Volker 2010 - Deciding About Design Quality

8/3/2019 Volker 2010 - Deciding About Design Quality

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`ekut Cfsjon Pu`mjtyT`muf bucofhfnts `nc cfgjsjkn h`ijno jn taf

sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts ey puemjg gmjfnts uncfr

Furkpf`n tfncfrjno rfoum`tjkns

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Cfgjcjno



Wjcfstknf \rfss @ nfw ofnfr`tjkn kd \uemjsajno

Zku `rf rf`cjno ` dumm vfrsjkn kd tajs ekki, dkr drff!

Sajs ekki js p`rt kd taf Wjcfstknf f-mjer`ry wafrf hkst kd kur

puemjg`tjkns `rf dummy `ggfssjemf dkr drff. Dkr `ggfss tk hkrf

drff ekkis vjsjt2 www.sjcfstknf.gkh/mjer`ry

Ckwnmk`c Dumm \CD

Tjsjt taf Wjcfstknf f-mjer`ry tk erkwsf kur f-ekkis. Dkr ` hjnjh`m

dff yku g`n purga`sf ` dummy dungtjkn`m \CD `nc ey ckjno sk, yku

afmp tk iffp kur mjer`ry runnjno.

www.sjcfstknf.gkh/mjer`ry



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`ekut Cfsjon Pu`mjtyCfgjcjno



Cfgjcjno èkut Cfsjon Pu`mjty

T`muf bucofhfnts `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf sfmfgtjkn kd`rgajtfgts ey puemjg gmjfnts uncfr Furkpf`n tfncfrjno rfoum`tjkns

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- \ùm _`mmkt, Wjr Nkrh`n Dkstfr (`ccjtjkn & rfgknstrugtjkn)9 ?) Wt`cssgakuweuro (0:01, 5<<1), A``rmfh- [email protected]. v`n cfr Wtfur, Frjgi v`n Fofr``t (`ccjtjkn & rfnkv`tjkn)9 1) Mkuvrf \yr`hjc (0:1:), \`rjs - J.H. \fj9:) f \`p` kno`rfw` (0::1), _fmmjnotkn - B`sh`x @rgajtfgts.



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0 Jntrkcugtjkn 00.0 af sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts 0

0.5 Ufsf`rga dkgus 7

0.7 Inkwmfcof o`ps `nc sgjfntjdjg ga`mmfnofs 6

0.3 Ufsf`rga qufstjkns :

0.6 Ufsf`rga `pprk`ga 0<

0.4 @ucjfngf 00

0.? Kutmjnf kd taf tafsjs 05

5 @ssfssjno qu`mjty `nc v`muf jn cfsjon 06

5.0 Jntrkcugtjkn 065.5 Pu`mjty jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt (`rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon `pprk`ga) 06

5.5.0 Jntfrprft`tjkn kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon qu`mjty 04

5.5.5 @ssfsshfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty 0:

5.7 Cfsjon pfrgfptjkn `nc `ddfgt (gkonjtjvf `pprk`ga) 55

5.7.0 Ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf cfsjon pfrgfptjkn 57

5.7.5 Jhpmjg`tjkns dkr cfsjon kd taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt 56

5.3 \rkcugt fxpfrjfngf `nc fhktjkn (jntfr`gtjkn `pprk`ga) 54

5.3.0 Krjojn kd prkcugt fxpfrjfngf 5?

5.3.5 Jhpmjg`tjkns dkr `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon 515.6 T`muf systfhs jn cfsjon (prkgfss `pprk`ga) 7<

5.6.0 af gkngfpt kd v`muf 7<

5.6.5 @ppmjg`tjkns jn cfsjon `nc gknstrugtjkn 77

5.4 Jntfor`tjkn `nc jhpmjg`tjkns 73

7 Bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno 30

7.0 Jntrkcugtjkn 30

7.5 arff ofnfr`tjkns kd cfgjsjkn tafkry 35

7.5.0 F`rmy hkcfms kd cfgjsjkn tafkry 35

7.5.5 Djrst ofnfr`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs 33

7.5.7 Wfgknc ofnfr`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs 34

7.7 U`tjkn`mjty vfrsus jntujtjkn 6<

7.7.0 kw`rcs ` cfdjnjtjkn kd jntujtjkn 6<

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7.3 Jncjvjcu`m cfgjsjkn hìjno jn kro`njs`tjkns 67

7.3.0 Gkonjtjvf prkgfssfs 67

7.3.5 Wfnsfhìjno 64

7.3.7 D`gtkrs kd jndmufngf kn gkonjtjvf prkgfssfs 61

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7.6.0 Gkonjtjvf `nc skgj`m prkgfssfs 45

7.6.5 Fddfgts kd orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno 47

7.6.7 Fxpfrt tf`hs 44

7.4 Gkngmusjkn 4?

3 Saf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns ?0

3.0 Jntrkcugtjkn ?0

3.5 af pkmjtjg`m gkntfxt ?0

3.5.0 Cfgjsjkn strugturf kd puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcjfs ?5

Ekx 02 \uemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn jn taf Nftafrm`ncs ?3

3.5.5 \`rtjgjp`tjkn `nc stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt ?4

3.7 af gkntfxt kd cfsjon `nc gknstrugtjkn ?1

3.7.0 af gkngfpt kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns ?1

3.7.5 \`rtnfr sfmfgtjkn jn gknstrugtjkn 133.3 af mfo`m gkntfxt 14

3.3.0 FV \rkgurfhfnt m`w 14

3.3.5 af Cutga jntfrprft`tjkn kd prkgurfhfnt m`w :0

3.6 af fgknkhjg`m gkntfxt :3

3.6.0 Cutga h`rift pktfntj`m :6

3.6.5 fncfrs dkr `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn jn taf Nftafrm`ncs :4

3.4 Gurrfnt pr`gtjgf jn taf Nftafrm`ncs 0<<

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3.4.5 Hkcfms `nc oujcfmjnfs 0<33.? Gkngmusjkn 0<?

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6.0 Jntrkcugtjkn 000

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6.5.7 _rjtjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss 05<

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6.7 Ufsf`rga cfsjon 077

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4.5 Ufsf`rga hftakckmkoy 07:

4.7 Dr`hfwkri dkr c`t` `n`mysjs 030

4.3 G`sf cfsgrjptjkns 035

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4.3.5 @ cfhkgr`tjg prkgfss2 @ Gjty A`mm wjta Mjer`ry 036

4.3.7 @ pkmjtjg`m prkgfss2 @ \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf 03:



4.6 Djncjnos èkut `gtkrs 060

4.6.0 Wtffrjno gkhhjttff 065

4.6.5 \rkbfgt tf`h 067

4.6.7 Bury p`nfm 063

4.4 Djncjnos èkut prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs 066

4.4.0 \rkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs 066

4.4.5 Gmjfnt okvfrn`ngf 064

4.4.7 Wkgj`m gkntfxt kd stìfakmcfrs 061

4.4.3 \rkbfgt h`nòfhfnt 04<

4.? Djncjnos èkut taf tfncfr cfsjon 040

4.?.0 fncfr erjfd 045

4.?.5 \rkgfss prkgfcurf 04?

4.?.7 Wtìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt 0?4

4.?.3 \rkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno 015

4.1 Ufdmfgtjkn 0:5

? \rkgfss cfsjon - ` gkhpftjtjkn g`sf `nc v`mjc`tjkn 0:6

?.0 Jntrkcugtjkn `nc rfsf`rga qufstjkns 0:6

?.5 Ufsf`rga hftakckmkoy 0:6

?.7 G`sf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs 0:1

?.7.0 Cfsgrjptjkn kd taf gkntfxt 0:1

?.7.5 Cfsgrjptjkn kd `gtkrs 5<<

?.7.7 G`sf cfsgrjptjkn 5<0

?.3 Gkhpftjtjkn cfsjon 5<4?.3.0 Gkhpftjtjkn erjfd 5<4

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?.3.7 Wtìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt 55<

?.3.3 Cfgjsjkn prkgfcurf 553

?.6 Cjsgussjkn 571

?.6.0 G`sf rfdmfgtjkn 571

?.6.5 Djncjnos jn taf gkntfxt kd prkgurfhfnt m`w 53<

?.4 T`mjc`tjkn kd djncjnos 530

1 Gkngmusjkn, rfgkhhfnc`tjkns `nc rfdmfgtjkn 53?1.0 Jntrkcugtjkn 53?

1.5 Gkngmusjkn 53?

1.5.0 Djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs gkntrjeutjno tk `n jntfrpm`y kd

r`tjkn`mjtjfs 53?

1.5.5 Uf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si 56<

1.5.7 Wf`rgajno dkr ` h`tga eftwffn `jhs, `hejtjkns, nffcs `nc

kppkrtunjtjfs 567

1.5.3 _rjtjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss 566

1.5.6 @oorfo`tjno cjddfrfnt ijncs kd v`muf bucofhfnts 54<1.5.4 Bustjdyjno ò`jnst cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs 547



1.7 Ufgkhhfnc`tjkns 546

1.7.0 Ufgkhhfnc`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd ` tfncfr 544

1.7.5 Wuoofstjkn dkr ga`nof jn Cutga tfncfr pr`gtjgf 541

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1.3.0 Ufsf`rga tr`cjtjkn 5?<

1.3.5 Ufsf`rga hftakcs 5?<

1.3.7 G`sf sfmfgtjkn 5?0

1.3.3 Ofnfr`mjs`tjkn kd taf rfsumts 5?5

1.3.6 Wgjfntjdjg rfmfv`ngf 5?7

1.6 Duturf rfsf`rga 5?6

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\uemjg`tjkns rfm`tfc tk tajs rfsf`rga 7<6

Wuhh`ry 7<?

W`hfnv`ttjno 707

@ginkwmfcofhfnts 750

Gurrjgumuh Tjt`f 757



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sakws ` mkt kd rfsfhem`ngf wjta cfgjsjkns jn kur c`jmy mjdf. _f hìf nuhfrkus

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èkut kur prfdfrfngfs `nc taf cjrfgtjkn kd kur cfgjsjkns. Hy rfsf`rga jntfrfsts

dkgus kn taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn pfkpmf `nc taf kptjkns ta`t `rf `v`jmèmf wafn

tafy `rf hìjno cfgjsjkns ta`t rfm`tf tk taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. ajs jntfr`gtjkn

a`s ` mkt kd ck wjta fxpfgt`tjkns, pfrgfptjkns, fhktjkns, `nc taf usf kd kur sfnsfs

`nc jntujtjkn. H`ny kd tafsf jssufs `rf jnt`nojemf ey n`turf.

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t`nojejmjty `nc jnt`nojejmjty kd taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t sa`pf kur eujmt fnvjrkn-

hfnt. J pfrdkrhfc hy \aC rfsf`rga `t taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf kd Cfmdt

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`s ` t`nojemf `spfgt kd kur fnvjrknhfnt. H`ny fnojnffrs `ssuhf ta`t, jn taf fnc,

fvfry t`nojemf g`n `nc wjmm ef hf`surfc `nc fxpm`jnfc. Wkhf kd tafh fvfn tajni

ta`t fvfrytajno ta`t g`nnkt ef hf`surfc sakumc nkt ef jngmucfc jn rfsf`rga. Jn

psygakmkoy suebfgtjvjty `nc ungknsgjuss takuoats `rf ` ojvfn `nc sgakm`rs try

tk cf`m wjta jt `s wfmm `s pkssjemf. Cfsjonfrs kdtfn efmjfvf ta`t fvfry sjtu`tjkn js

unjquf `nc sakumc tafrfdkrf ef a`ncmfc `s suga. J tajni ta`t wf nffc `mm tafsf

cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs tk jngrf`sf taf mfvfm kd sgjfntjdjg inkwmfcof èkut taf eujmt

fnvjrknhfnt. k cjsgkvfr taf ‑truta‚ jn suga ` humtjcjsgjpmjn`jry fnvjrknhfnt wf

a`vf tk try tk st`nc kn taf sakumcfrs kd kur cjvfrsf ngfstkrs, eut msk jcfntjdy nc

gafrjsa kur cjddfrfngfs. Efgùsf ` o`p stjmm fxjsts eftwffn r`tjk `nc truta jt hjoat

ef taf efst kptjkn bust tk mjstfn tk kur jntujtjkn jn djncjno taf w`y akw.

Jn tajs rfsf`rga J trjfc tk djnc kut akw puemjg gmjfnts cfgjcf ekut ‑tafjr‚ rgaj-

tfgts. J usfc jnsjoats drkh skgj`m sgjfngfs, jn p`rtjgum`r skgj`m `nc fnvjrknhfnt`m

psygakmkojg`m, `s wfmm `s `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon tk suggfssdummy `nswfr taf rfsf`rga



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gkhf `w`rf kd taf tajnos yku ck nkt yft inkw. Fspfgj`mmy jn taf gknnfgtjkns ef-

twffn taf cjddfrfnt djfmcs kd sgjfngf J tajni tafrf js ` mkt tk cjsgkvfr stjmm. Wgjfngf

js nfvfr djnjsafc `nc ta`t js way J tajni jt js sk d`sgjn`tjno. J akpf yku wjmm oft jn-

spjrfc ey rf`cjno tajs tafsjs `nc wf g`n gkntjnuf kur sgjfntjdjg bkurnfy tkoftafr.

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Tkmisir`nt - H`gatfmc v`n Aumtfn kn 00 B`nu`ry 5<<? (tr`nsm`tfc drkh Cutga)

Wmjp-up2 `rgajtfgt g`nnkt eujmc mjer`ry kd Vtrfgat `dtfr `mm

Saf hunjgjp`mjty kd Vtrfgat h`cf ` hjsg`mgum`tjkn, `nc `ppkjntfc tafwrkno `rgajtfgt.

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Gkekuw ‗ Fck Effrc` kn 55 Kgtkefr 5<<: (tr`nsm`tfc drkh Cutga)

Bk Gkfnfn2 l_f wfrf n akur nc dkrty-vf hjnutfs m`tf‚

Saf fntry kd Bk Gkfnfn & Gk @rgajtfgts dkr taf nfw tkwn a`mm kd @mhfmk a`seffn rfbfgtfc efgùsf jt w`s suehjttfc `mhkst twk akurs tkk m`tf, s`ys Bk

Gkfnfn jn ` rfspknsf ajs kgf efjno fxgmucfc drkh durtafr p`rtjgjp`tjknjn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurf. Saf `rgajtfgt em`hfs ajhsfmd, eut ` ejttfr `dtfr-t`stf rfh`jns.

