the' $ere acHuainted on-' $ith
their o$n Latin -an*ua*e( $hich $as a-read' eB8
ceedin*-' corru)ted"
The hosti-it' et$een Rome and Constantino)-e
roe out in <( at the Counci- of Cha-cedon( $hich
had een assem-ed to decide $hether 1esus Christ
had )ossessed t$o natures and one )erson( or t$o
)ersons $ith one nature" It $as there decided that
the Church of Constantino)-e $as in e%er' res)ect
eHua- to that of Rome( as to honors( and the )a8
triarch of the one eHua- in e%er' res)ect to the )a8
triarch of the other" The )o)e( St" Leo( admitted
the t$o natures( ut neither he nor his successors
admitted the eHua-it'" It ma' e oser%ed that( in
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this dis)ute aout ran and )re8eminence( oth )ar8
ties $ere in direct o))osition to the inQunction of
1esus Christ( recorded in the os)e- 0 #There sha--
iQ Phi-oso)hica-
not e amon* 'ou rst or -ast"# Saints are saints(
ut )ride $i-- insinuate itse-f e%er'$here" The same
dis)osition $hich made a mason5s son( $ho had een
raised to a isho)ric( foam $ith ra*e ecause he
$as not addressed ' the tit-e of #m' -ord(# has set
the $ho-e Christian $or-d in ames"
The Romans $ere a-$a's -ess addicted to dis)u8
tation( -ess sut-e( than the rees( ut the' $ere
much more )o-itic" The isho)s of the east( $hi-e
the' ar*ued( 'et remained suQects 0 the isho) of
Rome( $ithout ar*uments( contri%ed e%entua--' to
esta-ish his )o$er on the ruins of the $estern em8
)ire" And $hat Vir*i- said of the Sci)ios and
Caesars mi*ht e said of the )o)es 0
#Romanes rerum dominos *entemHue to*atam# QEneid(
i" 7@"
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This mutua- hatred -ed( at -en*th( to actua- di8
%ision( in the time of Photius( )a)a or o%erseer of
the !'4antine Church( and Nicho-as I"( )a)a or
o%erseer of the Roman Church" As( unfortunate-'(
an ecc-esiastica- Huarre- scarce-' e%er occurs $ithout
somethin* -udicrous ein* attached to it( it ha)8
)ened( in this instance( that the contest e*an e8
t$een t$o )atriarchs( oth of $hom $ere eunuchs 0
I*natius and Photius( $ho dis)uted the chair of Con8
stantino)-e( $ere oth emascu-ated" This muti-a8
tion de)ri%in* them of the )o$er of ecomin* nat8
ura- fathers( the' cou-d ecome fathers on-' of the
Church" It is oser%ed that )ersons of this unfortu8
nate descri)tion are medd-in*( ma-i*nant( and )-ot8
Dictionar'" =
tin*" I*natius and Photius e)t the $ho-e ree
court in a state of turu-ence"
The Latin( Nicho-as I"( ha%in* taen the )art
of I*natius( Photius dec-ared him a heretic( on ac8
count of his admittin* the doctrine that the reath
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of od( or the &o-' S)irit( )roceeded from the
Father and the Son( contrar' to the unanimous de8
cision of the $ho-e ChurchQ $hich had decided that
it )roceeded from the Father on-'"
!esides this heretica- doctrine res)ectin* the )ro8
cession( Nicho-as ate( and )ermitted to e eaten(
e**s and cheese in Lent" In ne( as the %er' c-imaB
of une-ief( the Roman )a)a had his eard sha%ed(
$hich( to the ree )a)as( $as nothin* -ess than
do$nri*ht a)ostas' G as 3oses( the )atriarchs( and
1esus Christ $ere a-$a's( ' the ree and Latin
)ainters( )ictured $ith eards"
When( in 7>( the )atriarch Photius $as restored
to his seat ' the ei*hth ecumenica- counci- con8
sistin* of four hundred isho)s( three hundred of
$hom had condemned him in the )recedin* counci-
he $as acno$-ed*ed ' Po)e 1ohn as his
rother" T$o -e*ates( des)atched ' him to this
counci-( Qoined the ree Church( and dec-ared that
$hoe%er asserted the &o-' S)irit )roceeded from
the Father and the Son $as a 1udas" !ut the )rac8
tice of sha%in* the chin and eatin* e**s in Lent
ein* )ersisted in( the t$o churches a-$a's re8
mained di%ided"
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The schism $as com)-eted in =?< and =?<(
i' Phi-oso)hica-
$hen 3ichae- Ceru-arius( )atriarch of Constanti8
no)-e( )u-ic-' condemned the isho) of Rome( Leo
I;"( and a-- the Latins( addin* to a-- the re)roaches
a*ainst them ' Photius that( contrar' to the )rac8
tice of the a)ost-es( the' dared to mae use of un8
-ea%ened read in the eucharist G that the' $iced-'
ate -ood )uddin*s( and t$isted the necs( instead
of cuttin* oM the heads( of )i*eons intended for the
ta-e" A-- the Latin churches in the ree em)ire
$ere shut u)( and a-- intercourse $ith those $ho
ate -ood )uddin*s $as foridden"
Po)e Leo I;" entered into serious ne*otiation
on this matter $ith the Em)eror Constantine 3on8
omachus( and otained some miti*ations" It $as
)recise-' at this )eriod that those ce-erated Nor8
man *ent-emen( the sons of Tancred de &aute%i--e(
des)isin* at once the )o)e and the ree em)eror(
)-undered e%er'thin* the' cou-d in A)u-ia and Ca-8
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aria( and ate -ood )uddin*s $ith the utmost hardi8
hood" The ree em)eror fa%ored the )o)e as
much as he $as a-e G ut nothin* cou-d reconci-e
the rees $ith the Latins" The rees re*arded
their ad%ersaries as ararians( $ho did not no$
a sin*-e $ord of ree" The irru)tion of the Cru8
saders( under )retence of de-i%erin* the &o-' Land(
ut in rea-it' to *ain )ossession of Constantino)-e(
com)-eted the hatred entertained a*ainst the Ro8
mans"
!ut the )o$er of the Latin Church increased
e%er' da'( and the rees $ere at -en*th *radua--'
Dictionar'" =<
%anHuished ' the Turs" The )o)es( -on* since( e8
came )o$erfu- and $ea-th' so%erei*nsG the $ho-e
ree Church ecame s-a%es from the time of 3a8
homet II"( eBce)t Russia( $hich $as then a ar8
arous countr'( and in $hich the Church $as of no
account"
Whoe%er is ut s-i*ht-' informed of the state of
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aMair in the Le%ant no$s that the su-tan confers
the )atriarchate of the rees ' a cross and a rin*(
$ithout an' a))rehension of ein* eBcommunica8
ted( as some of the erman em)erors $ere ' the
)o)es( for this same ceremon'"
It is certain-' true that the church of Stamou-
has )reser%ed( in a))earance( the -iert' of choosin*
its archisho) G ut ne%er( in fact( chooses an' other
than the )erson )ointed out ' the Ottoman court"
This )referment costs( at )resent( aout ei*ht' thou8
sand francs( $hich the )erson chosen contri%es to
*et refunded from the rees" If an' canon of
inuence and $ea-th comes for$ard( and oMers the
*rand %i4ier a -ar*e sum( the titu-ar )ossessor is
de)ri%ed( and the )-ace *i%en to the -ast idderG
)recise-' as the see of Rome $as dis)osed of( in
the tenth centur'( ' 3aro4ia and Theodora" If
the titu-ar )atriarch resists( he recei%es ft' -o$s
on the so-es of his feet( and is anished" Sometimes
he is eheaded( as $as the case $ith Lucas C'ri--e(
in =@7"
The rand Tur dis)oses of a-- the other isho)8
rics( in the same manner( for mone' G and the )rice
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=@ Phi-oso)hica-
char*ed for e%er' isho)ric under 3ahomet II" is
a-$a's stated in the )atent G ut the additiona- sum
)aid is not mentioned in it" It is not eBact-' no$n
$hat a ree )riest *i%es for his isho)ric"
These )atents are rather di%ertin* documents 0
#I *rant to N ( a Christian )riest( this order(
for the )erfection of his fe-icit'" I command him
to reside in the cit' herein named( as isho) of the
inde- Christians( accordin* to their ancient usa*e(
and their %ain and eBtra%a*ant ceremonies( $i--in*
and ordainin* that a-- Christians of that district
sha-- acno$-ed*e him( and that no mon or )riest
sha-- marr' $ithout his )ermission"# That is to
sa'( $ithout )a'in* for the same"
The s-a%er' of this Church is eHua- to its i*no8
rance" !ut the rees ha%e on-' $hat the' deser%e"
The' $ere $ho--' asored in dis)utes aout the
-i*ht on 3ount Taor( and the umi-ica- cord( at
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the %er' time of the tain* of Constantino)-e"
Whi-e recordin* these me-ancho-' truths $e en8
tertain the ho)e that the Em)ress Catherine II" $i--
*i%e the rees their -iert'" Wou-d she cou-d re8
store to them that coura*e and that inte--ect $hich
the' )ossessed in the da's of 3i-tiades and The8
mistoc-esG and that 3ount Athos su))-ied *ood
so-diers and fe$er mons"
Of the Present ree Church"
The ree Church has scarce-' deser%ed the to-8
eration $hich the 3ussu-mans *ranted it" The fo-8
Dictionar'" =
-o$in* oser%ations are from 3r" Porter( the En*8
-ish amassador in Ture' 0
#I am inc-ined to dra$ a %ei- o%er those scan8
da-ous dis)utes et$een the rees and Romans(
on the suQect of !eth-ehem and the ho-' -and( as
the' denominate it" The unQust and odious )roceed8
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in*s $hich these ha%e occasioned et$een them are
a dis*race to the Christian name" In the midst of
these deates the amassador a))ointed to )rotect
the Romish communion ecomes( $ith a-- hi*h di*8
nit'( an oQect of sincere com)assion"
#In e%er' countr' $here the Roman Catho-ic
)re%ai-s( immense sums are -e%ied in order to su)8
)ort a*ainst the ree5s eHui%oca- )retensions to
the )recarious )ossession of a corner of the $or-d
re)uted ho-'G and to )reser%e in the hands of the
mons of the Latin communion the remains of an
o-d sta-e at !eth-ehem( $here a cha)e- has een
erected( and $here on the doutfu- authorit' of ora-
tradition( it is )retended that Christ $as ornG as
a-so a tom( $hich ma' e( and most )roa-' ma'
not e( $hat is ca--ed his se)u-chre G for the )recise
situation of these t$o )-aces is as -itt-e ascertained
as that $hich contains the ashes of Caesar"#
What renders the rees 'et more contem)ti-e
in the e'es of the Turs is the mirac-e $hich the'
)erform e%er' 'ear at Easter" The )oor isho) of
1erusa-em is inc-osed in a sma-- ca%e( $hich is
)assed oM for the tom of our Lord 1esus Christ(
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$ith )acets of sma-- $aB ta)ersG he stries re(
Vo-" =
=7 Phi-oso)hica-
-i*hts one of these -itt-e ta)ers( and comes out of
his ca%e eBc-aimin*0 #The re is come do$n from
hea%en( and the ho-' ta)er is -i*hted"# A-- the
rees immediate-' u' u) these ta)ers( and the
mone' is di%ided et$een the Turish commander
and the isho)" The de)-ora-e state of this Church(
under the dominion of the Tur( ma' e Qud*ed
from this sin*-e trait"
The ree Church in Russia has of -ate assumed
a much more res)ecta-e consistenc'( since the Em8
)ress Catherine II" has de-i%ered it from its secu-ar
cares G she has taen from it four hundred thou8
sand s-a%es( $hich it )ossessed" It is no$ )aid out
of the im)eria- treasur'( entire-' de)endent on the
*o%ernment( and restricted ' $ise -a$s G it can
eMect nothin* ut *ood( and is e%er' da' ecomin*
more -earned and usefu-" It )ossesses a )reacher
of the name of P-ato( $ho has com)osed sermons
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$hich the P-ato of antiHuit' $ou-d not ha%e dis8
dained"
C&2RC& OF ENLAND"
ENLAND is the countr' of sectsG #mu-tce sunt
mansiones in domo )atris mei0# an En*-ishman(
-ie a free man( *oes to hea%en $hich $a' he
)-eases" &o$e%er( a-thou*h e%er' one can ser%e
od in his o$n $a'( the nationa- re-i*ion that
in $hich fortunes are made is the E)isco)a-( ca--ed
the Church of En*-and( or em)hatica--'( #The
E3PRESS CAT&ERINE
Dictionar'" =>
Church"# No one can ha%e em)-o'ment of an'
conseHuence( either in En*-and or Ire-and( $ithout
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ein* memers of the esta-ishment" This reason8
in*( $hich is hi*h-' demonstrati%e( has con%erted so
man' nonconformists that at )resent there is not
a t$entieth )art of the nation out of the osom of
the dominant church"
The En*-ish c-er*' ha%e retained man' Catho-ic
ceremonies( and ao%e a-- that of recei%in* tithes(
$ith a %er' scru)u-ous attention" The' a-so )os8
sess the )ious amition of ru-in* the )eo)-e( for
$hat %i--a*e rector $ou-d not e a )o)e if he cou-d J
With re*ard to manners( the En*-ish c-er*' are
more decorous than those of France( chie' e8
cause the ecc-esiastics are rou*ht u) in the uni%er8
sities of OBford and Camrid*e( far from the cor8
ru)tion of the metro)o-is" The' are not ca--ed to
the di*nities of the Church unti- %er' -ate( and at
an a*e $hen men( ha%in* no other )assion than a%8
arice( their amition is -ess as)irin*" Em)-o'ments
are( in En*-and( the recom)ense of -on* ser%ice in
the church( as $e-- as in the arm'" 6ou do not
there see 'oun* men ecome isho)s or co-one-s on
-ea%in* co--e*e G and( moreo%er( a-most a-- the )riests
are married" The )edantr' and a$$ardness of
manners( acHuired in the uni%ersities( and the -itt-e
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commerce the' ha%e $ith $omen( *enera--' o-i*e
a isho) to e contented $ith the one $hich e-on*s
to him" The c-er*' *o sometimes to the ta%ern(
ecause custom )ermits it( and if the' *et #!acchi
=7? Phi-oso)hica-
)-enum# it is in the co--e*e st'-e( *ra%e-' and $ith
due decorum"
That indena-e character $hich is neither ec8
c-esiastica- nor secu-ar( $hich $e ca-- ae( is un8
no$n in En*-and" The ecc-esiastics there are *en8
era--' res)ected( and for the *reater )art )edants"
When the -atter -earn that in France 'oun* men
distin*uished ' their deaucheries( and raised to
the )re-ac' ' the intri*ues of $omen( )u-ic-' mae
-o%eG %ie $ith each other in the com)osition of
-o%e son*s G *i%e -uBurious su))ers e%er' da'( from
$hich the' arise to im)-ore the -i*ht of the &o-'
S)irit( and o-d-' ca-- themse-%es the a)ost-es5 suc8
cessors the' than od the' are Protestants" !ut
$hat thenJ The' are %i-e heretics( and t on-' for
urnin*( as master Francis Rae-ais sa's( #$ith a--
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the de%i-s"# &ence I dro) the suQect"
C&2RC& PROPERT6"
T&E os)e- forids those $ho $ou-d attain )er8
fection to amass treasures( and to )reser%e their
tem)ora- *oods 0 #La' not u) for 'ourse-%es treas8
ures u)on earth( $here moth and rust doth corru)t(
and $here thie%es rea throu*h and stea-"# #If
thou $i-t e )erfect( *o and se-- that thou hast( and
*i%e to the )oor"# #And e%er' one that hath for8
saen houses( or rethren( or sisters( or father( or
mother( or $ife( or chi-dren( or -ands( for m' name5s
sae( sha-- recei%e an hundred8fo-d( and sha-- inherit
e%er-astin* -ife"#"
Dictionar'" =7=
The a)ost-es and their rst successors $ou-d not
recei%e estatesG the' on-' acce)ted the %a-ue( and(
after ha%in* )ro%ided $hat $as necessar' for their
susistence( the' distriuted the rest amon* the
)oor" Sa))hira and Ananias did not *i%e their
*oods to St" Peter( ut the' so-d them and rou*ht
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Qud*es( ' his ne$ code B%iii" cha)( ii"( to annu- the
$i--s made in fa%or of the Church( e%en $hen eBe8
= 7 Phi-oso)hica-
cuted $ithout the forma-ities )rescried ' the
-a$s"
Anastasius had enacted( in =( that church )ro)8
ert' shou-d e he-d ' a )rescri)tion( or tit-e( of
fort' 'ears5 duration" 1ustinian inserted this -a$
in his codeG ut this )rince( $ho $as continua--'
chan*in* his Quris)rudence( suseHuent-' eBtended
this )roscri)tion to a centur'" Immediate-' se%era-
ecc-esiastics( un$orth' of their )rofession( for*ed
fa-se tit-es( and dre$ out of the dust o-d testaments(
%oid ' the ancient -a$s( ut %a-id accordin* to
the ne$" Citi4ens $ere de)ri%ed of their )atrimo8
nies ' fraudG and )ossessions( $hich unti- then
$ere considered in%io-a-e( $ere usur)ed ' the
Church" In short( the ause $as so cr'in* that 1us8
tinian himse-f $as o-i*ed to re8esta-ish the dis)o8
sitions of the -a$ of Anastasius( ' his no%e- cBBBi"
cha)" %i"
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The )ossessions of the Church durin* the rst
%e centuries of our era $ere re*u-ated ' deacons(
$ho distriuted them to the c-er*' and to the )oor"
This communit' ceased at the end of the fth cen8
tur'( and Church )ro)ert' $as di%ided into four
)arts one ein* *i%en to the isho)s( another to
the c-er*'( a third to the )-ace of $orshi)( and the
fourth to the )oor" Soon after this di%ision the
isho)s a-one too char*e of the $ho-e four )or8
tions( and this is the reason $h' the inferior c-er*'
are *enera--' %er' )oor"
Dictionar'" = 7
3ons )ossessin* S-a%es"
What is sti-- more me-ancho-'( the !enedictines(
!ernar dines( and e%en the ChartreuB are )ermitted
to ha%e mortmains and s-a%es" 2nder their domi8
nation in se%era- )ro%inces of France and erman'
are sti-- reco*ni4ed0 )ersona- s-a%er'( s-a%er' of
)ro)ert'( and s-a%er' of )erson and )ro)ert'" S-a8
%er' of the )erson consists in the inca)acit' of a
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man5s dis)osin* of his )ro)ert' in fa%or of his
chi-dren( if the' ha%e not a-$a's -i%ed $ith their
father in the same house( and at the same ta-e( in
$hich case a-- e-on*s to the mons" The fortune
of an inhaitant of 3ount 1ura( )ut into the hands
of a notar'( ecomes( e%en in Paris( the )re' of
those $ho ha%e ori*ina--' emraced e%an*e-ica- )o%8
ert' at 3ount 1ura" The son ass a-ms at the door of
the house $hich his father has ui-t G and the mons(
far from *i%in* them( e%en arro*ate to themse-%es
the ri*ht of not )a'in* his father5s creditors( and of
re*ardin* as %oid a-- the mort*a*es on the house of
$hich the' tae )ossession" In %ain the $ido$
thro$s herse-f at their feet to otain a )art of her
do$r'" This do$r'( these dets( this )aterna- )ro)8
ert'( a-- e-on*( ' di%ine ri*ht( to the mons" The
creditors( the $ido$( and the chi-dren are a-- -eft
to die in e**ar'"
Rea- s-a%er' is that $hich is eMected ' resi8
dence" Whoe%er occu)ies a house $ithin the do8
main of these mons( and -i%es in it a 'ear and a
da'( ecomes their serf for -ife" It has sometimes
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T + Phi-oso)hica-
ha))ened that a French merchant( and father of a
fami-'( -ed ' his usiness into this ararous coun8
tr'( has taen a house for a 'ear" D'in* after$ards
in his o$n countr'( in another )ro%ince of France(
his $ido$ and chi-dren ha%e een Huite astonished
to see ocers( armed $ith $rits( come and tae
a$a' their furniture( se-- it in the name of St"
aude" and dri%e a$a' a $ho-e fami-' from the
house of their father"
3iBed s-a%er' is that $hich( ein* com)osed of
the t$o( is( of a-- that ra)acit' has e%er in%ented"
the most eBecra-e( and e'ond the conce)tion e%en
of freeooters" There are( then( Christian )eo)-e
*roanin* in a tri)-e s-a%er' under mons $ho ha%e
taen the %o$ of humi-it' and )o%ert'" 6ou $i--
as ho$ *o%ernments suMer these fata- contradic8
tionsJ It is ecause the mons are rich and the
%assa-s are )oor" It is ecause the mons( to )re8
ser%e their &unnish ri*hts( mae )resents to their
commissaries and to the mistresses of those $ho
mi*ht inter)ose their authorit' to )ut do$n their
o))ression" The stron* a-$a's crush the $eaG
ut $h' must mons e the stron*erJ
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CICERO"
IT is at a time $hen( in France( the ne arts are
in a state of dec-ineG in an a*e of )aradoB( and
amidst the de*radation and )ersecution of -itera8
ture and )hi-oso)h'( that an attem)t is made to tar8
nish the name of Cicero" And $ho is the man $ho
Dictionar'" =7<
t-ras endea%ors to thro$ dis*race u)on is mem8
It is one $ho -ends his ser%ices in Arf ... of
)ersons accused -ie himse-f G it is an ad%ocate( $ho
has studied e-oHuence under that *reat masterG it
is a citi4en $ho a))ears to e( -ie Cicero( Q3mi&
' de%otion to the )u-ic *ood"
In a oo entit-ed #Na%i*a-e Cana-s(# a oo
aoundin* in *rand and )atriotic rather than )rac8
tica- %ie$s( $e fed no sma-- astonishment at uma*
the fo--o$in* )hi-i))ic a*ainst Cicero( $ho $as
ne%er concerned in di**in* cana-s0
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5The most *-orious trait in die histor' of Cicero
is the destruction of Cati-ine5s cons)irac'( $hich(
re*arded in its true -i*ht( )roduced tt sensation
at Rome( eBce)t in conseHuence of his aMectin* to
*i%e it im)ortance" The dan*er eBisted much more
in his discourses than in the aMair itse-f" It $as
an enter)rise of deauchees $hich it $as eas' to
disconcert" Neither the )rinci)a- nor the accom8
)-ices ad taen the s-i*htest measure to insure the
success of their *mh' at tem)i" There $as nothin*
this sin*u-ar matter ut the -uster8
in* $hich attended a-- the f*nf*3-h*s of die con8
su-( and the faci-it' $ith $inch he $as )ermitted
to sacrice to his se-f8-o%e so man' scions of us8
#!esides( the fe of Cicero aounds in traits of
meanness" &is e-oHuence $as as %ena- as his sou-
$as )usi--animous" If his ton*ue $as not *uided
' interest it $as *uided ' fear or ho)e" The de8
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= 7@ Phi-oso)hica-
sire of otainin* )artisans -ed him to the triune(
to defend( $ithout a -ush( men more dishonora-e(
and inca-cu-a-' more dan*erous( than Cati-ine" &is
c-ients $ere near-' a-- miscreants( and( ' a sin*u-ar
eBercise of di%ine Qustice( he at -ast met death from
the hands of one of those $retches $hom his si--
had eBtricated from the fan*s of human Qustice"#
We ans$er that( #re*arded in its true -i*ht(# the
cons)irac' of Cati-ine eBcited at Rome some$hat
more than a #s-i*ht sensation"# It )-un*ed her into
the *reatest disturance and dan*er" It $as ter8
minated on-' ' a att-e so -ood' that there is no
eBam)-e of eHua- carna*e( and scarce-' an' of eHua-
%a-or" A-- the so-diers of Cati-ine( after ha%in*
i--ed ha-f of the arm' of Petrius( $ere i--ed( to the
-ast man" Cati-ine )erished( co%ered $ith $ounds(
u)on a hea) of the s-ain G and a-- $ere found $ith
their countenances stern-' *-arin* u)on the enem'"
This $as not an enter)rise so $onderfu--' eas' as
to e disconcerted" Caesar encoura*ed it G Caesar
-earned from it to cons)ire on a future da' more suc8
cessfu--' a*ainst his countr'"
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#Cicero defended( $ithout a -ush( men more dis8
honora-e( and inca-cu-a-' more dan*erous than
Cati-ine # Was this $hen he defended in the tri8
une Sici-' a*ainst Verres( and the Roman re)u-ic
a*ainst Anton'J Was it $hen he eBhorted the
c-emenc' of Caesar in fa%or of Li*arius and Kin*
DeiotarusJ or $hen he otained the ri*ht of cit8
i4enshi) for the )oet ArchiasJ or $hen( in his eB8
Dictionar'" =7
Huisite oration for the 3ani-ian -a$( he otained
e%er' Roman suMra*e on eha-f of the *reat Pom8
)e'J
&e )-eaded for 3i-o( the murderer of C-odiusG
ut C-odius had deser%ed the tra*ica- end he met
$ith ' his outra*es" C-odius had een in%o-%ed
in the cons)irac' of Cati-ine G C-odius $as his mor8
ta- enem'" &e had irritated Rome a*ainst him( and
had )unished him for ha%in* sa%ed Rome" 3i-o
$as his friend"
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What is it in our time that an' one %entures
to assert that od )unished Cicero for ha%in* de8
fended a mi-itar' triune ca--ed Po)i-ius Lena( and
that di%ine %en*eance made this same Po)i-ius Lena
the instrument of his assassination J No one no$s
$hether Po)i-ius Lena $as *ui-t' of the crime of
$hich he $as acHuitted( after Cicero5s defence of
him u)on his tria-G ut a-- no$ that the monster
$as *ui-t' of the most horri-e in*ratitude( the most
infamous a%arice( and the most detesta-e crue-t'
to otain the mone' of three $retches -ie himse-f"
It $as reser%ed for our times to ho-d u) the assas8
sination of Cicero as an act of di%ine Qustice" The
trium%irs $ou-d not ha%e dared to do it" E%er' a*e(
efore the )resent( has detested and de)-ored the
manner of his death"
Cicero is re)roached $ith too freHuent-' oast8
in* that he had sa%ed Rome( and $ith ein* too
fond of *-or'" !ut his enemies endea%ored to stain
his *-or'" A t'rannica- faction condemned him to
= 77 Phi-oso)hica-
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eBi-e( and ra4ed his house( ecause he had )reser%ed
e%er' house in Rome from the ames $hich Cati8
-ine had )re)ared for them" 3en are )ermitted and
e%en ound to oast of their ser%ices( $hen the'
meet $ith for*etfu-ness or in*ratitude( and more
)articu-ar-' $hen the' are con%erted into crimes"
Sci)io is sti-- admired for ha%in* ans$ered his8
accusers in these $ords0 #This is the anni%ersar'
of the da' on $hich I %anHuished &annia- G -et us
*o and return thans to the *ods"# The $ho-e as8
sem-' fo--o$ed him to the Ca)ito-( and our hearts
fo--o$ him thither a-so( as $e read the )assa*e in
histor' G thou*h( after a--( it $ou-d ha%e een et8
ter to ha%e de-i%ered in his accounts than to eBtri8
cate himse-f from the attac ' a on mot"
Cicero( in the same manner( eBcited the admira8
tion of the Roman )eo)-e $hen( on the da' in $hich
his consu-shi) eB)ired( ein* o-i*ed to tae the
customar' oaths( and )re)arin* to address the
)eo)-e as $as usua-( he $as hindered ' the triune
3ate--us( $ho $as desirous of insu-tin* him" Cic8
ero had e*un $ith these $ords0 #I s$ear(# the
triune interru)ted him( and dec-ared that he $ou-d
not suMer him to mae a s)eech" A *reat murmur8
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in* $as heard" Cicero )aused a moment( and e-e8
%atin* his fu-- and me-odious %oice( he eBc-aimed(
as a short sustitute for his intended s)eech( #I
s$ear that I ha%e sa%ed the countr'"# The assem8
-' cried out $ith de-i*ht and enthusiasm( #We
s$ear that he has s)oen the truth"# That moment
Dictionar'" =7>
$as the most ri--iant of his -ife" This is the true
$a' of -o%in* *-or'" I do not no$ $here I ha%e
read these unno$n %erses 0
Remains( faime -a *-oire( et ne %euB )oint m en taire
Des tra%auB des humains c5est -e di*ne sa-aire(
Ce n5est Hden %ous Hu t- -afaut acheter G
:ui n5ose -a %ou-oir( riose -a mtriter"
Romans( I o$n that *-or' I re*ard
Of human toi- the on-' Qust re$ardG
P-aced in 'our hands the immorta- *uerdon -ies(
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And he $i-- ne5er deser%e $ho s-i*hts the )ri4e"
Can $e des)ise Cicero if $e consider his conduct
in his *o%ernment of Ci-icia( $hich $as then one
of the most im)ortant )ro%inces of the Roman Em8
)ire( in conseHuence of its conti*uit' to S'ria and
the Parthian Em)ire" Laodicea( one of the most