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0.0 Saf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts

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ckhjn`tfc taf jhòf kd tfncfr prkgfcurfs kd Cutga puemjg gmjfnts sfmfgtjno `n

`rgajtfgt jn taf p`st dfw yf`rs. af sf`rga dkr `n `rgajtfgt g`n ef ga`r`gtfrjsfc `s

`n jntfr`gtjvf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss jn wajga ` gmjfnt trjfs tk djnc `n `rgajtfgt wak g`n

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o`tjkns a`vf tk ef gknsjcfrfc. af cjvfrsf rkkts kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss `ppf`r

tk gùsf gkndmjgts jn gurrfnt Cutga tfncfr pr`gtjgf. Jn tajs rfsf`rga J fxpmkrf taf

krjojn kd tafsf prkemfhs s gurrfntmy fxpfrjfngfc ey puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnts

jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn jn krcfr tk prkpksf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr duturf pr`gtjgf.

af gurrfnt pr`gtjgf kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn ey puemjg gmjfnts a`s jts rkkts jn

tarff cjstjngt systfhs2 0) tfncfrjno dkr sfrvjgfs `nc wkris, 5) taf sfmfgtjvf sf`rga

tk jcfntjdy ` sujtèmf `rgajtfgt kr cfsjon tf`h, `nc 7) taf `rgajtfgtur`m gkhpftj-

tjkn (Wtrkno, 0::4). Ga`nofs jn taf tr`cjtjkn`m rfoum`tjkns dkr rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns

jndmufngfc ey Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w a`vf fngkuntfrfc rfsjst`ngf drkh taf



5

`rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty (f.o. @tfmjfr Ifhpf ajmm, 5<<19 \kstfm, 5<<0). Vntjm `

dfw yf`rs òk Cutga `rgajtfgts cjc nkt, `s gkntr`gtkrs ck, ok tk gkurt wafn cfgj-

sjkns curjno taf tfncfrjno pa`sf wfrf nkt `s cfsjrfc. ajs pr`gtjgf a`s ga`nofc

`nc wf djnc hkrf `nc hkrf g`sf m`w kn tfncfr prkgfcurfs jn wajga `rgajtfgts `rf

taf sujno p`rty (v`n _jbno``rcfn & Ga`k-Cujvjs, 5<0<`, 5<0<e). @ cjsputf kvfr

òorfo`tfc r`tjno pkjnts nc cjddfrfngf kd tfnta kd ` pfrgfnt mfc jn sfvfr`m g`sfstk ` rfpftjtjkn kd taf fntjrf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss (Akuefn, 5<<?9 Mye``rt, 5<<1). Jn

knf g`sf sfvfr`m Cutga djrhs wjtacrfw tafjr prkpks`ms drkh ` tfncfr efgùsf kd

fxgfssjvf ssjonhfnts jn taf w`rc pa`sf nc jnvkmvfc taf hfcj` tk st`rt ` gkuntfr

cfhknstr`tjkn (Afjberkgi, 5<<1). Gkhhjttff cfgjsjkns ta`t usfc tk ef `n fnrjga-

hfnt `nc skurgf kd gkndmjgt kd taf `rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn `s wfmm `s ` h`ttfr kd

prkdfssjkn`m bucofhfnt `hkno dfmmkw `rgajtfgts a`vf efgkhf suebfgt tk bucjgj`m

sgrutjny kd prkgfcur`m gkrrfgtnfss (Hjfo, 5<<4). af gkhhunjty kd `rgajtfgts,

wajga tìfs prjcf jn prkdfssjkn`m rjokr `nc `fstaftjg bucofhfnt, dffms ta`t jt a`s

efgkhf prfy tk taf gkhhunjty kd m`wyfrs, gknsumt`nts `nc unprkdfssjkn`m rjsi

`vfrsf gmjfnts (@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m, 5<<:`9 Irkfsf, Hfjbfr, & Tjssgafr, 5<<1). @rgajtfgts wak p`rtjgjp`tf jn tfncfrs, `nc pkmjtjg`m p`rtjfs `s wfmm, jngrf`s-

jnomy cfh`nc `ccjtjkn`m bustjdjg`tjkns drkh puemjg gmjfnts dkr tafjr cfgjsjkns, `s

dkr fx`hpmf jn taf g`sf kd taf nfw Hunjgjp`m Kddjgf jn Ukttfrc`h (v`n Offms

& Irjfns, 5<<:). Jt js dfmt ta`t taf cfsjon qu`mjty kd Cutga eujmcjnos `nc kd

taf Cutga gumtur`m fnvjrknhfnt wjmm fvfntu`mmy suddfr efgùsf kd ` m`gi kd cjvfr-

sjty, grf`tjvjty `nc jnnkv`tjkn (@tfmjfr Ifhpf ajmm, 5<<19 v`n cfr \km, Erkuwfr,(@tfmjfr Ifhpf ajmm, 5<<19 v`n cfr \km, Erkuwfr,

B`nsfn, Hfnsjni, & Offrtsf, 5<<:). Cfgjsjkn hìfrs rfprfsfntjno ` puemjg gmjfntCfgjsjkn hìfrs rfprfsfntjno ` puemjg gmjfnt

a`vf tk bustjdy tafjr cfgjsjkns tk tafjr stìfakmcfrs, taf `rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn

`nc skgjfty `t m`rof. afy sffh hkrf `nc hkrf rfmugt`nt tk fxpksf tafjr prkdfs-

sjkn`m bucofhfnts jn suga ` mjtjojkus thkspafrf. af gurrfnt rfoum`tjkns fngkur-òf taf usf kd r`tjno sgafhfs wjta grjtfrj` `nc wfjoatjno d`gtkrs, jnstf`c kd hkrf

qu`mjt`tjvf `ssfsshfnts `s wfrf tr`cjtjkn`m jn cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns, efgùsf ` r`-

tjkn`m(-jstjg) cfgjsjkn js kdtfn sffn `s hkrf `ggfptèmf `nc f`sjfr tk cfdfnc ta`n

` cfgjsjkn e`sfc kn jntujtjkn kr prkdfssjkn`m bucofhfnt (Wjngm`jr & @sai`n`sy,

5<<6). af kddjgj`m prkgfcurfs taus wkri tk cfprjvf taf gmjfnt kd taf fxpm`n`-

tjkns kd prkdfssjkn`m qu`mjty bucofhfnts tafy wfrf jntfncfc tk erjno tk mjoat. af

prfssurf tk gkhpmy wjta tr`nsp`rfnt `nc kebfgtjvf prkgfcurfs sffhs tk ckhjn`tf

kvfr taf nffc tk sfmfgt h`xjhuh cfsjon qu`mjty (H``ncò, 5<<?). ajs mf`cs tk

taf jcf` ta`t taf prkgfss js ckhjn`tfc ey pkmjtjg`m cfgjsjkn hìjno r`tafr ta`n `

cfsjrf tk hìf taf rjoat bucofhfnt èkut taf qu`mjty kd ` cfsjon (v`n A`rcfvfmt& Wgaônù, 5<<:).

@rgajtfgtur`m gkhpftjtjkns `rf p`rt kd taf cfsjon tr`cjtjkn. Wjngf taf `ngjfnt

Orffis kro`njsfc ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn jn 331 EG dkr taf cfsjon kd ` w`r hfhk-

rj`m kn taf @grkpkmjs, taf qu`mjty `nc taf v`muf kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjons a`vf effn

` h`ttfr kd puemjg cfe`tf (cf A``n & A`òsh`, 0:119 Wtrkno, 0:?4). Jn ` pursujt

dkr fxgfmmfngf ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn kddfrs ` gakjgf eftwffn cjddfrfnt cfsjon gkn-

gfpts tk taksf rfprfsfntjno taf puemjg kr taf gmjfnt (Wprfjrfofn, 0:?:). Jn rgajtfg-

turf jt js ofnfr`mmy ggfptfc ta`t taf qu`mjty kd cfsjon prkpks`ms js bucofc ey p`nfms

(burjfs kr gkhhjttffs) kd spfgj`mmy gkhhjssjknfc fxpfrts wkrijno mknosjcf rfprf-

sfnt`tjvfs kd taf gmjfnt. Akwfvfr, taf gakjgfs h`cf ey `rgajtfgtur`m burjfs `rf kdtfn



7

gkntrkvfrsj m `nc gkumc mf`c tk puemjg cfe`tfs kr sgrutjny (cf A``n & A`òsh`,

0:119 Wtrkno, 0::4), wafrf`s taf gakjgfs h`cf ey m`ypfrskns rf kdtfn gknsjcfrfc

pkkr `nc jmm jndkrhfc ey `rgajtfgts. @ cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn ckfs nkt knmy dumdjm taf

pròh`tjg `jh kd sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt, eut dumdjms `msk hkrf pkmjtjg`m `nc skgjft`m

ok`ms suga `s cjsgkvfrjno nfw t`mfnt, grf`tjno ` cj`mkouf kn cfsjon, h`riftjno `

prkbfgt, kr gkkrcjn`tjno cjddfrfnt jntfrfsts (Wprfjrfofn, 0:?:9 Wvfnsskn, 5<<1).Dkr puemjg gmjfnts tajs a`s mfc tk prfssurf tk hìf bury cfgjsjkns hkrf tr`nsp`r-

fnt `nc tk jngmucf taf puemjg hkrf cjrfgtmy jn cfgjsjkn hìjno (Wò`myn, 5<<6).

afkrjfs ekut cfgjsjkn hìjno gkndjrh ta`t fxpfrts rf ofnfr`mmy efttfr cfgjsjkn

hìfrs ta`n m`ypfrskns `nc ta`t tafy prfdfr tk usf jntujtjkn kvfr r`tjkn`m `n`mysjs

(Ako`rta, 5<<69 Uksfn, W`m`s, Mykns, & Djkrf, 5<<1). Akwfvfr, fxpfrtjsf js kdtfn

mjhjtfc tk ` p`rtjgum`r ckh`jn. Fvfn wjta taf s`hf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf, gkhhjttff

hfhefrs kdtfn v`ry jn tafjr bucofhfnts kd gkngfpts, `nc fvfn orf`tfr cjddfrfngfs

`ppf`r eftwffn fxpfrt `nc m`y bucofhfnt kd `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty (Gkmmjns, 0:?09

Ojddkrc, Ajnf, Hummfr-Gmfhh, & Wa`w, 5<<59 N`s`r & I`no, 0:1:).

Jn `n `ttfhpt tk `ccrfss jssufs kd d`jr gkhpftjtjkn, taf Furkpf`n Vnjkn a`sjhpksfc strjgt rumfs dkr taf tfncfrjno kd puemjg gkntr`gts. af sfmfgtjkn kd `n

`rgajtfgt js p`rt kd taf rfoum`tjkns dkr gkntr`gtjno `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon sfrvjgfs

(Furkpf`n \`rmj`hfnt & Gkungjm kd taf Furkpf`n Vnjkn, 5<<3). af FV rumfs

`rf jntfncfc tk fna`ngf fqu`m trf`thfnt, jntforjty, kebfgtjvjty `nc tr`nsp`rfngy

kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. \rkgurfhfnt m`w kddfrs sfvfr`m prkgfcurfs tk kro`njsf `

tfncfr prkgfss. Fvfn takuoa ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn (rfdfrrfc tk `s ‑gkntfst‚ jn mfo`m

tfrhs) js ` pkssjemf kptjkn uncfr taf FV Cjrfgtjvfs, hkst puemjg gkhhjssjknjno

ekcjfs gakksf taf rfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf tk sfmfgt tafjr `rgajtfgts. Jn tajs

gmjfnts erfì wjta taf tr`cjtjkn kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns. @t taf s`hf tjhf tafy

jngmucf fmfhfnts kd taf tr`cjtjkn`m cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns jn tafjr tfncfr prkgfcurf,suga `s taf suehjssjkn kd ` cfsjon prkpks`m `nc `n kpfn cfe`tf èkut cfsjon

qu`mjty. af `nknyhkus `ssfsshfnt kd prkpks`ms `nc fxpfrt bury p`nfms `rf kdtfn

rfpm`gfc kr ùohfntfc ey ktafr prkgfcurfs, wajmf jt js tafsf vfry fmfhfnts ta`t

sfgurfc d`jrnfss jn cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns. Mfo`m `nc h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nts `rf

kdtfn ajrfc tk suppkrt taf gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt jn kro`njzjno taf tfncfrs. Zft taf

orkwjno djfmc kd g`sf m`w kn FV `nc n`tjkn`m prkgurfhfnt m`w ckfs nkt sffh tk

prkvjcf fnkuoa suppkrt tk oujcf gmjfnts kn gkhpmj`ngf wjta taf rfoum`tjkns. Jn

Cutga pr`gtjgf tafsf cfvfmkphfnts a`vf mfc tk ”` gkndrknt`tjkn eftwffn taf nffc

dkr gfrt`jnty `nc taf cfsjrf dkr grf`tjvjty‘ (v`n cfr \km, ft `m., 5<<:, p. 0<). af

fddfgt a`s effn tk fngkuròf cfdfnsjvf nc rjsi vkjcjno str`tfojfs kd puemjg gmjfntsjn taf cfsjon `nc rf`mjs`tjkn kd tfncfrs jn `rgajtfgturf. ajs js p`rtjgum`rmy cjs-

gkngfrtjno sjngf `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns gkumc kddfr v`muèmf kppkrtunjtjfs ta`t gkumc

efnfdjt okvfrn`ngf `nc gumtur`m afrjtòf.

0.5 Ufsf`rga dkgus

ajs rfsf`rga dkgusfs kn taf prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd

puemjg gmjfnts jn taf gkntfxt kd FV prkgurfhfnt m`w. af prkbfgt st`rtfc jn 5<<6

wafn taf Cutga `rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty efo`n tk dffm ungkhdkrtèmf èkut taf

h`nnfr jn wajga puemjg gmjfnts sfmfgtfc tafjr `rgajtfgts. FV tfncfrs wfrf stjmm sffn



3

`s cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns jn wajga ` bury p`nfm `ssfssfc taf suehjssjkns `nc cftfr-

hjnfc ` wjnnfr. Akwfvfr, taf mfo`m gkntfxt grf`tfc `ccjtjkn`m `w`rfnfss kd taf

gknsfqufngfs kd suga ` cfgjsjkn. \uemjg gmjfnts rf`mjsfc ta`t tafy wfrf kemjofc tk

sft up ` tfncfr prkgfcurf efdkrf tafy gkumc sfmfgt `n `rgajtfgt (v`n cfr \km, ft `m.,

5<<:). afy `msk st`rtfc tk rf`mjsf ta`t suga ` prkbfgt nffcs tk ef fhefccfc jn

tafjr kro`njs`tjkn`m strugturf `nc rfqujrfs spfgjdjg inkwmfcof èkut `rgajtfgturf`nc prkgurfhfnt. Ufspknsjejmjtjfs a`vf tk ef ssjonfc tk cjddfrfnt ijncs kd `gtkrs.