eautifu- cities of the East( $as the ca)ita- of it"
This )ro%ince $as then as ourishin* as it is at the
)resent da' de*raded under the *o%ernment of the
Turs( $ho ne%er had a Cicero"
&e e*ins ' )rotectin* Arioar4anes( in* of
Ca))adocia( and he refuses the )resents $hich that
in* desires to mae him" The Parthians come and
attac Antioch in a state of )erfect )eace" Cicero
hasti-' marches to$ards it( comes u) $ith the Par8
thians ' forced marches at 3ount Taurus( routs
them( )ursues them in their retreat( and Arsaces(
their *enera-( is s-ain( $ith a )art of his arm'"
Thence he rushes on Pendenissum( the ca)ita- of
a countr' in a--iance $ith the Parthians( and taes
it( and the )ro%ince is reduced to sumission" &e
instant-' directs his forces a*ainst the tries of
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= >? Phi-oso)hica-
)eo)-e ca--ed Tiuranians( and defeats them( and
his troo)s confer on him the tit-e of Im)erator(
$hich he )reser%ed a-- his -ife" &e $ou-d ha%e o8
tained the honors of a trium)h at Rome if he had
not een o))osed ' Cato( $ho induced the senate
mere-' to decree )u-ic reQoicin*s and thans to the
*ods( $hen( in fact( the' $ere due to Cicero"
If $e )icture to ourse-%es the eHuit' and disinter8
estedness of Cicero in his *o%ernment G his acti%it'(
his aMai-it' t$o %irtues so rare-' com)ati-e G the
enets $hich he accumu-ated u)on the )eo)-e o%er
$hom he $as an aso-ute so%erei*n G it $i-- e eB8
treme-' dicu-t to $ithho-d from such a man our
esteem"
If $e reect that this is the same man $ho rst
introduced )hi-oso)h' into RomeG that his #Tus8
cu-an :uestions(# and his oo #On the Nature of
the ods(# are the t$o no-est $ors that e%er $ere
$ritten ' mere human $isdom( and that his treat8
ise( #De Ociis(# is the most usefu- one that $e
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)ossess in mora-sG $e sha-- nd it sti-- more di8
cu-t to des)ise Cicero" We )it' those $ho do not
read himG $e )it' sti-- more those $ho refuse to
do him Qustice"
To the French detractor $e ma' $e-- o))ose the
-ines of the S)anish 3artia-( in his e)i*ram a*ainst
Anton' oo %"( e)i*" @>( %" U 0
:uid Prosunt sacrce )retiosa si-entia -in*uae f
Inci)ient omnes )ro Cicerone -oHui"
Wh' sti-- his ton*ue $ith %en*eance $ea(
For 5Cicero a-- the $or-d $i-- s)ea-
Dictionar'" =>=
See( -ie$ise( $hat is said ' 1u%ena- sat" i%"(
%" U 0
Roma )air em )atriae Ciceronem -iera diBit"
Freed Rome( him father of his countr' ca--ed"
CIRC23CISION"
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W&EN &erodotus narrates $hat he $as to-d '
the ararians amon* $hom he tra%e--ed( he nar8
rates foo-eries( after the manner of the *reater )art
of tra%e--ers" Thus( it is not to e su))osed that he
eB)ects to e e-ie%ed in his recita- of the ad%enture
of '*es and Candau-es G of Arion( carried on the
ac of a do-)hinG of the orac-e $hich $as con8
su-ted on $hat Croesus $as at the time doin*( that
he $as then *oin* to dress a tortoise in a ste$8)an G
of Darius5 horse( $hich( ein* the rst out of a cer8
tain numer to nei*h( in fact )roc-aimed his master
a in* G and of a hundred other fa-es( t to amuse
chi-dren( and to e com)i-ed ' rhetoricians" !ut
$hen he s)eas of $hat he has seen( of the customs
of )eo)-e he has eBamined( of their antiHuities $hich
he has consu-ted( he then addresses himse-f to men"
#It a))ears(# sa's he( in his oo #Euter)e#
#that the inhaitants of Co-chis s)ran* from E*')t"
I Qud*e so from m' o$n oser%ations rather than
from hearsa' G for I found that( at Co-chis( the an8
cient E*')tians $ere more freHuent-' reca--ed to
m' mind than the ancient customs of Co-chis $ere
$hen I $as in E*')t"
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=> Phi-oso)hica-
#These inhaitants of the shores of the EuBine
Sea stated themse-%es to e a co-on' founded ' Se8
sostris" As for m'se-f( I shou-d thin this )roa-e(
not mere-' ecause the' are dar and $oo--'8haired(
ut ecause the inhaitants of Co-chis( E*')t( and
Ethio)ia are the on-' )eo)-e in the $or-d $ho( from
time immemoria-( ha%e )ractised circumcisionG for
the Phoenicians( and the )eo)-e of Pa-estine( con8
fess that the' ado)ted the )ractice from the E*')8
tians" The S'rians( $ho at )resent inhait the ans
of Thermodon( acno$-ed*e that it is( com)ara8
ti%e-'( ut recent-' that the' ha%e conformed to it"
It is )rinci)a--' from this usa*e that the' are con8
sidered of E*')tian ori*in"
#With res)ect to Ethio)ia and E*')t( as this cer8
emon' is of *reat antiHuit' in oth nations( I can8
not ' an' means ascertain $hich has deri%ed it
from the other" It is( ho$e%er( )roa-e that the
Ethio)ians recei%ed it from the E*')tians G $hi-e(
on the contrar'( the Phoenicians ha%e ao-ished the
)ractice of circumcisin* ne$8orn chi-dren since the
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en-ar*ement of their commerce $ith the rees"#
From this )assa*e of &erodotus it is e%ident
that man' )eo)-e had ado)ted circumcision from
E*')t( ut no nation e%er )retended to ha%e re8
cei%ed it from the 1e$s" To $hom( then( can $e
attriute the ori*in of this custom G to a nation from
$hom %e or siB others acno$-ed*e the' too it(
or to another nation( much -ess )o$erfu-( -ess con%
mercia-( -ess $ar-ie( hid a$a' in a corner of Ara8
Dictionar'" =>
ia Petraea( and $hich ne%er communicated an' one
of its usa*es to an' other )eo)-eJ
The 1e$s admit that the' $ere( man' a*es since(
recei%ed in E*')t out of charit'" Is it not )roa-e
that the -esser )eo)-e imitated a usa*e of the su8
)erior one( and that the 1e$s ado)ted some customs
from their mastersJ
C-ement of A-eBandria re-ates that P'tha*oras(
$hen tra%e--in* amon* the E*')tians( $as o-i*ed
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to e circumcised in order to e admitted to their
m'steries" It $as( therefore( aso-ute-' necessar'
to e circumcised to e a )riest in E*')t" Those
)riests eBisted $hen 1ose)h arri%ed in E*')t" The
*o%ernment $as of *reat antiHuit'( and the ancient
ceremonies of the countr' $ere oser%ed $ith the
most scru)u-ous eBactness"
The 1e$s acno$-ed*e that the' remained in
E*')t t$o hundred and %e 'ears" The' sa' that(
durin* that )eriod( the' did not ecome circumcised"
It is c-ear( then( that for t$o hundred and %e 'ears
the E*')tians did not recei%e circumcision from the
1e$s" Wou-d the' ha%e ado)ted it from them after
the 1e$s had sto-en the %esse-s $hich the' had -ent
them( and( accordin* to their o$n account( ed $ith
their )-under into the $i-dernessJ Wi-- a master
ado)t the )rinci)a- s'mo- of the re-i*ion of a ro8
in* and runa$a' s-a%eJ It is not in human nature"
It is stated in the !oo of 1oshua that the 1e$s
$ere circumcised in the $i-derness" #I ha%e de-i%8
ered 'ou from $hat constituted 'our re)roach
Vo-" =
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=> Phi-oso)hica-
amon* the E*')tians"# !ut $hat cou-d this re8
)roach e( to a )eo)-e -i%in* et$een Phoenicians(
Araians( and E*')tians( ut somethin* $hich ren8
dered them contem)ti-e to these three nationsJ
&o$ eMectua--' is that re)roach remo%ed ' a8
stractin* a sma-- )ortion of the )re)uce J 3ust not
this e considered the natura- meanin* of the )ass8
a*eJ
The !oo of enesis re-ates that Araham
had een circumcised efore" !ut Araham tra%8
e--ed in E*')t( $hich had een -on* a ourishin*
in*dom( *o%erned ' a )o$erfu- in*" There is
nothin* to )re%ent the su))osition that circumcision
$as( in this %er' ancient in*dom( an esta-ished
usa*e" 3oreo%er( the circumcision of Araham -ed
to no continuationG his )osterit' $as not circum8
cised ti-- the time of 1oshua"
!ut( efore the time of 1oshua( the 1e$s( ' their
o$n acno$-ed*ment( ado)ted man' of the customs
of the E*')tians" The' imitated them in man' sac8
rices( in man' ceremonies G as( for eBam)-e( in the
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fasts oser%ed on the e%es of the feasts of I sis G in
a-utions G in the custom of sha%in* the heads of the
)riestsG in the incense( the ranched cand-e8stic(
the sacrice of the red8haired co$( the )urication
$ith h'sso)( the astinence from s$ine5s esh( the
dread of usin* the itchen utensi-s of forei*ners G
e%er'thin* testies that the -itt-e )eo)-e of &ere$s(
not$ithstandin* its a%ersion to the *reat E*')tian
nation( had retained a %ast numer of the usa*es
Dictionar'" =><
of its former masters" The *oat A4a4e-( $hich $as
des)atched into the $i-derness -aden $ith the sins
of the )eo)-e( $as a %isi-e imitation of an E*')tian
)ractice" The rais are a*reed( e%en( that the $ord
A4a4e- is not &ere$" Nothin*( therefore( cou-d
eBist to ha%e )re%ented the &ere$s from imitatin*
the E*')tians in circumcision( as the Aras( their
nei*hors( did"
It is ' no means eBtraordinar' that od( $ho
sanctied a)tism( a )ractice so ancient amon* the
Asiatics( shou-d a-so ha%e sanctied circumcision(
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not -ess ancient amon* the Africans" We ha%e a-8
read' remared that he has a so%erei*n ri*ht to
attach his fa%ors to an' s'mo- that he chooses"
As to $hat remains since the time $hen( under
1oshua( the 1e$ish )eo)-e ecame circumcised( it
has retained that usa*e do$n to the )resent da'"
The Aras( a-so( ha%e faithfu--' adhered to it G ut
the E*')tians( $ho( in the ear-ier a*es( circumcised
oth their ma-es and fema-es( in the course of time
aandoned the )ractice entire-' as to the -atter( and
at -ast a))-ied it so-e-' to )riests( astro-o*ers( and
)ro)hets" This $e -earn from C-ement of A-eBan8
dria( and Ori*en" In fact( it is not c-ear that the
Pto-emies e%er recei%ed circumcision"
The Latin authors $ho treat the 1e$s $ith such
)rofound contem)t as to a))-' to them in derision
the eB)ressions( #curtus A)e--a# #credat 1udYus
A)e--a(# #curti 1udai# ne%er a))-' such e)ithets to
the E*')tians( The $ho-e )o)u-ation of E*')t is
=>@ Phi-oso)hica-
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at )resent circumcised( ut for another reason than
that $hich o)erated former-' G name-'( ecause 3a8
hometanism ado)ted the ancient circumcision of
Araia" It is this Araian circumcision $hich has
eBtended to the Ethio)ians( amon* $hom ma-es and
fema-es are oth sti-- circumcised"
We must acno$-ed*e that this ceremon' a)8
)ears at rst a %er' stran*e one G ut $e shou-d re8
memer that( from the ear-iest times( the orienta-
)riests consecrated themse-%es to their deities '
)ecu-iar mars" An i%' -eaf $as indented $ith a
*ra%er on the )riests of !acchus" Lucian te--s us
that those de%oted to the *oddess Isis im)ressed
characters u)on their $rist and nec" The )riests
of C'e-e made themse-%es eunuchs"
It is hi*h-' )roa-e that the E*')tians( $ho
re%ered the instrument of human )roduction( and
ore its ima*e in )om) in their )rocessions( con8
cei%ed the idea of oMerin* to Isis and Osiris
throu*h $hom e%er'thin* on earth $as )roduced(
a sma-- )ortion of that or*an $ith $hich these dei8
ties had connected the )er)etuation of the human
s)ecies" Ancient orienta- manners are so )rodi*8
ious-' diMerent from our o$n that scarce-' an'thin*
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$i-- a))ear eBtraordinar' to a man of e%en ut -itt-e
readin*" A Parisian is eBcessi%e-' sur)rised $hen
he is to-d that the &ottentots de)ri%e their ma-e
chi-dren of one of the e%idences of %iri-it'" The
&ottentots are )erha)s sur)rised that the Parisians
)reser%e oth"
Dictionar'" =>
CLERK CLER6"
T&ERE ma' e somethin* )erha)s sti-- remain8
in* for remar under this head( e%en after Du
Can*e5s #Dictionar'# and the #Enc'c-o)aedia"# We
ma' oser%e( for instance( that so $onderfu- $as
the res)ect )aid to -earnin*( aout the e-e%enth and
t$e-fth centuries( that a custom $as introduced and
fo--o$ed in France( in erman'( and in En*-and( of
remittin* the )unishment of the ha-ter to e%er' con8
demned crimina- $ho $as a-e to read" So neces8
sar' to the state $as e%er' man $ho )ossessed such
an eBtent of no$-ed*e" Wi--iam the !astard( the
conHueror of En*-and( carried thither this custom"
It $as ca--ed enet of c-er*' #enecum c-eri8
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corum aut c-er*icorum"#
We ha%e remared( in more )-aces than one( that
o-d usa*es( -ost in other countries( are found a*ain
in En*-and( as in the is-and of Samothrace $ere dis8
co%ered the ancient m'steries of Or)heus" To this
da' the enet of c-er*' susists amon* the En*8
-ish( in a-- its %i*or( for mans-au*hter( and for an'
theft not eBceedin* a certain amount of %a-ue( and
ein* the rst oMence" The )risoner $ho is a-e to
read demands his #enet of c-er*'(# $hich cannot
e refused him" The Qud*e refers to the cha)-ain of
the )rison( $ho )resents a oo to the )risoner( u)on
$hich the Qud*e )uts the Huestion to the cha)-ain(
#Le*itJ# #Does he readJ# The cha)-ain re)-ies0
#Le*it tot c-ericus"# #&e reads -ie a c-er*'man"#
=>7 Phi-oso)hica-
After this the )unishment of the )risoner is re8
stricted to the a))-ication of a hot randin* iron to
the )a-m of his hand"
Of the Ce-iac' of the C-er*'"
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It is ased $hether( in the rst a*es of the
Church( marria*e $as )ermitted to the c-er*'( and
$hen it $as foriddenJ It is unHuestiona-e that
the c-er*' of the 1e$ish re-i*ion( far from ein*
ound to ce-iac'( $ere( on the contrar'( ur*ed to
marria*e( not mere-' ' the eBam)-e of their
)atriarchs( ut ' the dis*race attached to not -ea%8
in* )osterit'"
In the times( ho$e%er( that )receded the rst
ca-amities $hich efe-- the 1e$s( certain sects of
ri*orists arose Essenians( 1udaites( Thera)eutse(
&erodiansG in some of $hich the Essenians and
Thera)eutae( for eBam)-es the most de%out of the
sect astained from marria*e" This continence $as
an imitation of the chastit' of the %esta-s( instituted
' Numa Pom)i-iusG of the dau*hter of P'tha*8
oras( $ho founded a con%entG of the )riests of
Diana G of the P'thia of De-)hos G and( in more re8
mote antiHuit'( of the )riestesses of A)o--o( and
e%en of the )riestesses of !acchus" The )riests of
C'e-e not on-' ound themse-%es ' %o$s of
chastit'( ut( to )rec-ude the %io-ation of their %o$s(
ecame eunuchs" P-utarch( in the ei*hth Huestion
of his #Ta-e8ta-(# informs us that( in E*')t( there
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are co--e*es of )riests $hich renounce marria*e"
Dictionar'" =>>
The rst Christians( a-thou*h )rofessin* to -ead
a -ife as )ure as that of the Essenians and Thera8
)eutse( did not consider ce-iac' as a %irtue" We
ha%e seen that near-' a-- the a)ost-es and disci)-es
$ere married" St" Pau- $rites to Titus0 #Choose
for a )riest him $ho is the husand of one $ife(
ha%in* e-ie%in* chi-dren( and not under accusation
of disso-uteness"# &e sa's the same to Timoth'0
#Let the su)erintendent e the husand of one
$ife"# &e seems to thin so hi*h-' of marria*e
that( in the same e)ist-e to Timoth'( he sa's 0 #The
$ife( not$ithstandin* her )re%arication( sha-- e
sa%ed in chi-d8earin*"#
The )roceedin*s of the Counci- of Nice( on the
suQect of married )riests( deser%e *reat attention"
Some isho)s( accordin* to the re-ations of So4o8
men and Socrates( )ro)osed a -a$ commandin*
isho)s and )riests thencefor$ard to astain from
their $i%es G ut St" Pa)hnucius the 3art'r( isho)
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of Thees( in E*')t( strenuous-' o))osed itG o8
ser%in*( #that marria*e $as chastit'# G and the
counci- ado)ted his o)inion" Suidas( e-asius(
Cesicenus( Cassiodorus( and Nice)horus Ca--istus(
record )recise-' the same thin*" The counci- mere-'
forade the c-er*' from -i%in* $ith a*a)etae( or fe8
ma-e associates esides their o$n $i%es( eBce)t their
mothers( sisters( aunts( and others $hose a*e $ou-d
)rec-ude sus)icion"
After that time( the ce-iac' of the c-er*' $as
recommended( $ithout ein* commanded" St"
OO Phi-oso)hica-
1erome( a de%out rec-use( $as( of a-- the fathers(
hi*hest in his eu-o*iums of the ce-iac' of )riests G
'et he reso-ute-' su))orts the cause of Carterius( a
S)anish isho)( $ho had een married t$ice"
#Were I(# sa's he( #to enumerate a-- the isho)s
$ho ha%e entered into second nu)tia-s( I shou-d
name as man' as $ere )resent at the Counc5- of
Rimini# #Tantus numerus con*re*aitur ut Rimi8
nensis s'nodus su)eretur"#
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The eBam)-es of c-er*'men married( and -i%in*
$ith their $i%es( are innumera-e" S'donius(
isho) of C-ermont( in Au%er*ne( in the fth cen8
tur'( married Pa)iani--a( dau*hter of the Em)eror
A%itus( and the house of Po-i*nac c-aims descent
from this marria*e" Sim)-icius( isho) of !our*es(
had t$o chi-dren ' his $ife Pa--adia" St" re*or'
of Na4ian4en $as the son of another re*or'(
isho) of Na4ian4en( and of Nonna( ' $hom that
isho) had three chi-dren Cesarius( or*onia( and
the saint"
In the Roman decreta-s( under the canon Osius(
$e nd a %er' -on* -ist of isho)s $ho $ere the
sons of )riests" Po)e Osius himse-f $as the son of
a su8deacon Ste)henG and Po)e !oniface I"( son
of the )riest 1ocondo" Po)e Fe-iB III" $as the son
of Fe-iB( a )riest( and $as himse-f one of the *rand8
fathers of re*or' the reat" The )riest ProQectus
$as the father of 1ohn II" G and ordian( the father
of A*a)et" Po)e S'-%ester $as the son of Po)e
&ormisdas" Theodore I" $as orn of a marria*e of
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Dictionar'" ?=
Theodore( )atriarch of 1erusa-emG a circumstance
$hich shou-d )roduce the reconci-iation of the t$o
Churches"
At -en*th( after se%era- counci-s had een he-d
$ithout eMect on the suQect of the ce-iac'( $hich
ou*ht a-$a's to accom)an' the )riesthood( Po)e
re*or' eBcommunicated a-- married )riests G either
to add res)ectai-it' to the Church( ' the *reater
ri*or of its disci)-ine( or to attach more c-ose-' to
the court of Rome the isho)s and )riests of other
countries( $ho $ou-d thus ha%e no other fami-'
than the Church" This -a$ $as not esta-ished $ith8
out *reat o))osition"
It is a %er' remara-e circumstance that the
Counci- of !ase-( ha%in* de)osed( at -east nomina--'(
Po)e Eu*enius IV"( and e-ected Amadeus of Sa%o'(
man' isho)s ha%in* oQected a*ainst that )rince
that he had een married( Eneas S'-%ius( $ho $as
after$ards )o)e( under the name of Pius II" ( su)8
)orted the e-ection of Amadeus in these $ords0
#Non so-um Hui uBorem hauit( sed uBorem haens(
)otest assumere# #Not on-' ma' he e made a )o)e
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$ho has een married( ut a-so he $ho is so"#
This Pius II" $as consistent" Peruse his -etters
to his mistress( in the co--ection of his $ors" &e
$as con%inced( that to defraud nature of her ri*hts
$as aso-ute insanit'( and that it $as the dut' of
man not to destro'( ut to contro- her"
&o$e%er this ma' e( since the Counci- of Trent
there has no -on*er een an' dis)ute aout the ce-i8
? Phi-oso)hica-
ac' of the Roman Catho-ic c-er*' G there ha%e een
on-' desires" A-- Protestant communions are( on
this )oint( in o))osition to Rome"
In the ree Church( $hich at )resent eBtends
from the frontiers of China to Ca)e 3ata)an( the
)riests ma' marr' once" Customs e%er'$here %ar' G
disci)-ine chan*es conforma-' to time and )-ace"
We here on-' record factsG $e enter into no con8
tro%ers'"
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Of C-ers of the C-oset( Since Denominated Secre8
taries of State and 3inisters"
C-ers of the c-oset( c-ers of the in*( more re8
cent-' denominated secretaries of state( in France
and En*-and( $ere ori*ina--' the #in*5s notaries"#
The' $ere after$ards ca--ed #secretaries of orders#
secretaires des commandemens" This $e are in8
formed of ' the -earned and -aorious PasHuier"
&is authorit' is unHuestiona-e( as he had under his
ins)ection the re*isters of the chamer of accounts(
$hich( in our o$n times( ha%e een destro'ed ' re"
At the unfortunate )eace of Cateau8Camresis(
a c-er of Phi-i) II"( ha%in* taen the tit-e of secre8
tar' of state( de =5Aues)ine( $ho $as secretar' of"
orders to the in* of France( and his notar'( too
that tit-e -ie$ise( that the honors of oth mi*ht e
eHua-( $hate%er mi*ht e the case $ith their emo-u8
ments"
In En*-and( efore the rei*n of &enr' VIIL(
there $as on-' one secretar' of the in*( $ho stood
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Dictionar'" ?
$hi-e he )resented memoria-s and )etitions to the
counci-" &enr' VIII" a))ointed t$o( and conferred
on them the same tit-es and )rero*ati%es as in S)ain"
The *reat no-es did not( at that )eriod( acce)t
these situations G ut( in time( the' ha%e ecome of
so much conseHuence that )eers of the rea-m and
commanders of armies are no$ in%ested $ith them"
Thus e%er'thin* chan*es" There is at )resent no
re-ic in France of the *o%ernment of &u*h Ca)et(
nor in En*-and of the administration of Wi--iam
the !astard"
CLI3ATE"
IT is certain that the sun and atmos)here mar
their em)ire on a-- the )roductions of nature( from
man to mushrooms" In the *rand a*e of Louis
;IV"( the in*enious Fontene--e remared 0
#One mi*ht ima*ine that the torrid and t$o
fri*id 4ones are not $e-- suited to the sciences"
Do$n to the )resent da' the' ha%e not tra%e--ed
e'ond E*')t and 3auritania( on the one side( nor
on the other e'ond S$eden" Perha)s it is not
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o$in* to mere chance that the' are retained $ithin
3ount At-as and the !a-tic Sea" We no$ not
$hether these ma' not e the -imits a))ointed to
them ' nature( or $hether $e ma' e%er ho)e to see
*reat authors amon* La)-anders or ne*roes"#
Chardin( one of those tra%e--ers $ho reason and
in%esti*ate( *oes sti-- further than Fontene--e( $hen
s)eain* of Persia" #The tem)erature of $arm
? Phi-oso)hica-
c-imates(# sa's he( #ener%ates the mind as $e-- as
the od'( and dissi)ates that re $hich the ima*ina8
tion reHuires for in%ention" In such c-imates men
are inca)a-e of the -on* studies and intense a))-i8
cation $hich are necessar' to the )roduction of
rst8rate $ors in the -iera- and mechanic arts(#
etc"
Chardin did not consider that Sadi and Loman
$ere Persians" &e did not reco--ect that Archi8
medes e-on*ed to Sici-'( $here the heat is *reater
than in three8fourths of Persia" &e for*ot that
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P'tha*oras former-' tau*ht *eometr' to the !rah8
mins" The Ae Duos su))orted and de%e-o)ed(
as $e-- as he $as a-e( the o)inion of Chardin"
One hundred and ft' 'ears efore them( !odin
made it the foundation of his s'stem in his #Re8
)u-ic(# and in his #3ethod of &istor'# G he asserts
that the inuence of c-imate is the )rinci)-e oth of
the *o%ernment and the re-i*ion of nations" Dio8
dorus of Sici-' $as of the same o)inion -on* efore
!odin"
The author of the #S)irit of La$s(# $ithout
Huotin* an' authorit'( carried this idea farther than
Chardin and !odin" A certain )art of the nation
e-ie%ed him to ha%e rst su**ested it( and im)uted
it to him as a crime" This $as Huite in character
$ith that )art of the nation a--uded to" There are
e%er'$here men $ho )ossess more 4ea- than un8
derstandin*"
We mi*ht as those $ho maintain that c-imate
Dictionar'" ?<
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does e%er'thin*( $h' the Em)eror 1u-ian( in his
#3iso)o*on(# sa's that $hat )-eased him in the
Parisians $as the *ra%it' of their characters and
the se%erit' of their manners G and $h' these Paris8
ians( $ithout the s-i*htest chan*e of c-imate( are
tio$ -ie )-a'fu- chi-dren( at $hom the *o%ernment
)unishes and smi-es at the same moment( and $ho
themse-%es( the moment after( a-so smi-e and sin*
-am)oons u)on their masters"
Wh' are the E*')tians( $ho are descried as
ha%in* een sti-- more *ra%e than the Parisians( at
)resent the most -a4'( fri%o-ous( and co$ard-' of
)eo)-e( after ha%in*( as $e are to-d( conHuered the
$ho-e $or-d for their )-easure( under a in* ca--ed
SesostrisJ Wh' are there no -on*er Anacreons(
Aristot-es( or 9euBises at AthensJ Whence comes
it that Rome( instead of its Ciceros( Catos( and
Li%'s( has mere-' citi4ens $ho dare not s)ea their
minds( and a ruta-i4ed )o)u-ace( $hose su)reme
ha))iness consists in ha%in* oi- chea)( and in *a4in*
at )rocessions J
Cicero( in his -etters( is occasiona--' %er' Qocu-ar
on the En*-ish" &e desires his rother :uintus(
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Caesar5s -ieutenant( to inform him $hether he has
found an' *reat )hi-oso)hers amon* them( in his
eB)edition to !ritain" &e -itt-e sus)ected that that
countr' $ou-d one da' )roduce mathematicians
$hom he cou-d not understand" 6et the c-imate
has not at a-- chan*ed( and the s' of London is as
c-oud' no$ as it $as then"
?@ Phi-oso)hica-
E%er'thin* chan*es( oth in odies and minds(
' time" Perha)s the Americans $i-- in some
future )eriod cross the sea to instruct Euro)eans
in the arts" C-imate has some inuence( *o%ern8
ment a hundred times more G re-i*ion and *o%ern8
ment comined more sti--"
Inuence of C-imate"
C-imate inuences re-i*ion in res)ect to cere8
monies and usa*es" A -e*is-ator cou-d ha%e eB)eri8
enced no dicu-t' in inducin* the Indians to athe
in the an*es at certain a))earances of the moon G
it is a hi*h *ratication to them" &ad an' one
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)ro)osed a -ie ath to the )eo)-e $ho inhait the
ans of the D$ina( near Archan*e-( he $ou-d ha%e
een stoned" Forid )or to an Ara( $ho after
eatin* this s)ecies of anima- food the most misera8
-e and dis*ustin* in his o$n countr'U $ou-d e
aMected ' -e)ros'( he $i-- oe' 'ou $ith Qo'G )ro8
hiit it to a West)ha-ian( and he $i-- e tem)ted to
noc 'ou do$n" Astinence from $ine is a *ood
)rece)t of re-i*ion in Araia( $here oran*e( citron(
and -emon $aters are necessar' to hea-th" 3a8
homet $ou-d not ha%e foridden $ine in S$it4er8
-and( es)ecia--' efore *oin* to att-e"
There are usa*es mere-' fancifu-" Wh' did the
)riests of E*')t de%ise circumcisionJ It $as not
for the sae of hea-th" Cam'ses( $ho treated as
the' deser%ed oth them and their u-- A)is( the
Dictionar'" "?