@ eujmcjno prkbfgt tìfs pm`gf jn ` cyn`hjg pkmjtjg`m gkntfxt wjta mfo`m `s wfmm `s

skgj`m kemjo`tjkns tkw`rcs usfrs, gjtjzfns, taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc kd rgajtfgturf nc

skgjfty jn ofnfr`m. af jhs kd eujmcjno prkbfgt cfpfnc kn taf `hejtjkns, hf`ns

`nc `ggkhhkc`tjkn nffcs kd taf gmjfnt. Ey sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt taf h`tfrj`m

cjrfgtjkn kd taf prkbfgt js gaksfn `nc taf prkbfgt `gqujrfs jts paysjg`m sa`pf ey

cfsjon. @ tfncfr dkr `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon sfrvjgfs kddfrs kppkrtunjtjfs tk ` puemjg

gmjfnt ta`t r`nof drkh jnvkmvjno gjtjzfns jn krcfr tk jngrf`sf pkmjtjg`m suppkrt tk

pksjtjknjno ` gjty. \uemjg `chjnjstr`tkrs `msk a`vf pfrskn`m `nc str`tfojg `jhs. @

tfncfr js tafrfdkrf `n jhpkrt`nt p`rt kd taf jnjtj`m stòf kd ` eujmcjno prkbfgt.Wkgj`m sgjfngf g`n gkntrjeutf tk taf uncfrst`ncjno kd psygakmkojg`m prkgfssfs

kd cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. Wuga `n `n`mysjs g`n

afmp tk jcfntjdy sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs jn taf cjmfhh`s ta`t puemjg gmjfnts d`gf

jn taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt. Jn tajs rfsf`rga J fhpjrjg`mmy jnvfstjo`tfc taf krj-

ojn kd tafsf cjmfhh`s. af rfsf`rga js e`sfc kn twk rfsf`rga tr`cjtjkns2 bucof-

hfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty, `nc gkonjtjvf `nc skgj`m prkgfssfs kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn

ekta tr`cjtjkns taf gkngfpts kd pfrgfptjkn (f.o. Efmm, Orffnf, Djsafr, & Eùh,

0::49 vfrsiy & Iànfh`n, 0:10), jntujtjkn (f.o. C`nf & \r`tt, 5<<?9 W`cmfr-

Whjta & Wp`rrkw, 5<<1), bucofhfnt (f.o. Ojddkrc, ft `m., 5<<59 Ako`rta, 0:11),

fxpfrtjsf (f.o. Afiifrt & v`n _jfrjnofn, 0::19 Auttkn & Imfjn, 0:::), `ncfhktjkn (f.o. Cfshft, 5<<59 Wjhkn, 0:1?) pm`y n jhpkrt`nt rkmf. Hy cfdjnjtjkn

kd cfsjon qu`mjty js orkuncfc jn taf gkhp`rjskn kd taf ga`r`gtfr `nc fmfhfnts kd

qu`mjty jn cfsjon drkh taf cjsgjpmjnfs kd `rgajtfgturf, fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy,

prkcugt fxpfrjfngf, `nc v`muf h`nòfhfnt. Cfsjon qu`mjty js gknsfqufntmy cf-

tfrhjnfc jn taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn taf jncjvjcu`m `nc taf kebfgt kd stucy. af

rfsumts kd tajs jntfr`gtjkn `rf p`rt kd taf v`muf bucofhfnts ta`t `rf usfc curjno

cfgjsjkn hìjno. Cfgjsjkn hìjno js ` w`y tk `mjon fxpfgt`tjkns `nc nffcs tk

rf`ga ok`ms (Akcoijnskn & Wt`reugi, 5<<1`). Jncjvjcu`m cfgjsjkns `rf h`cf ey

prkgfssfs ta`t `rf r`nof drkh r`tjkn`m tk jntujtjvf `nc gknsgjkus tk ungknsgjkus

(f.o. Ga`jifn & rkpf, 0:::9 Ako`rta, 5<<69 W`cmfr-Whjta & Wp`rrkw, 5<<1).af gkngfpts kd ekuncfc r`tjkn`mjty (Wjhkn, 0::?), afurjstjgs (Ojofrfnzfr, kcc,

& @EG rfsf`rga orkup, 0:::9 vfrsiy & Iànfh`n, 0:?3), `nc n`tur`mjstjg cf-

gjsjkn hìjno (f.o. Okrf, E`nis, Hjmmw`rc, & Iyrjìjcku, 5<<49 Mjpsajtz, Imfjn,

& G`rrkmm, 5<<4) gkumc fxpm`jn taf cfgjsjkns ta`t `rf h`cf èkut cfsjon qu`mjty.

afy sakw ta`t nkt fvfry cfgjsjkn js r`tjkn`m ey n`turf (Wjngm`jr & @sai`n`sy,

5<<6). @t taf kro`njs`tjkn`m mfvfm taf gkngfpt kd sfnsfhìjno (E`mkoun, \yf, &

Akcoijnskn, 5<<19 _fjgi, 0::6) `nc jhòf tafkry (Ef`ga, 0::<) `ttrjeutf tk

taf uncfrst`ncjno kd cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs `nc taf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf bustjdjg`tjkn kd

` cfgjsjkn (Tjc`jmmft, 5<<1). Jt js wjtajn tajs str`tfojg, cyn`hjg nc fmusjvf kro`nj-

s`tjkn`m gkntfxt ta`t puemjg gmjfnts a`vf tk sfmfgt tafjr `rgajtfgt.



6

afrf `rf twk gkndmjgtjno hkcfms tk dr`hf taf prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn

jn taf gkntfxt kd Furkpf`n tfncfrjno rfoum`tjkns. Kn taf knf a`nc, prkgurfhfnt

m`w ppf`rs tk ef e`sfc kn ` r`tjkn`m h`nòfrj`m cfgjsjkn hkcfm ta`t ssuhfs ta`t

cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` dkr gkhp`rjskn kd `mtfrn`tjvfs `rf inkwn efdkrfa`nc (Ef`ga &

Gknnkmmy, 5<<69 A`rrjskn, 0:::). Kn taf ktafr a`nc, Irfjnfr (5<<4) suoofsts

ta`t cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn js `gtu`mmy ` prkgfss kd sfnsf-hìjno jnstf`c kd gakjgf. Bury hfhefrs sff jt `s `n kemjo`tjkn tk sfmfgt ` wjnnjno

fntry ey gknsfnsus `nc usu`mmy try `s a`rc `s pkssjemf tk rf`ga tajs (I`zfhj`n

& Uônn, 5<<:9 Wvfnsskn, 5<<1). Grjtfrj` kn wajga taf djn`m cfgjsjkn js e`sfc

`rf typjg`mmy cfvfmkpfc kr spfgjdjfc curjno taf prkgfss efgùsf suga dmfxjejmjty js

nffcfc tk grf`tf rkkh dkr nfoktj`tjkn (Irfjnfr, 5<<4). ajs js jn gkntr`st wjta

taf mfo`m kemjo`tjkns tk `ppmy taf s`hf grjtfrj` `nc tafjr rfm`tjvf wfjoats `s taksf

puemjsafc jn taf g`mm dkr prkpks`ms jn krcfr tk ef `s tr`nsp`rfnt `s pkssjemf. ajs

ijnc kd tr`nsp`rfngy wkumc fnèmf gkhpftjno `rgajtfgtur`m tf`hs tk ef `w`rf kd

taf pktfntj`m jhpkrt`ngf kd taf prfdfrfngfs `nc ej`sfs kd jncjvjcu`m bury hfh-

efrs, eut fssfntj`mmy wjnnjno ` gkhpftjtjkn `ppf`rs tk ef ` h`ttfr kd ‑pusajno tafrjoat euttkn‚ kr ‑djncjno taf ajccfn ify‚ (Irfjnfr, 5<<?`).

@ggkrcjno tk Uônn (5<<1, p. 0<) hkst cjddjgumtjfs jn cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno

taf sfmfgtjkn kd n `rgajtfgt rfsumt drkh ”` nuhefr kd mfojtjh`tf jntfrfsts ta`t nffc

tk ef wfjoafc o`jnst f`ga ktafr, suga s p`nfm hfhefrs wak a`vf cjddfrfnt rkmfs,

jntfrfsts `nc bucojno qu`mjdjg`tjkns, taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf ta`t cfsgrjefs

taf ok`ms, erjfd, gkncjtjkns, `nc rfqujrfhfnts, taf g`ncjc`tfs wak prfsfnt cjddfr-

fnt skmutjkns dkr taf `ssjonhfnt `nc gkhpftjtjkn rfoum`tjkns wajga sft taf ofn-

fr`m rumfs.‘ Jn hy kpjnjkn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt sakumc jncffc ef

gknsjcfrfc `s ` prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno jn wajga cfgjsjkn hìfrs `jh tk sfmfgt taf

hkst sujtèmf cfsjonfr tk cfmjvfr `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon qu`mjty dkr ` duturf eujmc-jno kd ` gmjfnt. U`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs ta`t `rf jhpmjfc ey prkgurfhfnt m`w

kdtfn ck nkt rfdmfgt taf w`y jn wajga sfmfgtjkn cfgjsjkns `rf h`cf jn pr`gtjgf eut

ck prkvjcf taf gkntfxt kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. @rgajtfgtur`m bucofhfnt `nc taf

jntfrprft`tjkn kd mfo`m rfqujrfhfnts gmf`rmy nffc tk ef sa`pfc `ggkrcjnomy. Ekta

`rgajtfgts `nc puemjg gmjfnts m`gi inkwmfcof kd taf ‑rjoat‚ w`y tk jhpmfhfnt taf

FV mfojsm`tjkn rfo`rcjno taf sfmfgtjkn kd sfrvjgf prkvjcfrs jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon.

0.7 Inkwmfcof o`ps `nc sgjfntjdjg ga`mmfnofs

Wfvfr`m inkwmfcof o`ps g`n ef jcfntjdjfc gkngfrnjno taf tkpjg kd `rgajtfgt sf-mfgtjkn ta`t `msk dr`hf taf sgjfntjdjg ga`mmfnofs jn uncfrtìjno tajs rfsf`rga. Jn

taf mkno ajstkry kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns a`rcmy `ny `ttfhpts a`vf effn h`cf tk

kesfrvf, `n`mysf kr fv`mu`tf taf prkgfss kd sfmfgtjno `rgajtfgts (v`n _fzfh`fm,

5<<1). Hkst puemjg`tjkns kn cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns sakw taf rjga cjvfrsjty kd sue-

hjssjkns `ggkhp`njfc ey ` st`tfhfnt kd taf bury èkut taf rfmfv`ngf kd gkhpftj-

tjkns dkr taf `rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn (f.o. cf A``n & A`òsh`, 0:119 Omusefro,

0::5). Ktafrs cfsgrjef taf `jhs, prkgfcurfs, pktfntj`ms `nc pjtd`mms jn ` ajstkrj-

g`m pfrspfgtjvf (Mjpst`ct, 5<<69 Wprfjrfofn, 0:?:9 Wtjgatjno Ekuwrfsf`rga, 0:1<9

Wucbjg, 5<<6) kr taf rfmfv`ngf kd gkhpftjtjkns dkr taf `rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn

(f.o. Gkmmyfr, 5<<39 M`rskn, 0::3). Jn `mhkst fvfry puemjg`tjkn taf gkhpftjtjkn



4

js fxpfrjfngfc ` unjquf pafnkhfnkn. Wtucjfs fjtafr dkgus kn knf gkhpftjtjkn,

taf wjnnjno fntrjfs drkh ` r`nof kd gkhp`rèmf gkhpftjtjkns kr kn jnput drkh

` rfm`tjvfmy sh`mm `hkunt kd fxpfrts. af fxpfrjfngfs `nc jntfrfsts kd taf gmjfnt

`s duturf usfr kd taf eujmcjno `rf usu`mmy nfomfgtfc (N`s`r, 0:::9 N`s`r & I`no,

0:1:). H`nzknj (5<0<) dkunc knmy 61 sfrjkus puemjg`tjkns tk jngmucf jn afr rf-

vjfw stucy ekut cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns, wajga sakws taf mjhjtfc rfsf`rga tr`cjtjknjn taf djfmc. H`nzknj cjstjnoujsafs dkur h`bkr rfsf`rga tafhfs kvfr taf p`st 76

yf`rs2 taf rkmf kd gkhpftjtjkns `nc tafjr (cjs)`cv`ntòfs9 tafjr ajstkry9 tafjr sys-

tfhs `nc tafjr `ckptjkns `grkss gkuntrjfs9 `nc taf h`nòfhfnt `nc kro`njs`tjkn

kd gkhpftjtjkns. Waf dkunc `n jngrf`sjno jntfrfst jn gkhpftjtjkns drkh taf h`n-

òfhfnt `nc kro`njs`tjkn stucjfs jn taf m`st djvf yf`r (f.o. Fwfnstfjn & _aytf,

5<<?9 Bknfs & Mjvnf-`r`nc`ga, 5<<1).

Jn taf f`rmy 0:?<‚s Gkmmjns cjsgussfc taf sjhjm`rjtjfs `nc cjddfrfngfs jn mfo`m

`nc rgajtfgtur`m bucofhfnts wjtakut nktjgfèmf sgjfntjdjg gknsfqufngfs (Gkmmjns,

0:?0). \kssjemy taf knmy puemjg`tjkn ta`t fxpmjgjtmy `ccrfssfs FV prkgurfhfnt

m`w jn `rgajtfgtur`m gkhpftjtjkns w`s wrjttfn ey Bucjta Wtrkno (0::4), ` dkrhfrGkhpftjtjkns Cjrfgtkr dkr taf Uky`m Jnstjtutf kd Erjtjsa @rgajtfgts. Ufgfntmy `

dfw sgakm`rs a`vf stucjfc taf bucofhfnt prkgfss kd bury p`nfms jn taf gurrfnt

gkntfxt kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns (I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:9 Irfjnfr, 5<<4, 5<<19

Wjmvfrefrofr, 5<0<9 Wprfjrfofn, 5<<19 Wvfnsskn, 5<<1), skhftjhfs cjrfgtmy rfm`tfc

tk taf `ssfsshfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty `nc fxpfrtjsf (Uônn, 5<0<9 Wvfnsskn, 5<0<)

kr taf str`tfojfs kd `rgajtfgtur`m tf`hs ta`t bkjn gkhpftjtjkns (Irfjnfr, 5<<?`,

5<<?e9 H`nzknj, Hkrrjs, & Whyta, 5<<:). Knmy Irfjnfr (5<<4) fxpmjgjtmy `c-

crfssfs taf sfnsfhìjno ga`r`gtfr kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd taf gmjfnt wajmf sfmfgt-

jno ` wjnnfr kd ` gkhpftjtjkn.

Nknf kd tafsf puemjg`tjkns `ccrfss taf jhp`gt kd prkgurfhfnt kn taf prkgf-curf `nc cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs jn ` gkhpftjtjkn. Gkhpftjtjkn `nc tfncfr puemjg`-

tjkns `nc hkcfms a`vf effn wrjttfn drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd taf `rgajtfgt (f.o.

v`n G`hpfn & Afncrjisf, 0::?) kr taf mfo`m `cvjskr (f.o. B`nsfn, 5<<:), eut

nkt drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd taf gmjfnt kr taf h`nòfhfnt kd ` gkhpmfx prkbfgt

jn ` okvfrn`ngf gkntfxt. af `v`jmèmf prkgfcurfs `rf kdtfn tìfn `s ojvfn `nc

nk jntfrfst jn sakwn jn taf gknsjcfr`tjkns kd taf gmjfnt kr kro`njsfr h`cf cur-

jno prfp`r`tjkn `nc rf`mjz`tjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkns. af mkno tr`cjtjkn kd cfsjon

gkhpftjtjkns gkumc a`vf kpfnfc up nuhfrkus pkssjejmjtjfs jd taf gkhpftjtjkns

a`c effn wfmm ckguhfntfc, strugtur`mmy fv`mu`tfc `nc sgjfntjdjg`mmy gkhp`rfc.