courtiers of Cam'ses( and his so-diers( enQo'ed )er8
fect-' *ood hea-th $ithout such muti-ation" C-imate
has no )ecu-iar inuence o%er this )articu-ar )ortion
of the )erson of a )riest" The oMerin* in Huestion
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$as made to Isis( )roa-' on the same )rinci)-e as
the rst-in*s of the fruits of the earth $ere e%er'8
$here oMered" It $as t')ica- of an oMerin* of the
rst fruits of -ife"
Re-i*ions ha%e a-$a's turned on t$o )i%ots
forms of ceremonies( and faith" Forms and cere8
monies de)end much on c-imateG faith not at a--"
A doctrine $i-- e recei%ed $ith eHua- faci-it' under
the eHuator or near the )o-e" It $i-- e after$ards
eHua--' reQected at !ata%ia and the Orcades( $hi-e
it $i-- e maintained( un*uius et rostro $ith tooth
and nai- at Sa-amanca" This de)ends not on sun
and atmos)here( ut so-e-' u)on o)inion( that c-e
em)ress of the $or-d"
Certain -iations of $ine $i-- e natura--' en8
Qoined in a countr' aoundin* in %ine'ards G and it
$ou-d ne%er occur to the mind of an' -e*is-ator to
institute sacred m'steries( $hich cou-d not e ce-e8
rated $ithout $ine( in such a countr' as Nor$a'"
It $i-- e eB)ress-' commanded to urn incense
in the court of a tem)-e $here easts are i--ed in
honor of the Di%init'( and for the )riests5 su))er"
This s-au*hter8house( ca--ed a tem)-e( $ou-d e a
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)-ace of aomina-e infection( if it $ere not con8
tinua--' )uried G and $ithout the use of aromatics(
o7 Phi-oso)hica-
the re-i*ion of the ancients $ou-d ha%e introduced
the )-a*ue" The interior of the tem)-e $as e%en
festooned $ith o$ers to s$eeten the air"
The co$ $i-- not e sacriced in the urnin* ter8
ritor' of the Indian )eninsu-a( ecause it su))-ies
the necessar' artic-e of mi-( and is %er' rare in
arid and arren districts( and ecause its esh( ein*
dr' and tou*h( and 'ie-din* ut -itt-e nourishment(
$ou-d aMord the !rahmins ut misera-e cheer"
On the contrar'( the co$ $i-- e considered sacred(
in conseHuence of its rareness and uti-it'"
The tem)-e of 1u)iter Ammon( $here the heat
is eBcessi%e( $i-- e entered on-' $ith are feet" To
)erform his de%otions at Co)enha*en( a man re8
Huires his feet to e $arm and $e-- co%ered"
It is not thus $ith doctrine" Po-'theism has
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een e-ie%ed in a-- c-imates G and it is eHua--' eas'
for a Crim Tartar and an inhaitant of 3ecca to
acno$-ed*e one on-' incommunica-e od( neither
e*otten nor e*ettin*" It is ' doctrine( more than
' rites( that a re-i*ion eBtends from one c-imate
to another" The doctrine of the unit' of od
)assed ra)id-' from 3edina to 3ount Caucasus"
C-imate( then( 'ie-ds to o)inion"
The Aras said to the Turs 0 #We )racticed
the ceremon' of circumcision in Araia $ithout
%er' $e-- no$in* $h'" It $as an ancient usa*e
of the )riests of E*')t to oMer to Oshiret( or Osiris(
a sma-- )ortion of $hat the' considered most %a-u8
a-e" We had ado)ted this custom three thousand
Dictionar'" ?>
'ears efore $e ecame 3ahometans" 6ou $i-- e8
come circumcised -ie us G 'ou $i-- ind 'ourse-f to
s-ee) $ith one of 'our $i%es e%er' Frida'( and to
*i%e t$o and a ha-f )er cent( of 'our income an8
nua--' to the )oor" We drin nothin* ut $ater
and sheretG a-- intoBicatin* -iHuors are foridden
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us" In Araia the' are )ernicious" 6ou $i-- em8
race the same re*imen( a-thou*h 'ou shou-d e
)assionate-' fond of $ineG and e%en a-thou*h( on
the ans of the Phasis and AraBes( it shou-d often
e necessar' for 'ou" In short( if 'ou $ish to *o to
hea%en( and to otain *ood )-aces there( 'ou $i--
tae the road throu*h 3ecca"#
The inhaitants north of the Caucasus suQect
themse-%es to these -a$s( and ado)t( in the fu--est
eBtent( a re-i*ion $hich $as ne%er framed for them"
In E*')t the em-ematica- $orshi) of anima-s
succeeded to the doctrines of Thaut" The *ods of
the Romans after$ards shared E*')t $ith the do*s(
the cats( and the crocodi-es" To the Roman re-i*ion
succeeded Christianit'G that $as com)-ete-' an8
ished ' 3ahometanism( $hich $i-- )erha)s e
su)erseded ' some ne$ re-i*ion"
In a-- these chan*es c-imate has eMected nothin* G
*o%ernment has done e%er'thin*" We are here
considerin* on-' second causes( $ithout raisin* our
unha--o$ed e'es to that Pro%idence $hich directs
them" The Christian re-i*ion( $hich recei%ed its
irth in S'ria( and *re$ u) to$ards its fu-ness of
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stature in A-eBandria( inhaits no$ those countries
Vo-" 8=
io Phi-oso)hica-
$here Teutat and Irminsu-( Fre'a and Odin( $ere
former-' adored"
There are some nations $hose re-i*ion is not the
resu-t either of c-imate or of *o%ernment" What
cause detached the north of erman'( Denmar(
three )arts of S$it4er-and( &o--and( En*-and( Scot8
-and( and Ire-and( from the Romish communionJ
Po%ert'" Indu-*ences( and de-i%erance from )ur*a8
tor' for the sou-s of those $hose odies $ere at that
time in )ossession of %er' -itt-e mone'( $ere so-d
too dear" The )re-ates and mons asored the
$ho-e re%enue of a )ro%ince" Peo)-e ado)ted a
chea)er re-i*ion" In short( after numerous ci%i-
$ars( it $as conc-uded that the )o)e5s re-i*ion $as
a *ood one for no-es( and the reformed one for
citi4ens" Time $i-- sho$ $hether the re-i*ion of
the rees or of the Turs $i-- )re%ai- on the coasts
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of the EuBine and 8E*ean seas"
CO&ERENCE CO&ESION AD&ESION"
T&E )o$er ' $hich the )arts of odies are e)t
to*ether" It is a )henomenon the most common(
ut the -east understood" Ne$ton derides the
hooed atoms( ' means of $hich it has een at8
tem)ted to eB)-ain coherenceG for it sti-- remained
to e no$n $h' the' are hooed( and $h' the'
cohere" &e treats $ith no *reater res)ect those
$ho ha%e eB)-ained cohesion ' rest" #It is(# sa's
he( #an occu-t Hua-it'"#
Dictionar'" ==
&e has recourse to an attraction" !ut is not
this attraction( $hich ma' indeed eBist( ut is '
no means ca)a-e of demonstration( itse-f an occu-t
Hua-it'J The *rand attraction of the hea%en-'
odies is demonstrated and ca-cu-ated" That of ad8
herin* odies is inca-cu-a-e" !ut ho$ can $e ad8
mit a force that is immeasura-e to e of the same
nature as one that can e measuredJ
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Ne%erthe-ess( it is demonstrated that the force of
attraction acts u)on a-- the )-anets and a-- hea%'
odies in )ro)ortion to their so-idit'G ut it acts
on a-- the )artic-es of matter G it is( therefore( %er'
)roa-e that( $hi-e it eBists in e%er' )art in refer8
ence to the $ho-e( it eBists a-so in e%er' )art in ref8
erence to cohesionG coherence( therefore( ma' e
the eMect of attraction"
This o)inion a))ears admissi-e ti-- a etter one
can e found( and that etter is not easi-' to e met
$ith"
CO33ERCE"
SINCE the fa-- of Cartha*e( no )eo)-e had een
)o$erfu- in commerce and arms at the same time(
unti- Venice set the eBam)-e" The Portu*uese
ha%in* )assed the Ca)e of ood &o)e( $ere( for
some time( *reat -ords on the coast of India( and
e%en formida-e in Euro)e" The 2nited Pro%inces
ha%e on-' een $arriors in s)ite of themse-%es( and
it $as not as united et$een themse-%es( ut as
united $ith En*-and that the' assisted to ho-d the
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= Phi-oso)hica-
a-ance of Euro)e at the commencement of the
ei*hteenth centur'"
Cartha*e( Venice( and Amsterdam ha%e een
)o$erfu-G ut the' ha%e acted -ie those )eo)-e
amon* us( $ho( ha%in* amassed mone' ' trade(
u' -ord-' estates" Neither Cartha*e( Venice( &o-8
-and( nor an' )eo)-e( ha%e commenced ' ein* $ar8
riors( and e%en conHuerors( to nish ' ein* mer8
chants" The En*-ish on-' ans$er this descri)8
tionG the' had fou*ht a -on* time efore the'
ne$ ho$ to recon" The' did not no$( $hen
the' *ained the att-es of A*incourt( Crec'( and
Poitiers( that the' $ere a-e to dea- -ar*e-' in
corn( and mae roadc-oth( $hich $ou-d e of much
more %a-ue to them than such %ictories" The
no$-ed*e of these arts a-one has au*mented( en8
riched( and stren*thened the nation" It is on-' e8
cause the En*-ish ha%e ecome merchants that Lon8
don eBceeds Paris in eBtent and numer of citi4ens G
that the' can s)read t$o hundred shi)s of $ar o%er
the seas( and ee) ro'a- a--ies in )a'"
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When Louis ;IV" made Ita-' trem-e( and his
armies( a-read' masters of Sa%o' and Piedmont(
$ere read' to tae Turin( Prince Eu*ene $as
o-i*ed to march to the sirts of erman'( to the
succor of the due of Sa%o'" &a%in* no mone'(
$ithout $hich he cou-d neither tae nor defend
to$ns( he had recourse to the En*-ish merchants"
In ha-f an hour the' ad%anced him the sum of %e
mi--ions of -i%res( $ith $hich he de-i%ered Turin(
Dictionar'" =
eat the French( and $rote this -itt-e i--et to those
$ho had -ent it him 0 #ent-emen( I ha%e recei%ed
'our mone'( and I atter m'se-f that I ha%e em8
)-o'ed it to 'our satisfaction"# A-- this eBcites Qust
)ride in an En*-ish merchant( and maes him
%enture to com)are himse-f( and not $ithout reason(
to a Roman citi4en" Thus the 'oun*er sons of a
)eer of the rea-m disdain not to e merchants" Lord
To$nsend( minister of state( had a rother $ho $as
contented $ith ein* a merchant in the cit'" At the
time that Lord Orford *o%erned En*-and( his
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'oun*er rother $as a factor at A-e))o( $hence he
$ou-d not return( and $here he died" This custom
$hich( ho$e%er( e*ins to dec-ine a))eared mon8
strous to the )ett' erman )rinces" The' cou-d
not concei%e ho$ the son of a )eer of En*-and $as
on-' a rich and )o$erfu- trader( $hi-e in erman'
the' are a-- )rinces" We ha%e seen near-' thirt'
hi*hnesses of the same name( ha%in* nothin* for
their fortunes ut o-d armories and aristocratica-
hauteur" In France( an'od' ma' e a marHuis
that -iesG and $hoe%er arri%es at Paris from a
remote )ro%ince( $ith mone' to s)end( and a name
endin* in ac or i--e( ma' sa'0 #A man -ie me#
#A man of m' Hua-it' # and so%erei*n-' des)ise a
merchantG $hi-e the merchant so often hears his
)rofession s)oen of $ith disdain that he is $ea
enou*h to -ush at it" Which is the more usefu- to
a state a $e--8)o$dered -ord( $ho no$s )recise-'
at $hat hour the in* rises and retires( and $ho
= Phi-oso)hica-
*i%es himse-f airs of *reatness( $hi-e )-a'in* the
)art of a s-a%e in the antechamer of a minister G or
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a merchant $ho enriches his countr'( sends orders
from his oce to Surat and A-e))o( and contriutes
to the ha))iness of the $or-d J
CO33ON SENSE"
T&ERE is sometimes in %u-*ar eB)ressions an
ima*e of $hat )asses in the heart of a-- men"
#Sensus communis# si*nied amon* the Romans
not on-' common sense( ut a-so humanit' and sensi8
i-it'" As $e are not eHua- to the Romans( this
$ord $ith us con%e's not ha-f $hat it did $ith
them" It si*nies on-' *ood sense )-ain( strai*ht8
for$ard reasonin* the rst notion of ordinar'
thin*s a medium et$een du-ness and inte--ect"
To sa'( #that man has not common sense(# is a *ross
insu-t G $hi-e the eB)ression( #that man has common
sense(# is an aMront a-soG it $ou-d im)-' that he
$as not Huite stu)id( ut that he $anted inte--ect"
!ut $hat is the meanin* of common sense( if it e
not senseJ 3en( $hen the' in%ented this term(
su))osed that nothin* entered the mind eBce)t
' the senses G other$ise $ou-d the' ha%e used the
$ord #sense# to si*nif' the resu-t of the common
facu-t' of reason J
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It is said( sometimes( that common sense is %er'
rare" What does this eB)ression meanJ That( in
man' men( da$nin* reason is arrested in its )ro*8
ress ' some )reQudices G that a man $ho Qud*es
Dictionar'" =<
reasona-' on one aMair $i-- decei%e himse-f *ross-'
in another" The Ara( $ho( esides ein* a *ood
ca-cu-ator( $as a -earned chemist and an eBact as8
tronomer( ne%erthe-ess e-ie%ed that 3ahomet )ut
ha-f of the moon into his s-ee%e"
&o$ is it that he $as so much ao%e common
sense in the three sciences ao%e mentioned( and
eneath it $hen he )roceeded to the suQect of ha-f
the moonJ It is ecause( in the rst case( he had
seen $ith his o$n e'es( and )erfected his o$n in8
te--i*ence G and( in the second( he had used the e'es
of others( ' shuttin* his o$n( and )er%ertin* the
common sense $ithin him"
&o$ cou-d this stran*e )er%ersion of mind
o)erateJ &o$ cou-d the ideas $hich had so re*u8
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-ar and rm a footin* in his rain( on man' su8
Qects( ha-t on another a thousand times more )a-)a8
-e and eas' to com)rehend J This man had a-$a's
the same )rinci)-es of inte--i*ence in him G he must
ha%e therefore )ossessed a %itiated or*an( as it some8
times ha))ens that the most de-icate e)icure has a
de)ra%ed taste in re*ard to a )articu-ar ind of
nourishment"
&o$ did the or*an of this Ara( $ho sa$ ha-f
of the moon in 3ahomet5s s-ee%e( ecome dis8
ordered J !' fear" It had een to-d him that if he
did not e-ie%e in this s-ee%e his sou-( immediate-'
5after his death( in )assin* o%er the narro$ rid*e(
$ou-d fa-- fore%er into the a'ss" &e $as to-d much
$orse if e%er 'ou dout this s-ee%e( one der%ish
i @ Phi-oso)hica-
$i-- treat 'ou $ith i*nomin' G another $i-- )ro%e 'ou
mad( ecause( ha%in* a-- )ossi-e moti%es for credi8
i-it'( 'ou $i-- not sumit 'our su)er reason to
e%idence G a third $i-- refer 'ou to the -itt-e di%an of
a sma-- )ro%ince( and 'ou $i-- e -e*a--' im)a-ed"
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A-- this )roduces a )anic in the *ood Ara( his
$ife( sister( and a-- his -itt-e fami-'" The' )os8
sess *ood sense in a-- the rest( ut on this artic-e
their ima*ination is diseased -ie that of Pasca-(
$ho continua--' sa$ a )reci)ice near his couch"
!ut did our Ara rea--' e-ie%e in the s-ee%e of
3ahomet J No G he endea%ored to e-ie%e it G he
said( #It is im)ossi-e( ut true I e-ie%e that $hich5
I do not credit"# &e formed a chaos of ideas in his
head in re*ard to this s-ee%e( $hich he feared to dis8
entan*-e( and he *a%e u) his common sense"
CONFESSION"
REPENTANCE for one5s fau-ts is the on-' thin*
that can re)air the -oss of innocence G and to a))ear
to re)ent of them( $e must e*in ' acno$-ed*in*
them" Confession( therefore( is a-most as ancient as
ci%i- societ'" Confession $as )ractised in a-- the
m'steries of E*')t( reece( and Samothrace" We
are to-d( in the -ife of 3arcus Aure-ius( that $hen
he dei*ned to )artici)ate in the E-eusinian m's8
teries( he confessed himse-f to the hiero)hant(
thou*h no man had -ess need of confession than
himse-f"
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This mi*ht e a %er' sa-utar' ceremon'G it
Dictionar'" =
mi*ht a-so ecome %er' detrimenta- G for such is the
case $ith a-- human institutions" We no$ the
ans$er of the S)artan $hom a hiero)hant $ou-d
ha%e )ersuaded to confess himse-f0 #To $hom
shou-d I acno$-ed*e m' fau-tsJ to od( or to
theeJ# #To od(# said the )riest" #Retire( then(
O man"#
It is hard to determine at $hat time this )ractice
$as esta-ished amon* the 1e$s( $ho orro$ed a
*reat man' of their rites from their nei*hors" The
3ishna( $hich is the co--ection of the 1e$ish -a$s(
sa's that often( in confessin*( the' )-aced their hand
u)on a ca-f e-on*in* to the )riestG and this $as
ca--ed #the confession of ca-%es"#
It is said( in the same 3ishna( that e%er' cu-)rit
under sentence of death( $ent and confessed himse-f
efore $itnesses( in some retired s)ot( a short time
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efore his eBecution" If he fe-t himse-f *ui-t' he
said( #3a' m' death atone for a-- m' sins # If in8
nocent( he said( #3a' m' death atone for a-- m'
sins( eBce)tin* that of $hich I am no$ accused"#
On the da' of the feast $hich $as ca--ed ' the
1e$s the so-emn atonement( the de%out amon* them
confessed to one another( s)ecif'in* their sins" The
confessor re)eated three times thirteen $ords of the
se%ent'8se%enth Psa-m( at the same time *i%in* the
confessed thirt'8nine stri)es( $hich the -atter re8
turned( and the' $ent a$a' Huits" It is said that
this ceremon' is sti-- in use"
St" 1ohn5s re)utation for sanctit' rou*ht cro$ds
= 7 Phi-oso)hica-
to confess to him( as the' came to e a)ti4ed '
him $ith the a)tism of QusticeG ut $e are not
informed that St" 1ohn *a%e his )enitents thirt'8
nine stri)es" Confession $as not then a sacrament G
for this there are se%era- reasons" The rst is( that
the $ord #sacrament# $as at that time unno$n(
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$hich reason is of itse-f sucient" The Christians
too their confession from the 1e$ish rites( and not
from the m'steries of Isis and Ceres" The 1e$s
confessed to their associates( and the Christians did
a-so" It after$ards a))eared more con%enient that
this shou-d e the )ri%i-e*e of the )riests" No rite(
no ceremon'( can e esta-ished ut in )rocess of
time" It $as hard-' )ossi-e that some trace shou-d
not remain of the ancient usa*e of the -ait' of con8
fessin* to one another"
In Constantine5s rei*n( it $as at rst the )ractice
)u-ic-' to confess )u-ic oMences" In the fth cen8
tur'( after the schism of No%atus and No%atian(
)enitentiaries $ere instituted for the aso-ution of
such as had fa--en into ido-atr'" This confession to
)enitentiar' )riests $as ao-ished under the Em8
)eror Theodosius" A $oman ha%in* accused herse-f
a-oud( to the )enitentiar' of Constantino)-e( of
-'in* $ith the deacon( caused so much scanda- and
disturance throu*hout the cit' that Nectarius )er8
mitted a-- the faithfu- to a))roach the ho-' ta-e
$ithout confession( and to communicate in oedi8
ence to their consciences a-one" &ence these $ords
of St" 1ohn Chr'sostom( $ho succeeded Nectarius 0
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Dictionar'" =>
#Confess 'ourse-%es continua--' to odG I do not
rin* 'ou for$ard on a sta*e to disco%er 'our fau-ts
to 'our fe--o$8ser%ants G sho$ 'our $ounds to od(
and as of &im their cure G acno$-ed*e 'our sins
to &im $ho $i-- not re)roach 'ou efore menG it
$ere %ain to stri%e to hide them from &im $ho
no$s a-- thin*s(# etc"
It is said that the )ractice of auricu-ar confession
did not e*in in the $est unti- aout the se%enth
centur'( $hen it $as instituted ' the aots( $ho
reHuired their mons to come and acno$-ed*e their
oMences to them t$ice a 'ear" These aots it $as
$ho in%ented the formu-a0 #I aso-%e thee to the
utmost of m' )o$er and th' need"# It $ou-d sure-'
ha%e een more res)ectfu- to$ards the Su)reme
!ein*( as $e-- as more Qust( to sa' 0 #3a' &e for8
*i%e oth th' fau-ts and mine #
The *ood $hich confession has done is that it
has sometimes )rocured restitution from )ett'
thie%es" The i-- is( that( in the interna- trou-es of
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states( it has sometimes forced the )enitents to e
conscientious-' ree--ious and -ood8thirst'" The
ue-)h )riests refused aso-ution to the hie--ines(
and the hie--ines to the ue-)hs"
The counse--or of state( Lenet( re-ates( in his
#3emoirs(# that a-- he cou-d do in !ur*und' to
mae the )eo)-e rise in fa%or of the Prince Conde(
detained at Vincennes ' Cardina- 3a4arin( $as
#to -et -oose the )riests in the confessiona-s#
s)eain* of them as -oodhounds( $ho $ere to fan
==? Phi-oso)hica-
the ame of ci%i- $ar in the )ri%ac' of the confes8
siona-"
At the sie*e of !arce-ona( the mons refused a8
so-ution to a-- $ho remained faithfu- to Phi-i) V"
In the -ast re%o-ution of enoa( it $as intimated to
a-- consciences that there $as no sa-%ation for $ho8
soe%er shou-d not tae u) arms a*ainst the Aus8
trians" This sa-utar' remed' has( in e%er' a*e(
een con%erted into a )oison" Whether a Sfor4a( a
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3edici( a Prince of Oran*e( or a Kin* of France
$as to e assassinated( the )arricide a-$a's )re8
)ared himse-f ' the sacrament of confession" Louis
;L( and the 3archioness de !rin%i--iers a-$a's
confessed as soon as the' had committed an' *reat
crimeG and the' confessed often( as *-uttons tae
medicines to increase their a))etite"
The Disc-osure of Confessions"
1auri*ini and !a-tha4ar erard( the assassins of
Wi--iam L( Prince of Oran*e( the dominican 1acHues
C-ement( 1ean Chate-( the Feui--ant Ra%ai--ac( and
a-- the other )arricides of that da'( confessed them8
se-%es efore committin* their crimes" Fanaticism(
in those de)-ora-e a*es( had arri%ed at such a )itch
that confession $as ut an additiona- )-ed*e for
the consummation of %i--ain'" It ecame sacred for
this reason that confession is a sacrament"
Strada himse-f sa's 0 #1auri*ni non ante f acinus
a**redi sustinuit( Huam eB)iatam noBis animam
a)ud Dominicanum sacerdotem cce-esti )ane rma8
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Dictionar'" =
uerit"# #1 au ri*im did not %enture u)on this act unti-
he had )ur*ed his sou- ' confession at the feet of
a Dominican( and fortied it ' the ce-estia- read"#
We nd( in the interro*ator' of Ra%ai--ac( that
the $retched man( Huittin* the Feui--ans( and $ish8
in* to e recei%ed amon* the 1esuits( a))-ied to the
1esuit d5Aui*n' and( after s)eain* of se%era- a)8
)aritions that he had seen( sho$ed him a nife( on
the -ade of $hich $as en*ra%ed a heart and a cross(
and said( #This heart indicates that the in*5s heart
must e rou*ht to mae $ar on the &u*uenots"#
Perha)s( if this d5Aui*n' had een 4ea-ous and
)rudent enou*h to ha%e informed the in* of these
$ords( and *i%en him a faithfu- )icture of the man
$ho had uttered them( the est of in*s $ou-d not
ha%e een assassinated"
On Au*ust ?( =@=?( three months after the death
of &enr' IV"( $hose $ounds 'et -eed in the heart
of e%er' Frenchman( the Ad%ocate8enera- Sir%in(
sti-- of i--ustrious memor'( reHuired that the 1esuits
shou-d e made to si*n the four fo--o$in* ru-es 0
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i" That the counci- is ao%e the )o)e" " That
the )o)e cannot de)ri%e the in* of an' of his ri*hts
' eBcommunication" " That ecc-esiastics( -ie
other )ersons( are entire-' suQect to the in*" "
That a )riest $ho is made acHuainted( ' confession(
$ith a cons)irac' a*ainst the in* and the state(
must disc-ose it to the ma*istrates"
On the nd( the )ar-iament )assed a decree( '
$hich it forade the 1esuits to instruct 'outh efore
Phi-oso)hica-
the' had si*ned these four artic-es G ut the court of
Rome $as then so )o$erfu-( and that of France so
fee-e( that this decree $as of no eMect" A fact
$orth' of attention is( that this same court of Rome(
$hich did not choose that confession shou-d e dis8
c-osed $hen the -i%es of so%erei*ns $ere endan8
*ered( o-i*ed its confessors to denounce to the in8
Huisitors those $hom their fema-e )enitents accused
in confession of ha%in* seduced and aused them"
Pau- IV"( Pius IV"( C-ement VIII"( and re*or'
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;V"( ordered these disc-osures to e made"
This $as a %er' emarrassin* snare for con8
fessors and fema-e )enitentsG it $as main* the
sacrament a re*ister of informations( and e%en of
sacri-e*es" For( ' the ancient canons( and es8
)ecia--' ' the Lateran Counci- under Innocent III"(
e%er' )riest that disc-osed a confession( of $hate%er
nature( $as to e interdicted and condemned to )er8
)etua- im)risonment"
!ut this is not the $orst G here are four )o)es( of
the siBteenth and se%enteenth centuries( orderin* the
disc-osure of a sin of im)urit'( ut not )ermittin*
that of a )arricide" A $oman( in the sacrament( de8
c-ares( or )retends( efore a carme-ite( that a cor8
de-ier has seduced her G and the carme-ite must de8
nounce the corde-ier" A fanatica- assassin( thinin*
that he ser%es od ' i--in* his )rince( comes and
consu-ts a confessor on this case of conscience G and
the confessor commits a sacri-e*e if he sa%es his
so%erei*n5s -ife(
Dictionar'"
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This asurd and horri-e contradiction is one un8
fortunate conseHuence of the constant o))osition
eBistin* for so man' centuries et$een the ci%i- and
ecc-esiastica- -a$s" The citi4en nds himse-f( on
ft' occasions( )-aced $ithout a-ternati%e et$een
sacri-e*e and hi*h treasonG the ru-es of *ood and
e%i- ein* not 'et dra$n from eneath the chaos
under $hich the' ha%e so -on* een uried" The
1esuit Coton5s re)-' to &enr' IV" $i-- endure -on*er
than his order" Wou-d 'ou re%ea- the confession of
a man $ho had reso-%ed to assassinate me J# #No G
ut I $ou-d thro$ m'se-f et$een him and 'ou"#
Father Coton5s maBim has not a-$a's een fo-8
-o$ed" In some countries there are state m'steries
unno$n to the )u-ic( of $hich re%ea-ed confes8
sions form no inconsidera-e )art" !' means of
suorned confessors the secrets of )risoners are
-earned" Some confessors( to reconci-e their con8
science $ith their interest( mae use of a sin*u-ar
artice" The' *i%e an account( not )recise-' of $hat
the )risoner has to-d them( ut of $hat he has not
to-d them" If( for eBam)-e( the' are em)-o'ed to
nd out $hether an accused )erson has for his ac8
com)-ice a Frenchman or an Ita-ian( the' sa' to the
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man $ho em)-o's them( #the )risoner has s$orn to
me that no Ita-ian $as informed of his desi*nsG#
$hence it is conc-uded that the sus)ected French8
man is *ui-t'"
!odin thus eB)resses himse-f( in his oo( #De
-a Re)u-iHue# 0 #Nor must it e concea-ed( if the
Phi-oso)hica-
cu-)rit is disco%ered to ha%e cons)ired a*ainst the
-ife of the so%erei*n( or e%en to ha%e $i--ed it on-' G
as in the case of a *ent-eman of Normand'( $ho
confessed to a mon that he had a mind to i--
Francis I" The mon a))rised the in*( $ho sent
the *ent-eman to the court of )ar-iament( $here he
$as condemned to death( as I -earned from 3"
Cana*e( an ad%ocate in )ar-iament"#
The $riter of this artic-e $as himse-f a-most $it8
ness to a disc-osure sti-- more im)ortant and sin*u8
-ar" It is no$n ho$ the 1esuit Dauenton etra'ed
Phi-i) V"( in* of S)ain( to $hom he $as confessor"
&e thou*ht( from a %er' mistaen )o-ic'( that he
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shou-d re)ort the secrets of his )enitent to the due
of Or-eans( re*ent of the in*dom( and had the
im)rudence to $rite to him $hat he shou-d not(
e%en %era--'( communicate to an' one" The due
of Or-eans sent his -etter to the in* of S)ain" The
1esuit $as discarded( and died a short time after"
This is an authenticated fact"
It is sti-- a *ra%e and )er)-eBin* Huestion( in
$hat cases confessions shou-d e disc-osed" For(
if $e decide that it shou-d e in cases of human
hi*h treason( this treason ma' e made to inc-ude
an' direct oMence a*ainst maQest'( e%en the smu*8
*-in* of sa-t or mus-ins" 3uch more shou-d hi*h
treasons a*ainst the Di%ine 3aQest' e disc-osedG
and these ma' e eBtended to the sma--est fau-ts( as
ha%in* missed e%enin* ser%ice"
It $ou-d( then( e %er' im)ortant to come to
Dictionar'" <
a )erfect understandin* aout $hat confessions
shou-d e disc-osed( and $hat shou-d e e)t secret"
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6et $ou-d such a decision e %er' dan*erousG for
ho$ man' thin*s are there $hich must not e in8
%esti*ated
Pontas( $ho( in three fo-io %o-umes( decides on
a-- the )ossi-e cases of conscience in France( and
is unno$n to the rest of the $or-d( sa's that on
no occasion shou-d confession e disc-osed" The )ar8
-iaments ha%e decided the contrar'" Which are
$e to e-ie%eJ Pontas( or the *uardians of the
-a$s of the rea-m( $ho $atch o%er the -i%es of
)rinces and the safet' of the state J
Whether La'men and Women &a%e !een Con8
fessorsJ =
As( in the o-d -a$( the -ait' confessed to one
another G so( in the ne$ -a$( the' -on* had the same
)ri%i-e*e ' custom" In )roof of this( -et it suce to
cite the ce-erated 1oin%i--e( $ho eB)ress-' sa's that
#the consta-e of C')rus confessed himse-f to him(
and he *a%e him aso-ution( accordin* to the ri*ht
$hich he had so to do"# St" Thomas( in his dream(
eB)resses himse-f thus0 #Confessio eB defectu sa8
cerdotis -aico facta( sacramenta-is est Huodam
modo(# #Confession made to a -a'man( in defau-t
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of a )riest( is in some sort sacramenta-"#
We nd in the -ife of St" !ur*undosarius( and in
the ru-e of an unno$n saint( that the nuns con8
fessed their %er' *rossest sins to their aess" The
Vo-" =<
@ Phi-oso)hica-
ru-e of St" Donatus ordains that the nuns sha-- dis8
co%er their fau-ts to their su)erior three times a da'"
The ca)itu-ars of our in*s sa' that aesses must
e foridden the eBercise of the ri*ht $hich the'
ha%e arro*ated a*ainst the custom of the ho-'
church( of *i%in* enediction and im)osin* hands(
$hich seems to si*nif' the )ronouncin* of aso-u8
tion( and su))oses the confession of sins" 3arcus(
)atriarch of A-eBandria( ass !a-4amon( a ce-e8
rated canonist of his time( $hether )ermission
shou-d e *ranted to aesses to hear confessions(
to $hich !a-4amon ans$ers in the ne*ati%e" We
ha%e( in the canon -a$( a decree of Po)e Innocent
III"( enQoinin* the isho)s of Va-encia and !ur*os(
in S)ain( to )re%ent certain aesses from -essin*
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their nuns( from confessin*( and from )u-ic )reach8
in*0 #A-thou*h(# sa's he( #the -essed Vir*in
3ar' $as su)erior to a-- the a)ost-es in di*nit'
and in merit( 'et it is not to her( ut to the a)ost-es(
that the Lord has conded the e's of the in*dom
of hea%en"#
So ancient $as this ri*ht( that $e nd it esta8
-ished in the ru-es of St" !asi-" &e )ermits aesses
to confess their nuns( conQoint-' $ith a )riest"
Father 3artene( in his #Ri*hts of the Church(#
sa's that( for a -on* time( aesses confessed their
nuns G ut( adds he( the' $ere so curious( that it
$as found necessar' to de)ri%e them of this
)ri%i-e*e"
The eB81esuit Nonnotte shou-d confess himse-f
Dictionar'"
and do )enanceG not for ha%in* een one of the
most i*norant of dauers on )a)er( for that is no
crime G not for ha%in* *i%en the name of errors to
truths $hich he did not understand G ut for ha%in*(
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$ith the most inso-ent stu)idit'( ca-umniated the
author of this artic-e( and ca--ed his rother raca
a foH-U( $hi-e he denied these facts and man'
others( aout $hich he ne$ not one $ord" &e has
)ut himse-f in dan*er of he-- reG -et us ho)e that
he $i-- as )ardon of od for his enormous fo--'"
We desire not the death of a sinner( ut that he
turn from his $icedness and -i%e"
It has -on* een deated $h' men( %er' famous
in this )art of the $or-d $here confession is in use(
ha%e died $ithout this sacrament" Such are Leo
;"( Pe-isson( and Cardina- Duois" The cardina-
had his )erineum o)ened ' La Pe'ronie5s istour' G
ut he mi*ht ha%e confessed and communicated e8
fore the o)eration" Pe-isson( $ho $as a Protestant
unti- he $as fort' 'ears o-d( ecame a con%ert that
he mi*ht e made master of reHuests and ha%e
eneces" As for Po)e Leo ;"( $hen sur)rised '
death( he $as so much occu)ied $ith tem)ora- con8
cerns( that he had no time to thin of s)iritua- ones"
Confession Ticets"
In Protestant countries confession is made to
od G in Catho-ic ones( to man" The Protestants sa'
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'ou can hide nothin* from od( $hereas man no$s
on-' $hat 'ou choose to te-- him" As $e sha--
7 Phi-oso)hica-
ne%er medd-e $ith contro%ers'( $e sha-- not enter
here into this o-d dis)ute" Our -iterar' societ' is
com)osed of Catho-ics and Protestants( united '
the -o%e of -etters G $e must not suMer ecc-esiastica-
Huarre-s to so$ dissension amon* us" We $i-- con8
tent ourse-%es $ith once more re)eatin* the ne
ans$er of the ree a-read' mentioned( to the )riest
$ho $ou-d ha%e had him confess in the m'steries
of Ceres 0 #Is it to od( or to thee( that I am to ad8
dress m'se-f J# #To od"# #De)art then( O man"#
In Ita-'( and in a-- the countries of oedience(
e%er' one( $ithout distinction( must confess and
communicate" If 'ou ha%e a stoc of enormous
sins on hand( 'ou ha%e a-so *rand )enitentiaries to
aso-%e 'ou" If 'our confession is $orth nothin*(
so much the $orse for 'ou" At a %er' reasona-e
rate( 'ou *et a )rinted recei)t( $hich admits 'ou to
communionG and a-- the recei)ts are thro$n into a
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)iB G such is the ru-e"
These earers5 ticets $ere unno$n at Paris
unti- aout the 'ear =<?( $hen an archisho) of
Paris ethou*ht himse-f of introducin* a sort of
s)iritua- an( to eBtir)ate 1ansenism and insure the
trium)h of the u-- 2ni*enitus" It $as his )-easure
that eBtreme unction and the %iaticum shou-d e
refused to e%er' sic )erson $ho did not )roduce a
ticet of confession( si*ned ' a constitutionar'
)riest"
This $as refusin* the sacrament to nine8tenths
of Paris" In %ain $as he to-d0 #Thin $hat 'ou
Dictionar'" >
are doin* G either these sacraments are necessar'( to
esca)e damnation( or sa-%ation ma' e otained
$ithout them ' faith( ho)e( charit'( *ood $ors(
and the merits of our Sa%iour" If sa-%ation e at8
taina-e $ithout this %iaticum( 'our ticets are use8
-ess G if the sacraments e aso-ute-' necessar'( 'ou
damn a-- $hom 'ou de)ri%e of themG 'ou consi*n
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to eterna- re se%en hundred thousand sou-s( su))os8
in* 'ou -i%e -on* enou*h to ur' them G this is %io8
-ent G ca-m 'ourse-f( and -et each one die as $e-- as
he can"#
In this di-emma he *a%e no ans$er( ut )ersisted"
It is horri-e to con%ert re-i*ion( $hich shou-d e
man5s conso-ation( into his torment" The )ar-ia8
ment( in $hose hands is the hi*h )o-ice( ndin* that
societ' $as distured( o))osed accordin* to cus8
tom decrees to mandaments" !ut ecc-esiastica-
disci)-ine $ou-d not 'ie-d to -e*a- authorit'" The
ma*istrac' $as under the necessit' of usin* force(
and to send archers to otain for the Parisians con8
fession( communion( and interment"
!' this eBcess of asurdit'( men5s minds $ere
soured and caa-s $ere formed at court( as if there
had een a farmer8*enera- to e a))ointed( or a
minister to e dis*raced" In the discussion of a
Huestion there are a-$a's incidents miBed u) that
ha%e no radica- connection $ith itG and in this case
so much so( that a-- the memers of the )ar-iament
$ere eBi-ed( as $as a-so the archisho) in his turn"
These confession ticets $ou-d( in the times )re8
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? Phi-oso)hica-
cedin*( ha%e caused a ci%i- $ar( ut ha))i-'( in our
da's( the' )roduced on-' ci%i- ca%i-s" The s)irit of
)hi-oso)h'( $hich is no other than reason( has e8
come( $ith a-- honest men( the on-' antidote a*ainst
these e)idemic disorders"
CONFISCATION"
IT is $e-- oser%ed( in the #Dictionnaire Enc'c-o8
)ediHue# in the artic-e #Conscation(# that the sc(
$hether )u-ic( or ro'a-( or sei*noria-( or im)eria-(
or dis-o'a-( $as a sma-- aset of reeds or osiers( in
$hich $as )ut the -itt-e mone' that $as recei%ed or
cou-d e eBtorted" We no$ use a*s G the ro'a- sc
is the ro'a- a*"
In se%era- countries of Euro)e it is a recei%ed
maBim( that $hosoe%er conscates the od'( con8
scates the *oods a-so" This usa*e is esta-ished
in those countries in )articu-ar $here custom ho-ds
the )-ace of -a$G and in a-- cases( an entire fami-'
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is )unished for the fau-t of one man on-'"
To conscate the od'( is not to )ut a man5s od'
into his so%erei*n -ord5s aset" This )hrase( in the
ararous -an*ua*e of the ar( means to *et )osses8
sion of the od' of a citi4en( in order either to tae
a$a' his -ife( or to condemn him to anishment for
-ife" If he is )ut to death( or esca)es death '
i*ht( his *oods are sei4ed" Thus it is not enou*h
to )ut a man to death for his oMences G his chi-dren(
too( must e de)ri%ed of the means of -i%in*"
Dictionar'" =
In more countries than one( the ri*or of custom
conscates the )ro)ert' of a man $ho has %o-untar8
i-' re-eased himse-f from the miseries of this -ife(
and his chi-dren are reduced to e**ar' ecause
their father is dead" In some Roman Catho-ic )ro%8
inces( the head of a fami-' is condemned to the
*a--e's for -ife( ' an aritrar' sentence( for ha%in*
harored a )reacher in his house( or for ha%in*
heard one of his sermons in some ca%ern or desert
)-ace( and his $ife and fami-' are forced to e*
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their read"
This Quris)rudence( $hich consists in de)ri%in*
or)hans of their food( $as unno$n to the Roman
common$ea-th" Su--a introduced it in his )roscri)8
tions( and it must e acno$-ed*ed that a ra)ine
in%ented ' Su--a $as not an eBam)-e to e fo-8
-o$ed" Nor $as this -a$( $hich seems to ha%e een
dictated ' inhumanit' and a%arice a-one( fo--o$ed
either ' Caesar( or ' the *ood Em)eror TraQan(
or ' the Antonines( $hose names are sti-- )ro8
nounced in e%er' nation $ith -o%e and re%erence"
E%en under 1ustinian( conscations too )-ace on-'
in cases of hi*h treason" Those $ho $ere accused
ha%in* een( for the most )art( men of *reat )os8
sessions( it seems that 1ustinian made this ordi8
nance throu*h a%arice a-one" It a-so a))ears that(
in the times of feuda- anarch'( the )rinces and -ords
of -ands( ein* not %er' rich( sou*ht to increase
their treasure ' the condemnation of their suQects"
The' $ere a--o$ed to dra$ a re%enue from crime"
Phi-oso)hica-
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Their -a$s ein* aritrar'( and the Roman Quris8
)rudence unno$n amon* them( their customs(
$hether $himsica- or crue-( )re%ai-ed" !ut no$
that the )o$er of so%erei*ns is founded on immense
and assured $ea-th( their treasure needs no -on*er
to e s$o--en ' the s-ender $rec of the fortunes
of some unha))' fami-'" It is true that the *oods
so a))ro)riated are aandoned to the rst $ho ass
for them" !ut is it for one citi4en to fatten on the
remains of the -ood of another citi4en J
Conscation is not admitted in countries $here
the Roman -a$ is esta-ished( eBce)t $ithin the
Qurisdiction of the )ar-iament of Tou-ouse" It $as
former-' esta-ished at Ca-ais( $here it $as ao-8
ished ' the En*-ish $hen the' $ere masters of that
)-ace" It a))ears %er' stran*e that the inhaitants
of the ca)ita- -i%e under a more ri*orous -a$ than
those of the sma--er to$nsG so true is it( that Quris8
)rudence has often een esta-ished ' chance( $ith8
out re*u-arit'( $ithout uniformit'( as the huts are
ui-t in a %i--a*e"
The fo--o$in* $as s)oen ' Ad%ocate8enera-
Omer Ta-on( in fu-- )ar-iament( at the most *-orious
)eriod in the anna-s of France( in =@( concernin*
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the )ro)ert' of one 3ademoise--e de Cani--ac( $hich
had een conscated" Reader( attend to this s)eech G
it is not in the st'-e of Cicero5s orator'( ut it is
curious 0
#In the thirteenth cha)ter of Deuteronom'( od
sa's( 5If thou sha-t nd a cit' $here ido-atr' )re8
Dictionar'"
%ai-s( thou sha-t sure-' smite the inhaitants of that
cit' $ith the ed*e of the s$ord( destro'in* it utter-'(
and a-- that is therein" And thou sha-t *ather a--
the s)oi- of it into the midst of the street thereof(
and sha-t urn $ith re the cit' and a-- the s)oi-
thereof( e%er' $hit( for the Lord th' od"5
#So( in the crime of hi*h treason( the in* sei4ed
the )ro)ert'( and the chi-dren $ere de)ri%ed of it"
Naoth ha%in* een )roceeded a*ainst( 5Huia ma-e8
diBerat re*i5 Kin* Aha too )ossession of his
inheritance" Da%id( ein* a))rised that 3e)hio8
sheth had taen )art in the ree--ion( *a%e a-- his
*oods to Shea( $ho rou*ht him the ne$s 5Tii
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sunt omnia Hua fuerunt 3e)hiosheth"5 #
The Huestion here $as( $ho shou-d inherit the
)ro)ert' of 3ademoise--e de Cani--ac )ro)ert' for8
mer-' conscated from her father( aandoned ' the
in* to a ee)er of the ro'a- treasure( and after8
$ards *i%en ' this ee)er of the ro'a- treasure to
the testatriB" And in this case of a $oman of Au8
%er*ne a -a$'er refers us to that of Aha( one of the
)ett' in*s of a )art of Pa-estine( $ho conscated
Naoth5s %ine'ard( after assassinatin* its )ro8
)rietor $ith the )oniard of 1e$ish Qustice an aom8
ina-e act( $hich has ecome a )ro%er to ins)ire
men $ith a horror for usur)ation" Assured-'(
Naoth5s %ine'ard has no connection $ith 3ade8
moise--e de Cani--ac5s inheritance" Nor do the mur8
der and conscation of the *oods of 3e)hiosheth(
*randson of Kin* Sau-( and son of Da%id5s friend
Phi-oso)hica-
1onathan( ear a much *reater anit' to this -ad'5s
$i--"
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With this )edantr'( this ra*e for citations for8
ei*n to the suQect G $ith this i*norance of the rst
)rinci)-es of human nature G $ith these i--8concei%ed
and i--8ada)ted )reQudices( has Quris)rudence een
treated on ' men $ho( in their s)here( ha%e had
some re)utation"
CONSCIENCE"
SECTION I"
Of the Conscience of ood and of E%i-"
LOCKE has demonstrated if $e ma' use that
term in mora-s and meta)h'sics that $e ha%e no
innate ideas or )rinci)-es" &e $as o-i*ed to dem8
onstrate this )osition at *reat -en*th( as the con8
trar' $as at that time uni%ersa--' e-ie%ed" It
hence c-ear-' fo--o$s that it is necessar' to insti-
Qust ideas and *ood )rinci)-es into the mind as soon
as it acHuires the use of its facu-ties"
Loce adduces the eBam)-e of sa%a*es( $ho i--
and de%our their nei*hors $ithout an' remorse of
conscience G and of Christian so-diers( decent-' edu8
cated( $ho( on the tain* of a cit' ' assau-t(
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)-under( s-a'( and %io-ate( not mere-' $ithout re8
morse( ut $ith ra)ture( honor( and *-or'( and $ith
the a))-ause of a-- their comrades"
It is )erfect-' certain that( in the massacres of St"
!artho-ome$( and in the #autos8da8fe# the ho-' acts
Dictionar'" <
of faith of the InHuisition( no murderer5s conscience
e%er u)raided him $ith ha%in* massacred men(
$omen( and chi-dren( or $ith the shries( faintin*s(
and d'in* tortures of his misera-e %ictims( $hose
on-' crime consisted in ee)in* Easter in a man8
ner diMerent from that of the inHuisitors" It resu-ts(
therefore( from $hat has een stated( that $e ha%e
no other conscience than $hat is created in us '
the s)irit of the a*e( ' eBam)-e( and ' our o$n
dis)ositions and reections"
3an is orn $ithout )rinci)-es( ut $ith the fac8
u-t' of recei%in* them" &is natura- dis)osition $i--
inc-ine him either to crue-t' or indness G his under8
standin* $i-- in time inform him that the sHuare of
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t$e-%e is a hundred and fort'8four( and that he
ou*ht not to do to others $hat he $ou-d not that
others shou-d do to him G ut he $i-- not( of him8
se-f( acHuire these truths in ear-' chi-dhood" &e
$i-- not understand the rst( and he $i-- not fee- the
second"
A 'oun* sa%a*e $ho( $hen hun*r'( has recei%ed
from his father a )iece of another sa%a*e to eat(
$i--( on the morro$( as for the -ie mea-( $ithout
thinin* aout an' o-i*ation not to treat a nei*hor
other$ise than he $ou-d e treated himse-f" &e
acts( mechanica--' and irresisti-'( direct-' contrar'
to the eterna- )rinci)-e"
Nature has made a )ro%ision a*ainst such hor8
rors" She has *i%en to man a dis)osition to )it'(
and the )o$er of com)rehendin* truth" These t$o
@ Phi-oso)hica-
*ifts of od constitute the foundation of ci%i- so8
ciet'" This is the reason there ha%e e%er een ut
fe$ cannia-s G and $hich renders -ife( amon* ci%8
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i-i4ed nations( a -itt-e to-era-e" Fathers and moth8
ers esto$ on their chi-dren an education $hich
soon renders them socia-( and this education confers
on them a conscience"
Pure re-i*ion and mora-it'( ear-' incu-cated( so
stron*-' im)ress the human heart that( from the a*e
of siBteen or se%enteen( a sin*-e ad action $i--
not e )erformed $ithout the u)raidin*s of con8
science" Then rush on those head-on* )assions
$hich $ar a*ainst conscience( and sometimes de8
stro' it" Durin* the conict( men( hurried on '
the tem)est of their fee-in*s( on %arious occasions
consu-t the ad%ice of others G as( in )h'sica- diseases(
the' as it of those $ho a))ear to enQo' *ood hea-th"
This it is $hich has )roduced casuistsG that is(
)ersons $ho decide on cases of conscience" One
of the $isest casuists $as Cicero" In his oo of
#Oces(# or #Duties# of man( he in%esti*ates )oints
of the *reatest nicet'G ut -on* efore him 9oro8
aster had a))eared in the $or-d to *uide the con8
science ' the most eautifu- )rece)t( #If 'ou dout
$hether an action e *ood or ad( astain from
doin* it"# We treat of this e-se$here"
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Whether a fud*e Shou-d Decide accordin* to his
Conscience( or accordin* to the E%idence"
Thomas AHuinas( 'ou are a *reat saint( and a
Dictionar'"
*reat di%ine( and no Dominican has a *reater %en8
eration for 'ou than I ha%e G ut 'ou ha%e decided(
in 'our #Summar'(# that a Qud*e ou*ht to *i%e
sentence accordin* to the e%idence )roduced a*ainst
the )erson accused( a-thou*h he no$s that )erson
to e )erfect-' innocent" 6ou maintain that the de)8
osition of $itnesses( $hich must ine%ita-' e fa-se(
and the )retended )roofs resu-tin* from the )rocess(
$hich are im)ertinent( ou*ht to $ei*h do$n the
testimon' of his o$n senses" &e sa$ the crime
committed ' anotherG and 'et( accordin* to 'ou(
he ou*ht in conscience to condemn the accused( a-8
thou*h his conscience te--s him the accused is inno8
cent" Accordin* to 'our doctrine( therefore( if the
Qud*e had himse-f committed the crime in Huestion(
his conscience ou*ht to o-i*e him to condemn the
man fa-se-' accused of it"
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In m' conscience( *reat saint( I concei%e that 'ou
are most asurd-' and most dreadfu--' decei%ed"
It is a )it' that( $hi-e )ossessin* such a no$-ed*e
of canon -a$( 'ou shou-d e so -itt-e acHuainted $ith
natura- -a$" The dut' of a ma*istrate to e Qust(
)recedes that of ein* a forma-ist" If( in %irtue of
e%idence $hich can ne%er eBceed )roai-it'( I $ere
to condemn a man $hose innocence I $as other$ise
con%inced of( I shou-d consider m'se-f a foo- and
an assassin"
Fortunate-' a-- the triuna-s of the $or-d thin
diMerent-' from 'ou" I no$ not $hether Fari8
naceus and ri--andus ma' e of 'our o)inion"
7 Phi-oso)hica-
&o$e%er that ma' e( if e%er 'ou meet $ith
Cicero( 2-)ian( Treonian( Demou-in( the Chance--or
de =5&o)ita-( or the Chance--or d5A*uesseau( in the
shades( e sure to as )ardon of them for fa--in* into
such an error"
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Of a Deceitfu- Conscience"
The est thin* )erha)s that $as e%er said u)on
this im)ortant suQect is in the $itt' $or of #Tris8
tram Shand'(# $ritten ' a c-er*'man of the name
of Sterne( the second Rae-ais of En*-and" It re8
sem-es those sma-- satires of antiHuit'( the essen8
tia- s)irit of $hich is so )iHuant and )recious"
An o-d ha-f8)a' ca)tain and his cor)ora-( assisted
' Doctor S-o)( )ut a numer of %er' ridicu-ous
Huestions" In these Huestions the French di%ines
are not s)ared" 3ention is )articu-ar-' made of a
memoir )resented to the Soronne ' a sur*eon( re8
Huestin* )ermission to a)ti4e unorn chi-dren '
means of a c-'ster8)i)e( $hich mi*ht e introduced
into the $om $ithout inQurin* either the mother or
the chi-d" At -en*th the cor)ora- is directed to read
to them a sermon( com)osed ' the same c-er*'8
man( Sterne"
Amon* man' )articu-ars( su)erior e%en to those
of Remrandt and Ca-ot( it descries a *ent-eman(
a man of the $or-d( s)endin* his time in the )-eas8
ures of the ta-e( in *amin*( and deaucher'( 'et
doin* nothin* to eB)ose himse-f to the re)roaches
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of $hat is ca--ed *ood com)an'( and conseHuent-'
5Dictionar'" >
ne%er incurrin* his o$n" &is conscience and his
honor accom)an' him to the theatres( to the *am8
in* houses( and are more )articu-ar-' )resent $hen
he -iera--' )a's his -ad' under )rotection" &e
)unishes se%ere-'( $hen in oce( the )ett' -arcenies
( of the %u-*ar( -i%es a -ife of *a'et'( and dies $ithout
the s-i*htest fee-in* of remorse"
Doctor S-o) interru)ts the readin* to oser%e that
such a case $as im)ossi-e $ith res)ect to a fo--o$er
of the Church of En*-and( and cou-d ha))en on-'
amon* )a)ists" At -ast the sermon adduces the eB8
am)-e of Da%id( $ho sometimes )ossessed a con8
science tender and en-i*htened( at others hardened
and dar"
When he has it in his )o$er to assassinate his
in* in a ca%ern( he scru)-es *oin* e'ond cuttin*
oM a corner of his roe here is the tender con8
science" &e )asses an entire 'ear $ithout fee-in*
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the s-i*htest com)unction for his adu-ter' $ith !ath8
shea and his murder of 2riah here is the same
conscience in a state of odurac' and darness"
Such( sa's the )reacher( are the *reater numer
of manind" We concede to this c-er*'man that
the *reat ones of the $or-d are %er' often in this
stateG the torrent of )-easures and aMairs ur*es
them a-most irresisti-' onG the' ha%e no time to
ee) a conscience" Conscience is )ro)er enou*h
for the )eo)-eG ut e%en the )eo)-e dis)ense $ith
it( $hen the Huestion is ho$ to *ain mone'" It
is Qudicious( ho$e%er( at times( to endea%or to
? Phi-oso)hica-
a$aen conscience oth in mantua8maers and in
monarchs( ' the incu-cation of a mora-it' ca-8
cu-ated to mae an im)ression u)on othG ut( in
order to mae this im)ression( it is necessar' to
)reach etter than modern )reachers usua--' do(
$ho se-dom ta- eMecti%e-' to either"
Liert' of Conscience"
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Trans-ated from the erman"
We do not ado)t the $ho-e of the fo--o$in* ar8
tic-eG ut( as it contains some truths( $e did not
consider ourse-%es o-i*ed to omit itG and $e do
not fee- ourse-%es ca--ed u)on to Qustif' $hat ma'
e ad%anced in it $ith too *reat rashness or se8
%erit'" Author"
#The a-moner of Prince ( $ho is a Roman
Catho-ic( threatened an anaa)tist that he $ou-d *et
him anished from the sma-- estates $hich the
)rince *o%erned" &e to-d him that there $ere on-'
three authori4ed sects in the em)ire that $hich
eats 1esus Christ( ' faith a-one( in a morse- of
read( $hi-e drinin* out of a cu) G that $hich eats
1esus Christ $ith read a-one G and that $hich eats
1esus Christ in od' and in sou-( $ithout either
read or $ine G and that as for the anaa)tist $ho
does not in an' $a' eat od( he $as not t to -i%e
in monsei*neur5s territor'" At -ast( the con%ersa8
tion ind-in* into *reater %io-ence( the a-moner
erce-' threatened the anaa)tist that he $ou-d *et
him han*ed" 5So much the $orse for his hi*hness(5
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Dictionar'" =
re)-ied the anaa)tist G 5I am a -ar*e manufacturer G
I em)-o' t$o hundred $ormenG I occasion the
inuB of t$o hundred thousand cro$ns a 'ear into
his territoriesG m' fami-' $i-- *o and sett-e some8
$here e-seG monsei*neur $i-- in conseHuence e a
-oser"5
# 5!ut su))ose monsei*neur han*s u) 'our t$o
hundred $ormen and 'our fami-'(5 reQoined the
a-moner( 5and *i%es 'our manufactor' to *ood Cath8
o-ics J5
# 5I def' him to do it sa's the o-d *ent-eman"
5A manufactor' is not to e *i%en -ie a farm G e8
cause industr' cannot e *i%en" It $ou-d e more
si--' for him to act so than to order a-- his horses
to e i--ed( ecause( ein* a ad horseman( one
ma' ha%e thro$n him oM his ac" The interest
of monsei*neur does not consist in m' s$a--o$in*
the *odhead in a $afer( ut in m' )rocurin* some8
thin* to eat for his suQects( and increasin* the re%8
enues ' m' industr'" I am a *ent-eman G and a-8
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thou*h I had the misfortune not to e orn such( m'
occu)ation $ou-d com)e- me to ecome oneG for
mercanti-e transactions are of a %er' diMerent na8
ture from those of a court( and from 'our o$n"
There can e no success in them $ithout )roit'"
Of $hat conseHuence is it to 'ou that I $as a)ti4ed
at $hat is ca--ed the a*e of discretion( and 'ou $hi-e
'ou $ere an infantJ Of $hat conseHuence is it to
'ou that I $orshi) od after the manner of m'
fathersJ Were 'ou a-e to fo--o$ u) 'our $ise
Vo-" =@
Phi-oso)hica-
maBims( from one end of the $or-d to the other(
'ou $i-- han* u) the ree( $ho does not e-ie%e
that the s)irit )roceeds from the Father and the
SonG a-- the En*-ish( a-- the &o--anders( Danes(
S$edes( Ice-anders( Prussians( &ano%erians( SaB8
ons( &o-steiners( &essians( Wiirtemer*ers( !er8
nese( &amur*ers( Cossacs( Wa--achians( and
Russians( none of $hom e-ie%e the )o)e to e in8
fa--i-eG a-- the 3ussu-mans( $ho e-ie%e in one
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od( and $ho *i%e him neither father nor mother G
the Indians( $hose re-i*ion is more ancient than the
1e$ish G and the -ettered Chinese( $ho( for the s)ace
of four thousand 'ears( ha%e ser%ed one on-' od
$ithout su)erstition and $ithout fanaticism" This(
then( is $hat 'ou $ou-d )erform had 'ou ut the
)o$er5 53ost assured-' sa's the mon( 5for the
4ea- of the house of the Lord de%ours me"5 59e-us
domus sua comedit me"5
5 51ust te-- me no$( m' *ood a-moner(5 resumed
the anaa)tist( 5are 'ou a Dominican( or a 1esuit(
or a de%i- J5 5I am a 1esuit(5 sa's the other" 5A-as(
m' friend( if 'ou are not a de%i-( $h' do 'ou ad8
%ance thin*s so utter-' diao-ica-J5 5!ecause the
re%erend father( the rector( has commanded me to
do so"5 5And $ho commanded the re%erend father(
the rector( to commit such an aominationJ5 5The
)ro%incia-"5 5From $hom did the )ro%incia- recei%e
the command J5 5From our *enera-( and a-- to )-ease
the )o)e"5
#The )oor anaa)tist eBc-aimed 0 56e ho-' )o)es(
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I A3 A 1E@2IT(# SAVS T&E OT&ER
Dictionar'"
$ho are at Rome in )ossession of the throne of the
Caesars archisho)s( isho)s( and aes( ecome
so%erei*ns( I res)ect and ' 'ou G ut if( in the re8
cesses of 'our heart( 'ou confess that 'our o)u-ence
and )o$er are founded on-' on the i*norance and
stu)idit' of our fathers( at -east enQo' them $ith
moderation" We do not $ish to dethrone 'ou G ut
do not crush us" EnQo' 'ourse-%es( and -et us e
Huiet" If other$ise( trem-e( -est at -ast )eo)-e
shou-d -ose their )atience( and reduce 'ou( for the
*ood of 'our sou-s( to the condition of the a)ost-es(
of $hom 'ou )retend to e the successors"5
# 5Wretch 'ou $ou-d $ish the )o)e and the
isho) of Wiirtemer* to *ain hea%en ' e%an8
*e-ica- )o%ert' 5 56ou( re%erend father( $ou-d $ish
to ha%e me han*ed 5 #
CONSE:2ENCE"
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W&AT is our rea- nature( and $hat sort of a cur8
ious and contem)ti-e understandin* do $e )os8
sessJ A man ma'( it a))ears( dra$ the most cor8
rect and -uminous conc-usions( and 'et e destitute
of common sense" This is( in fact( too true" The
Athenian foo-( $ho e-ie%ed that a-- the %esse-s
$hich came into the )ort e-on*ed to him( cou-d ca-8
cu-ate to a nicet' $hat the car*oes of those %esse-s
$ere $orth( and $ithin ho$ man' da's the' $ou-d
arri%e from Sm'rna at the Piraeus"
We ha%e seen idiots $ho cou-d ca-cu-ate and rea8
son in a sti-- more eBtraordinar' manner" The'
Phi-oso)hica-
$ere not idiots( then( 'ou te-- me" I as 'our )ar8
don the' certain-' $ere" The' rested their $ho-e
su)erstructure on an asurd )rinci)-eG the' re*u8
-ar-' strun* to*ether chimeras" A man ma' $a-
$e--( and *o astra' at the same time G and( then( the
etter he $a-s the farther astra' he *oes"
The Fo of the Indians $as son of an e-e)hant(
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$ho condescended to )roduce oMs)rin* ' an Indian
)rincess( $ho( in conseHuence of this s)ecies of
-eft8handed union( $as rou*ht to ed of the *od
Fo" This )rincess $as sister to an em)eror of the
Indies" Fo( then( $as the ne)he$ of that em)eror(
and the *randson of the e-e)hant and the monarch
$ere cousins8*erman G therefore( accordin* to the
-a$s of the state( the race of the em)eror ein* eB8
tinct( the descendants of the e-e)hant ecome the
ri*htfu- successors" Admit the )rinci)-e( and the
conc-usion is )erfect-' correct"
It is said that the di%ine e-e)hant $as nine stand8
ard feet in hei*ht" 6ou reasona-' su))ose that
the *ate of his sta-e shou-d e ao%e nine feet in
hei*ht( in order to admit his enterin* $ith ease"
&e consumed t$ent' )ounds of rice e%er' da'( and
t$ent' )ounds of su*ar( and dran t$ent'8%e
)ounds of $ater" 6ou nd( ' usin* 'our arith8
metic( that he s$a--o$s thirt'8siB thousand %e hun8
dred )ounds $ei*ht in the course of a 'earG it
is im)ossi-e to recon more correct-'" !ut did
'our e-e)hant e%er( in fact( eBist J Was he the em8
)eror5s rother8in8-a$J &ad his $ife a chi-d '
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Dictionar'" <
this -eft8handed union J This is the matter to e in8
%esti*ated" T$ent' diMerent authors( $ho -i%ed in
Cochin China( ha%e successi%e-' $ritten aout itG
it is incument on 'ou to co--ate these t$ent' au8
thors( to $ei*h their testimonies( to consu-t ancient
records( to see if there is an' mention of this e-e8
)hant in the )u-ic re*istersG to eBamine $hether
the $ho-e account is not a fa-e( $hich certain im8
)ostors ha%e an interest in sanctionin*" 6ou )ro8