Gknnfgtjkns tk djfmcs kd cfgjsjkn hìjno, qu`mjty pfrgfptjkn kr str`tfojg h`nòf-hfnt gkumc f`sjmy a`vf effn h`cf `nc gkumc a`vf suppkrtfc taf cfvfmkphfnt kd

gurrfnt pr`gtjgf.

af jnjtj`m f`sf wjta wajga taf tr`cjtjkns kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn, prkgurfhfnt

`nc p`rtnfr sf`rga wfrf hfrofc jhpmjfs ta`t nk rf`m kest`gmfs wfrf fxpfrjfngfc.

Akwfvfr, taf jngrf`sjno nuhefr kd prkemfhs jn gurrfnt pr`gtjgf suoofsts ta`t un-

cfrmyjno gkndmjgts ck fxjst. Kn taf knf a`nc, tafsf prkemfhs `ppf`r tk ef gùsfc

ey taf rfhkv`m kd fssfntj`m fmfhfnts ta`t usfc tk ou`r`ntff taf prkpfr dungtjkn-

jno kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs, suga `s `n fxpfrt bury p`nfm. Kn taf ktafr a`nc,

taf hfrof sffhs tk strfss taf jn`cfqu`gjfs kd taf mkno st`ncjno tr`cjtjkn kd cfsjon

gkhpftjtjkns. @mtakuoa taf gkntfxt kd rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn a`s ga`nofc, cjsgussjkns



?

jn pr`gtjgf ck nkt prkpfrmy `ccrfss tafsf ga`nofs. Wjngf taf jntrkcugtjkn kd taf

prkgurfhfnt cjrfgtjvfs jn 5<<3 (Cjrfgtjvf/01/FG kd taf Furkpf`n \`rmj`hfnt &

Gkungjm kd taf Furkpf`n Vnjkn) taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt js succfnmy kut jn

taf kpfn. @rgajtfgts p`rtjgjp`tjno jn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss a`vf taf kppkrtunjty

tk tìf tafjr cjss`tjsd`gtjkn tk gkurt. af jngrf`sjno nuhefrs kd m`w g`sfs sakws `

gumtur`m ga`nof jn taf ttjtucf kd `rgajtfgts jn rfm`tjkn tk tafjr gmjfnts. ajs hf`nsta`t taf rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn js or`cu`mmy mkkifc upkn drkh mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf.

frhs suga `s d`jr gkhpftjtjkn, kebfgtjvjty, `nc tr`nsp`rfngy nkw st`rt tk a`vf

cjddfrfnt hf`njnos ta`n tafy a`c jn taf fr` kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns. G`sf m`w cf`ms

wjta mfo`m rf`sknjno r`tafr ta`n `rgajtfgtur`m rf`sknjno. Jt js e`sfc kn fxtrfhf

g`sfs wafrf pr`gtjgf mfc tk ` sfrjkus `rouhfnt ta`t gkumc nkt ef skmvfc jn ` cj`-

mkouf kr ey hfcj`tjkn. af cj`mkouf ta`t usfc tk ef pfrgfjvfc `s fssfntj`m dkr taf

cfvfmkphfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty js nkw gkncugtfc jn prfsfngf kd ` bucof, `nc taf

dkgus a`s sajdtfc drkh taf prkcugt tk prkgfcur`m jssufs. afrf js ` ofnfr`m m`gi kd

jnsjoat jntk taf prfgfcjno pa`sfs ta`t mfc tk `n fsg`m`tjkn kd kpjnjkns.

Gmjfnts `nc gknsumt`nts `rf rfh`rièmy èsfnt drkh taf cjsgussjkns ta`t tfnctk ef ckhjn`tfc ey `rgajtfgts (f.o. @tfmjfr Ifhpf ajmm, 5<<19 \kstfm, 5<<0).

Hkst `rgajtfgts pkrtr`y tafhsfmvfs `s vjgtjhs kd taf tfncfr systfh r`tafr ta`n rf-

spknsjemf `gtkrs, fvfn taksf wak `msk sfrvf `s hfhefrs kd bury p`nfms tafhsfmvfs

(v`n cfr \km, ft `m., 5<<:). _jta taf fxgfptjkn kd @tfmjfr Ifhpf jmm (5<<1), nfj-

tafr `rgajtfgts nkr gmjfnts a`vf `pprk`gafc tajs prkemfh drkh ` rfsf`rga pfrspfg-

tjvf. Jn ofnfr`m cjsgussjkns èkut tfncfrs ck nkt `ccrfss gùsf `nc fddfgt. afy

tfnc knmy tk cfsgrjef taf prkemfhs jnstf`c kd grjtjg`mmy `n`myzjno tafh (sff dkr

fx`hpmf @rgajtfgtuur Mki``m, 5<<:`9 v`n cfr \km, ft `m., 5<<:). Dkr fx`hpmf, gur-

rfnt mjtfr`turf ckfs nkt cjsguss taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn ` cfsjon gkntfst jn wajga

taf FV rfoum`tjkns `rf `ppmjfc, `nc ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn wjtakut tajs strjgt mfo`mdr`hfwkri. @s d`r `s J `h `w`rf kd taf fv`mu`tjkn prkgfss kd burkrs, nfjtafr taf

cjddfrfngfs eftwffn `n fxpfrt bury p`nfm `nc ` hjxfc bury p`nfm, nkr taf efnfdjts

`nc cjs`cv`ntòfs kd taf `v`jmèmf prkgfcurfs a`vf fvfr effn sfrjkusmy `ccrfssfc

sgjfntjdjg`mmy. _jtakut ` prkpfr `n`mysjs kd taf krjojn kd prkemfhs, ` skmutjkn g`n-

nkt f`sjmy ef dkunc.

af m`gi kd ` prkpfr prkemfh `n`mysjs js rkktfc jn ekta taf gumturf `nc taf

humtj-cjsgjpmjn`ry ga`r`gtfr kd taf rfsf`rga djfmc. Jn spjtf kd jts jntfrn`tjkn`m ga`r-

`gtfr `nc taf nuhfrkus bkurn`ms `nc ekkis kn `rgajtfgturf, taf djfmc kd `rgajtfg-

tur`m cfsjon stjmm a`s ` r`tafr mjhjtfc fhpjrjg`m rfsf`rga tr`cjtjkn. @rgajtfgts tfnc

tk puemjsa ekkis èkut tafjr kwn ekcy kd wkri jn krcfr tk prkhktf tafjr pr`g-tjgfs. af dfw ekkis ekut taf rgajtfgtur`m pr`gtjgf ta`t rf wjcfmy ginkwmfcofc

`rf wrjttfn drkh ` h`nòfrj`m r`tafr ta`n ` sgjfntjdjg pfrspfgtjvf (sff dkr fx`hpmf

@mmjnskn, 0::?9 Emù, 0:139 Gkxf, ft `m., 0:1?9 Outh`n, 0:11). Kn taf knf a`nc,

taf dkgus kn taf prkdfssjkn sakws taf pròh`tjg ga`r`gtfr kd `n `ppmjfc cjsgjpmjnf

`jhjno `t jhprkvjno cfsjon `nc cfsjon prkgfssfs. Kn taf ktafr a`nc, tafkrftjg`m

`nc pajmkskpajg`m cjsgkursf wkumc prkvjcf jnput dkr gkntjnukus cfe`tf ekut v`m-

ufs `nc rfmfv`ngf kd `rgajtfgturf kn skgjft`m mfvfm. af m`gi kd grjtjg`m cfe`tf `nc

fv`mu`tjkns kd prfgfcfnts js ` pktfntj`m tarf`t dkr taf cfvfmkphfnt `nc st`nc`rcs

kd taf prkdfssjkn (Gkmmjns, 0:?0). Hftakckmkojg`m `ttfhpts a`vf effn h`cf tk

mjni cfsjon `nc fhpjrjg`m rfsf`rga (f.o. cf Bkno & v`n cfr Tkkrct, 5<<59 Ork`t &



1

_`no, 5<<5) eut ey `nc m`rof taf djfmc js stjmm sg`ttfrfc `nc unstrugturfc. af jh-

pkrt`ngf kd sgjfntjdjg rfsf`rga ckfs nkt sffh tk ef dummy `ginkwmfcofc yft jn taf

djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf. af djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf js p`rt kd gkntjnujno cfe`tf èkut

taf pksjtjkn jn eftwffn `rts `nc (`ppmjfc) sgjfngfs.

Jn hy kpjnjkn `rgajtfgturf js fssfntj`mmy ` humtj-cjsgjpmjn`ry djfmc kd ajstkry,

pajmkskpay, fnojnffrjno, psygakmkoy, fgknkhjgs, h`nòfhfnt, pkmjtjgs, skgjkmkoy`nc hkrf. Akwfvfr, jnsjoats drkh tafsf rfm`tfc dunc`hfnt`m djfmcs kd sgjfngf `rf

nkt wjcfmy `ckptfc jn `rgajtfgturf. @n jhhfnsf rfsf`rga pktfntj`m `rjsfs drkh

taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn `ppmjfc `nc dunc`hfnt`m sgjfngfs jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon

(Ork`t & _`no, 5<<5). ajs rfsf`rga tafrfdkrf `jhs tk jhpmfhfnt inkwmfcof

drkh taf dunc`hfnt`m sgjfngfs kd bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf gkntfxt

kd cfsjon. Jt `msk trjfs tk mjni taf v`rjkus cfsjon djfmcs jn tafjr sf`rga dkr qu`mjty

`nc fxgfmmfngf jn cfsjon.

afrf `rf `msk mjhjt`tjkns wjtajn taf dunc`hfnt`m sgjfngfs ta`t prfvfntfc taf

cfvfmkphfnt kd gkhhkn e`sf dkr rfsf`rga jn taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf. _jtajn

sgjfngf tafrf `rf h`ny cjddfrfnt cjsgjpmjn`ry pfrspfgtjvfs ta`t f`ga dkgus kn tafjrkwn `rf` kd jntfrfst. Jn tajs sfnsf sgjfngf g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s taf emjnc hfn

tkugajno taf fmfpa`nt d`jmjno tk cfvfmkp `n jntfor`tfc uncfrst`ncjno kd taf paf-

nkhfnkn `s f`ga h`n js mkgifc jntk ajs kwn p`rtjgum`r vjfw kd taf fmfpa`nt. J

efmjfvf ta`t wf g`n òrff èkut jcf`s kn akw tk pfrgfjvf `nc cfgjcf èkut taf

‑fmfpa`nt‚ kd `rgajtfgturf. @p`rt drkh taf pfkpmf-fnvjrknhfnt stucjfs, dfw sgakm-

`rs drkh kutsjcf taf cjsgjpmjnf kd cfsjon a`vf `ckptfc `rgajtfgts kr `rgajtfgtur`m

cfsjon `s rfsf`rga kebfgts. @ dfw fxgfptjkns g`n ef dkunc jn taf `rf`s kd h`rift-

jno `nc gkhhunjg`tjkn (f.o. C`y & E`risc`mf, 0::59 Bknfs & Mjvnf-`r`nc`ga,

5<<1), gkonjtjvf sgjfngf (f.o. A`hfm, 0::<), `nc jn taf ftankor`pajg stucy kd

`rgajtfgturf (f.o. Z`nfv`, 5<<1).Ufsf`rga jn pfkpmf-fnvjrknhfnt stucjfs a`s kdtfn dkgusfc kn knf kr twk `s-

pfgts kr jncjvjcu`mjstjg `pprk`gafs tk akw pfkpmf vjfw taf eujmt `nc n`tur`m fn-

vjrknhfnt (Eujbs, 5<<:). ajs js rfm`tfc tk taf gkhhkn tr`cjtjkn jn taf usf kd

h`jnmy qu`ntjt`tjvf rfsf`rga hftakcs. af dròhfnt`tjkn kd inkwmfcof hìfs

jhpmjg`tjkns cjddjgumt tk uncfrst`nc dkr pfkpmf drkh ktafr cjsgjpmjnfs `nc cjddfr-

fnt mfvfms kd fxpfrtjsf. Jt mf`vfs kut taf ajstkrjg`m `nc skgj`m gkntfxt, `nc tafrfdkrf

taf cyn`hjgs, cjvfrsjty `nc gkhpmfxjty kd taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt kn ` akmjstjg

mfvfm. af djfmc kd kro`njs`tjkn`m efa`vjkur usu`mmy jhs t cfgjsjkn qu`mjty dkr taf

fddfgtjvfnfss `nc fddjgjfngy kd taf kro`njs`tjkn jnstf`c kd taf efnfdjts dkr skgjfty.

Jn cfgjsjkn hìjno nc cfsjon jhpmjgjt inkwmfcof nc jntujtjvf gtjkns `ppf`r tkef fssfntj`m. Nkt h`ny sgakm`rs kesfrvf pfkpmf jn tafjr n`tur`m fnvjrknhfnt `nc

rfdmfgt kn tafjr (kdtfn jngknsjstfnt) efa`vjkur. af djfmc kd puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn

stucjfs cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn tafjr pkmjtjg`m `rfn` eut ckfs nkt dkgus kn taf tfh-

pkr`rjmy fxtfrn`m fddfgts ta`t ` tfncfr prkbfgt gùsfs ey taf cjrfgt jntfr`gtjkn ef-

twffn taf p`rtjfs kn taf cfh`nc sjcf `nc taksf kn taf suppmy sjcf kd taf h`rift.

Wkgjkmkojsts stucy orkups jn tafjr n`tur`m fnvjrknhfnt eut `rf nkt p`rtjgum`rmy

jntfrfstfc jn jncjvjcu`m tr`jts kr taf fgknkhjg`mmy e`sfc hfga`njshs ta`t pfkpmf

`ppmy jn tafjr efa`vjkur. Fgknkhjg`m stucjfs `rf e`sfc kn taf jntfrpm`y eftwffn

cfh`nc `nc suppmy kn ` h`rift mfvfm jn krcfr tk prfcjgt duturf efa`vjkur `nc ck

nkt sakw huga jntfrfst jn taf pfkpmf efajnc taf nuhefrs, d`gt `nc djourfs tafy



:

stucy. J tafrfdkrf efmjfvf ta`t ekta ` gknnfgtjkn eftwffn taf dunc`hfnt`m djfmcs

kd sgjfngf `nc taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf `s wfmm `s eftwffn taf sgakm`rs jn (`rgaj-

tfgtur`m) cfsjon js nffcfc.

af gkntfxt kd tajs rfsf`rga cjc nkt suppkrt taf mjdtjno kd rfsf`rga ekunc`rjfs

fjtafr. af sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts tìfs pm`gf jn ` vfry gmksfc sfttjno, bust `s p`nfm

cjsgussjkns jn ktafr `rf`s suga `s or`nt `mmkg`tjkn kr taf rfgrujthfnt kd prkdfs-skrs (M`hknt, 5<<:9 v`n cfn Erjni, 5<<:). ”af h`bkr p`rt kd taf kro`njsfr‚s kr

bury‚s inkwmfcof rfh`jns sfgrft2 jt js nfjtafr gkhhunjg`tfc jn taf prkor`h erjfd

nkr jn prktkgkms‘ (v`n _fzfh`fm, 5<<1, p. :). Fxpfrtjsf js usu`mmy `ppmjfc jn ajoa

rjsi kr gkhpmfx sjtu`tjkns wjta humtjpmf jntfrfsts nc nk gmf`r cjstjngtjkn eftwffn

rjoat nc wrkno. Wuga cfgjsjkns a`vf ajoa ga`ngf kd efjno gkncfhnfc. af dfw

sgakm`rs ta`t wfrf èmf tk fntfr taf sgfnf wfrf fjtafr `gtjvfmy jnvkmvfc tafhsfmvfs

kr wfrf or`ntfc knmy mjhjtfc `ggfss. Jndkrh`tjkn drkh ekta suppmy `nc cfh`nc

sjcf js vfry sfnsjtjvf ey n`turf `nc jts fmjgjt`tjkn rfqujrfs trust eftwffn tafsf p`r-

tjfs nc taf rfsf`rgafr. @rgajtfgtur`m djrhs `rf nkt vfry kpfn ekut tafjr str`tfojfs

dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn gkhpftjtjkns fjtafr. ajs a`s a`c jhpkrt`nt jhpmjg`tjkns dkrtaf `pprk`ga kd tajs rfsf`rga. Zft J stjmm efmjfvf ta`t taf rkkts kd gkndmjgts jn taf

efa`vjkur kd puemjg gmjfnts g`n efst ef stucjfc jn tafjr n`tur`m gkntfxt.

0.3 Ufsf`rga qufstjkns

af `jh kd tajs rfsf`rga prkbfgt js tk fhpjrjg`mmy stucy taf prkgfss kd v`muf bucof-

hfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno kd puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcjfs curjno `rgajtfgt sf-

mfgtjkn jn taf gkntfxt kd Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w. af h`jn kebfgtjvf js tk

cfsgrjef, uncfrst`nc `nc fxpm`jn taf cfsjon `nc jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd prkgfcurfs

ey hf`ns kd wajga taf qu`mjty kd cfsjon prkpks`ms js bucofc jn krcfr tk `w`rc `gkntr`gt tk taf `rgajtfgt wak wjmm cfmjvfr cfsjon sfrvjgfs dkr ` p`rtjgum`r eujmcjno

prkbfgt. Hy h`jn `jh js tk `ttfhpt tk rfskmvf taf gurrfnt gkndmjgts ta`t `rjsf drkh

taf pfrgfptjkn kd taf mfo`m kemjo`tjkns kd taf `gtkrs kd ` tfncfr prkbfgt `nc tafjr

n`tur`m efa`vjkur jn hìjno cfgjsjkns èkut taf qu`mjty kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon.

af rfsf`rga qufstjkns jn tajs stucy `rf2

Akw ck puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcjfs cfgjcf kn taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt

jn taf gkntfxt kd FV prkgurfhfnt m`w;

_ajga sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs jndmufngf taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno kd

puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcjfs jn tajs gkntfxt;

_a`t `rf taf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd prkgfcurfs dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd

`rgajtfgts;

af djrst qufstjkn rfm`tfs tk taf gtjvjtjfs ta`t tìf pm`gf curjno taf sfmfgtjkn prkg-

fss `nc taf cfgjsjkns ta`t `rf h`cf tk sfmfgt `n `rgajtfgt. af sfmfgtjkn prkgfss

js cjvjcfc jntk ` prfp`r`tjkn, sfmfgtjkn, `nc `w`rc pa`sf. af rfsf`rga `ccrfssfs

wajga `gtkrs tìf wajga cfgjsjkns jn wajga pa`sf `nc akw tafsf cfgjsjkns `rf rf-

m`tfc. Jt msk n`mysfs taf ijncs kd cfgjsjkns ta`t rf h`cf jn ssfssjno cfsjon qu`m-

jty, taf ijncs kd cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs ta`t g`n ef rfgkonjsfc, `nc akw taf cfgjsjkns

`rf hktjv`tfc `nc mfojtjhjsfc.

0.

5.

7.



0<

k `nswfr taf sfgknc qufstjkn sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs wfrf jcfntjdjfc ta`t

jndmufngf taf prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn. af rfsf`rga jcfntjdjfs taf fxtfrn`m

`nc jntfrn`m gkntfxtu`m d`gtkrs `nc taf jntfrrfm`tjno kr gkndmjgtjno ga`r`gtfr kd

tafsf d`gtkrs jn rfm`tjkn tk Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w. Jt `msk sakws taf cjddfrfng-

fs eftwffn m`ypfrskns `nc fxpfrts jn cfgjsjkns èkut `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon qu`mjty

`nc wa`t ktafr ga`r`gtfrjstjgs pm`y ` rkmf.Ey prkvjcjno ` gmf`r uncfrst`ncjno kd taf cfgjsjkn hìjno efa`vjkur kd pue-

mjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcjfs, ` gkhprfafnsjvf pjgturf kd taf prkemfhs w`s cfrjvfc

ta`t gkumc suppkrt ga`nofs jn gurrfnt pr`gtjgf. afsf jnsjoats gkumc jngrf`sf taf

`w`rfnfss hkno gtkrs nc akpfdummy rfpm`gf hytas ey d`gts. E`sfc kn taf rfsumts

kd tajs rfsf`rga suggfss d`gtkrs rf prkpksfc dkr jhprkvjno taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurf

kd `n `rgajtfgt `nc prfvfntjno durtafr gkndmjgt eftwffn puemjg gmjfnts, `rgajtfgts,

tafjr `cvjskrs `nc ktafr stìfakmcfrs jn taf puemjg ckh`jn.

0.6 Ufsf`rga `pprk`ga

af m`gi kd gmf`r prkemfh n`mysjs, tafkrftjg`m nc fhpjrjg`m jnsjoats, nc kpfn-

nfss dkr rfsf`rga h`cf hf gakksf dkr ` qu`mjt`tjvf rfsf`rga `pprk`ga. ajs `p-

prk`ga w`s e`sfc kn taf rk`ch`p prkpksfc ey Fjsfna`rct `nc gknsjsts kd gkn-

cugtjno rf`m mjdf g`sf stucjfs sjhumt`nfkusmy wjta ` rfdmfgtjkn kn gknstrugts `nc

tafkrjfs dkunc jn mjtfr`turf (Fjsfna`rct, 0:1:9 Fjsfna`rct & Or`fenfr, 5<<?). Jn

krcfr tk jngrf`sf taf fxtfrn`m v`rj`ngf kd taf c`t` `nc pkssjemf ofnfr`mjs`tjkn kd

taf djncjnos, J sfmfgtfc tarff g`sfs jn wajga taf rfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf w`s p-

pmjfc ey ` Cutga puemjg gmjfnt. af rfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf a`s effn taf hkst

gkhhknmy usfc tfncfr prkgfcurf jn taf Nftafrm`ncs (Offrtsf, `mh`n, & B`nsfn,

5<<:). Wfmfgtfc rfstrjgtfc tfncfr g`sfs `msk prfsfntfc taf efst kppkrtunjtjfs tko`jn `ggfss tk c`t`. af tarff tfncfr g`sfs wfrf gkhpmfhfntfc wjta ` dkurta g`sf

èkut `n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn dkr ` nfw D`gumty Eujmcjno dkr @rgajtfgturf ta`t w`s

cfstrkyfc ey ` djrf jn H`y 5<<1. af rfsf`rga hftakckmkoy js cfsgrjefc jn hkrf

cft`jm jn Ga`ptfr 6, tkoftafr wjta taf pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkrs dkr taf cfsjon kd `

tfncfr prkbfgt ta`t wfrf fxtr`gtfc drkh taf mjtfr`turf.

Jn taf djrst pa`sf kd taf rfsf`rga (hjc 5<<4 ‗ efojnnjno 5<<1) tarff g`sf stuc-

jfs wfrf pfrdkrhfc kn tfncfr g`sfs jn taf Nftafrm`ncs2

@ m`rof fmfhfnt`ry Wgakkm wjta ` Wpkrts d`gjmjty.

@ Gjty A`mm wjta Mjer`ry dkr ` hjccmf-sjzfc gjty.

@ nfw \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf wjta kddjgf d`gjmjtjfs.

afsf tarff g`sfs `mm gkngfrnfc ` rfstrjgtfc Furkpf`n tfncfrjno prkgfcurf kd

` Cutga puemjg gmjfnt `nc wfrf sfmfgtfc e`sfc kn taf gmjfnts‚ wjmmjnonfss tk p`r-

tjgjp`tf jn taf rfsf`rga. Jn twk g`sfs taf gmjfnt gkhhjttff fvfntu`mmy sfmfgtfc knf

`rgajtfgt `hkno djvf kr sjx tfncfrfrs `nc `w`rcfc ` tr`cjtjkn`m Cfsjon Ejc Eujmc

gkntr`gt. af tajrc g`sf w`s g`ngfmmfc `dtfr taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf jn wajga sfvfn

tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs gkhpftfc dkr ` Cfsjon-`nc-Eujmc gkntr`gt. @ v`rjfty kd c`t`

(kesfrv`tjkns, jntfrvjfws, ckguhfnt`tjkn) w`s gkmmfgtfc dkr f`ga g`sf tk `mmkw

dkr trj`noum`tjkn eftwffn sfmd-rfpkrt, kesfrvfc efa`vjkur nc kddjgj`m ckguhfnts.

af rfsf`rga hftakc `nc rfsumts kd tafsf g`sfs `rf cfsgrjefc jn Ga`ptfr 4.

0.

5.

7.



00

Wuesfqufnt tk c`t` gkmmfgtjkn kd taf tajrc g`sf, taf kppkrtunjty `rksf tk ef

jnvkmvfc jn `n jntfrn`tjkn`m kpfn jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn dkr ` D`gumty Eujmcjno. Jn

tajs jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn 3?0 jntfrn`tjkn`m p`rtjgjp`nts gkhpftfc tk wjn ₭ 4<.<<<

kd prjzf hknfy. Hkst kd taf c`t` wfrf gkmmfgtfc ey p`rtjgjp`tkry kesfrv`tjkn,

jntfrvjfws `nc ckguhfnts `n`mysjs jn taf pfrjkc kd Bunf 5<<1 ‗ H`y 5<<:. af

kppkrtunjty tk `gtjvfmy p`rtjgjp`tf jn ` g`sf sjhjm`r tk ` sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurf h`cfjt pkssjemf tk o`jn hkrf jnsjoat jn taf str`tfojg `nc pròh`tjg cfgjsjkns ta`t nffc

tk ef tìfn jn cfsjonjno sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurf. Jt fnèmfc hf tk gkhp`rf taf strjgt

Furkpf`n tfncfrjno prkgfcurfs tk ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn `s ` st`rt kd taf kddjgj`m

tfncfr. Gkntr`ry tk taf rfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurfs taf cfsjon prkpks`ms wfrf

bucofc `nknyhkusmy jn taf gkhpftjtjkn ey ` prkdfssjkn`m bury. af gkhhjssjkn-

jno gmjfnt ekcy kd taf jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn w`s hkrf fxpfrjfngfc ta`n taf gkhhjs-

sjknjno gmjfnts kd taf tarff rf`m mjdf tfncfr g`sfs. af rfsf`rga hftakcs nc rfsumts

kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf `rf pkrtr`yfc jn Ga`ptfr ?.

af tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri `nc taf rfsumts kd taf dkur g`sfs wfrf suggfssdummy

v`mjc`tfc jn ` wkrisakp wjta prkdfssjkn`m gmjfnts, mfo`m prkdfssjkn`ms, `nc `rgaj-tfgts. Ga`ptfr ? `msk jngmucfs taf rfsumts drkh tajs v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp.

0.4 @ucjfngf

ajs rfsf`rga gkntrjeutfs tk inkwmfcof jn taf `rf`s kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon, taf

psygakmkoy kd hìjno bucofhfnts, `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jt js

tafrfdkrf kd jntfrfst tk puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnts, h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nts,

`rgajtfgts, pkmjgy hìfrs `nc mfo`m `cvjskrs jn pr`gtjgf, eut `msk tk sgakm`rs jn taf

djfmc kd cfsjon h`nòfhfnt, prkcugt fxpfrjfngf, fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy, kr

cfgjsjkn hìjno. af h`jn ùcjfngf kd tajs tafsjs js puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekc-jfs ta`t a`vf tk kro`njsf ` tfncfr, tafjr `cvjskrs, `nc okvfrnhfnt`m ùtakrjtjfs

ta`t cfvfmkp nc jhpmfhfnt rfoum`tjkns nc pkmjgjfs nc sgjfntjdjg sgakm`rs jn tajs

humtjcjsgjpmjn`ry rf`. Efgùsf taf rfsf`rga sakws jnsjoats jntk taf gmjfnt pfrspfg-

tjvf ta`t a`vf nfvfr effn stucjfc efdkrf `nc `rf usu`mmy nkt kpfn tk taf puemjg,

J efmjfvf ta`t taf rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga `msk kddfr `n jntfrfstjno stkry dkr taksf

jntfrfstfc jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon `nc gkhpftjtjkns.

ajs rfsf`rga gknnfgts taf `g`cfhjg cjsgjpmjnfs kd psygakmkoy, kro`njs`tjkn

sgjfngf, m`w `nc `rgajtfgturf ey dkgusjno kn `gtu`m efa`vjkur kd gmjfnts jn taf

gkntfxt kd cfsjon. af sgjfntjdjg rfmfv`ngf mjfs jn ` tafkrftjg`m gkntrjeutjkn tk taf

uncfrst`ncjno kd taf prkgfssfs kd v`muf bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno jn tafgkntfxt kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. af `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss w`s fhpjrjg`mmy

stucjfc tarkuoa taf fyfs kd taf `gtkrs (kn ekta taf jncjvjcu`m `nc orkup mfvfm)

ta`t rfprfsfnt ` puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcy curjno ` tfncfr prkgfcurf. af psy-

gakmkojg`m pfrspfgtjvf sakws taf pktfntj`m gkndmjgt eftwffn gkonjtjvf `nc skgj`m

cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs nc r`tjkn`mjtjfs drkh taf djfmcs kd m`w nc cfsjon. af rfsf`rga

gkhp`rfs cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs kn cfsjon qu`mjty `nc fxpm`jns uncfrmyjno gkonj-

tjvf nc skgj`m prkgfssfs kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn tajs sfnsf taf djncjnos rf nkt spf-

gjdjg tk taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts eut g`n ef usfc tk grf`tf jnsjoats jn ktafr ijncs

kd cfgjsjkns, jn fjtafr taf puemjg kr prjv`tf sfgtkr, èkut jssufs wjta `n fmusjvf

`nc suebfgtjvf n`turf. Jt gkntrjeutfs tk taf cfe`tf kn r`tjkn`mjty vfrsus jntujtjkn



05

`nc sakws taf fddfgts kd `ddfgt, sfnsfhìjno, pkmjtjgs `nc pfrgfptjkn kn cjddfrfnt

r`tjkn`mjtjfs. af cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs `s stucjfc sakw orf`t sjhjm`rjtjfs wjta or`nt

`mmkg`tjkns, stucfnt fv`mu`tjkns, `nc tfncfrs kr ktafr ijncs kd purga`sfs jn ktafr

sfgtkrs. Jntfrn`tjkn m puemjg`tjkns suoofst ta`t taf prkemfhs wjta `rgajtfgt sfmfg-

tjkn jn taf Nftafrm`ncs `rf sjhjm`r tk taksf jn ktafr gkuntrjfs, eut ta`t n`tjkn`m

pkmjgjfs nc gumturf gkumc ga`nof pfrgfptjkns kn taf sfrjkusnfss nc n`turf kd tafprkemfhs. af rfsf`rga tafrfdkrf gkumc `msk ef kd jntfrfst dkr jntfrn`tjkn`m pr`g-

tjtjknfrs `nc rfsf`rgafrs. Cjrfgtjkns dkr durtafr rfsf`rga mjf jn taf djfmc kd puemjg

`chjnjstr`tjkn, str`tfojg h`nòfhfnt `nc fxpfrjhfnt`m psygakmkoy, kr jn ` gkh-

p`rjskn tk cjddfrfnt sfgtkrs, prjv`tf gkntr`gtjno utakrjtjfs nc ktafr prkgurfhfnt

prkgfcurfs `nc hftakcs.