ceed u)on an eBtra%a*ant )rinci)-e( ut dra$ from
it correct conc-usions"
Lo*ic is not so much $antin* to men as the
source of -o*ic" It is not sucient for a madman to
sa' siB %esse-s $hich e-on* to me carr' t$o hun8
dred tons each G the ton is t$o thousand )ounds
$ei*htG I ha%e therefore t$e-%e hundred thousand
)ounds $ei*ht of merchandise in the )ort of the
Piraeus" The *reat )oint is( are those %esse-s 'ours J
That is the )rinci)-e u)on $hich 'our fortune de8
)ends G $hen that is sett-ed( 'ou ma' estimate and
recon u) after$ards"
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An i*norant man( $ho is a fanatic( and $ho at
the same time strict-' dra$s his conc-usions from
his )remises( ou*ht sometimes to e smothered to
death as a madman" &e has read that Phineas(
trans)orted ' a ho-' 4ea-( ha%in* found a 1e$ in
ed $ith a 3idianitish $oman( s-e$ them oth( and
$as imitated ' the Le%ites( $ho massacred e%er'
househo-d that consisted one8ha-f of 3idianites
and the other of 1e$s" &e -earns that 3r" (
@ Phi-oso)hica-
his Catho-ic nei*hor( intri*ued $ith 3rs" (
another nei*hor( ut a &u*uenot( and he $i-- i--
oth of them $ithout scru)-e" It is im)ossi-e to
act in *reater consistenc' $ith )rinci)-e G ut $hat
is the remed' for this dreadfu- disease of the sou- J
It is to accustom chi-dren etimes to admit nothin*
$hich shocs reason( to a%oid re-atin* to them his8
tories of *hosts( a))aritions( $itches( demoniaca-
)ossessions( and ridicu-ous )rodi*ies" A *ir- of an
acti%e and susce)ti-e ima*ination hears a stor' of
demoniaca- )ossessions G her ner%es ecome shaen(
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she fa--s into con%u-sions( and e-ie%es herse-f )os8
sessed ' a demon or de%i-" I actua--' sa$ one
'oun* $oman die in conseHuence of the shoc her
frame recei%ed from these aomina-e histories"
CONSTANTINE"
SECTION I"
The A*e of Constantine"
A3ON the a*es $hich fo--o$ed the Au*ustan(
that of Constantine merits )articu-ar distinction"
It is immorta-i4ed ' the *reat chan*es $hich it
ushered into the $or-d" It commenced( it is true(
$ith rin*in* ac ararism" Not mere-' $ere
there no Ciceros( &oraces( and Vir*i-s( an' -on*er
to e found( ut there $as not e%en a Lucan or
a Seneca G there $as not e%en a )hi-oso)hic and ac8
curate historian" Nothin* $as to e seen ut eHui%8
oca- satires or mere random )ane*'rics"
Dictionar'"
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It $as at that time that the Christians e*an to
$rite histor'( ut the' too not Titus Li%'( or
Thuc'dides as their mode-s" The fo--o$ers of the
ancient re-i*ion $rote $ith no *reater e-oHuence
or truth" The t$o )arties( in a state of mutua- eB8
as)eration( did not %er' scru)u-ous-' in%esti*ate
the char*es $hich the' hea)ed u)on their ad%er8
saries G and hence it arises that the same man is
sometimes re)resented as a *od and sometimes as
a monster"
The dec-ine of e%er'thin*( in the commonest
mechanica- arts( as $e-- as in e-oHuence and %irtue(
too )-ace after the rei*n of 3arcus Aure-ius" &e
$as the -ast em)eror of the sect of stoics( $ho e-e8
%ated man ao%e himse-f ' renderin* him se%ere
to himse-f on-'( and com)assionate to others" Af8
ter the death of this em)eror( $ho $as a *enuine
)hi-oso)her( there $as nothin* ut t'rann' and con8
fusion" The so-diers freHuent-' dis)osed of the em8
)ire" The senate had fa--en into such com)-ete con8
tem)t that( in the time of a&-ienus( an eB)ress -a$
$as enacted to )re%ent senators from en*a*in* in
$ar" Thirt' heads of )arties $ere seen( at one time(
assumin* the tit-e of em)eror in thirt' )ro%inces
of the em)ire" The ararians a-read' )oured in(
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on e%er' side( in the midd-e of the third centur'(
on this rent and -acerated em)ire" 6et it $as he-d
to*ether ' the mere mi-itar' disci)-ine on $hich
it had een founded"
Durin* a-- these ca-amities( Christianit' *radu8
7 Phi-oso)hica-
a--' esta-ished itse-f( )articu-ar-' in E*')t( S'ria(
and on the coasts of Asia 3inor" The Roman Em8
)ire admitted a-- sorts of re-i*ions( as $e-- as a--
sects of )hi-oso)h'" The $orshi) of Osiris $as )er8
mitted( and e%en the 1e$s $ere -eft in the enQo'ment
of considera-e )ri%i-e*es( not$ithstandin* their re8
%o-ts" !ut the )eo)-e in the )ro%inces freHuent-'
rose u) a*ainst the Christians" The ma*istrates
)ersecuted them( and edicts $ere freHuent-' o8
tained a*ainst them from the em)erors" There is
no *round for astonishment at the *enera- hatred
in $hich Christians $ere at rst he-d( $hi-e so man'
other re-i*ions $ere to-erated" The reason $as that
neither E*')tians nor 1e$s( nor the $orshi))ers of
the *oddess of S'ria and so man' other forei*n de8
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ities( e%er dec-ared o)en hosti-it' to the *ods of the
em)ire" The' did not arra' themse-%es a*ainst the
esta-ished re-i*ion G ut one of the most im)erious
duties of the Christians $as to eBterminate the )re8
%ai-in* $orshi)" The )riests of the *ods raised a
c-amor on )ercei%in* the diminution of sacrices
and oMerin*sG and the )eo)-e( e%er fanatica- and
im)etuous( $ere stirred u) a*ainst the Christians(
$hi-e in the meantime man' em)erors )rotected
them" Adrian eB)ress-' forade the )ersecution of
them" 3arcus Aure-ius commanded that the'
shou-d not e )rosecuted on account of re-i*ion"
Caraca--a( &e-io*aa-us( A-eBander( Phi-i)( and a-8
-ienus -eft them entire -iert'" The' had( in the
third centur'( )u-ic churches numerous-' attended
Dictionar'" >
and %er' o)u-ent G and so *reat $as the -iert' the'
enQo'ed that( in the course of that centur'( the' he-d
siBteen counci-s" The road to di*nities $as shut
u) a*ainst the rst Christians( $ho $ere near-' a--
of oscure condition( and the' turned their attention
to commerce( and some of them amassed *reat af8
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uence" This is the resource of a-- societies that
cannot ha%e access to oces in the state" Such has
een the case $ith the Ca-%inists in France( a-- the
Nonconformists in En*-and( the Catho-ics in &o-8
-and( the Armenians in Persia( the !anians in India(
and the 1e$s a-- o%er the $or-d" &o$e%er( at -ast
the to-eration $as so *reat( and the administration
of the *o%ernment so mi-d( that the Christians
*ained access to a-- the honors and di*nities of the
state" The' did not sacrice to the *ods of the em8
)ire G the' $ere not mo-ested( $hether the' attended
or a%oided the tem)-esG there $as at Rome the
most )erfect -iert' $ith res)ect to the eBercises of
their re-i*ion G none $ere com)e--ed to en*a*e in
them" The Christians( therefore( enQo'ed the same
-iert' as others" It is so true that the' attained to
honors( that Dioc-etian and a-erius de)ri%ed no
fe$er than three hundred and three of them of those
honors( in the )ersecution of $hich $e sha-- ha%e
to s)ea"
It is our dut' to adore Pro%idence in a-- its dis8
)ensations G ut I conne m'se-f to )o-itica- histor'"
3anes( under the rei*n of Prous( aout the 'ear
7( formed a ne$ re-i*ion in A-eBandria" The
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<? Phi-oso)hica-
)rinci)-es of this sect $ere made u) of some ancient
doctrines of the Persians and certain tenets of Chris8
tianit'" Prous( and his successor( Carus( -eft
3anes and the Christians in the enQo'ment of )eace"
Numerien )ermitted them entire -iert'" Dioc-etian
)rotected the Christians( and to-erated the 3ani8
chseans( durin* t$e-%e 'ears G ut in >@ he issued
an edict a*ainst the 3anichseans( and )roscried
them as enemies to the em)ire and adherents of the
Persians" The Christians $ere not com)rehended
in the edict G the' continued in tranHui--it' under
Dioc-etian( and made o)en )rofession of their re8
-i*ion throu*hout the $ho-e em)ire unti- the -atter
'ears of that )rince5s rei*n"
To com)-ete the setch( it is necessar' to descrie
of $hat at that )eriod the Roman Em)ire consisted"
Not$ithstandin* interna- and forei*n shocs( not8
$ithstandin* the incursions of ararians( it com8
)rised a-- the )ossessions of the *rand sei*nor at
the )resent da'( eBce)t AraiaG a-- that the house
of Austria )ossesses in erman'( and a-- the er8
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man )ro%inces as far as the E-eG Ita-'( France(
S)ain( En*-and( and ha-f of Scot-andG a-- Africa
as far as the desert of Sahara( and e%en the Canar'
Is-es" A-- these nations $ere retained under the
'oe ' odies of mi-itar' -ess considera-e than
$ou-d e raised ' erman' and France at the )res8
ent da'( $hen in actua- $ar"
This immense )o$er ecame more conrmed and
en-ar*ed( from Caesar do$n to Theodosius( as $e--
Dictionar'"
' -a$s( )o-ice( and rea- ser%ices conferred on the
)eo)-e( as ' arms and terror" It is e%en 'et a mat8
ter of astonishment that none of these conHuered
nations ha%e een a-e( since the' ecame their o$n
ru-ers( to form such hi*h$a's( and to erect such
am)hitheatres and )u-ic aths( as their conHuerors
esto$ed u)on them" Countries $hich are at )res8
ent near-' ararous and deserted( $ere then )o)8
u-ous and $e-- *o%erned" Such $ere E)irus( 3ace8
donia( Thessa-'( I--'ria( Pannonia( $ith Asia 3inor(
and the coasts of AfricaG ut it must a-so e ad8
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mitted that erman'( France( and !ritain $ere then
%er' diMerent from $hat the' are no$" These
three states are those $hich ha%e most eneted '
*o%ernin* themse-%es G 'et it reHuired near-' t$e-%e
centuries to )-ace those in*doms in the ourishin*
situation in $hich $e no$ eho-d them G ut it must
e acno$-ed*ed that a-- the rest ha%e -ost much '
)assin* under diMerent -a$s" The ruins of Asia
3inor and reece( the de)o)u-ation of E*')t and
the ararism of Africa( are sti-- eBistin* testimo8
nia-s of Roman *reatness" The *reat numer of
ourishin* cities $hich co%ered those countries had
no$ ecome misera-e %i--a*es( and the soi- had e8
come arren under the hands of a ruta-i4ed )o)8
u-ation"
SECTION II"
Character of Constantine"
I $i-- not here s)ea of the confusion $hich
a*itated the em)ire after the adication of Dioc-e8
< Phi-oso)hica-
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tian" There $ere after his death siB em)erors at
once" Constantine trium)hed o%er them a--( chan*ed
the re-i*ion of the em)ire( and $as not mere-' the
author of that *reat re%o-ution( ut of a-- those
$hich ha%e since occurred in the $est" What $as
his characterJ As it of 1u-ian( of 9osimus( of
So4omen( and of Victor G the' $i-- te-- 'ou that he
acted at rst -ie a *reat )rince( after$ards as a )u8
-ic roer( and that the -ast sta*e of his -ife $as that
of a sensua-ist( a trier( and a )rodi*a-" The' $i--
descrie him as e%er amitious( crue-( and san8
*uinar'" As his character of Euseius( of re*8
or' Na4ian4en( and Lactantius G the' $i-- inform
'ou that he $as a )erfect man" !et$een these t$o
eBtremes authentic facts a-one can ena-e us to o8
tain the truth" &e had a father8in8-a$( $hom he
im)e--ed to han* himse-f G he had a rother8in8-a$(
$hom he ordered to e stran*-ed G he had a ne)he$
t$e-%e or thirteen 'ears o-d( $hose throat he ordered
to e cut G he had an e-dest son( $hom he eheaded G
he had a $ife( $hom he ordered to e suMocated in
a ath" An o-d a--ic author said that #he -o%ed to
mae a c-ear house"#
If 'ou add to a-- these domestic acts that( ein*
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on the ans of the Rhine in )ursuit of some hordes
of Frans $ho resided in those )arts( and ha%in*
taen their in*s( $ho )roa-' $ere of the fami-'
of our Pharamond or C-odion -e Che%e-u( he eB8
)osed them to easts for his di%ersion G 'ou ma' in8
fer from a-- this( $ithout an' a))rehension of ein*
Dictionar'" <
decei%ed( that he $as not the most courteous and
accommodatin* )ersona*e in the $or-d"
Let us eBamine( in this )-ace( the )rinci)a- e%ents
of his rei*n" &is father( Constantius Ch-orus( $as
in the heart of !ritain( $here he had for some
months assumed the tit-e of em)eror" Constantine
$as at Nicomedia( $ith the em)eror a-erius" &e
ased )ermission of the em)eror to *o to see his
father( $ho $as i--" a-erius *ranted it( $ithout
dicu-t'" Constantine set oM $ith *o%ernment re8
-a's( ca--ed %eredarii" It mi*ht e said to e as
dan*erous to e a )ost8horse as to e a memer of
the fami-' of Constantine( for he ordered a-- the
horses to e hamstrun* after he had done $ith them(
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fearfu- -est a-erius shou-d re%oe his )ermission
and order him to return to Nicomedia" &e found
his father at the )oint of death( and caused himse-f
to e reco*ni4ed em)eror ' the sma-- numer of
Roman troo)s at that time in !ritain"
An e-ection of a Roman em)eror at 6or( ' %e
or siB thousand men( $as not -ie-' to e considered
-e*itimate at Rome" It $anted at -east the formu-a
of #Senatus )o)u-usHue Romanus# The senate(
the )eo)-e( and the )raetorian ands unanimous-'
e-ected 3aBentius( son of the Caesar 3aBimi-ian
&ercu-es( $ho had een a-read' Caesar( and rother
of that Fausta $hom Constantine had married(
and $hom he after$ards caused to e suMocated"
This 3aBentius is ca--ed a t'rant and usur)er '
our historians( $ho are uniform-' the )artisans of
< Phi-oso)hica-
the successfu-" &e $as the )rotector of the )a*an
re-i*ion a*ainst Constantine( $ho a-read' e*an to
dec-are himse-f for the Christians" !ein* oth )a8
*an and %anHuished( he cou-d not ut e an aom8
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ina-e man"
Euseius te--s us that Constantine( $hen *oin*
to Rome to *ht 3aBentius( sa$ in the c-ouds( as
$e-- as his $ho-e arm'( the *rand im)eria- standard
ca--ed the -aarum( surmounted $ith a Latin P" or
a -ar*e ree R" $ith a cross in #sa-tier# and cer8
tain reZ $ords $hich si*nied( #!' this si*n thou
sha-t conHuer"# Some authors )retend that this si*n
a))eared to him at !esancon( others at Co-o*ne(
some at Trier and others at Tro'es" It is stran*e
that in a-- these )-aces hea%en shou-d ha%e eB)ressed
its meanin* in ree" It $ou-d ha%e a))eared
more natura- to the $ea understandin*s of men
that this si*n shou-d ha%e a))eared in Ita-' on the
da' of the att-e G ut then it $ou-d ha%e een neces8
sar' that the inscri)tion shou-d ha%e een in Latin"
A -earned antiHuar'( of the name of Loise-( has re8
futed this narrati%e G ut he $as treated as a re)ro8
ate"
It mi*ht( ho$e%er( e $orth $hi-e to reect that
this $ar $as not a $ar of re-i*ion( that Constantine
$as not a saint( that he died sus)ected of ein* an
Arian( after ha%in* )ersecuted the orthodoB G and(
therefore( that there is no %er' o%ious moti%e to
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su))ort this )rodi*'"
After this %ictor'( the senate hastened to )a' its
Dictionar'" <<
de%otion to the conHueror( and to eB)ress its detesta8
tion of the memor' of the conHuered" The trium8
)ha- arch of 3arcus Aure-ius $as s)eedi-' dis8
mant-ed to adorn that of Constantine" A statue of
*o-d $as )re)ared for him( an honor $hich had
ne%er een sho$n eBce)t to the *ods" &e recei%ed
it( not$ithstandin* the -aarum( and recei%ed fur8
ther the tit-e of PontifeB 3aBimus( $hich he re8
tained a-- his -ife" &is rst care( accordin* to 9os8
imus( $as to eBterminate the $ho-e race of the
t'rant( and his )rinci)a- friends G after $hich he as8
sisted %er' *racious-' at the )u-ic s)ectac-es and
*ames"
The a*ed Dioc-etian $as at that time d'in* in
his retreat at Sa-onica" Constantine shou-d not ha%e
een in such haste to )u-- do$n his statues at Rome G
he shou-d ha%e reco--ected that the for*otten em8
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)eror had een the enefactor of his father( and
that he $as indeted to him for the em)ire" A-8
thou*h he had conHuered 3aBentius( Licinius( his
rother8in8-a$( an Au*ustus -ie himse-f( $as sti--
to e *ot rid of G and Licinius $as eHua--' anBious
to e rid of Constantine( if he had it in his )o$er"
&o$e%er( their Huarre-s not ha%in* 'et roen out
in hosti-it'( the' issued conQoint-' at 3i-an( in =(
the ce-erated edict of -iert' of conscience" #We
*rant(# the' sa'( #to a-- the -iert' of fo--o$in*
$hate%er re-i*ion the' )-ease( in order to dra$ do$n
the -essin* of hea%en u)on us and our suQectsG
$e dec-are that $e ha%e *ranted to the Christians
<@ Phi-oso)hica-
the free and fu-- )o$er of eBercisin* their re-i*ion G
it ein* understood that a-- others sha-- enQo' the
same -iert'( in order to )reser%e the tranHui--it'
of our *o%ernment"# A %o-ume mi*ht e $ritten on
such an edict( ut I sha-- mere-' %enture a fe$ -ines"
Constantine $as not as 'et a Christian G nor( in8
deed( $as his co--ea*ue( Licinius( one" There $as
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sti-- an em)eror or a t'rant to e eBterminated G this
$as a determined )a*an( of the name of 3aBimin"
Licinius fou*ht $ith him efore he fou*ht $ith
Constantine" &ea%en $as sti-- more fa%ora-e to
him than to Constantine himse-f G for the -atter had
on-' the a))arition of a standard( ut Licinius that
of an an*e-" This an*e- tau*ht him a )ra'er( '
means of $hich he $ou-d e sure to %anHuish the
ararian 3aBimin" Licinius $rote it do$n( or8
dered it to e recited three times ' his arm'( and
otained a com)-ete %ictor'" If this same Licinius(
the rother8in8-a$ of Constantine( had rei*ned ha)8
)i-'( $e shou-d ha%e heard of nothin* ut his an8
*e- G ut Constantine ha%in* had him han*ed( and
his son s-ain( and ecome aso-ute master of e%er'8
thin*( nothin* has een ta-ed of ut Constantine5s
-aarum"
It is e-ie%ed that he )ut to death his e-dest son
Cris)us( and his o$n $ife Fausta( the same 'ear
that he con%ened the Counci- of Nice" 9osimus and
So4omen )retend that( the heathen )riests ha%in*
to-d him that there $ere no eB)iations for such
*reat crimes( he then made o)en )rofession of Chris8
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Dictionar' <
tianit'( and demo-ished man' tem)-es in the East"
It is not %er' )roa-e that the )a*an )ontiMs
shou-d ha%e omitted so ne an o))ortunit' of *et8
tin* ac their *rand )ontiM( $ho had aandoned
them" &o$e%er( it is ' no means im)ossi-e that
there mi*ht e amon* them some se%ere menG
scru)u-ous and austere )ersons are to e found
e%er'$here" What is more eBtraordinar' is( that
Constantine( after ecomin* a Christian( )erformed
no )enance for his )arricide" It $as at Rome that he
eBercised that crue-t'( and from that time residence
at Rome ecame hatefu- to him" &e Huitted it for8
e%er( and $ent to -a' the foundations of Constanti8
no)-e" &o$ dared he sa'( in one of his rescri)ts(
that he transferred the seat of em)ire to Constanti8
no)-e( #' the command of od himse-fJ# Is it
an'thin* ut an im)udent mocer' of od and
manJ If od had *i%en him an' command( $ou-d
it not ha%e een not to assassinate his $ife and
sonJ
Dioc-etian had a-read' furnished an eBam)-e of
transferrin* the em)ire to$ards Asia" The )ride(
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the des)otism( and the *enera- manners of the Asiat8
ics dis*usted the Romans( de)ra%ed and s-a%ish as
the' had ecome" The em)erors had not %entured
to reHuire( at Rome( that their feet shou-d e issed(
nor to introduce a cro$d of eunuchs into their )a-8
aces" Dioc-etian e*an in Nicomedia( and Constan8
tine com)-eted the s'stem at Constantino)-e( to as8
simi-ate the Roman court to the courts of the Per8
Vo-" =
<7 Phi-oso)hica-
sians" The cit' of Rome from that time -an*uished
in deca'( and the o-d Roman s)irit dec-ined $ith her"
Constantine thus eMected the *reatest inQur' to the
em)ire that $as in his )o$er"
Of a-- the em)erors( he $as unHuestiona-' the
most aso-ute" Au*ustus had -eft an ima*e of -i8
ert'G Tierius( and e%en Nero( had humored the
senate and )eo)-e of RomeG Constantine humored
none" &e had at rst esta-ished his )o$er in Rome
' disandin* those hau*ht' )raetorians $ho con8
sidered themse-%es the masters of the em)erors" &e
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made an entire se)aration et$een the *o$n and
the s$ord" The de)ositories of the -a$s( e)t do$n
under mi-itar' )o$er( $ere on-' Qurists in chains"
The )ro%inces of the em)ire $ere *o%erned u)on a
ne$ s'stem"
The *rand oQect of Constantine $as to e mas8
ter in e%er'thin* G he $as so in the Church( as $e--
as in the State" We eho-d him con%oin* and o)en8
in* the Counci- of NiceG ad%ancin* into the midst
of the assem-ed fathers( co%ered o%er $ith Qe$e-s(
and $ith the diadem on his head( seatin* himse-f in
the hi*hest )-ace( and anishin* unconcerned-'
sometimes Arius and sometimes Athanasius" &e
)ut himse-f at the head of Christianit' $ithout ein*
a Christian G for at that time a)tism $as essentia-
to an' )erson5s ecomin* oneG he $as on-' a cat8
echumen" The usa*e of $aitin* for the a))roach
of death efore immersin* in the $ater of re*enera8
tion( $as e*innin* to dec-ine $ith res)ect to )ri8
Dictionar'" <>
%ate indi%idua-s" If Constantine( ' de-a'in* his
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a)tism ti-- near the )oint of death( entertained the
notion that he mi*ht commit e%er' act $ith im)u8
nit' in the ho)e of a com)-ete eB)iation( it $as un8
fortunate for the human race that such an o)inion
shou-d ha%e e%er su**ested itse-f to the mind of a
man in )ossession of uncontro--ed )o$er"
CONTRADICTIONS"
SECTION I"
T&E more $e see of the $or-d( the more $e see
it aoundin* in contradictions and inconsistencies"
To e*in $ith the rand Tur0 he orders e%er'
head that he dis-ies struc oM( and can %er' rare-'
)reser%e his o$n" If $e )ass from the rand Tur
to the &o-' Father( he conrms the e-ection of
em)erors( and has in*s amon* his %assa-s G ut he
is not so )o$erfu- as a due of Sa%o'" &e eB)e8
dites orders for America and Africa( 'et cou-d not
$ithho-d the s-i*htest of its )ri%i-e*es from the re8
)u-ic of Lucca" The em)eror is the in* of the
RomansG ut the ri*ht of their in* consists in
ho-din* the )o)e5s stirru)( and handin* the $ater
to him at mass" The En*-ish ser%e their monarch
u)on their nees( ut the' de)ose( im)rison( and
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ehead him"
3en $ho mae a %o$ of )o%ert'( *ain in con8
seHuence an income of aout t$o hundred thousand
cro$ns G and( in %irtue of their %o$ of humi-it'( the'
=@? Phi-oso)hica-
ecome aso-ute so%erei*ns" The )-ura-it' of ene8
ces $ith care of sou-s is se%ere-' denounced at
Rome( 'et e%er' da' it des)atches a u-- to some
erman( to ena-e him to ho-d %e or siB isho)rics
at once" The reason( $e are to-d( is that the erman
isho)s ha%e no cure of sou-s" The chance--or of
France is the rst )erson in the State( ut he cannof
sit at ta-e $ith the in*( at -east he cou-d not ti--
-ate-'( a-thou*h a co-one-( $ho is scarce-' )erha)s
a *ent-eman *enti-8homme ma' enQo' that dis8
tinction" The $ife of a )ro%incia- *o%ernor is a
Hueen in the )ro%ince( ut mere-' a citi4en5s $ife at
court"
Persons con%icted of the crime of nonconformit'
are )u-ic-' roasted( and in a-- our co--e*es the sec8
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ond ec-o*ue of Vir*i- is eB)-ained $ith *reat *ra%8
it'( inc-udin* Cor' don5s dec-arations of -o%e to the
eautifu- A-eBis G and it is remared to the o's
that( a-thou*h A-eBis e fair and Am'ntas ro$n(
'et Am'ntas ma' sti-- deser%e the )reference"
If an unfortunate )hi-oso)her( $ithout intendin*
the -east harm( taes it into his head that the earth
turns round( or to ima*ine that -i*ht comes from
the sun( or to su))ose that matter ma' contain some
other )ro)erties than those $ith $hich $e are ac8
Huainted( he is cried do$n as a -as)hemer( and a
disturer of the )u-ic )eaceG and 'et there are
trans-ations in usum De-)hini of the #Tuscu-an
:uestions# of Cicero( and of Lucretius( $hich are
t$o com)-ete courses of irre-i*ion"
Dictionar'" @=
Courts of Qustice no -on*er e-ie%e that )ersons
are )ossessed ' de%i-s( and -au*h at sorcerers G ut
auMredi and randier $ere urned for sorcer'G
and one8ha-f of a )ar-iament $anted to sentence to
the stae a mon accused of ha%in* e$itched a
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*ir- of ei*hteen ' reathin* u)on her"
The se)tica- )hi-oso)her !a'-e $as )ersecuted(
e%en in &o--and" La 3otte -e Va'er( more of a
se)tic( ut -ess of a )hi-oso)her( $as )rece)tor of
the in* Louis ;IV"( and of the in*5s rother"
our%i--e $as han*ed in e*' at Paris( $hi-e
French minister in erman'"
The ce-erated atheist S)ino4a -i%ed and died in
)eace" Vanini( $ho had mere-' $ritten a*ainst
Aristot-e( $as urned as an atheist G he has( in con8
seHuence( otained the honor of main* one artic-e
in the histories of the -earned( and in a-- the diction8
aries( $hich( in fact( constitute immense re)ositories
of -ies( miBed u) $ith a %er' sma-- )ortion of truth"
O)en these oos( and 'ou $i-- there nd not mere-'
that Vanini )u-ic-' tau*ht atheism in his $ritin*s(
ut that t$e-%e )rofessors of his sect $ent $ith
him to Na)-es $ith the intention of e%er'$here
main* )rose-'tes" After$ards( o)en the oos of
Vanini( and 'ou $i-- e astonished to nd in them
nothin* ut )roofs of the eBistence of od" Read
the fo--o$in* )assa*e( taen from his #Am)hi8
theatrum(# a $or eHua--' unno$n and con8
demned0 #od is &is o$n ori*ina- and oundar'(
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$ithout end and $ithout e*innin*( reHuirin*
@ Phi-oso)hica-
neither the one nor the other( and father of a-- e8
*innin* and end G &e e%er eBists( ut not in time G
to &im there has een no )ast( and $i-- e no future G
&e rei*ns e%er'$here( $ithout ein* in an' )-aceG
immo%a-e $ithout rest( ra)id $ithout motion G &e
is a--( and out of a-- G &e is in a--( $ithout ein*
enc-osed G out of e%er'thin*( $ithout ein* eBc-uded
from an'thin*G *ood( ut $ithout Hua-it'G entire(
ut $ithout )artsG immuta-e( $hi-e chan*in* the
$ho-e uni%erseG &is $i-- is &is )o$erG aso-ute(
there is nothin* of &im of $hat is mere-' )ossi-e G
a-- in &im is rea- G &e is the rst( the midd-e( and
the -astG na--'( a-thou*h constitutin* a--( &e is
ao%e a-- ein*s( out of them( $ithin them( e'ond
them( efore them( and after them"# It $as after
such a )rofession of faith that Vanini $as dec-ared
an atheist" 2)on $hat *rounds $as he condemned J
Sim)-' u)on the de)osition of a man named Fran8
con" In %ain did his oos de)ose in fa%or of him G
a sin*-e enem' de)ri%ed him of -ife( and sti*mati4ed
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his name throu*hout Euro)e"
The -itt-e oo ca--ed #C'ma-um 3undi(# $hich
is mere-' a co-d imitation of Lucian( and $hich has
not the s-i*htest or remotest reference to Chris8
tianit'( $as condemned to e urned" !ut Rae8
-ais $as )rinted #cum )ri%i-e*io# G and a free
course $as a--o$ed to the #Turish S)'(# and
e%en to the #Persian Letters#G that %o-ati-e( in8
*enious( and darin* $or( in $hich there is one
$ho-e -etter in fa%or of suicideG another in $hich
Dictionar'" @
$e nd these $ords 0 #If $e su))ose such a thin*
as re-i*ion G# a third( in $hich it is eB)ress-' said
that #the isho)s ha%e no other functions than dis8
)ensin* $ith the oser%ance of the -a$s#G and(
na--'( another in $hich the )o)e is said to e a
ma*ician( $ho maes )eo)-e e-ie%e that three are
one( and that the read $e eat is not read( etc"
The Ae St" Pierre( a man $ho cou-d freHuent-'
decei%e himse-f( ut $ho ne%er $rote $ithout a
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%ie$ to the )u-ic *ood( and $hose $ors $ere
ca--ed ' Cardina- Duois( #The dreams of an
honest citi4en# G the Ae = St" Pierre( I sa'( $as
unanimous-' eB)e--ed from the French Academ'
for ha%in*( in some )o-itica- $or( )referred the
esta-ishment of counci-s under the re*enc' to that
of secretaries of state under Louis ;IV"G and for
sa'in* that to$ards the c-ose of that *-orious rei*n
the nances $ere $retched-' conducted" The
author of the #Persian Letters# has not mentioned
Louis ;IV" in his oo( eBce)t to sa' that he $as
a ma*ician $ho cou-d mae his suQects e-ie%e that
)a)er $as mone'G that he -ied no *o%ernment
ut that of Ture'G that he )referred a man $ho
handed him a na)in to a man $ho *ained him
att-es G that he had conferred a )ension on a man
$ho had run a$a' t$o -ea*ues( and a *o%ernment
u)on another $ho had run a$a' four G that he $as
o%er$he-med $ith )o%ert'( a-thou*h it is said( in
the same -etter( that his nances are ineBhausti-e"
Oser%e( then( I re)eat( a-- that this $riter( in the
@ Phi-oso)hica-
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on-' $or then no$n to e his( has said of Louis
;IV"( the )atron of the French Academ'" We ma'
add( too( as a c-imaB of contradiction( that that