0.? Kutmjnf kd taf tafsjs

af tafsjs gknsjsts kd sfvfr`m p`rts2 Ga`ptfr 5, 7 `nc 3 prkvjcf taf tafkrftjg`m

e`giorkunc `nc taf gkntfxt drkh wajga ` tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri js cr`wn jnGa`ptfr 6. ajs dr`hf js usfc tk cfsjon taf rfsf`rga `pprk`ga `nc rfdmfgt kn taf

fhpjrjg`m c`t` drkh taf dkur g`sf stucjfs s cfsgrjefc jn Ga`ptfr 4 nc ?. Ga`ptfr

? msk jngmucfs taf rfsumts kd v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp. af rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga mfc

tk ` gkngmusjkn, rfgkhhfnc`tjkns `nc rfdmfgtjkn jn Ga`ptfr 1. af strugturf kd

taf tafsjs js cjspm`yfc jn Djourf 0.0. aksf wak ck nkt wjsa tk rf`c taf cft`jms kd

taf tafkry nc fhpjrjg`m stucjfs rf cvjsfc tk st`rt wjta Ga`ptfrs 6 nc 1, s tafy

prkvjcf ` suhh`ry kd taf tafkrftjg`m `nc fhpjrjg`m djncjnos kd tajs rfsf`rga.

af tafkrftjg`m dkunc`tjkn kd tajs tafsjs js jngkrpkr`tfc jn twk ga`ptfrs. Jn

Ga`ptfr 5 dkur pfrspfgtjvfs kn taf krjojn `nc `spfgts kd cfsjon qu`mjty `rf `n`-

mysfc. @t taf fnc kd tajs ga`ptfr tafsf pfrspfgtjvfs `rf jntfor`tfc tk ga`r`gtfrjsftaf prkgfss kd sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt `nc hf`surjno cfsjon qu`mjty jn tajs gkntfxt.

@ cfdjnjtjkn js ojvfn kd v`muf bucofhfnt ta`t krjojn`tfs drkh taf jntfr`gtjkn ef-

twffn taf jncjvjcu`m `nc taf kebfgt kd cfsjon. Ga`ptfr 7 jntrkcugfs tarff ofnfr`-

tjkns kd cfgjsjkn hìjno tafkrjfs `nc cfsgrjefs taf gkonjtjvf `nc skgj`m cfgjsjkn

prkgfssfs `s cfsgrjefc jn tafsf tafkrjfs. Fhktjkn, `ddfgt, fxpfrtjsf `nc jntujtjkn

`rf cjstjnoujsafc `s d`gtkrs ta`t `ddfgt prkgfssfs kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. af tafkrftj-

g`m jnsjoats `rf rfm`tfc tk taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf nffcfc tk hìf cfgjsjkns èkut

`rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon qu`mjty `nc taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt.

af gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns js cfsgrjefc jn Ga`ptfr 3. Jt `ccrfssfs taf

okvfrn`ngf strugturf kd ` puemjg gmjfnt `nc taf jntfrn`tjkn`m tr`cjtjkn kd cfsjongkhpftjtjkns jn `rgajtfgturf `nc gknstrugtjkn. afn taf hkst rfmfv`nt jssufs kd

prkgurfhfnt m`w `rf suhh`rjsfc `nc taf Cutga h`rift pktfntj`m `nc gurrfnt

sjtu`tjkn js `n`mysfc tk sakw taf fgknkhjg`m cjhfnsjkns kd taf prkemfh. af

dkurta ga`ptfr fncs wjta taf gurrfnt pfrgfptjkns, fxpfgt`tjkns `nc suppkrtjvf

hkcfms nc strugturfs dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n rgajtfgt jn gurrfnt pr`gtjgf. Ga`ptfr

6 cfsgrjefs taf tafkrftjg`m rfsf`rga dr`hfwkri kd taf tafsjs nc erjcofs taf tafkry

`nc gkntfxt wjta taf fhpjrjg`m wkri.

af fhpjrjg`m c`t` `rf rfpkrtfc jn Ga`ptfrs 4 `nc ?. Ga`ptfr 4 dkgusfs kn

taf djrst twk rfsf`rga qufstjkns èkut taf prkgfssfs `nc sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjs-

tjgs kd jndmufngf kn cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jt gknsjsts kd ` cfsgrjptjkn `nc taf rfsumts



07

kd taf grkss-g`sf `n`mysjs kd tarff tfncfr g`sfs kd Cutga puemjg gmjfnts. af g`sfs

wfrf djrst `n`mysfc jncjvjcu`mmy `nc tafn gkhp`rfc e`sfc kn ` dr`hfwkri kd `g-

tkrs (stffrjno gkhhjttff, prkbfgt tf`h, `nc bury p`nfm), prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

(okvfrn`ngf strugturf, stìfakmcfrs fn prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt), `nc dkur fmfhfnts

kd tfncfr cfsjon (tfncfr erjfd, prkgfss prkgfcurf, stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt, `nccfgjsjkn prkgfss). Ga`ptfr ? `jhs tk `nswfr taf tajrc rfsf`rga qufstjkn èkut taf

jhpmjg`tjkns kd taf djncjnos dkr taf cfsjon kd n rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurf. af

tafkrftjg`m `nc fhpjrjg`m djncjnos kd taf prfvjkus ga`ptfrs `rf usfc tk `n`mysf taf

c`t` gkmmfgtfc curjno taf kro`njs`tjkn kd `n kpfn jntfrn`tjkn`m jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn.

af rfsumts sakw wajga cfgjsjkns wfrf tìfn jn krcfr tk cfsjon taf gkhpftjtjkn

erjfd, prkgfcurf kd taf prkgfss, jnvkmvfhfnt kd stìfakmcfrs, `nc djn`m cfgjsjkn

prkgfss `nc wajga cjddjgumtjfs `nc cjmfhh`s wfrf fxpfrjfngfc curjno tajs sfmfg-

tjkn prkgfss kd taf wjnnfr. E`sfc kn taf rfsumts kd mm dkur g`sfs v`mjc`tjkn wkri-

sakp wjta fxpfrts drkh taf `rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty w`s kro`njsfc. af rfsumts kd

tajs wkrisakp `rf `msk jngmucfc jn Ga`ptfr ?.Jn Ga`ptfr 1 gkngmusjkns `rf cr`wn ekut v`muf bucofhfnt nc cfgjsjkn hì-

jno jn krcfr tk sfmfgt `n `rgajtfgt. af gkngmusjkns `rf e`sfc kn taf tafkrftjg`m

jnsjoats `s wfmm `s taf rfsumts kd taf g`sfs `nc taf v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp `nc sakw

djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs `nc fmfvfn sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t gkumc gùsf

gkndmjgts eftwffn taf psygakmkojg`m `nc mfo`m r`tjkn`mjtjfs kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns.

afsf gkndmjgts `rf rfm`tfc tk taf hkst jhpkrt`nt prjngjpmfs jn prkgurfhfnt m`w.

af ga`ptfr `msk gknt`jns ` rfdmfgtjkn kn taf rfsf`rga `pprk`ga, sgjfntjdjg rfm-

fv`ngf `nc v`mjcjty kd taf djncjnos. E`sfc kn taf jnsjoats drkh taf tafkrftjg`m

dr`hfwkri, taf rfsumts kd taf fhpjrjg`m g`sfs `nc taf v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp, djdtffn

suggfss d`gtkrs dkr pr`gtjgf `rf prkpksfc. af ga`ptfr fncs wjta ` suoofstjkn dkr `ga`nof kd taf gurrfnt pr`gtjgf `nc sfvfr`m cjrfgtjkns dkr durtafr rfsf`rga.

Djourf 0.0 Safsjs kutmjnf

SAFKUZ

• Ga`ptfr 52 @ssfssjno qu`mjty `nc

v`muf jn cf cfsjon

• Ga`ptfr 72 Bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn

prkgfssfs

GKNSFQS

• Ga`ptfr 32 Gkntfxt `nc gurrfnt

FH\JUJG@M C@S@

• Ga`ptfr 42 Grkss g`sf n`mysjs kd

• Ga`ptfr ?2 \rkgfss cfsjon dkr

gkhpftjtjkn g`sf nc v`mjc`tjkn

wkrisakp

SAFKUFSJG@M

DU@HF_KUI

• Ga`ptfr 62 \rkpksfc suggfss d`gtkrs

tafkrftjg`m jnsjoats

,

UFGKHHFNC@SJKNW @NC

UFDMFGSJKN

• Ga`ptfr 12 Djvf sfnsfhìjno,

tafjr uncfrmyjno d`gtkrs, nc suggfss

d`gtkrs dkr tfncfr cfsjon



06

Ga`ptfr 5

@ WWFWWJNO PV@MJSZ @NC T@MVF JN CFWJON

5.0 Jntrkcugtjkn

Dkr fv`mu`tjno taf qu`mjty `nc v`muf kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon, cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs

g`n ef `ckptfc cfpfncjno kn taf cjsgjpmjn`ry dkgus `nc purpksf kd taf cjsgus-

sjkn. af cfdjnjtjkn kd `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty a`s effn taf jssuf kd ` mkno-st`ncjno

tafkrftjg`m cfe`tf. ajs ga`ptfr `ccs nfw pfrspfgtjvfs drkh rfm`tfc cjsgjpmjnfs tk

rfbuvfn`tf taf cfe`tf kn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon qu`mjty. Jt gknsjcfrs sfvfr`m pfrspfg-

tjvfs kn pfrgfptjkn, `ssfsshfnt, fv`mu`tjkn `nc bucofhfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty ta`t

jn hy pfrspfgtjvf gkntrjeutf tk taf uncfrst`ncjno kd `ssfssjno cfsjon qu`mjty. Jntaf djn`m sfgtjkn kd tajs ga`ptfr tafsf pfrspfgtjvfs `rf jntfor`tfc.

af wkri kn pfrgfptjkn `nc fv`mu`tjkn js e`sfc kn taf psygakmkojg`m gkngfpt

ta`t wa`t wf pfrgfjvf js taf rfsumt kd `n jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn taf paysjg`m fnvjrkn-

hfnt `nc taf pfrskn. Fxtfrn`m `nc jntfrn`m d`gtkrs gkumc gùsf cjddfrfngfs jn taf

kutgkhf kd tajs jntfr`gtjkn. afkrjfs èkut akw cfsjon qu`mjty js fv`mu`tfc a`vf

`msk effn cfvfmkpfc jn taf `rf` kd prkcugt cfsjon. Efgùsf ` eujmcjno g`n ef sffn

`s prkcugt, tajs mjtfr`turf js msk tìfn jntk `ggkunt. Mjtfr`turf kn v`muf h`nòf-

hfnt nc v`muf fnojnffrjno js usfc tk mjni taf cfe`tf ekut rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon tk

taf cfvfmkphfnt `nc rf`mjz`tjkn kd cfsjon qu`mjty. @ rfsf`rga pfrspfgtjvf js tìfn,

wajga hf`ns ta`t hkst mjtfr`turf rfdfrs tk fhpjrjg`m djncjnos drkh ` cfsjon prkc-ugt kr eujmcjno prkgfss pfrspfgtjvf. \ajmkskpajg m nc p`r`cjoh`tjg cfe`tfs ekut

‑truf‚ v`muf kd cfsjon `nc cfsjon prkgfssfs `rf cfmjefr`tfmy mfdt kut, `s tafy ck nkt

gkntrjeutf tk taf dkgus kd tajs tafsjs.

af ga`ptfr `ccrfssfs taf cfe`tf èkut cfsjon qu`mjty drkh taf djfmcs kd `rgaj-

tfgtur`m cfsjon, fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy, prkcugt fxpfrjfngf, `nc v`muf h`n-

òfhfnt. Jn f`ga sfgtjkn taf gkngfptu`mjz`tjkn `nc `ssfsshfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty

`rf cjsgussfc `nc vjsu`mjsfc jn ` djourf. Jn hkst sfgtjkns taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn

jncjvjcu`ms `nc orkups kd pfkpmf, `nc kptjkns dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn `rf cjsgussfc. Ey

jntfor`tjno taf ekvf pfrspfgtjvfs, wkrijno cfdjnjtjkn `nc dr`hfwkri ekut taf

bucofhfnt kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon qu`mjty js cfvfmkpfc jn taf djn`m sfgtjkn.

5.5 Pu`mjty jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt (`rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon`pprk`ga)

af djrst pfrspfgtjvf gknsjcfrfc jn tajs ga`ptfr js taf `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon `p-

prk`ga. ajs pprk`ga eujmcs kn `n ngjfnt tr`cjtjkn kd taf ssfsshfnt kd taf eujmt

fnvjrknhfnt. Cfsjon qu`mjty cjstjnoujsafc t`nojemf `nc jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjs-

tjgs ta`t `rf p`rt kd taf d`hkus tarff cjhfnsjkns kd ` eujmcjno `s hfntjknfc ey

taf Ukh`n `rgajtfgt Tjtruvjus (Tjtruvjus & Hkro`n, 0:4<). afrf js nkt huga

systfh`tjg fhpjrjg`m rfsf`rga jn taf `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon tr`cjtjkn èkut cfsjon



04

qu`mjty, eut taf tkpjg kd cfsjon qu`mjty `ssfsshfnts kdtfn df`turfs jn cfsjon gkh-

pftjtjkns. Jn tajs sfgtjkn taf hkst gkhhkn cfdjnjtjkns `nc `pprk`gafs kn cfsjon

qu`mjty rf cjsgussfc.