societ' admitted him as a memer for ha%in*
turned them into ridicu-eG for( of a-- the oos '
$hich the )u-ic ha%e een entertained at the eB8
)ense of the societ'( there is not one in $hich it
has een treated more disres)ectfu--' than in the
#Persian Letters"# See that -etter $herein he sa's(
#The memers of this od' ha%e no other usiness
than incessant-' to chatterG )ane*'ric comes and
taes its )-ace as it $ere s)ontaneous-' in their
eterna- *a-e(# etc" After ha%in* thus treated this
societ'( the' )raise him( on his introduction( for his
si-- in dra$in* -ienesses"
Were I dis)osed to continue the research into
the contraries to e found in the em)ire of -etters( I
mi*ht *i%e the histor' of e%er' man of -earnin* or
$it G Qust in the same manner as( if I $ere inc-ined
to detai- the contradictions eBistin* in societ'( it
$ou-d e necessar' to $rite the histor' of man8
ind" An Asiatic( $ho shou-d tra%e- to Euro)e(
mi*ht $e-- consider us as )a*ansG our $ee da's
ear the names of 3ars( 3ercur'( 1u)iter( and
VenusG and the nu)tia-s of Cu)id and Ps'che are
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)ainted in the )o)e5s )a-ace G ut( )articu-ar-'( $ere
this Asiatic to attend at our o)era( he $ou-d not
hesitate in conc-udin* it to e a festi%a- in honor of
the )a*an deities" If he endea%ored to *ain more
)recise information res)ectin* our manners( he
Dictionar'" @<
$ou-d eB)erience sti-- *reater astonishmentG he
$ou-d see( in S)ain( that a se%ere -a$ forids an'
forei*ner from ha%in* the s-i*htest share( ho$e%er
indirect( in the commerce of AmericaG and that(
not$ithstandin*( forei*ners throu*h the medium
of S)anish factors carr' on a commerce $ith it
to the eBtent of fteen mi--ions a 'ear" Thus S)ain
can e enriched on-' ' the %io-ation of a -a$ a-$a's
susistin* and a-$a's e%aded" &e $ou-d see that
in another countr' the *o%ernment esta-ishes and
encoura*es a com)an' for tradin* to the Indies(
$hi-e the di%ines of that countr' ha%e dec-ared the
recei%in* of di%idends u)on the shares oMensi%e in
the si*ht of od" &e $ou-d see that the oces
of a Qud*e( a commander( a )ri%' counse--or( are
)urchased G he $ou-d e una-e to com)rehend $h'
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it is stated in the )atents a))ointin* to such oces
that the' ha%e een esto$ed *ratis and $ithout
)urchase( $hi-e the recei)t for the sum *i%en for
them is attached to the commission itse-f" Wou-d
not our Asiatic e sur)rised( a-so( to see comedians
sa-aried ' so%erei*ns( and eBcommunicated '
)riestsJ &e $ou-d inHuire $h' a )-eeian -ieuten8
ant8*enera-( $ho had $on att-es( shou-d e suQect
to the fai--e( -ie a )easant G and a sheriM shou-d e
considered( at -east in reference to this )oint( as
no-e as a 3ontmorenc'G $h'( $hi-e re*u-ar
dramas are foridden to e )erformed durin* a
$ee sacred to edication( merr'8andre$s are )er8
mitted to oMend e%en the -east de-icate ears $ith
@@ Phi-oso)hica-
their ria-dr'" &e $ou-d a-most e%er'$here see
our usa*es in o))osition to our -a$s G and $ere $e
to tra%e- to Asia( $e shou-d disco%er the eBistence
of eBact-' simi-ar contradictions"
3en are e%er'$here inconsistent a-ie" The'
ha%e made -a$s ' )iecemea-( as reaches are re8
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)aired in $a--s" &ere the e-dest sons tae e%er'8
thin* the' are a-e from the 'oun*er onesG there
a-- share eHua--'" Sometimes the Church has or8
dered due-s( sometimes it has anathemati4ed them"
The )artisans and the o))onents of Aristot-e ha%e
een oth eBcommunicated in their turnG as ha%e
a-so the $earers of -on* hair and short hair" There
has een ut one )erfect -a$ in the $or-d( and that
$as desi*ned to re*u-ate a s)ecies of fo--' that is
to sa'( )-a'" The -a$s of )-a' are the on-' ones
$hich admit of no eBce)tion( re-aBation( chan*e or
t'rann'" A man $ho has een a -ace'( if he )-a's
at -ansHuenet $ith in*s( is )aid $ith )erfect readi8
ness $hen he $ins" In other cases the -a$ is e%er'8
$here a s$ord( $ith $hich the stron*est )art' cuts
in )ieces the $eaest"
In the meantime the $or-d *oes on as if e%er'8
thin* $as $ise-' arran*edG irre*u-arit' is )art of
our nature" Our socia- $or-d is -ie the natura-
*-oe( rude and unsha)e-'( ut )ossessin* a )rinci8
)-e of )reser%ation G it $ou-d e fo--' to $ish that
mountains( seas( and ri%ers $ere traced in re*u-ar
and nished forms G it $ou-d e a sti-- *reater fo--'
to eB)ect from man the )erfection of $isdomG if
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Dictionar'" @
$ou-d e as $ea as to $ish to attach $in*s to
do*s or horns to ea*-es"
EBam)-es Taen from &istor'( from Sacred Scri)8
ture( from Numerous Authors( etc"
We ha%e Qust een instancin* a %ariet' of con8
tradictions in our usa*es( our manners( and our -a$s(
ut $e ha%e not said enou*h" E%er'thin*( )articu8
-ar-' in Euro)e( has een made in the same manner
as &ar-eHuin5s hait" &is master( $hen he $anted
to ha%e a dress made for him( had not a )iece of
c-oth( and therefore too o-d cuttin*s of a-- sorts of
co-ors" &ar-eHuin $as -au*hed at( ut then he $as
c-othed"
The ermans are a ra%e nation( $hom neither
the ermanicuses nor the TraQans $ere e%er a-e
com)-ete-' to suQu*ate" A-- the erman nations
that d$e-t e'ond the E-e $ere in%inci-e( a-thou*h
ad-' armedG and from these *-oom' c-imes issued
forth( in )art( the a%en*ers of the $or-d" erman'(
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far from constitutin* the Roman Em)ire( has een
instrumenta- in destro'in* it"
This em)ire had found a refu*e at Constanti8
no)-e( $hen a erman an Austrasian $ent from
AiB8-a8Cha)e--e to Rome( to stri) the ree Caesars
of the remainder of their )ossessions in Ita-'" &e
assumed the name of Caesar Im)eratorG ut neither
he nor his successors e%en %entured to reside at
Rome" That ca)ita- cou-d not either oast or re*ret
that from the time of Au*ustu-us( the na- eBcre8
@7 Phi-oso)hica-
merit of the *enuine Roman Em)ire( a sin*-e Caesar
had -i%ed and een uried $ithin its $a--s"
It is dicu-t to su))ose the em)ire can e #ho-'(#
as it )rofesses three diMerent re-i*ions( of $hich t$o
are dec-ared im)ious( aomina-e( damna-e( and
damned( ' the court of Rome( $hich the $ho-e im8
)eria- court considers in such cases to e su)reme"
It is certain-' not Roman( since the em)eror has
not an' residence at Rome"
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In En*-and )eo)-e $ait u)on the in* nee-in*"
The constant maBim is( #The in* can do no
$ron*# G his ministers on-' can deser%e -ame G he
is as infa--i-e in his actions as the )o)e in his
Qud*ments" Such is the fundamenta-( the #Sa-ic#
-a$ of En*-and" 6et the )ar-iament sat in Qud*8
ment on its in*( Ed$ard II"( $ho had een %an8
Huished and taen )risoner ' his $ife G he $as de8
c-ared to ha%e done a-- )ossi-e $ron*( and de)ri%ed
of a-- his ri*hts to the cro$n" Sir Wi--iam Tresse-
$ent to him in )rison( and made him the fo--o$in*
com)-imentar' address 0
#I( Wi--iam Tresse-( as )roB' for the )ar-iament
and the $ho-e En*-ish nation( re%oe the homa*e
former-' )aid 'ou G I )ut 'ou to deance( and de8
)ri%e 'ou of ro'a- )o$er( and from this time forth
$e $i-- ho-d no a--e*iance to 'ou"#
The )ar-iament tried and sentenced Kin* Richard
II"( *randson of the *reat Ed$ard III" Thirt'8one
artic-es of accusation $ere rou*ht a*ainst him(
amon* $hich t$o are not a -itt-e sin*u-ar that he
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Dictionar'" @>
had orro$ed mone' and not re)aid itG and that
he had asserted efore $itnesses that he $as master
of the -i%es and )ro)erties of his suQects"
The )ar-iament de)osed &enr' VI"( $ho( un8
douted-'( $as eBceedin*-' $ron*( ut in a some8
$hat diMerent sense 0 he $as imeci-e"
The )ar-iament dec-ared Ed$ard IV" a traitor(
and conscated his *oodsG and after$ards( on his
ein* successfu-( restored him" As for Richard III"(
he undouted-' committed more $ron* than a-- the
othersG he $as a Nero( ut a o-d oneG and the
)ar-iament did not dec-are his $ron*s ti-- after he
$as s-ain"
The &ouse of Commons im)uted to Char-es I"
more $ron*s than he $as Qust-' char*ea-e $ith(
and rou*ht him to the scaMo-d" Par-iament %oted
that 1ames II" had committed %er' *ross and a8
*rant $ron*s( and )articu-ar-' that of $ithdra$in*
himse-f from the in*dom" It dec-ared the throne
%acant G that is( it de)osed him" In the )resent da'(
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1unius $rites to the in* of En*-and that he is
fau-t' in ein* *ood and $ise" If these are not
contradictions( I no$ not $here to nd them"
Contradictions in Certain Rites"
NeBt to those *reat )o-itica- contradictions( $hich
are sudi%ided into innumera-e -itt-e ones( nothin*
more forci-' attracts our notice than the contradic8
tion a))arent in reference to some of our rites" We
hate 1udaism" No -on*er than fteen 'ears a*o
? Phi-oso)hica-
1e$s $ere sti-- urned at the stae" We consider
them as murderers of our od( and 'et $e assem-e
e%er' Sunda' to chant 1e$ish )sa-ms and cantic-es G
it is on-' o$in* to @ur i*norance of the -an*ua*e
that $e do not recite then%in &ere$" !ut the
fteen rst isho)s( the )riests( deacons and con*re8
*ation of 1erusa-em( $hich $as the crad-e of the
Christian re-i*ion( a-$a's recited the 1e$ish )sa-ms
in the 1e$ish idiom of the S'riac -an*ua*e G and(
ti-- the time of the Ca-i)h Omar( a-most a-- the Chris8
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tians( from T're to A-e))o( )ra'ed in that 1e$ish
idiom" At )resent an' one recitin* the )sa-ms as
the' $ere ori*ina--' com)osed( or chantin* them in
the 1e$ish -an*ua*e( $ou-d e sus)ected of ein* a
circumcised 1e$( and mi*ht e urned as oneG at
-east( not more than t$ent' 'ears since( that $ou-d
ha%e een his fate( a-thou*h 1esus Christ $as cir8
cumcised( as $ere a-so his a)ost-es and disci)-es" I
set aside the m'sterious doctrines of our ho-' re8
-i*ion e%er'thin* that is an oQect of faith e%er'8
thin* that $e ou*ht to a))roach on-' $ith a$e and
sumission" I -oo on-' at eBterna-s G I refer sim)-'
to oser%ancesG I as if an'thin* $as e%er more
contradictor' J
Contradictions in Thin*s and 3en"
If an' -iterar' societ' is inc-ined to undertae a
histor' of contradictions( I $i-- suscrie for t$ent'
fo-io %o-umes" The $or-d dis)-a's nothin* ut con8
tradictions" What $ou-d e necessar' to )ut an
Dictionar'" =
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end to them J To assem-e the states8*enera- of the
human race" !ut( accordin* to the nature and con8
stitution of manind(( it $ou-d e a ne$ contradic8
tion $ere the' to a*ree" !rin* to*ether a-- the
raits in the $or-d( and there $ou-d not e t$o
diMerent minds amon* them"
I no$ on-' t$o descri)tions of immo%a-e
ein*s in the $or-d *eometricians and rute ani8
ma-s G the' are *uided ' t$o in%aria-e ru-es
demonstration and instinct" Some dis)utes( indeed(
ha%e occurred et$een *eometricians( ut rutes
ha%e ne%er %aried"
The contrasts( the -i*hts and shades( in $hich
men are re)resented in histor'( are not contradic8
tions G the' are faithfu- )ortraits of human nature"
E%er' da' oth censure and admiration are a))-ied
to A-eBander( the murderer of C-itus( ut the
a%en*er of reece G the conHueror of Persia( and the
founder of A-eBandriaG to Csesar( the deauchee(
$ho roed the )u-ic treasur' of Rome to ens-a%e
his countr'( ut $hose c-emenc' $as eHua- to his
%a-or( and $hose *enius $as eHua- to his coura*e G
to 3ahomet( the im)ostor and roer( ut the on-'
-e*is-ator of re-i*ion that e%er dis)-a'ed coura*e( or
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founded a *reat em)ireG to the enthusiast( Crom8
$e--( at once na%e and fanatic( the murderer of his
in* ' form of -a$( ut eHua--' )rofound as a
)o-itician( and %a-iant as a $arrior" A thousand
contrasts freHuent-' )resent themse-%es at once to
the mind( and these contrasts are in nature" The'
Phi-oso)hica-
are not more astonishin* than a ne da' fo--o$ed
' a tem)est"
A))arent Contradictions in !oos"
We must accurate-' distin*uish in oos( and
)articu-ar-' the sacred ones( et$een a))arent and
rea- contradictions" It is said in the Pentateuch
that 3oses $as the meeest of men( and that he
ordered t$ent'8three thousand &ere$s to e s-ain
$ho had $orshi))ed the *o-den ca-f( and t$ent'8
four thousand more( $ho had( -ie himse-f( married
3idianitish $omen" !ut sa*acious commentators
ha%e adduced so-id )roofs that 3oses )ossessed a
most amia-e tem)er( and that he on-' eBecuted the
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%en*eance of od in massacrin* these fort'8se%en
thousand Israe-ites( as Qust stated"
Some darin* critics ha%e )retended to )ercei%e a
contradiction in the narrati%e in $hich it is said that
3oses chan*ed a-- the $aters of E*')t into -ood(
and that the ma*icians of Pharaoh after$ards )er8
formed the same )rodi*' the !oo of EBodus
-ea%in* no inter%a- of time et$een the mirac-e of
3oses and the ma*ica- o)eration of the enchanters"
It a))ears( at rst %ie$( im)ossi-e that these
ma*icians shou-d chan*e to -ood that $hich $as
a-read' made suchG ut the dicu-t' ma' e re8
mo%ed ' su))osin* that 3oses had a--o$ed the
$aters to resume their ori*ina- nature( in order to
*i%e Pharaoh time for reection" This su))osition
is the more )-ausi-e( inasmuch as( if not eB)ress-'
fa%ored ' the teBt( the -atter is not contrar' to it"
Dictionar'"
The same se)tics inHuire ho$( after a-- the
horses $ere destro'ed ' hai-( in the siBth )-a*ue(
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Pharaoh $as a-e to )ursue the 1e$ish nation $ith
ca%a-r'" !ut this contradiction is not e%en an a)8
)arent one( since the hai- $hich i--ed a-- the horses
that $ere out in the e-ds( cou-d not fa-- on those
$hich $ere in the sta-es"
One of the *reatest contradictions $hich has een
su))osed to e found in the histor' of the in*s is
the utter scarcit' of oMensi%e and defensi%e arms
amon* the 1e$s at the time of the accession of Sau-(
com)ared $ith the arm' of three hundred and thirt'
thousand men( $hom he conducted a*ainst the
Ammonites $ho $ere esie*in* 1aesh i-ead"
It is a fact re-ated that then( and e%en after that
att-e( there $as not a -ance( not e%en a sin*-e s$ord(
amon* the $ho-e &ere$ )eo)-eG that the Phi-is8
tines )re%ented the &ere$s from manufacturin*
s$ords and -ances G that the &ere$s $ere o-i*ed
to ha%e recourse to the Phi-istines for shar)enin*
and re)airin* their )-o$shares( mattocs( aBes( and
)runin*8hoos"
This acno$-ed*ment seems to )ro%e that the
&ere$s consisted of on-' a %er' sma-- numer( and
that the Phi-istines $ere a )o$erfu- and %ictorious
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nation( $ho e)t the Israe-ites under the 'oe( and
treated them as s-a%esG in short( that it $as im8
)ossi-e for Sau- to co--ect three hundred and thirt'
thousand *htin* men( etc"
The re%erend Father Ca-met sa's it is )roa-e
Vo-" =7
Phi-oso)hica-
#that there is a -itt-e eBa**eration in $hat is stated
aout Sau- and 1onathan# G ut that -earned man
for*ets that the other commentators ascrie the rst
%ictories of Sau- and 1onathan to one of those de8
cided mirac-es $hich od so often condescended to
)erform in fa%or of his misera-e )eo)-e" 1onathan(
$ith his armor8earer on-'( at the %er' e*innin*(
s-e$ t$ent' of the enem' G and the Phi-istines( ut8
ter-' confounded( turned their arms a*ainst each
other" The author of the !oo of Kin*s )ositi%e-'
dec-ares that it $as a mirac-e of od 0 #Accidit Huasi
miracu-um a Deo"# There is( therefore( no con8
tradiction"
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The enemies of the Christian re-i*ion( the Ce-8
suses( the Por)h'r's( and the 1u-ians( ha%e eB8
hausted the sa*acit' of their understandin*s u)on
this suQect" The 1e$ish $riters ha%e a%ai-ed them8
se-%es of a-- the ad%anta*es the' deri%ed from their
su)erior no$-ed*e of the &ere$ -an*ua*e to eB8
)-ain these a))arent contradictions" The' ha%e
een fo--o$ed e%en ' Christians( such as Lord &er8
ert( Wo--aston( Tinda-( To-and( Co--ins( Shaftes8
ur'( Woo-ston( ordon( !o-in*roe( and man'
others of diMerent nations" Freret( )er)etua- sec8
retar' of the Academ' of !e--es Lettres in France(
the -earned Le C-erc himse-f( and Simon of the Ora8
tor' thou*ht the' )ercei%ed some contradictions
$hich mi*ht e ascried to the co)'ists" An im8
mense numer of other critics ha%e endea%ored to
Dictionar'" <
remo%e or correct contradictions $hich a))eared to
them ineB)-ica-e"
We read in a dan*erous -itt-e oo( com)osed
$ith much art0 #St" 3atthe$ and St" Lue *i%e
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each a *enea-o*' of Christ diMerent from the other 1
and -est it shou-d e thou*ht that the diMerences are
on-' s-i*ht( such as mi*ht e im)uted to ne*-ect or
o%ersi*ht( the contrar' ma' easi-' e sho$n ' read8
in* the rst cha)ter of 3atthe$ and the third of
Lue" We sha-- then see that fteen *enerations
more are enumerated in the one than in the other G
that( from Da%id( the' com)-ete-' se)arateG that
the' Qoin a*ain at Sa-athie- G ut that( after his son(
the' a*ain se)arate( and do not reunite a*ain ut in
1ose)h"
#In the same *enea-o*'( St" 3atthe$ a*ain fa--s
into a manifest contradiction( for he sa's that 244iah
$as the father of 1othamG and in the #Para-i)o8
mena(# oo i( cha)( iii"( %" n( =( $e nd three
*enerations et$een them 1oas( Ama4ias( and
A4arias of $hom Lue( as $e-- as 3atthe$( mae
no mention" Further( this *enea-o*' has nothin* to
do $ith that of 1esus( since( accordin* to our creed(
1ose)h had had no intercourse $ith 3ar'"#
In order to re)-' to this oQection( ur*ed from
the time of Ori*en( and rene$ed from a*e to a*e(
$e must read 1u-ius Africanus" See the t$o *ene8
a-o*ies reconci-ed in the fo--o$in* ta-e( as $e nd
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it in the re)ositor' of ecc-esiastica- $riters 0
@
So-omon and his
descendants( enu8
merated ' Saint
3atthe$"
3athan( her rst
husand"
1aco( son of 3a8
than( the rst hus8
and"
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1ose)h( natura-
son of 1aco"
Phi-oso)hica-
DAVID"
EST&ER"
The $ife of these
t$o )ersons suc8
cessi%e-'( married
rst to &e-i( '
$hom she had no
chi-d( and after8
$ards to 1aco(
his rother"
Nathan and his
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descendants( enu8
merated ' Saint
Lue"
3e-chi( or rather
3athat( her sec8
ond husand"
&e-i"
Le*itimate son of
&e-i"
There is another method to reconci-e the t$o
*enea-o*ies( ' St" E)i)hanius" Accordin* to him(
1aco Panther( descended from So-omon( is the
father of 1ose)h and of C-eo)has" 1ose)h has siB
chi-dren ' his rst $ife 1ames( 1oshua( Simeon(
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1ude( 3ar'( and Sa-ome" &e then es)ouses the
Vir*in 3ar'( the mother of 1esus( and the dau*hter
of 1oachim and Anne"
There are man' other methods of eB)-ainin*
these t$o *enea-o*ies" See the #Dissertation# of
Father Ca-met( in $hich he endea%ors to reconci-e
St" 3atthe$ $ith St" Lue( on the *enea-o*' of
1esus Christ" The same -earned se)tics( $ho mae
it their usiness to com)are dates( to eB)-ore oos
and meda-s( to co--ate ancient authors( and to see
for truth ' human si-- and stud'( and $ho -ose
in their no$-ed*e the sim)-icit' of their faith( re8
Dictionar'"
)roach St" Lue $ith contradictin* the other e%an8
*e-ists( and in ein* mistaen in $hat he ad%ances
on the suQect of our Lord5s irth" The author of
the #Ana-'sis of the Christian Re-i*ion# thus
rash-' eB)resses himse-f on the suQect )" U 0
#St" Lue sa's that C'renius $as the *o%ernor of
S'ria( $hen Au*ustus ordered the numerin* of a--
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the )eo)-e of the em)ire" We $i-- sho$ ho$ man'
decided fa-sehoods are contained in these fe$ $ords"
First( Tacitus and Suetonius( the most )recise of
historians( sa' not a sin*-e $ord of the )retended
numerin* of the $ho-e em)ire( $hich certain-'
$ou-d ha%e een a %er' sin*u-ar e%ent( since there
ne%er had een one under an' em)eror at -east( no
author mentions such a case" Second-'( C'renius
did not arri%e in S'ria ti-- ten 'ears after the time
Bed ' St" Lue G it $as then *o%erned ' :uin8
ti-ius Varus( as Tertu--ian re-ates( and as is con8
rmed ' meda-s"#
We contend that in fact there ne%er $as a num8
erin* of the $ho-e Roman em)ire( ut on-' a cen8
sus of Roman citi4ens( accordin* to usa*e G a-thou*h
it is )ossi-e that the co)'ists ma' ha%e $ritten
#numerin*# for #census"# With re*ard to C'ren8
ius( $hom the co)'ists ha%e made Cirinus( it is cer8
tain that he $as not *o%ernor of S'ria at the time of
the irth of 1esus Christ( the *o%ernor ein* :uin8
ti-ius Varus G ut it is %er' )roa-e that :uinti-ius
mi*ht send into 1udaea this same C'renius( $ho ten
'ears after succeeded him in the *o%ernment of
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' 7 Phi-oso)hica-
S'ria" We cannot dissem-e( ho$e%er( that this eB8
)-anation sti-- -ea%es some dicu-ties"
In the rst )-ace( the census made under Au8
*ustus does not corres)ond in time $ith the irth
of 1esus Christ" Second-'( the 1e$s $ere not com8
)rised in that census" 1ose)h and his $ife $ere
not Roman citi4ens" 3ar'( therefore( it is said(
ein* under no necessit'( $as not -ie-' to *o from
Na4areth( $hich is at the eBtremit' of 1udaea( $ithin
a fe$ mi-es of 3ount Taor( in the midst of the
desert( to -ie in at !eth-ehem( $hich is ei*ht' mi-es
from Na4areth"
!ut it mi*ht easi-' ha))en that Cirinus( or C'ren8
ius( ha%in* een sent to 1erusa-em ' :uinti-ius
Varus to im)ose a )o--8taB( 1ose)h and 3ar' $ere
summoned ' the ma*istrate of !eth-ehem to *o and
)a' the taB in the to$n of !eth-ehem( the )-ace of
their irth" In this there is nothin* contradictor'"
The critics ma' endea%or to $eaen this so-ution
' re)resentin* that it $as &erod on-' $ho im8
)osed taBesG that the Romans at that time -e%ied
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nothin* on 1udaea G that Au*ustus -eft &erod com8
)-ete-' his o$n master for the triute $hich that
Idumean )aid to the em)ire" !ut( in an emer*enc'(
it is not im)ossi-e to mae some arran*ement $ith
a triutar' )rince( and send him an intendant to es8
ta-ish in concert $ith him the ne$ taB"
We $i-- not here sa'( -ie so man' others( that
co)'ists ha%e committed man' errors( and that in
Dictionar'" >
the %ersion $e )ossess there are to e found more
than ten thousandG $e had rather sa' $ith the
doctors of the Church and the most en-i*htened
)ersons( that the os)e-s $ere *i%en us on-' to
teach us to -i%e ho-i-'( and not to criticise -earned-'"
These )retended contradictions )roduced a dread8
fu- im)ression on the much -amented 1ohn 3es-ier(
rector of Etre)i*ni and !ut in Cham)a*ne" This
tru-' %irtuous and charita-e( ut at the same time
me-ancho-'( man( ein* )ossessed of scarce-' an'
other oos than the !i-e and some of the fathers(
read them $ith a studiousness of attention that e8
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came fata- to him" A-thou*h ound ' the duties
of his oce to incu-cate doci-it' u)on his oc( he
$as not sucient-' doci-e himse-f" &e sa$ a)8
)arent contradictions( and shut his e'es to the means
su**ested for reconci-in* them" &e ima*ined that
he )ercei%ed the most fri*htfu- contradictions e8
t$een 1esus ein* orn a 1e$ and after$ards ein*
reco*ni4ed as odG in re*ard to that od no$n
from the rst as the son of 1ose)h the car)enter and
the rother of 1ames( 'et descended from an em)'8
rean $hich does not eBist( to destro' sin u)on earth
that is sti-- co%ered $ith crimes G in re*ard to that
od( the son of a common artisan and a descendant
of Da%id on the side of his father( $ho $as not in
fact his fatherG et$een the creator of a-- $or-ds(
and the descendant of the adu-terous !athshea( the
)rurient Ruth( the incestuous Tamar( the )rosti8
7? Phi-oso)hica-
tute of 1ericho( the $ife of Araham( so sus)icious-'
attracti%e to a in* of E*')t( and a*ain at the a*e
of ninet' 'ears to a in* of erar"
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3es-ier eB)atiates $ith an im)iet' aso-ute-'
monstrous on these )retended contradictions( as
the' struc him( for $hich( ho$e%er( he mi*ht easi-'
ha%e found an eB)-anation( had he )ossessed on-' a
sma-- )ortion of doci-it'" At -en*th his *-oom so
*re$ u)on him in his so-itude that he actua--' e8
came horror8stricen at that ho-' re-i*ion $hich it
$as his dut' to )reach and -o%e G and( -istenin* on-'
to his seduced and $anderin* reason( he aQured
Christianit' ' a $i-- $ritten in his o$n hand( of
$hich he -eft three co)ies ehind him at his death(
$hich too )-ace in =" The co)' of this $i-- has
een often )rinted( and eBhiits( in truth( a most
crue- stum-in*8-oc" A c-er*'man( $ho at the
)oint of death( ass )ardon of od and his )arish8
ioners for ha%in* tau*ht the doctrines of Christi8
anit'G a charita-e c-er*'man( $ho ho-ds Chris8
tianit' in eBecration ecause man' $ho )rofess it
are de)ra%ed G $ho is shoced at the )om) and )ride
of Rome( and eBas)erated ' the dicu-ties of the
sacred %o-ume G a c-er*'man $ho s)eas of Chris8
tianit' -ie Por)h'r'( 1am-ichus( E)ictetus( 3arcus
Aure-ius( and 1u-ian And this Qust as he is to mae
his a))earance efore od &o$ fata- a case for
him( and for a-- $ho ma' e -ed astra' ' his eB8
am)-e
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In a simi-ar manner the unfortunate )reacher
Dictionar'" 7=
Anton'( mis-ed ' the a))arent contradictions $hich
he ima*ined he sa$ et$een the ne$ and the o-d
-a$( et$een the cu-ti%ated o-i%e and the $i-d o-i%e(
$retched-' aandoned the Christian re-i*ion for the
1e$ishG and( more coura*eous than 1ohn 3es-ier(
)referred death to recantation"
It is e%ident from the $i-- of 1ohn 3es-ier that
the a))arent contradictions of the *os)e- $ere the
)rinci)a- cause of unsett-in* the mind of that un8
fortunate )astor( $ho $as( in other res)ects( a man
of the strictest %irtue( and $hom it is im)ossi-e to
thin of $ithout com)assion" 3es-ier is dee)-' im8
)ressed ' the t$o *enea-o*ies( $hich seem in direct
o))osition G he had not seen the method of reconci-8
in* them G he fee-s a*itated and )ro%oed to see that
St" 3atthe$ maes the father and mother of the
chi-d tra%e- into E*')t( after ha%in* recei%ed the
homa*e of the three eastern ma*i or in*s( and $hi-e
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o-d Kin* &erod( under the a))rehension of ein*
dethroned ' an infant Qust orn at !eth-ehem(
causes the s-au*hter of a-- the infants in the countr'(
in order to )re%ent such a re%o-ution" &e is aston8
ished that neither St" Lue( nor St" 3ar( nor St"
1ohn mae an' mention of this massacre" &e is con8
founded at oser%in* that St" Lue maes 1ose)h(
and the -essed Vir*in 3ar'( and 1esus our Sa%iour(
remain at !eth-ehem( after $hich the' $ithdra$ to
Na4areth" &e shou-d ha%e seen that the &o-'
Father mi*ht at rst *o into E*')t( and some time
after$ards to Na4areth( $hich $as their countr'"
7 Phi-oso)hica-
If St" 3atthe$ a-one maes mention of the three
ma*i( and of the star $hich *uided them to !eth-e8
hem from the remote c-imes of the East( and of the
massacre of the chi-drenG if the other e%an*e-ists
tae no notice of these e%ents( the' do not contradict
St" 3atthe$ G si-ence is not contradiction"
If the three rst e%an*e-ists St" 3atthe$( St"
3ar( and St" Lue mae 1esus Christ to ha%e
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-i%ed ut three months from his a)tism in a-i-ee
ti-- his cruciBion at 1erusa-em G and if St" 1ohn eB8
tends that time to three 'ears and three months( it
is eas' to a))roBimate St" 1ohn to the other e%an8
*e-ists( as he does not eB)ress-' state that 1esus
Christ )reached in a-i-ee for three 'ears and three
months( ut on-' -ea%es it to e inferred from his
narrati%e" Shou-d a man renounce his re-i*ion u)on
sim)-e inferences( u)on )oints of contro%ers'( u)on
dicu-ties in chrono-o*'J
It is im)ossi-e( sa's 3es-ier( to harmoni4e St"
3ar and St" Lue G since the rst sa's that 1esus(
$hen he -eft the $i-derness( $ent to Ca)ernaum(
and the second that he $ent to Na4areth" St" 1ohn
sa's that Andre$ $as the rst $ho ecame a fo-8
-o$er of 1esus ChristG the three other e%an*e-ists
sa' that it $as Simon Peter"
&e )retends( a-so( that the' contradict each other
$ith res)ect to the da' $hen 1esus ce-erated the
Passo%er( the hour and )-ace of &is eBecution( the
time of &is a))earance and resurrection" &e
is con%inced that oos $hich contradict each other
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Literature or Art"
I ha%e sometimes heard it said of a *ood Qud*e
on these suQects( and of eBHuisite taste( that man
decides accordin* to mere ca)rice" &e 'esterda'
descried Poussin as an admira-e )ainterG to8da'
he re)resents him as an ordinar' one" The fact is(
that Poussin has merited oth )raise and censure"
There is no contradiction in ein* enra)tured '
7 Phi-oso)hica-
the de-icious scenes of the &oratii and Curiatii( of
the Cid( of Au*ustus and of Cinna( and after$ards
in seein*( $ith dis*ust and indi*nation( fteen tra*e8
dies in succession( containin* no interest( no eaut'(
and not e%en $ritten in French"
It is the author himse-f $ho is contradictor'" It
is he $ho has the misfortune to diMer entire-' from
himse-f" The critic $ou-d contradict himse-f( if he
eHua--' a))-auded $hat is eBce--ent and detesta-e"
&e $i-- admire in &omer the descri)tion of the
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*ird-e of Venus G the )artin* of &ector and An8
dromacheG the inter%ie$ et$een Achi--es and
Priam" !ut $i-- he eHua--' a))-aud those )assa*es
$hich descrie the *ods as ausin* and *htin* $ith
one anotherG the uniformit' in att-es $hich decide
nothin*G the ruta- ferocit' of the heroes( and th5e
a%arice ' $hich the' are a-most a-- actuated G in
short( a )oem $hich terminates $ith a truce of
e-e%en da's( unHuestiona-' eBcitin* an eB)ectation
of the continuation of the $ar and the tain* of
Tro'( $hich( ho$e%er( are not re-ated J
A *ood critic $i-- freHuent-' )ass from a))roa8
tion to censure( ho$e%er eBce--ent the $or ma' e
$hich he is )erusin*"
CONTRAST"
CONTRAST( o))osition of *ures( situations( for8
tune( manners( etc" A modest she)herdess forms a
eautifu- contrast in a )aintin* $ith a hau*ht'
)rincess" The )art of the im)ostor and that of
Dictionar'" 7<
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Aristes constitute a %er' admira-e contrast in # Tar8
tuM e"#
The -itt-e ma' contrast $ith the *reat in )aint8
in*( ut cannot e said to e contrar' to it" O))osi8
tion of co-ors contrastsG ut there are a-so co-ors
contrar' to each otherG that is( $hich )roduce an
i-- eMect ecause the' shoc the e'e $hen rou*ht
%er' near it"
#Contradictor'# is a term to e used on-' in
-o*ic" It is contradictor' for an'thin* to e and not
to e G to e in man' )-aces at once G to e of a cer8
tain numer or si4e( and not to e so" An o)inion(
a discourse( or a decree( $e ma' ca-- contradictor'"
The diMerent fortunes of Char-es ;II" ha%e een
contrar'( ut not contradictor'G the' form in his8
tor' a eautifu- contrast"
It is a striin* contrast and the t$o thin*s are
)erfect-' contrar' ut it is not contradictor'( that
the )o)e shou-d e $orshi))ed in Rome( and urned
in London on the same da'G that $hi-e he $as
ca--ed od5s %ice*erent in Ita-'( he shou-d e re)re8
sented in the streets of 3osco$ as a ho*( for the
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amusement of Peter the reat"
3ahomet( stationed at the ri*ht hand of od o%er
ha-f the *-oe( and damned o%er the other ha-f( is
the *reatest of contrasts" Tra%e- far from 'our o$n
countr'( and e%er'thin* $i-- e contrast for 'ou"
The $hite man $ho rst sa$ a ne*ro $as much
astonishedG ut the rst $ho said that the ne*ro
$as the oMs)rin* of a $hite )air astonishes me much
7@ Phi-oso)hica-
more G I do not a*ree $ith him" A )ainter $ho re)8
resents $hite men( ne*roes( and o-i%e8co-ored )eo8
)-e( ma' dis)-a' ne contrasts"
CONV2LSIONARIES"
A!O2T the 'ear = the cemeter' of St" 3edard
aounded in amusement( and man' mirac-es $ere
)erformed there" The fo--o$in* e)i*ram ' the
duchess of 3aine *i%es a to-era-e account of the
character of most of them 0
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2n cttcrotteur a -a Ro'a-e(
Du ta-on *auche estro)it(
Otint( )our *rdce s)ecia-s"
D5etre tortueuB de I5autre )ied"
A Port8Ro'a- shoe8-ac( $ho had one -ame -e*(
To mae oth a-ie the Lord5s fa%or did e*G
&ea%en -istened( and strai*ht$a' a mirac-e came(
For Huic-' he rose u)( $ith oth his -e*s -ame"
The mirac-es continued( as is $e-- no$n( unti-
a *uard $as stationed at the cemeter'"
De )ar -e roi( defense a Dieu
De faire mirac-es en ce -ieu"
Louis to od0 To ee) the )eace(
&ere mirac-es must henceforth cease"
It is a-so $e-- no$n that the 1esuits( ein* no
-on*er a-e to )erform simi-ar mirac-es( in conse8
Huence of ;a%ier ha%in* eBhausted their stoc of
*race and miracu-ous )o$er( ' resuscitatin* nine
dead )ersons at one time( reso-%ed in order to coun8
teract the credit of the 1ansenists( to en*ra%e a )rint
of 1esus Christ dressed as a 1esuit" The 1ansenists(
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on the other hand( in order to *i%e a satisfactor'
)roof that 1esus Christ had not assumed the hait of
Dictionar'" 7
a 1esuit( --ed Paris $ith con%u-sions( and attracted
*reat cro$ds of )eo)-e to $itness them" The coun8
se--or of )ar-iament( Carre de 3ont*eron( $ent to
)resent to the in* a Huarto co--ection of a-- these
mirac-es( attested ' a thousand $itnesses" &e $as
%er' )ro)er-' shut u) in a chateau( $here attem)ts
$ere made to restore his senses ' re*imenG ut
truth a-$a's )re%ai-s o%er )ersecution( and the
mirac-es -asted for thirt' 'ears to*ether( $ithout in8
terru)tion" Sister Rose( Sister I--uminee( and the
sisters Promise and Comtte( $ere scour*ed $ith
*reat ener*'( $ithout( ho$e%er( eBhiitin* an' a)8
)earance of the $hi))in* neBt da'" The' $ere
astinadoed on their stomachs $ithout inQur'( and
)-aced efore a -ar*e reG ut( ein* defended '
certain )omades and )re)arations( $ere not urned"
At -en*th( as e%er' art is constant-' ad%ancin* to8
$ards )erfection( their )ersecutors conc-uded $ith
actua--' thrustin* s$ords throu*h their chairs( and
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$ith crucif'in* them" A famous schoo-master had
a-so the enet of cruciBion G a-- $hich $as done to
con%ince the $or-d that a certain u-- $as ridicu-ous(
a fact that mi*ht ha%e een easi-' )ro%ed $ithout
so much trou-e" &o$e%er( 1esuits and 1ansenists
a-- united a*ainst the #S)irit of La$s(# and a*ainst
"""" and a*ainst """" and a*ainst """"
and And after a-- this $e dare to ridi8
cu-e La)-anders( Samo'eds( and ne*roes =
77 Phi-oso)hica-
CORN"
T&E6 must e se)tics indeed $ho dout that
)ain comes from )anis" !ut to mae read $e must
ha%e corn" The au-s had corn in the time of
CaesarG ut $hence did the' tae the $ord -eJ
It is )retended that it is from -adum( a $ord em8
)-o'ed in the ararous Latin of the midd-e a*e '
the Chance--or Des%i*nes( or De Erneis( $hose e'es(
it is said( $ere torn out ' order of the Em)eror
Frederic II"
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!ut the Latin $ords of these ararous a*es
$ere on-' ancient Ce-tic or Teutonic $ords Latin8
i4ed" !-adum then comes from our -ead( and not
our -ead from -adum" The Ita-ians ca-- it ioda(
and the countries in $hich the ancient Roman
-an*ua*e is )reser%ed( sti-- sa' -ia"
This no$-ed*e is not innite-' usefu- G ut $e
are curious to no$ $here the au-s and Teutons
found corn to so$J We are to-d that the T'rians
rou*ht it into S)ain( the S)aniards into au-( and
the au-s into erman'" And $here did the
T'rians *et this cornJ Proa-' from the rees(
in eBchan*e for their a-)haet"
Who made this )resent to the reesJ It $as
the *oddess Ceres( $ithout doutG and ha%in*
ascended to Ceres( $e can scarce-' *o an' hi*her"
Ceres must ha%e descended from hea%en eB)ress-'
to *i%e us $heat( r'e( and ar-e'" &o$e%er( as the
credit of Ceres( $ho *a%e corn to the rees( and
Dictionar'" 7>
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that of Ishet( or Isis( $ho *ratied the E*')tians
$ith it( are at )resent %er' much deca'ed( $e ma'
sti-- e said to remain in uncertaint' as to the ori*in
of corn"
Sanchoniathon te--s us that Da*on or Da*an( one
of the *randsons of Thaut( had the su)erintendence
of the corn in Phoenicia" ;o$ his Thaut $as near
the time of our 1ared G from $hich it a))ears that
corn is %er' ancient( and that it is of the same an8
tiHuit' as *rass" Perha)s this Da*on $as the rst
$ho made read( ut that is not demonstrated"
What a stran*e thin* that $e shou-d no$ )osi8
ti%e-' that $e are o-i*ed to Noah for $ine( and
that $e do not no$ to $hom $e o$e the in%ention
of read" And $hat is sti-- more stran*e( $e are
sti-- so un*ratefu- to Noah that( $hi-e $e ha%e more
than t$o thousand son*s in honor of !acchus( $e
scarce-' sin* one in honor of our enefactor( Noah"
A 1e$ assured me that corn came $ithout cu-ti8
%ation in 3eso)otamia( as a))-es( $i-d )ears( chest8
nuts( and med-ars( in the $est" It is as $e-- to e8
-ie%e him( unti- $e are sure of the contrar'G for it
is necessar' that corn shou-d *ro$ s)ontaneous-'
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some$here" It has ecome the ordinar' and indis8
)ensa-e nourishment in the nest c-imates( and in
a-- the north"
The *reat )hi-oso)hers $hose ta-ents $e estimate
so hi*h-'( and $hose s'stems $e do not fo--o$(
ha%e )retended( in the natura- histor' of the do*
)a*e =><U( that men created cornG and that our
Vo-" =>
>? Phi-oso)hica-
ancestors( ' means of so$in* tares and co$8*rass
to*ether( chan*ed them into $heat" As these )hi8
-oso)hers are not of our o)inion on she--s( the' $i--
)ermit us to diMer from them on corn" We do not
thin that tu-i)s cou-d e%er ha%e een )roduced
from Qasmine" We nd that the *erm of corn is
Huite diMerent from that of tares( and $e do not
e-ie%e in an' transmutation" When it sha-- e
)ro%ed to us( $e $i-- retract"
We ha%e seen( in the artic-e #!readtree(# that
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in three8Huarters of the earth read is not eaten" It
is )retended that the Ethio)ians -au*hed at the
E*')tians( $ho -i%ed on read" !ut since corn is
our chief nourishment( it has ecome one of the
*reatest oQects of commerce and )o-itics" So much
has een $ritten on this suQect( that if a -aorer
so$ed as man' )ounds of $heat as $e ha%e %o-umes
on this commodit'( he mi*ht eB)ect a more am)-e
har%est( and ecome richer than those $ho( in their
)ainted and *i-ded sa-oons( are i*norant of the eB8
cess of his o))ression and miser'"
E*')t ecame the est countr' in the $or-d for
$heat $hen( after se%era- a*es( $hich it is dicu-t
to recon eBact-'( the inhaitants found the secret
of renderin* a destructi%e ri%er $hich had a-$a's
inundated the countr'( and $as on-' usefu- to the
rats( insects( re)ti-es( and crocodi-es of E*')t ser%8
icea-e to the fecundit' of the soi-" Its $aters(
miBed $ith a -ac mud( $ere neither usefu- to
Huench the thirst of the inhaitants( nor for a-u8
Dictionar'" >=
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tion" It must ha%e reHuired a -on* time and )ro8
di*ious -aor to sudue the ri%er( to di%ide it into
cana-s( to found to$ns on -ands former-' mo%a-e(
and to chan*e the ca%erns of the rocs into %ast
ui-din*s"
A-- this is more astonishin* than the )'ramidsG
for ein* accom)-ished( eho-d a )eo)-e sure of the
est corn in the $or-d( $ithout the necessit' of
-aor It is the inhaitant of this countr' $ho
raises and fattens )ou-tr' su)erior to that of CauB(
$ho is haited in the nest -inen in the most tem8
)erate c-imate( and $ho has none of the rea- $ants
of other )eo)-e"
To$ards the 'ear =<?( the French nation( sur8
feited $ith tra*edies( comedies( o)eras( romances(
and romantic histories $ith mora- reections sti--
more romantic( and $ith theo-o*ica- dis)utes on
*race and on con%u-sionaries( e*an to reason u)on
corn" The' e%en for*ot the %ine( in treatin* of
$heat and r'e" 2sefu- thin*s $ere $ritten on a*ri8
cu-ture( and e%er'od' read them eBce)t the -aor8
ers" The *ood )eo)-e ima*ined( as the' $a-ed out
of the comic o)era( that France had a )rodi*ious
Huantit' of corn to se--( and the cr' of the nation
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at -ast otained of the *o%ernment( in =@( the -i8
ert' of eB)ortation"
Accordin*-' the' eB)orted" The resu-t $as eB8
act-' $hat it had een in the time of &enr' IV"(
the' so-d a -itt-e too much( and a arren 'ear suc8
ceedin*( 3ademoise--e !ernard $as o-i*ed( for the
> Phi-oso)hica-
second time( to se-- her nec-ace to *et -inen and
chemises" No$ the com)-ainants )assed from one
eBtreme to the other( and com)-ained a*ainst the
eB)ortation that the' had so recent-' demanded(
$hich sho$s ho$ dicu-t it is to )-ease a-- the $or-d
and his $ife"
A-e and $e--8meanin* )eo)-e( $ithout interest(
ha%e $ritten( $ith as much sa*acit' as coura*e( in
fa%or of the un-imited -iert' of the commerce in
*rain" Others( of as much mind( and $ith eHua--'
)ure %ie$s( ha%e $ritten in the idea of -imitin* this
-iert' G and the Nea)o-itan Ae a*-iana amused
the French nation on the eB)ortation of corn( '
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ndin* out the secret of main*( e%en in French(
dia-o*ues as amusin* as our est romances( and X
instructi%e as our *ood serious oos" If this $or
did not diminish the )rice of read( it *a%e *reat
)-easure to the nation( $hich $as $hat it %a-ued
most" The )artisans of un-imited eB)ortation an8
s$ered him smart-'" The resu-t $as that the
readers no -on*er ne$ $here the' $ere( and the
*reater )art too to readin* romances( eB)ectin*
that the three or four fo--o$in* 'ears of aundance#
$ou-d ena-e them to Qud*e" The -adies $ere no
-on*er a-e to distin*uish $heat from r'e( $hi-e
honest de%otees continued to e-ie%e that *rain must
-ie and rot in the *round in order to s)rin* u)
a*ain"
Dictionar'" >
CO2NCILS"
3eetin*s of Ecc-esiastics( Ca--ed To*ether to Re8
so-%e Douts or :uestions on Points of Faith or
Disci)-ine"
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T&E 2SE of counci-s $as not unno$n to the fo-8
-o$ers of the ancient re-i*ion of 9erdusht( $hom $e
ca-- 9oroaster" Aout the 'ear ?? of our era(
Ardeshir !aecan( in* of Persia( ca--ed to*ether
fort' thousand )riests( to consu-t them touchin*
some of his douts aout )aradise and he--( $hich
the' ca-- the *ehen a term ado)ted ' the 1e$s
durin* their ca)ti%it' at !a'-on( as the' did the
names of the an*e-s and of the months" Erdo%ira)h(
the most ce-erated of the ma*i( ha%in* drun three
*-asses of a so)oric $ine( had an ecstas' $hich
-asted se%en da's and se%en ni*hts( durin* $hich his
sou- $as trans)orted to od" When the )aroB'sm
$as o%er( he reassured the faith of the in*( '
re-atin* to him the *reat man' $onderfu- thin*s
he had seen in the other $or-d( and ha%in* them
$ritten do$n"
We no$ that 1esus $as ca--ed Christ( a ree
$ord si*nif'in* anointedG and his doctrine Chris8
tianit'( or *os)e-( i" e"( *ood ne$s( ecause ha%in*(
as $as his custom( entered one Saath da' the
s'na*o*ue of Na4areth( $here he $as rou*ht u)(
&e a))-ied to &imse-f this )assa*e of Isaiah( $hich
&e had Qust read0 #The s)irit of the Lord is on
me( ecause &e hath anointed me to )reach the
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> Phi-oso)hica-
*os)e- to the )oor"# The' of the s'na*o*ue did(
to e sure( dri%e &im out of their to$n( and carr'
&im to a )oint of the hi--( on $hich it $as ui-t( in
order to thro$ &im head-on* from itG and &is
re-ati%es #$ent out to -a' ho-d on &im(# for the'
$ere to-d( and the' said( #that &e $as eside &im8
se-f"# Nor is it -ess certain that 1esus constant-'
dec-ared &e had come not to destro' the -a$ or the
)ro)hecies( ut to fu-- them"
!ut( as &e -eft nothin* $ritten( &is rst disci)-es
$ere di%ided on the famous Huestion( $hether the
enti-es $ere to e circumcised and ordered to ee)
the 3osaic -a$" The a)ost-es and the )riests( there8
fore( assem-ed at 1erusa-em to eBamine this )oint(
and( after man' conferences( the' $rote to the
rethren amon* the enti-es( at Antioch( in S'ria(
and in Ci-icia( a -etter of $hich $e *i%e the su8
stance 0 #It has seemed *ood to the &o-' host
and to us( not to im)ose u)on 'ou an' o-i*ations
ut those $hich are necessar'( %i4"( to astain from
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meats oMered u) to ido-s( from -ood( from the
esh of choed anima-s( and from fornication"#
The decision of this counci- did not )re%ent
Peter( $hen at Antioch( from continuin* to eat $ith
the enti-es( efore some of the circumcised( $ho
came from 1ames( had arri%ed" !ut Pau-( seein*
that he did not $a- strai*ht in the )ath of *os)e-
truth( resisted him to the face( sa'in* to him efore
them a--( #If thou( ein* a 1e$( -i%est after the
manner of enti-es( and not as do the 1e$s( $h'
Dictionar'" ><
com)e--est thou the enti-es to -i%e as do the 1e$sJ#
Indeed Peter had -i%ed -ie the enti-es e%er since
he had seen( in a trance( #hea%en o)ened( and a cer8
tain %esse- descendin* unto him( as it had een a
*reat sheet( nit at the four corners( and -et do$n to
the earthG $herein $ere a-- manner of four8footed
easts of the earth( and $i-d easts( and cree)in*
thin*s( and fo$-s of the air" And there came a %oice
to him( Rise( Peter( i-- and eat"#
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Pau-( $ho so -oud-' re)ro%ed Peter for usin*
this dissimu-ation to mae them e-ie%e that he
sti-- oser%ed the -a$( had himse-f recourse to a
simi-ar feint at 1erusa-em" !ein* accused of teach8
in* the 1e$s $ho $ere amon* the enti-es to re8
nounce 3oses( he $ent and )uried himse-f in the
tem)-e for se%en da's( in order that a-- mi*ht no$
that $hat the' had heard of him $as fa-se( and that
he continued to oser%e the -a$ G this( too( $as done
' the ad%ice of a-- the )riests( assem-ed at the
house of 1ames $hich )riests $ere the same $ho
had decided $ith the &o-' host( that these oser8
%ations $ere unnecessar'"
Counci-s $ere after$ards distin*uished into *en8
era- and )articu-ar" Particu-ar counci-s are of three
inds nationa-( con%oed ' the )rince( the )atri8
arch( or the )rimateG )ro%incia-( assem-ed ' the
metro)o-itan or archisho) G and diocesan( or s'nods
he-d ' each isho)" The fo--o$in* is a decree of
one of the counci-s he-d at 3acon 0
#Whene%er a -a'man meet a )riest or a deacon
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>@ Phi-oso)hica-
on the road( he sha-- oMer him his arm G if the )riest
and the -a'man are oth on horseac( the -a'man
sha-- sto) and sa-ute the )riest re%erent-' G and if
the )riest e on foot( and the -a'man on horseac(
the -a'man sha-- dismount( and sha-- not mount
a*ain unti- the ecc-esiastic e at a certain distance G
a-- on )ain of interdiction for as -on* a time as it
sha-- )-ease the metro)o-itan"#
The -ist of the counci-s( in 3oreri5s #Dictionar'(#
occu)ies more than siBteen )a*es( ut as authors are
not a*reed concernin* the numer of *enera- coun8
ci-s( $e sha-- here conne ourse-%es to the resu-ts
of the rst ei*ht that $ere assem-ed ' order of the
em)erors"
T$o )riests of A-eBandria( seein* to no$
$hether 1esus $as od or creature( not on-' did
the isho)s and )riests dis)ute ut the $ho-e )eo)-e
$ere di%ided( and the disorder arri%ed at such a
)itch that the Pa*ans ridicu-ed Christianit' on the
sta*e" The em)eror Constantine rst $rote in
these terms to !isho) A-eBander and the )riest
Arms( the authors of the dissension0 #These Hues8
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tions( $hich are unnecessar'( and s)rin* on-' from
un)rota-e id-eness( ma' e discussed in order to
eBercise the inte--ectG ut the' shou-d not e re8
)eated in the hearin* of the )eo)-e" !ein* di%ided
on so sma-- a matter( it is not Qust that 'ou shou-d
*o%ern( accordin* to 'our thou*hts( so *reat a mu-ti8
tude of od5s )eo)-e" Such conduct is mean and
)ueri-e( un$orth' of the )riest-' oce( and of men
Dictionar'" >
of sense" I do not sa' this to com)e- 'ou entire-'
to a*ree on this fri%o-ous Huestion( $hate%er it is"
6ou ma'( $ith a )ri%ate diMerence( )reser%e unit'(
)ro%ided these sut-eties and diMerent o)inions re8
main secret in 'our inmost thou*hts"#
The em)eror( ha%in* -earned that his -etter $as
$ithout eMect( reso-%ed( ' the ad%ice of the isho)s(
to con%oe an ecumenica- counci- i" e"( a counci- of
the $ho-e haita-e earth( and chose for the )-ace of
meetin* the to$n of Nicaea( in !ith'nia" There
came thither t$o thousand and fort'8ei*ht isho)s(
$ho( as Eut'chius re-ates( $ere a-- of diMerent sen8
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timents and o)inions" This )rince( ha%in* had the
)atience to hear them dis)ute on this )oint( $as
much sur)rised at ndin* amon* them so -itt-e
unanimit' G and the author of the Araic )reface to
this counci- sa's that the records of these dis)utes
amounted to fort' %o-umes"
This )rodi*ious numer of isho)s $i-- not a)8
)ear incredi-e $hen it is reco--ected that 2sher(
Huoted ' Se-den( re-ates that St" Patric( $ho -i%ed
in the fth centur'( founded three hundred and
siBt'8%e churches( and ordained the -ie numer of
isho)s G $hich )ro%es that then each church had its
isho)( that is( its o%er-ooer"
In the Counci- of Nice there $as read a -etter
from Euseius of Nicomedia( containin* manifest
heres'( and disco%erin* the caa- of Arius5s )art'"
In it $as said( amon* other thin*s( that if 1esus
$ere acno$-ed*ed to e the Son of od uncreated(
>7 Phi-oso)hica-
&e must a-so e acno$-ed*ed to e consustantia-
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$ith tne Father" Therefore it $as that Athanasius(
a deacon of A-eBandria( )ersuaded the fathers to
d$e-- on the $ord consustantia-( $hich had een
reQected as im)ro)er ' the Counci- of Antioch( he-d
a*ainst Pau- of Samosata G ut he too it in a *ross
sense( marin* di%isionG as $e sa'( that se%era-
)ieces of mone' are of the same meta-0 $hereas
the orthodoB eB)-ained the term consustantia- so
$e--( that the em)eror himse-f com)rehended that
it in%o-%ed no cor)orea- idea si*nied no di%ision
of the aso-ute-' immateria- and s)iritua- sustance
of the Father ut $as to e understood in a
di%ine and ineMa-e sense" The' moreo%er sho$ed
the inQustice of the Arians in reQectin* this $ord
on )retence that it $as not in the Scri)tures the'
$ho em)-o' so man' $ords $hich are not there
to e found G and $ho sa' that the Son of od $as
rou*ht out of nothin*( and had not eBisted from
a-- eternit'"
Constantine then $rote t$o -etters at the same
time( to *i%e )u-icit' to the ordinances of the coun8
ci-( and mae them no$n to such as had not at8
tended it" The rst( addressed to the churches in
*enera-( sa's( in so man' $ords( that the Huestion
of the faith has een eBamined( and so $e-- c-eared
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u)( that no dicu-t' remains" In the second( amon*
others( the church of A-eBandria is thus addressed 0
#What three hundred isho)s ha%e ordained is no
other than the seed of the on-' Son of odG the
Dictionar'" >>
&o-' host has dec-ared the $i-- of od throu*h
these *reat men( $hom he ins)ired" No$( then( -et
none dout -et none dis)ute( ut each one return
$ith a-- his heart into the $a' of truth"#
The ecc-esiastica- $riters are not a*reed as to
the numer of isho)s $ho suscried to the ordi8
nances of this counci-" Euseius recons on-' t$o
hundred and ft' G Eustathius of Antioch( cited '
Theodoret( t$o hundred and se%ent'G St" Athan8
asius( in his e)ist-e to the So-itaries( three hundred(
-ie Constantine G $hi-e( in his -etter to the Africans(
he s)eas of three hundred and ei*hteen" 6et these
four authors $ere e'e8$itnesses( and $orth' of
*reat faith"
This numer =7( $hich Po)e St" Leo ca--s m's8
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terious( has een ado)ted ' most of the fathers of
the church" St" Amrose assures us that the numer
of =7 isho)s $as a )roof of the )resence of our
Lord 1esus Christ in his Counci- of Nicaea( ecause
the cross desi*nates three hundred( and the name of
1esus ei*hteen" St" &i-ar'( in his defence of the
$ord consustantia-( a))ro%ed in the Counci- of
Nice( thou*h condemned ft'8%e 'ears efore in
the Counci- of Antioch( reasons thus0 #Ei*ht'
isho)s reQected the $ord consustantia-( ut three
hundred and ei*hteen ha%e recei%ed it" No$ this
-atter numer seems to me a sacred numer( for it
is that of the men $ho accom)anied Araham(
$hen( after his %ictor' o%er the im)ious in*s( he
$as -essed ' him $ho is the t')e of the eterna-
?? Phi-oso)hica-
)riesthood"# And Se-den re-ates that Dorotheus(
metro)o-itan of 3onemasis( said there $ere )re8
cise-' three hundred and ei*hteen fathers at this
counci-( ecause three hundred and ei*hteen 'ears
had e-a)sed since the incarnation" A-- chrono-o*ists
)-ace this counci- in the 'ear < of our modern era G
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ut Dorotheus deducts se%en 'ears( to mae his com8
)arison com)-eteG this( ho$e%er( is a mere trie"
!esides( it $as not unti- the Counci- of Lestines( in
( that the 'ears e*an to e counted from the
incarnation of 1esus" Dion'sius the Less had im8
a*ined this e)och in his so-ar c'c-e of the 'ear <@(
and !ede had made use of it in his #Ecc-esiastica-
&istor'"#
It $i-- not e a suQect of astonishment that Con8
stantine ado)ted the o)inion of the three hundred
or three hundred and ei*hteen isho)s $ho he-d the
di%init' of 1esus( $hen it is orne in mind that
Euseius of Nicomedia( one of the )rinci)a- -eaders
of the Arian )art'( had een an accom)-ice in the
crue-t' of Licinius( in the massacres of the isho)s(
and the )ersecutions of the Christians" Of this the
em)eror himse-f accuses him( in the )ri%ate -etter
$hich he $rote to the church of Nicomedia 0
#&e sent s)ies aout me(# sa's he( #in the
trou-es( and did e%er'thin* ut tae u) arms for
the t'rant" I ha%e )roofs of this from the )riests
and deacons of his train( $hom I too" Durin* the
Counci- of Nicsea( $ith $hat ea*erness and $hat
im)udence he maintained( a*ainst the testimon' of
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Dictionar'"
his conscience( the error eB)-oded on e%er' side
re)eated-' im)-orin* m' )rotection( -est( ein* con8
%icted of so *reat a crime( he shou-d -ose his di*nit'"
&e shamefu--' circum%ented and too me ' sur8
)rise( and carried e%er'thin* as he chose" A*ain(
see $hat has een done ut -ate-' ' him and Theo8
*enes"#
Constantine here a--udes to the fraud $hich Eu8
seius of Nicomedia and Theo*enes of Nicaea re8
sorted to in suscriin*" In the $ord #omoousios(#
the' inserted an iota( main* it #omoiousios(# mean8
in* of -ie sustance G $hereas the rst means of the
same sustance" We here' see that these isho)s
'ie-ded to the fear of ein* dis)-aced or anishedG
for the em)eror had threatened $ith eBi-e such as
shou-d not suscrie" The other Euseius( too(
isho) of Csesarea( a))ro%ed the $ord consustan8
tia-( after condemnin* it the da' efore"
&o$e%er( Theonas of 3armarica( and Secundus
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of Pto-emais continued ostinate-' attached to
Arius G and( the counci-( ha%in* condemned them
$ith him( Constantine anished them( and dec-ared
' an edict that $hosoe%er shou-d e con%icted of
concea-in* an' of the $ritin*s of Arius instead of
urnin* them( shou-d e )unished $ith death"
Three months after( Euseius of Nicomedia and
Theo*enes $ere -ie$ise eBi-ed into au-" It is
said that( ha%in* *ained o%er the indi%idua- $ho(
' the em)eror5s order( e)t the acts of the counci-(
the' had erased their si*natures( and e*un to teach
? Phi-oso)hica-
in )u-ic that the Son must not e e-ie%ed to e
consustantia- $ith the Father"
&a))i-'( to re)-ace their si*natures and )reser%e
entire the m'sterious numer three hundred and
ei*hteen( the eB)edient $as tried of -a'in* the oo(
in $hich the acts $ere di%ided into sessions( on the
tom of Chr'santhus and 3'sonius( $ho had died
$hi-e the counci- $as in sessionG the ni*ht $as
)assed in )ra'er and the neBt mornin* it $as found
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that these t$o isho)s had si*ned"
It $as ' an eB)edient near-' simi-ar( that the
fathers of the same counci- distin*uished the au8
thentic from the a)ocr')ha- oos of Scri)ture"
&a%in* )-aced them a-to*ether u)on the a-tar( the
a)ocr')ha- oos fe-- to the *round of themse-%es"
T$o other counci-s( assem-ed ' the em)eror
Constantine( in the 'ear <>( the one( of u)$ards
of four hundred isho)s( at Rimini( the other( of
more than a hundred and ft'( at Se-eucia G after
-on* deates( reQected the $ord consustantia-( a-8
read' condemned( as $e ha%e efore said( ' a
Counci- of Antioch" !ut these counci-s are reco*8
ni4ed on-' ' the Socinians"
The Nicene fathers had een so much occu)ied
$ith the consustantia-it' of the Son( that the' had
made no mention of the church in their s'mo-( ut
contented themse-%es $ith sa'in*( #We a-so e-ie%e
in the &o-' host"# This omission $as su))-ied in
the second *enera- counci-( con%oed at Constanti8
no)-e( in 7=( ' Theodosius" The &o-' host $as
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Dictionar'" ?