5.5.0 Jntfrprft`tjkn kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon qu`mjty

@rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty fher`gfs `mm taf `spfgts ey wajga ` eujmcjno js bucofc. afkmcfst inkwn kpfr`tjkn`mjs`tjkn kd `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty (èkut 56 EG) js ta`t

kd taf Ukh`n `rgajtfgt Tjtruvjus, wajga cjstjnoujsafs tarff `spfgts2 ‑Vtjmjt`s,

Djrhjt`s, `nc Tfnust`s‚ (hkst gkhhknmy tr`nsm`tfc `s ‑gkhhkcjty, djrhnfss `nc

cfmjoat‚ kr skhftjhfs `s ‑utjmjty, curèjmjty `nc efùty‚) (O`nn, W`mtfr, & _aytf,

5<<79 Tjtruvjus & Hkro`n, 0:4<). ajs trjmkoy a`s effn ` skurgf kd jnspjr`tjkn

dkr `rgajtfgtur`m tafkry sjngf tafn `nc gkntjnufs tk ef sk dkr sfvfr`m gkntfhpk-

r`ry rfsf`rgafrs. H`ghjmm`n (5<<4) dkr fx`hpmf cjstjnoujsafs eftwffn fxga`nof,

usf, jhòf, skgj`m, fnvjrknhfnt`m `nc gumtur`m v`muf dkr taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt

wajmf O`nn `nc _aytf cjstjnoujsa ‑dungtjkn`mjty‚, ‑eujmc qu`mjty‚ `nc ‑jhp`gt‚

(sff Djourf 5.0) (O`nn, ft `m., 5<<79 _aytf, O`nn, & W`mtfr, 5<<3).

Jn taf gkntfxt kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns, I`zfhj`n nc Uônn (5<<:) nc Afynfn

(5<<0) prkpksf taf hkst ofnfr`m e`sjg grjtfrj` jn qu`mjty `ssfsshfnts kd `rgajtfg-

tur`m prkbfgts jn taf gkntfxt kd gkhpftjtjkns ta`t jngmucf2 taf gkntfxt `nc jts sur-

rkuncjno, taf gkafrfngf `nc jts tkt`mjty, taf dungtjkn`mjty, taf tfganjg`m skmutjkns,

`nc taf cfvfmkphfnt pktfntj`m kd ` cfsjon. Fvfry sgakm`r `ppf`rs tk grf`tf ajs kr

afr kwn vfrsjkn kd taf mjst kd ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd ` cfsjon, wajmf `t taf s`hf tjhf

tafsf mjsts gkvfr e`sjg`mmy taf s`hf tajnos. \r`s`c (5<<3e) `roufs, wjta rfdfrfngf

tk taf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr (CPJ), ta`t cfsjon qu`mjty

g`n knmy ef `gajfvfc wafn taf tarff qu`mjty djfmcs kd dungtjkn`mjty, eujmc qu`mjty

`nc jhp`gt `mm wkri tkoftafr `s kvfrm`ppjno `rf`s kd gkngfrn. ruf fxgfmmfngf js

rf`gafc wafn qu`mjty js `gajfvfc jn `mm tarff djfmcs synfrojstjg`mmy.

DVNGSJKN@MJSZ

Dungtjkn`mjty js gkngfrnfc wjta taf w`y jn wajga taf eujmcjno js cfsjonfc tk ef usfdum `nc js spmjt jntk Vsf, @ggfss

`nc Wp`gf. Jssufs `ssfssfc `rf dkr fx`hpmf2 Ckfs taf prkcugt suppkrt taf rfqujrfc dungtjkns; Ckfs jt ck wa`t jt

js suppksfc tk ck;

EVJMC PV@MJSZ

Eujmc qu`mjty rfm`tfs tk taf fnojnffrjno pfrdkrh`ngf kd ` eujmcjno dèrjg `nc js spmjt jntk \frdkrh`ngf, Fnojnffrjno

`nc Gknstrugtjkn. Jssufs `rf dkr fx`hpmf2 _jmm taf strugturf ef stèmf; @rf taf mjoatjno mfvfms, tafrh`m gmjh`tf `nc

`gkustjgs pprkprj`tf dkr jts usf;

JH\@GS

Jhp`gt rfdfrs tk taf eujmcjno‚s èjmjty tk grf`tf ` sfnsf kd pm`gf, `nc a`vf ` pksjtjvf fddfgt kn taf mkg`m gkhhunjty

`nc fnvjrknhfnt. Jt js spmjt jntk Ga`r`gtfr `nc jnnkv`tjkn, Dkrh `nc h`tfrj`ms, Jntfrn`m fnvjrknhfnt `nc Vre`n

`nc skgj`m jntfor`tjkn. Jssufs `rf2 Akw efùtjdum js taf eujmcjno; Ckfs jt fxgjtf taf pfkpmf wak usf jt, hìjno tafh

w`nt tk ef jn kr `rkunc jt;

Djourf 5.0 Saf cfsjon qu`mjtjfs wjtajn taf dr`hfwkri kd taf CPJ (rftrjfvfc Bunf 55nc 5<<?

drkh www.cqj.kro.ui)



0?

@ggkrcjno tk I`zfhj`n `nc Uônn (5<<:) ` bucofhfnt èkut cfsjon qu`mjty

wjmm jngmucf ` gkhprfafnsjvf tkt`mjty, surprjsjno fxgfmmfngf, `n fxprfssjkn kd `pprf-

gj`tjkn, `nc tjhfmfss v`mufs. @utakrs wak nkt knmy gknsjcfr taf eujmcjno `s suga

eut msk jngmucf taf cfvfmkphfnt nc h`nòfhfnt kd eujmcjno kdtfn fxp`nc taf

trjmkoy wjta gkntfxtu`m d`gtkrs, wajga jngmucf djn`ngfs, tjhf nc rfskurgfs jngmuc-

jno taf duturf pfrspfgtjvf kd ` eujmcjno (O`nn & _aytf, 5<<79 Ofrrjtsf, 5<<19v`n cfr Tkkrct & v`n _fofn, 5<<69 v`n Ukssuh & cf _jmct, 0::4). @ggkrcjno

tk Gkmmjns (0:?0) taf prkemfh kd fstèmjsajno `rgajtfgtur`m jcf`ms tkc`y js nkt sk

huga cuf tk taf cjddjgumty kd wfjoajno taf tarff `spfgts eut hkrf sk èkut ` rf-

`mjstjg uncfrst`ncjno dkr nkn-`rgajtfgts kd taf cjddfrfngf eftwffn prjgf nc v`muf.

Wk ey fxtfncjno taf tr`cjtjkn`m trjmkoy kd Tjtruvjus wjta gkntfxtu`m d`gtkrs taf

cjsgussjkn èkut cfsjon qu`mjty jn `rgajtfgturf ga`nofs drkh ‑taf truf v`muf kd

cfsjon‚ tk ‑` e`m`ngf eftwffn gksts `nc qu`mjty‚.

Cjsgussjkns jn `rgajtfgturf rfm`tf tk paysjg`m eujmcjnos `s wfmm `s tk cfsjons `s

rfprfsfnt`tjkns kd duturf eujmcjnos. Akmjstjg`mmy cfsjon qu`mjty g`n `msk ef sffn `s

taf `gajfvfhfnt kd `n jntfor`tfc tkt`mjty ta`t js hkrf ta`n taf suh kd taf p`rts(f.o. Eàrtkmk, 5<<59 Cjbistr`, 5<<0). Akwfvfr, curjno gkhhunjg`tjkn `nc cjsgus-

sjkn cfsjon qu`mjty kdtfn sffhs tk ef cfgkhpksfc. Jn fvfryc`y usòf ‑df`turfs‚,

‑prkpfrtjfs‚, ‑tr`jts‚, ‑ga`r`gtfrjstjgs‚, ‑`ttrjeutfs‚ `nc skhf ktafr tfrhs gkumc ef

suestjtutfc dkr ‑qu`mjtjfs‚ kr ‑v`mufs‚ kd cfsjon (Cjbistr`, Ujbisofekuwfncjfnst, &

Hjnjstfrjf v`n TUKH, 0:169 Ofrrjtsf, 5<<19 H`ghjmm`n, 5<<49 \umt`r, 0::49

akhskn, @ustjn, Cfvjnf-_rjoat, & Hjmms, 5<<79 v`n cfr Tkkrct & v`n _fofn,

5<<6). Jn ofnfr`m, qu`mjtjfs kd prkcugts h`y ef gm`ssjdjfc uncfr twk ofnfr`m g`t-

fokrjfs ta`t jn pr`gtjgf kdtfn jntfrrfm`tf `nc kvfrm`p2

tfganjg`m, paysjg`m, a`rc, dungtjkn`m, kebfgtjvf kr t`nojemf qu`mjtjfs, jn tajs

rfsf`rga rfdfrrfc tk `s ‑t`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs‚9

pfrgfptu`m, skdt, suebfgtjvf, bucofhfnt`m kr jnt`nojemf v`mufs, jn tajs rfsf`rga

rfdfrrfc tk s ‑jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs‚.

`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs g`n hkst f`sjmy ef hf`surfc `nc qu`ntjdjfc ey `n `ssfss-

hfnt systfh wajga js ofnfr`mmy `ginkwmfcofc. @n fx`hpmf kd tajs js taf `ssfss-

hfnt kd sjzf jn hftfrs kr taf hf`surfhfnt kd skunc jn cfgjefms. Jn taf èsfngf

kd ktafr jndkrh`tjkn eusjnfss g`sfs jn gknstrugtjkn `rf usu`mmy e`sfc kn qu`ntj-

tjfs `nc gksts (Ofrrjtsf, 5<<1). af t`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs djt jntk taf prjngj-

pmf kd ‑h`nòf `nc hf`surf‚ `s jcfntjdjfc ey O`nn `nc _aytf (5<<7), wajga js

e`sfc kn ` efmjfd ta`t cfsjonfrs g`n hìf r`tjkn`m rfspknsfs tk skgj`m, fgknkhjg

`nc fnvjrknhfnt`m nffcs. Ufsf`rga jn tajs tr`cjtjkn a`s effn dkgusfc kn `gajfv-

jno efttfr cfsjon ey hf`surfhfnt, h`nòfhfnt `nc jntfor`tjkn kd taf prkgfss.

af Cutga Nkrh`mjs`tjkn Jnstjtutf cfvfmkpfc sfvfr`m st`nc`rcs (NFN-nkrhs)

èkut taf tfganjg`m, paysjg`m nc dungtjkn`m pfrdkrh`ngf spfgjdjg`tjkns kd eujmc-

jno. Jn g`sf kd ` duturf eujmcjno, cfh`nc spfgjdjg`tjkns `rf usu`mmy jngmucfc jn `

‑erjfd‚ (VI tfrhjnkmkoy) kr ‑prkor`hhf‚ (VW tfrhjnkmkoy). Kdtfn tafsf nkrhs

kr spfgjdjg`tjkns rfdfr tk t`nojemf qu`mjtjfs kr mkg`m Eujmcjnos Cfgrff. Jn taf gkn-

strugtjkn jncustry, qu`mjty js - jn mjnf wjta taf qu`mjty `nc st`nc`rcjz`tjkn hkvf-

hfnts suga `s JWK :<<< - `sskgj`tfc wjta gkhpftfngy `nc prkdjgjfngy mfvfms `s `

rkutf tk gustkhfr s`tjsd`gtjkn tk gkntrkm taf gkndkrh`ngf kd taf prkcugt ò`jnst

0.

5.



01

prfcftfrhjnfc ok`ms (Eàrtkmk, 5<<5). Vntjm rfgfntmy qu`mjty gkntrkm jn gknstrug-

tjkn w`s, akwfvfr, nkt rf`mmy gkngfrnfc wjta taf `pprkprj`tfnfss kd taf prkcugt

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs tafhsfmvfs `nc nkt cjrfgtmy rfm`tfc tk taf gustkhfr‚s pfrgfptjkn kd

sfrvjgf (@mmjnskn, 0::?9 akhskn, ft m., 5<<7). af sajdt drkh sfmmfrs h`rift tk

` euyfrs h`rift a`s h`cf gkntr`gtkrs `nc cfvfmkpfrs dkgus jngrf`sjnomy kn tafjr

gustkhfrs‚ pfrgfptjkns kd qu`mjty.‑Jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs‚ rfdfr tk ` pfrskn`m rfspknsf tk eujmt dkrh, pfkpmf‚s

pfrgfptjkn kd sp`gf, tfxturf, gkmkur `nc mjoat, taf hf`njnos `nc `sskgj`tjkns `t-

t`gafc ey pfkpmf tk pm`gfs kr taf w`y ey wajga pfkpmf `ssjon `fstaftjg qu`mjtjfs

tk tafjr surrkuncjnos (Eàrtkmk, 5<<59 Tjtruvjus & Hkro`n, 0:4<). @ggkrcjno tk

Ofrrjtsf (5<<1) nc H`ghjmm`n (5<<4) jnt`nojemfs rf vjt`m tk rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon

eut kdtfn supprfssfc jn cjsgussjkn èkut taf rf`mjs`tjkn kd ` eujmcjno. afy `rf

fssfntj`mmy qufstjkn kd pfrgfptjkn, nc gknsfqufntmy qufstjkn kd ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

`nc prfdfrfngfs wajga sakumc ef qu`mjdjfc. @mtakuoa mfss f`sy tk qu`ntjdy, dumdjmm-

jno taf jnt`nojemf rfqujrfhfnts js fssfntj`m ”tk hìf taf kebfgt unjquf, rfgkonjz-

èmf `nc ojvf jt ` hf`njno ta`t fxgffcs taf rjoat tk fxjst e`sfc kn taf dungtjkn kdtaf eujmcjno‘ (Cjbistr`, 5<<0, p. 0?), tk prkvjcf ` ‑sfnsf kd pm`gf‚ (G`ntfr, 0:??)