there dec-ared to e the Lord and *i%er of -ife( )ro8
ceedin* from the Father( $ho $ith the Father and
Son is $orshi))ed and *-oried( $ho s)ae ' the
)ro)hets" After$ards the Latin church $ou-d ha%e
the &o-' host )roceed from the Son a-soG and
the #-ioHue# $as added to the s'mo-0 rst in
S)ain( in G then in France( at the Counci- of
L'ons( in =G and -ast-' at Rome( not$ithstand8
in* the com)-aints made ' the rees a*ainst this
inno%ation"
The di%init' of 1esus ein* once esta-ished( it
$as natura- to *i%e to his mother the tit-e of 3other
of od" &o$e%er( Nestorius( )atriarch of Constan8
tino)-e( maintained in his sermons that this $ou-d
e Qustif'in* the fo--' of the Pa*ans( $ho *a%e
mothers to their *ods" Theodosius the 'oun*er(
to ha%e this *reat Huestion decided( assem-ed the
third *enera- counci- at E)hesus( in the 'ear =(
and in it 3ar' $as acno$-ed*ed to e the mother
of od"
Another heres' of Nestorius( -ie$ise condemned
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at E)hesus( $as that of admittin* t$o )ersons in
1esus" Ne%erthe-ess( the )atriarch Photius su8
seHuent-' acno$-ed*ed t$o natures in 1esus" A
mon named Eut'ches( $ho had a-read' eB8
c-aimed -oud-' a*ainst Nestorius( armed( the
etter to contradict them oth( that 1esus had a-so
ut one nature" !ut this time the mon $as $ron* G
a-thou*h( in >( his o)inion had een maintained '
-o$s in a numerous counci- at E)hesus" Eut'ches
? Phi-oso)hica-
$as ne%erthe-ess anathemati4ed( t$o 'ears after8
$ards( ' the fourth *enera- counci-( he-d under the
em)eror 3arcian at Cha-cedon( in $hich t$o na8
tures $ere assi*ned to 1esus"
It $as sti-- to e determined( $ith one )erson and
t$o natures( ho$ man' $i--s 1esus $as to ha%e"
The fth *enera- counci-( $hich in the 'ear <<
Hue--ed( ' 1ustinian5s order( the contentions aout
the doctrine of three isho)s( had no -eisure to set8
t-e this im)ortant )oint" It $as not unti- the 'ear
@7? that the siBth *enera- counci-( a-so con%ened at
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Constantino)-e ' Constantine Po*onatus( informed
us that 1esus had )recise-' t$o $i--s" This counci-(
in condemnin* the 3onothe-ites( $ho admitted on-'
one( made no eBce)tion from the anathema in fa%or
of Po)e &onorius I"( $ho( in a -etter *i%en ' !aro8
nius( had said to the )atriarch of Constantino)-e 0
#We confess in 1esus Christ one on-' $i--" We
do not see that either the counci-s or the Scri)tures
authori4e us to thin other$ise" !ut $hether( from
the $ors of di%init' and of humanit' $hich are in
him( $e are to -oo for t$o o)erations( is a )oint of
-itt-e im)ortance( and one $hich I -ea%e it to fehe
*rammarians to decide"#
Thus( in this instance( $ith od5s )ermission(
the account et$een the ree and Latin churches
$as a-anced" As the )atriarch Nestorius had een
condemned for acno$-ed*in* t$o )ersons in 1e8
sus( so Po)e &onorius $as no$ condemned for
admittin* ut one $i-- in 1esus"
Dictionar'" ?<
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The se%enth *enera- counci-( or the second of
Nice( $as assem-ed in 7( ' Constantine( son
of Leo and Irene( to re8esta-ish the $orshi) of
ima*es" The reader must no$ that t$o Counci-s
of Constantino)-e( the rst in ?( under the em8
)eror Leo( the other t$ent'8four 'ears after( under
Constantine Co)ron'mus( had thou*ht )ro)er to
)roscrie ima*es( conforma-' to the 3osaic -a$
and to the usa*e of the ear-' a*es of Christianit'"
So( a-so( the Nicene decree( in $hich it is said that
#$hosoe%er sha-- not render ser%ice and adoration
to the ima*es of the saints as to the Trinit'( sha--
e deemed anathemati4ed(# at rst encountered some
o))osition" The isho)s $ho introduced it( in a
Counci- of Constantino)-e( he-d in 7>( $ere turned
out ' so-diers" The same decree $as a-so reQected
$ith scorn ' the Counci- of Franfort in >( and
' the Caro-ine oos( )u-ished ' order of
Char-ema*ne" !ut the second Counci- of Nice $as
at -en*th conrmed at Constantino)-e under the em8
)eror 3ichae- and his mother Theodora( in the 'ear
7( ' a numerous counci-( $hich anathemati4ed
the enemies of ho-' ima*es" !e it here oser%ed( it
$as ' t$o $omen( the em)resses Irene and Theo8
dora( that the ima*es $ere )rotected"
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We )ass on to the ei*hth *enera- counci-" 2nder
the em)eror !asi-ius( Photius( ordained )atriarch
of Constantino)-e in )-ace of I*natius( had the Latin
church condemned for the #-ioHue# and other )rac8
tices( ' a counci- of the 'ear 7@@0 ut I*natius
Vo-" ?
?@ Phi-oso)hica-
ein* reca--ed the fo--o$in* 'ear( another counci-
remo%ed Photius G and in the 'ear 7@> the Latins( in
their turn( condemned the ree church in $hat
the' ca--ed the ei*hth *enera- counci- $hi-e those
in the East *a%e this name to another counci-( $hich(
ten 'ears after( annu--ed $hat the )recedin* one
had done( and restored Photius"
These four counci-s $ere he-d at Constantino)-e G
the others( ca--ed *enera- ' the Latins( ha%in* een
com)osed of the isho)s of the West on-'( the )o)es(
$ith the aid of fa-se decreta-s( *radua--' arro*ated
the ri*ht of con%oin* them" The -ast of these
$hich assem-ed at Trent( from =<< to =<@( neither
ser%ed to con%ert the enemies of )a)ac' nor to su8
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due them" Its decrees( in disci)-ine( ha%e een
scarce-' admitted into an' one Catho-ic nation0 its
on-' eMect has een to %erif' these $ords of St"
re*or' Na4ian4en0 #I ha%e not seen one counci-
that has acted $ith *ood faith( or that has not au*8
mented the e%i-s com)-ained of rather than cured
them" Amition and the -o%e of dis)utation( e'ond
the )o$er of $ords to eB)ress( rei*n in e%er' as8
sem-' of isho)s"#
&o$e%er( the Counci- of Constance( in ==<( ha%8
in* decided that a counci-8*enera- recei%es its au8
thorit' immediate-' from 1esus Christ( $hich au8
thorit' e%er' )erson( of $hate%er ran or di*nit'(
is ound to oe' in a-- that concerns the faith G and
the Counci- of !ase- ha%in* after$ards conrmed
this decree( $hich it ho-ds to e an artic-e of faith
Dictionar'" ?
$hich cannot e ne*-ected $ithout renouncin* sa-8
%ation( it is c-ear ho$ dee)-' e%er' one is interested
in )a'in* sumission to counci-s"
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SECTION II"
Notice of the enera- Counci-s"
Assem-'( counci- of state( )ar-iament( states8
*enera-( former-' si*nied the same thin*" In the
)rimiti%e a*es nothin* $as $ritten in Ce-tic( nor in
erman( nor in S)anish" The -itt-e that $as $rit8
ten $as concei%ed in the Latin ton*ue ' a fe$
c-ers( $ho eB)ressed e%er' meetin* of -endes( her8
ren( or ricohomres( ' the $ord conci-ium" &ence
it is that $e nd in the siBth( se%enth( and ei*hth
centuries so man' counci-s $hich $ere nothin* more
than counci-s of state"
We sha-- here s)ea on-' of the *reat counci-s
ca--ed *enera-( $hether ' the ree or ' the
Latin church" At Rome the' $ere ca--ed s'nods(
as the' $ere in the East in the )rimiti%e a*es for
the Latins orro$ed names as $e-- as thin*s from
the rees"
In < there $as a *reat counci- in the cit' of
Nic*ea( con%oed ' Constantine" The form of its
decision $as this 0 #We e-ie%e that 1esus is of one
sustance $ith the Father( od of od( -i*ht of
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-i*ht( e*otten( not made" We a-so e-ie%e in the
&o-' host"#
Nice)horus arms that t$o isho)s( Chr'san8
thus and 3'sonius( $ho had died durin* the rst
?7 Phi-oso)hica-
sittin*s( rose a*ain to si*n the condemnation of
Arius( and incontinent-' died a*ain( as I ha%e a-8
read' oser%ed" !aronius maintains this fact( ut
F-eur' sa's nothin* of it"
In <> the em)eror Constantius assem-ed the
*reat counci-s of Rimini and of Se-eucia( consistin*
of siB hundred isho)s( $ith a )rodi*ious numer
of )riests" These t$o counci-s( corres)ondin* to8
*ether( undo a-- that the Counci- of Nice did( and
)roscrie the consustantia-it'" !ut this $as after8
$ards re*arded as a fa-se counci-"
In 7= $as he-d( ' order of the em)eror The8
odosius( a *reat counci- at Constantino)-e( of one
hundred and ft' isho)s( $ho anathemati4e the
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Counci- of Rimini" St" re*or' ;a4ian4en )re8
sides( and the isho) of Rome sends de)uties to it"
No$ is added to the Nicene s'mo- 0 #1 esus Christ
$as incarnate( ' the &o-' host( of the Vir*in
3ar'" &e $as crucied for us under Pontius Pi8
-ate" &e $as uried( and on the third da' he rose
a*ain( accordin* to the Scri)tures" &e sits at the
ri*ht hand of the Father" We a-so e-ie%e in the
&o-' host( the Lord and *i%er of -ife( $ho )ro8
ceeds from the Father"#
In = a *reat counci- $as con%oed at E)hesus(
' the em)eror Theodosius II" Nestorius( isho) of
Constantino)-e( ha%in* %io-ent-' )ersecuted a-- $ho
$ere not of his o)inion on theo-o*ica- )oints( un8
der*oes )ersecution in his turn( for ha%in* main8
tained that the &o-' Vir*in 3ar'( mother of 1e8
Dictionar'" ?>
sus Christ( $as not mother of odG ecause
said he( 1esus Christ ein* the $ord( the Son of
od( consustantia- $ith &is Father( 3ar' cou-d
not" at the same time( e mother of od the Father
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and of od the Son" St" C'ri- eBc-aims -oud-'
a*ainst him" ;estorius demands an ecumenica-
counci-( and otains it" ;estorius is condemned G
ut C'ri- is a-so dis)-aced ' a committee of the
counci-" The em)eror re%erses a-- that has een
done in this counci-( then )ermits it to re8assem-e"
The de)uties from Rome arri%e %er' -ate" The
trou-es increasin*( the em)eror has Nestorius and
C'ri- arrested" At -ast he orders a-- the isho)s
to return( each to his church( and after a-- no con8
c-usion is reached" Such $as the famous Counci- of
E)hesus"
In > another *reat counci-( after$ard ca--ed
#the anditti(# met at E)hesus" The numer of
isho)s assem-ed is a hundred and thirt'G and
Dioscorus( isho) of A-eBandria( )resided" There
are t$o de)uties from the church of Rome( and se%8
era- aots" The Huestion is( $hether 1esus Christ
has t$o natures" The isho)s and a-- the mons of
E*')t eBc-aim that #a-- $ho $ou-d di%ide 1esus
Christ ou*ht themse-%es to e torn in t$o"# The
t$o natures are anathemati4ed G and there is a *ht
in fu-- counci-( as at the -itt-e Counci- of Cirta in
<<( and at the minor Counci- of Cartha*e"
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In <( the *reat Counci- of Cha-cedon $as con8
%oed ' Pu-cheria( $ho married 3arcian on con8
=? Phi-oso)hica-
dition that he shou-d e on-' the hi*hest of her su8
Qects" St" Leo( isho) of Rome( ha%in* *reat in8
uence( taes ad%anta*e of the trou-es $hich the
Huarre- aout the t$o natures has occasioned in the
em)ire( and )resides at the counci- ' his -e*ates
of $hich $e ha%e no former eBam)-e" !ut the
fathers of the counci-( a))rehendin* that the church
of the West $i--( from this )recedent( )retend to the
su)eriorit' o%er that of the East( decide ' their
t$ent'8ei*hth canon( that the see of Constantino)-e(
and that of Rome( sha-- enQo' a-ie the same ad8
%anta*es and the same )ri%i-e*es" This $as the
ori*in of the -on* enmit' $hich )re%ai-ed( and sti--
)re%ai-s( et$een the t$o churches" This Counci-
of Cha-cedon esta-ished the t$o natures in one
on-' )erson"
Nice)horus re-ates that( at this same counci-(
the isho)s( after a -on* dis)ute on the suQect of
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ima*es( -aid each his o)inion in $ritin* on the tom
of St" Eu)hemia( and )assed the ni*ht in )ra'er"
The neBt mornin* the orthodoB $ritin*s $ere found
in the saint5s hand( and the others at her feet"
In <<( a *reat counci- at Constantino)-e $as
con%oed ' 1ustinian( $ho $as an amateur theo8
-o*ian( to discuss three sma-- $ritin*s( ca--ed the
three cha)ters( of $hich nothin* is no$ no$n"
There $ere a-so dis)utes on some )assa*es of
Ori*en"
Vi*i-ius( isho) of Rome( $ou-d ha%e *one thither
in )erson G ut 1ustinian had him )ut in )rison(
Dictionar'" = =
and the Patriarch of Constantino)-e )resided" No
memer of the Latin church attendedG for at that
time ree $as no -on*er understood in the West(
$hich had ecome entire-' ararous"
In @7?( another *enera- counci- at Constantino8
)-e $as con%oed ' Constantine the earded" This
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$as the rst counci- ca--ed ' the Latins in tru--o(
ecause it $as he-d in an a)artment of the im)eria-
)a-ace" The em)eror( himse-f( )residedG on his
ri*ht hand $ere the )atriarchs of Constantino)-e
and Antioch G on his -eft( the de)uties from Rome
and 1erusa-em" It $as there decided that 1esus
Christ had t$o $i--s G and Po)e &onorius I"( $as
condemned as a 3onothe-ite( i" e"( as $ishin* 1esus
Christ to ha%e ut one $i--
In 7( the second Counci- of Nice $as con%oed
' Irene( in the name of the em)eror Constantine(
her son( $hom she had de)ri%ed of his e'es" &er
husand( Leo( had ao-ished the $orshi) of im8
a*es( as contrar' to the sim)-icit' of the )rimiti%e
a*es( and -eadin* to ido-atr'" Irene re8esta-ish5ed
this $orshi)G she herse-f s)oe in the counci-(
$hich $as the on-' one he-d ' a $oman" T$o
-e*ates from Po)e Adrian V"( attended( ut did not
s)ea( for the' did not understand ree0 the )a8
triarch did a--"
Se%en 'ears after( the Frans( ha%in* heard that
a counci- at Constantino)-e had ordained the adora8
tion of ima*es( assem-e( ' order of Char-es( son
of Pe)in( after$ards named Char-ema*ne( a %er'
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= Phi-oso)hica-
numerous counci- at Franfort" &ere the second
Counci- of Nice is s)oen of as #an im)ertinent
and arro*ant s'nod( he-d in reece for the $orshi)8
)in* of )ictures"#
In 7( a *reat counci- at Constantino)-e $as
con%oed ' the em)ress Theodora" The $orshi)
of ima*es $as so-emn-' esta-ished" The rees
ha%e sti-- a feast in honor of this counci-( ca--ed
the orthodoBia" Theodora did not )reside" In 7@=(
a *reat counci- at Constantino)-e( consistin* of
three hundred and ei*hteen isho)s( $as con%oed
' the em)eror 3ichae-" St" I*natius( )atriarch of
Constantino)-e( is de)osed( and Photius e-ected"
In 7@@( another *reat counci- $as he-d at Con8
stantino)-e( in $hich Po)e Nicho-as III" is de)osed
for contumac'( and eBcommunicated" In 7@> $as
another *reat counci- at Constantino)-e( in $hich
Photius( in turn( is de)osed and eBcommunicated(
and St" I*natius restored"
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In 7>( another *reat counci- assem-ed at Con8
stantino)-e( in $hich Photius( a-read' restored( is
acno$-ed*ed as true )atriarch ' the -e*ates of
Po)e 1ohn VIII" &ere the *reat ecumenica- coun8
ci-( in $hich Photius $as de)osed( recei%es the a)8
)e--ation of #conci-iau-um"# Po)e 1ohn VIII" de8
c-ares a-- those to e 1udases $ho sa' that the &o-'
host )roceeds from the Father and the Son"
In ==8( a *reat counci- at Rome $as he-d in
the church of St" 1ohn of Lateran ' Po)e Ca-iBtus
II" This $as the rst *enera- counci- con%oed '
Dictionar'" " =
the )o)es" The em)erors of the West had no$
scarce-' an' authorit'G and the em)erors of the
East( )ressed ' the 3ahometans and ' the Crusa8
ders( he-d none ut $retched -itt-e counci-s"
It is not )recise-' no$n $hat this Lateran $as"
Some sma-- counci-s had efore een assem-ed in
the Lateran" Some sa' that it $as a house ui-t '
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one Lateran in Nero5s time G others( that it $as St"
1ohn5s church itse-f( ui-t ' !isho) S'-%ester" In
this counci-( the isho)s com)-ained hea%i-' of the
mons" #The' )ossess(# said the'( #the churches(
the -ands( the cast-es( the tithes( the oMerin*s of the
-i%in* and the deadG the' ha%e on-' to tae from
us the rin* and the crosier"# The mons remained
in )ossession"
In ==> $as another *reat Counci- of Lateran( '
Po)e Innocent II" It is said there $ere )resent a
thousand isho)s" A *reat man'( certain-'" &ere
the ecc-esiastica- tithes are dec-ared to e of di%ine
ri*ht( and a-- -a'men )ossessin* an' of them are
eBcommunicated" In ==> $as another *reat Coun8
ci- of Lateran( ' Po)e A-eBander III" There $ere
three hundred isho)s and one ree aot" The
decrees are a-- on disci)-ine" The )-ura-it' of ene8
ces is foridden"
In ==< $as the -ast *enera- Counci- of Lateran(
' Po)e Innocent III"( com)osed of four hundred
and t$e-%e isho)s( and ei*ht hundred aots" At
this time( $hich is that of the Crusades( the )o)es
ha%e esta-ished a Latin )atriarch at 1erusa-em( and
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= Phi-oso)hica-
one at Constantino)-e" These )atriarchs attend the
counci-" This *reat counci- sa's that( #od ha%8
in* *i%en the doctrine of sa-%ation to men ' 3oses(
at -en*th caused &is son to e orn of a %ir*in( to
sho$ the $a' more c-ear-'(# and that #no one can
e sa%ed out of the Catho-ic church"#
The transustantiation $as not no$n unti- aftei
this counci-" It forade the esta-ishment of ne$
re-i*ious ordersG ut( since that time( no -ess than
ei*ht' ha%e een instituted" It $as in this counci-
that Ra'mond( count of Tou-ouse( $as stri))ed of
a-- his -ands" In =< a *reat counci- assem-ed at
the im)eria- cit' of L'ons" Innocent IV" rin*s
thither the em)eror of Constantino)-e( 1ohn Pa-seo-8
o*us( and maes him sit eside him" &e de)oses
the em)eror Frederic as a fe-on( and *i%es the car8
dina-s red hats( as a si*n of hosti-it' to Frederic"
This $as the source of thirt' 'ears of ci%i- $ar"
In = another *enera- counci- $as he-d at L'8
ons" Fi%e hundred isho)s( se%ent' *reat and a
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thousand -esser aots" The ree em)eror( 3i8
chae- Pa-aeo-o*us( that he ma' ha%e the )rotection of
the )o)e( sends his ree )atriarch( Theo)hanes( to
unite( in his name( $ith the Latin church" !ut the
ree church diso$ns these isho)s"
In ===( Po)e C-ement V" assem-ed a *enera-
counci- in the sma-- to$n of Vienne( in Dau)hin'( in
$hich he ao-ishes the Order of the Tem)-ars" It
is here ordained that the !e*ares( !e*uins( and !e8
*uines sha-- e urned" These $ere a s)ecies of
Dictionar'" Q i r
heretics( to $hom $as im)uted a-- that had former-'
een im)uted to the )rimiti%e Christians" In ==(
the *reat Counci- of Constance $as con%oed ' an
em)eror $ho resumes his ri*hts( %i4"0 ' Si*is8
mund" &ere Po)e 1ohn ;;III"( con%icted of nu8
merous crimes( is de)osed G and 1ohn &uss and 1e8
rome of Pra*ue( con%icted of ostinac'( are urned"
In ==( a *reat counci- $as he-d at !ase-( $here
the' in %ain de)ose Po)e Eu*ene IV"( $ho is too
c-e%er for the counci-"
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In =7( a *reat counci- assem-ed at Ferrara(
transferred to F-orence( $here the eBcommunicated
)o)e eBcommunicates the counci-( and dec-ares it
*ui-t' of hi*h treason" &ere a fei*ned union is
made $ith the ree church( crushed ' the Tur8
ish s'nods he-d s$ord in hand" Po)e 1u-ius II"
$ou-d ha%e had his Counci- of Lateran( in =<=(
)ass for an ecumenica- counci-" In it that )o)e so-8
emn-' eBcommunicated Louis ;IL( in* of France(
-aid France under an interdict( summoned the $ho-e
)ar-iament of Pro%ence to a))ear efore him( and
eBcommunicated a-- the )hi-oso)hers( ecause most
of them had taen )art $ith Louis ;II" 6et this
counci- $as not( -ie that of E)hesus( ca--ed the
Counci- of Roers"
In =<( the Counci- of Trent $as con%oed(
rst at 3antua( ' Pau- III"( after$ards at Trent
in =<( and terminated in Decemer( =<@=( under
Pius VI" Catho-ic )rinces sumitted to it on )oints
of doctrine( and t$o or three of them in matters of
=@ Phi-oso)hica-
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disci)-ine" It is thou*ht that hencefor$ard there
$i-- e no more *enera- counci-s than there $i-- e
states8*enera- in France or S)ain" In the Vatican
there is a ne )icture( containin* a -ist of the *en8
era- counci-s( in $hich are inscried such on-' as
are a))ro%ed ' the court of Rome" E%er' one
)uts $hat he chooses in his o$n archi%es"
SECTION III"
Infa--ii-it' of Counci-s"
A-- counci-s are( dout-ess( infa--i-e( ein* com8
)osed of men" It is not )ossi-e that the )assions(
that intri*ues( that the s)irit of contention( that ha8
tred or Qea-ous'( that )reQudice or i*norance( shou-d
e%er inuence these assem-ies" !ut $h'( it $i--
e said( ha%e so man' counci-s een o))osed to one
anotherJ To eBercise our faith" The' $ere a--
ri*ht( each in its time" At this da'( the Roman
Catho-ics e-ie%e in such counci-s on-' as are a)8
)ro%ed in the Vatican G the ree Catho-ics e-ie%e
on-' in those a))ro%ed at Constantino)-e G and the
Protestants mae a Qest of oth the one and the
other 0 so that e%er' one ou*ht to e content"
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We sha-- here eBamine on-' the *reat counci-s0
the -esser ones are not $orth the trou-e" The rst
$as that of Nice( assem-ed in the 'ear < of the
modern era( after Constantine had $ritten and sent
' Osius his no-e -etter to the rather turu-ent
c-er*' of A-eBandria" It $as deated $hether 1e8
sus $as created or uncreated" This in no $a' con8
cerned mora-it'( $hich is the on-' thin* essentia-"
Dictionar'" =
Whether 1esus $as in time or efore time( it is not
the -ess our dut' to e honest" After much a-ter8
cation( it $as at -ast decided that the Son $as as
o-d as the Father( and consustantia- $ith the
Father" This decision is not %er' eas' of com)re8
hension( $hich maes it ut the more su-ime" Se%8
enteen isho)s )rotested a*ainst the decreeG and
an o-d A-eBandrian chronic-e( )reser%ed at OBford(
sa's that t$o thousand )riests -ie$ise )rotested"
!ut )re-ates mae not much account of mere )riests(
$ho are in *enera- )oor" &o$e%er( there $as noth8
in* said of the Trinit' in this rst counci-" The
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formu-a runs thus 0 #We e-ie%e 1esus to e con8
sustantia- $ith the Father( od of od( -i*ht of
-i*ht( e*otten( not madeG $e a-so e-ie%e in the
&o-' host"# It must e acno$-ed*ed that the
&o-' host $as treated %er' ca%a-ier-'"
We ha%e a-read' said( that in the su))-ement to
the Counci- of Nice it is re-ated that the fathers(
ein* much )er)-eBed to nd out $hich $ere the
authentic and $hich the a)ocr')ha- oos of the
O-d and the Ne$ Testament( -aid them a-- u)on an
a-tar( and the oos $hich the' $ere to reQect fe--
to the *round" What a )it' that so ne an ordea-
has een -ost
After the rst Counci- of Nice( com)osed of three
hundred and se%enteen infa--i-e isho)s( another
counci- $as he-d at Rimini G on $hich occasion the
numer of the infa--i-e $as f)ur hundred( $ith8
out reconin* a stron* detachment( at Se-eucia(
= 7 Phi-oso)hica-
of aout t$o hundred" These siB hundred isho)s(
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after four months of contention( unanimous-' too
from 1esus his consustantia-it'" It has since een
restored to him( eBce)t ' the Socinians0 so noth8
in* is amiss"
One of the *reat counci-s $as that of E)hesus(
in =" There( as a-read' stated( Nestorius( isho)
of Constantino)-e( a *reat )ersecutor of heretics(
$as himse-f condemned as a heretic( for ha%in*
maintained that( a-thou*h 1esus $as rea--' od(
'et &is mother $as not aso-ute-' mother of od(
ut mother of 1esus" St" C'ri- )rocured the con8
demnation of Nestorius G ut the )artisans of Nes8
torius a-so )rocured the de)osition of St" C'ri-( in
the same counci- G $hich )ut the &o-' host in
considera-e )er)-eBit'"
&ere( *ent-e reader( carefu--' oser%e( that the
os)e- sa's not one s'--a-e of the consustantia-it'
of the Word( nor of 3ar'5s ha%in* had the honor
of ein* mother of od( no more than of the
other dis)uted )oints $hich rou*ht to*ether so
man' infa--i-e counci-s"
Eut'ches $as a mon( $ho had cried out sturdi-'
a*ainst Nestorius( $hose heres' $as nothin* -ess
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than su))osin* t$o )ersons in 1esus G $hich is Huite
fri*htfu-" The mon( the etter to contradict his
ad%ersar'( armed that 1esus had ut one nature"
One F-a%ian( isho) of Constantino)-e( maintained
a*ainst him( that there must aso-ute-' e t$o na8
tures in 1esus" Thereu)on( a numerous counci- $as
Dictionar'"
he-d at E)hesus in >( and the ar*ument made use
of $as the cud*e-( as in the -esser counci- of Cirta(
in <<( and in a certain conference he-d at Cartha*e"
F-a%ian5s nature $as $e-- thrashed( and t$o natures
$ere assi*ned to 1esus" At the Counci- of Cha-ce8
don( in <=( 1esus $as a*ain reduced to one nature"
I )ass ' counci-s he-d on -ess $ei*ht' Huestions(
and come to the siBth *enera- Counci- of Constanti8
no)-e( assem-ed to ascertain )recise-' $hether 1e8
sus $ho( after ha%in* for a -on* )eriod had ut
one nature( $as then )ossessed of t$o had a-so t$o
$i--s" It is o%ious ho$ im)ortant this no$-ed*e
is to doin* the $i-- of od"
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This counci- $as con%oed ' Constantine the
!earded( as a-- the others had een ' the )recedin*
em)erors" The -e*ates from the isho) of Rome
$ere on the -eft hand( and the )atriarchs of Con8
stantino)-e and Antioch on the ri*ht" The train8
earers at Rome ma'( for au*ht I no$( assert that
the -eft hand is the )-ace of honor" &o$e%er( the
resu-t $as that 1esus otained t$o $i--s"
The 3osaic -a$ forade ima*es" Painters and
scu-)tors had ne%er made their fortunes amon* the
1e$s" We do not nd that 1esus e%er had an' )ic8
tures( eBce)tin* )erha)s that of 3ar'( )ainted '
Lue" It is( ho$e%er( certain that 1esus Christ no8
$here recommends the $orshi) of ima*es" Ne%er8
the-ess the )rimiti%e Christians e*an to $orshi)
them aout the end of the fourth centur'( $hen the'
had ecome fami-iar $ith the ne arts" In the
Phi-oso)hica-
ei*hth centur' this ause had arri%ed at such a )itch
that Constantine Co)ron'mus assem-ed( at Con8
stantino)-e( a counci- of three hundred and t$ent'
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isho)s( $ho anathemati4ed ima*e8$orshi)( and de8
c-ared it to e ido-atr'"
The em)ress Irene( the same $ho after$ards
had her son5s e'es torn out( con%oed the second
Counci- of Nice in 7( $hen the adoration of ima*es
$as re8esta-ished" !ut in > Char-ema*ne had
another counci- he-d at Franfort( $hich dec-ared
the second of Nice ido-atrous" Po)e Adrian IV"
sent t$o -e*ates to it( ut he did not con%oe it"
The rst *reat counci- con%oed ' a )o)e $as
the rst of Lateran( in ==>G there $ere aout a
thousand isho)s assem-ed G ut scarce-' an'thin*
$as done( eBce)t that a-- those $ere anathemat8
i4ed $ho said that the Church $as too rich" In = =>(
another *reat counci- of Lateran $as he-d ' A-eB8
ander III"( in $hich the cardina-s( for the rst time(
too )recedence of the isho)s" The discussions
$ere conned to matters of disci)-ine" In another
*reat counci- of Lateran( in ==<( Po)e Innocent
III" stri))ed the count of Tou-ouse of a-- his )os8
sessions( ' %irtue of his eBcommunication" It
$as then that the rst mention $as made of tran8
sustantiation"
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In =<( $as he-d a *enera- counci- at L'ons(
then an im)eria- cit'( in $hich Po)e Innocent IV"
eBcommunicated the em)eror Frederic II"( and
conseHuent-' de)osed him( and forade him the use
Dictionar' =
of re and $ater" On this occasion( a red hat $as
*i%en to the cardina-s( to remind them that the'
must imrue their hands in the -ood of the em8
)eror5s )artisans" This counci- $as the cause of
the destruction of the house of Suaia( and of thirt'
'ears of anarch' in Ita-' and erman'"