`nc tk cfvfmkp ‑gumtur`m `s wfmm `s duturf v`muf‚ (v`n Ukssuh & cf _jmct, 0::4).

afsf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs wkumc tafrfdkrf djt efst jntk taf ‑bucofhfnt-e`sfc‚ pprk`ga,

wajga js `c`ptjvf, dkgusjno kn taf fxpfrts‚ èjmjtjfs tk fv`mu`tf taf cfsjon prkcugt

(O`nn & _aytf, 5<<7). Jn taf gkntfxt kd jnt`nojemfs, taf tfrh ‑v`mufs‚ js usfc

hkrf kdtfn ta`n taf tfrh ‑ga`r`gtfrjstjgs‚. Jn ` erjfd taf jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

kd ` eujmcjno cfsjon usu`mmy gkhfs tk taf dkrf jn taf `rgajtfgtur`m `hejtjkn kd taf

gmjfnt `nc taf fxpfgtfc `ppf`r`ngf kr ga`r`gtfr kd ` eujmcjno. afrf `rf nk st`nc-

`rcs kr pfrdkrh`ngf spfgjdjg`tjkns dkr jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, eut ta`t ckfs nkt

hf`n ta`t gmjfnts ck nkt a`vf fxpfgt`tjkns tafh.Djourf 5.5 cfpjgts akw cfsjon qu`mjty js gkhhknmy cjsgussfc jn `rgajtfgturf ey

usjno taf gm`ssjdjg`tjkn kd taf CPJ dkr taf Tjtruvj`n trjmkoy. @mtakuoa akhskn

ft `m. (5<<7) `nc Gkmc (0::7) `rouf ta`t taf prkcugt v`muf kd ` eujmcjno `ppf`rs

tk ef ` rfsumt kd taf pfrskn`m `nc gkntfxtu`m pfrspfgtjvf kd taf usfr `nc taf paysj-

CFWJON PV@MJSZ

• Dungtjkn`mjty

• Jhp`gt

•

S`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

Jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

Djourf 5.5 Cfsjon qu`mjty `s t`nojemf `nc jnt`nojemf prkcugt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs drkh `n `rgajtfg-tur`m pfrspfgtjvf



0:

g`m qu`mjtjfs kd ` prkcugt, cjsgussjkns èkut `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon qu`mjty tfnc tk

dkgus kn taf qu`mjtjfs kd taf prkcugt jtsfmd `nc èkut `rgajtfgturf kn ` skgjft`m

mfvfm. Dungtjkn`mjty, jhp`gt `nc eujmc qu`mjty jhpmy ` bucofhfnt èkut ` hjxturf

kd t`nojemf nc jnt`nojemf prkcugt qu`mjtjfs drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd pfrskn fxpf-

rjfngjno kebfgts jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt.

afrf sffhs tk ef nk rf`m cjddfrfngf eftwffn cjsgussjkns ekut rf`mjsfc kebfgtskr cfsjons s prkbfgtjkns kd duturf eujmcjnos. af pfrskn wak fxpfrjfngfs eujmcjno

qu`mjtjfs df`turfs knmy jhpmjgjtmy jn tajs tafkrftjg`m cfe`tf. Grjtfrj` ta`t cfgjsjkn

hìfrs erjno tk taf tèmf `ppf`r tk ef skhfwa`t cjddfrfnt ta`n taf grjtfrj` ey

wajga `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty js `ssfssfc jn taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc. _ajmf dungtjkn`m-

jty, eujmc qu`mjty nc sust`jnèjmjty wkumc mm sffh tk ef fqu`mmy jhpkrt`nt spfgts

kd `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty `s `fstaftjgs, taf cjsgussjkns kn `fstaftjgs, jhp`gt kn taf

surrkuncjno fnvjrknhfnt `nc `ccfc `rgajtfgtur`m v`muf `rf hkst prkhjnfnt. Jn

pr`gtjgf cjsgussjkns wjta gmjfnts `nc cfvfmkpfrs tfnc tk strjvf dkr ` e`m`ngf kd cjd-

dfrfnt ijnc kd qu`mjtjfs wjtajn ` dr`hf kd tjhf, hknfy `nc ktafr gkntfxtu`m d`g-

tkrs ta`t cftfrhjnf taf jntfor`tjvf qu`mjty kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon (O`nn, ft `m.,5<<7).

5.5.5 @ssfsshfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty

af hf`surfhfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty a`s effn cjsgussfc dkr skhf tjhf wjtakut

rfskmutjkn (\r`s`c, 5<<3e). Akwfvfr, tafsf cjsgussjkns a`vf nkt mf`c tk suest`n-

tj`m fhpjrjg`m rfsf`rga èkut `ssfssjno cfsjon qu`mjty. Hkst kd taf `ssfsshfnts jn

`rgajtfgturf kggur jn taf gkntfxt kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns, tfncfr sjtu`tjkns kr p`rt

kd qu`mjty h`nòfhfnt wjtajn kro`njs`tjkns wjtakut huga rfdfrfngf tk sgjfngf.

Gkhpftjtjkn bury rfpkrts kdtfn rfdmfgt taf gknsjcfr`tjkns kd taf bury hfhefrs

jn rfm`tjkn tk taf cfsjon erjfd `nc ofnfr`m st`tf kd `rgajtfgturf (f.o. cf A``n &

A`òsh`, 0:119 Wvfnsskn, 5<<1). Bkurn`ms jn taf djfmc kd rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon tfnc

tk cfsgrjef nc mùc cfsjon prkbfgts kr pajmkskpajsf ekut pafnkhfn` jn taf eujmt

fnvjrknhfnt (Gkmmjns, 0:?0). @mtakuoa tafsf `gtjvjtjfs kddfr orf`t pktfntj`m dkr `

cfgfnt mjni wjta cfsjon `nc pkmjtjg`m cfe`tf èkut cfsjon qu`mjty, systfh`tjg `s-

sfsshfnt `ppf`rs tk ef hjssjno (N`s`r, 0:::9 v`n _fzfh`fm, 5<<1).

Knf kd taf h`jn rf`skns dkr taf m`gi kd systfh`tjg eujmcjno `ssfsshfnts gkumc

ef ta`t `rgajtfgturf js bucofc drkh cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs. af qufstjkn js tafrf-

dkrf waksf bucofhfnt nc waksf v`mufs sakumc prfv`jm jn `ssfssjno cfsjon qu`mjty.

@ggkrcjno tk Efnfcjit (5<<?) tafrf `rf `t mf`st dkur vfnufs jn wajga `rgajtfg-turf js gurrfntmy fv`mu`tfc2 `rgajtfgts `hkno f`ga ktafr, taf puemjg, gmjfnts, `nc

hfhefrs kd `mmjfc prkdfssjkns. F`ga vfnuf usfs jts kwn v`mufs tk fv`mu`tf `rgaj-

tfgturf wajga mf`cs tk ` hktmfy gkmmfgtjkn. H`r`ns nc Wprfgifmhfyfr (0:15) nc

H`ghjmm`n (5<<3) cjstjnoujsa sfvfr`m usfr orkups, suga `s kddjgf wkrifrs, pue-

mjg vjsjtkrs `nc taf gkhhunjty `t m`rof, tk tìf jntk `ggkunt curjno fv`mu`tjkn.

H`ghjmm`n (5<<6) tìfs djn`ngfs, cfsjon `nc gknstrugtjkn, kggup`nts‚ kro`njs`-

tjkn, puemjg rf`mh `nc vjsjtkrs `s ` st`rtjno pkjnt dkr taf sust`jnèmf cfvfmkphfnt

kd eujmcjnos. af hkst gkhhkn gkndmjgt kd v`mufs jn `rgajtfgtur`m gumturf sffhs

tk ef taf knf eftwffn jncjvjcu`m `rtjstjg fxprfssjkn `nc ` sfrvjgf tk usfrs `nc gmj-

fnts9 eut ”akwfvfr gkhhkn tajs cjgaktkhy h`y ef jn pr`gtjgf, jt js `rtjdjgj`m jnprjngjpmf2 sfrvjno ` gmjfnt‚s prkor`hhf gkumc mf`c tk `n `rtjstjg eujmcjno wajga



5<

dungtjkns supfremy‘ (Wùncfrs, 5<<?, p. 077). Fxjstjno eujmcjno pfrdkrh`ngf

hf`surfhfnt systfhs kdtfn dkgus kn spfgjdjg `spfgts kd eujmcjnos, suga `s usf `nc

s`tjsd`gtjkn (f.o. H``rmfvfmc, Tkmifr, & v`n cfr Tkkrct, 5<<:9 Tjsgafr & \rfjsfr,

5<<3), `jr qu`mjty jn rfm`tjkn tk prkcugtjvjty (f.o. Gmfhfnts-Grkkhf, 5<<6) kr

fnvjrknhfnt`m `ssfsshfnts (f.o. EUF Omke`m, 5<<:9 T`n cfn Ckeefmstffn, 5<<3).

@ \kst Kggup`ngy Fv`mu`tjkn (\KF) js ofnfr`mmy dkgusfc kn ` systfh`tjg fv`m-u`tjkn kd kggup`nt s`tjsd`gtjkn wjta rfspfgt tk sfvfr`m paysjg`m `ttrjeutfs (f.o.

mjoatjno, tfhpfr`turf, p`rijno) `nc pfkpmfs dffmjnos èkut prjv`gy, skgj`m jntfr`g-

tjkn, nc kggup`tjkn kd sp`gfs kn ` p`rtjgum`r hkhfnt (H`ghjmm`n, 5<<39 \rfjsfr,

Uèjnkwjtz, & _ajtf, 0:119 Tjsgafr & \rfjsfr, 5<<3). ajs ijnc kd fv`mu`tjkn js

jntfncfc tk prkvjcf `n fhpjrjg`m e`sjs dkr qu`mjty jhprkvfhfnt. Zft dfw \KFs `c-

crfss taf `fstaftjgs kr kvfr`mm `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty kd taf eujmcjno jn ` suest`ntj`m

h`ttfr, wajga hjoat ef taf rf`skn dkr taf suest`ntj`m o`p eftwffn rfsf`rga, tafkry

`nc pr`gtjgf jn `rgajtfgturf. Orffn `nc Hkss (0::1) `nc Ifmmy, Hkrmfcof `nc

_jmijnskn (5<<5) suoofst ta`t jd kro`njs`tjkns `rf tk `gajfvf taf dumm pktfntj`m kd

taf mf`rnjno gygmf jt js fssfntj`m ta`t pkst-kggup`ngy fv`mu`tjkn djncjnos `rf dummyjntfor`tfc jntk taf erjfd `nc cfsjon kd nfw eujmcjno prkbfgts. Akwfvfr, cuf tk

m`gi kd rfskurgfs `dtfr kggup`tjkn `s wfmm `s ` m`gi kd `w`rfnfss èkut taf v`muf kd

suga inkwmfcof dkr duturf rf`m fst`tf cfvfmkphfnts \KFs rfh`jn sg`rgf (Ekrc`ss,

5<<7). af jntfor`tjkn kd \KF rfsumts jntk taf v`muf h`nòfhfnt prkgfss wkumc

ef djrst stfp jn djmmjno tajs o`p nc jngrf`sjno taf v`mjcjty kd \KF rfsf`rga (Orffn

& Hkss, 0::1).

Jn `rgajtfgturf fxpfrts `rf kdtfn `ssjonfc tk `ssfss cfsjon qu`mjty, fjtafr kn

p`pfr kr jn `n fxjstjno eujmcjno. @ gkhhkn hftakc tk òorfo`tf fxpfrt bucof-

hfnt kn grf`tjvf t`sis js tk `si bucofs tk `ssfss taf rfsumts kn sfvfr`m cjhfn-

sjkns (@hèjmf, 0::4). af v`mjcjty kd taf `ssfsshfnt js cftfrhjnfc ey taf jn-tfr-r`tfr rfmjèjmjty kd jncfpfncfnt bucofhfnts èkut grf`tjvjty. Afiifrt `nc v`n

_jfrjnofn (0::7, 0::4) usfc tajs tfganjquf jn ` rfsf`rga prkbfgt kn taf `ppr`js`m

kd `rt. Ekta stucjfs dkunc ta`t bucofs wak a`vf fxpfrjfngf jn taf ckh`jn eut `rf

nkt gknsjcfrfc `s fxpfrts, `ssfss qu`mjty `s rfmjèmy `s fxpfrts ck. af mfvfm kd fx-

pfrtjsf ckfs sffh tk gùsf cjddfrfngfs jn taf v`mufs tt`gafc tk gfrt`jn cjhfnsjkns

kd qu`mjty. Mjhjt`tjkn kd tafsf stucjfs js taf d`jmurf tk gknsjcfr taf pkssjemf jndmu-

fngf kd taf cyn`hjg gkntfxt kd rf`m mjdf sfttjnos. T`n Ukssuh nc cf _jmct (0::4)

dkunc ta`t fxpfrts usfc dkur mfvfms kd `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty2 0) jnsuddjgjfnt kr nkt

dumdjmmjno taf st`nc`rcjsfc qu`mjty, 5) `vfròf `rgajtfgturf wjta e`sjg qu`mjty mfvfm,

7) supfrjkr rfgfnt `rgajtfgturf, `nc 3) cjstjngtjvf `nc aknkurèmf `rgajtfgturfta`t `ttr`gts `ttfntjkn, wkrta ` trjp. af rfsumts kd tajs stucy suoofst ta`t fxpfrts

djrst hìf ` sfmfgtjkn e`sfc kn taf dumdjmhfnt kd e`sjg qu`mjtjfs, `nc tafn gkhp`rf

taf rfh`jnjno kptjkns kn taf mfvfm drkh e`sjg tk fxgfmmfnt cfsjon qu`mjty. af gkn-

gmusjkns jhpmy ta`t jn `rgajtfgturf taf g`tfokrjfs kd kvfr-pfrdkrh`ngf tk taf e`sjg

qu`mjtjfs kd ` eujmcjno `rf hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n g`tfokrjfs kd uncfr-pfrdkrh`ngf.

_ajmf taf puemjg `nc gkhhjssjknfrs `ppf`r nkt tk ef `gtjvfmy jnvkmvfc jn taf

ofnfr`m cfe`tf èkut cfsjon qu`mjty, taf jnvkmvfhfnt kd usfrs `nc vjsjtkrs cur-

jno taf cfsjon kd ` eujmcjno v`rjfs sjonjdjg`ntmy drkh prkbfgt tk prkbfgt. Jn ofn-

fr`m fxpfrts drkh taf `rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty `rf sffn `s taf hkst `pprkprj`tf

òfnts tk cfvfmkp `nc oujcf taf cfvfmkphfnt kd ` eujmcjno prkbfgt (Emù, 0:13).



50

Akwfvfr, jt rfh`jns ungmf`r jd tajs js sjhpmy ` aèjt kr ` rfsumt kd gknsjstfntmy

ajoa mfvfms kd gmjfnt s`tjsd`gtjkn. @ggkrcjno tk Afynfn (5<<0) taf `ssfsshfnt kd

qu`mjty js ` h`ttfr kd gkhhunjg`tjkn `nc usf kd m`nouòf. Waf prkpksfs ta`t taf

rfm`tjkns eftwffn taf gkntfxt, prkbfgt cfdjnjtjkn, cfsjonfc sp`gf, `nc cfsjon pk-

tfntj`m sakumc ef bucofc `s p`rt kd taf cfsjon `ssfsshfnts kd gmjfnts. N`s`r (0:::)

sakws ey fv`mu`tjno sfvfr`m cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd fnvjrkn-hfnt`m psygakmkoy ta`t burkrs ck nkt `mw`ys a`vf taf s`hf prfdfrfngf `s taf pue-

mjg. Af prkpksfc ` \KF-mjif hftakc tk systfh`tjg`mmy jnvkmvf vjsjtkrs `nc usfrs

jn taf fv`mu`tjkn kd cfsjons curjno gkhpftjtjkns tk ef èmf tk jngmucf taf duturf

prfdfrfngfs kd usfrs. H`r`ns & Wprfngifmhfyfr (0:15) jncjg`tfc ta`t wajmf hkst

hfhefrs kd taf puemjg wkumc òrff ta`t taf eujmcjno jn qufstjkn w`s wkrtay kd

jts p`rtjgum`r `rgajtfgtur`m `w`rcs, ` sjonjdjg`nt hjnkrjty wkumc nkt gkngur wjta

taf vjfws kd taf prkdfssjkn`ms bucofs, nkr wkumc taf eujmcjno‚s kggup`nts, waksf

r`tjnos kd `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty `rf kdtfn mfss ta`n d`vkurèmf. af mfnota kd st`y

`nc taf rkmf (kwnfr, cfsjonfr, usfr, fhpmkyff, vjsjtkr, puemjg) jn wajga ` burkr js

jn gknt`gt wjta taf eujmcjno gkumc ef n jndmufngjno d`gtkr dkr taf pprfgj`tjkn kd` eujmcjno (H`r`ns & Wprfgifmhfyfr, 0:15).

\`rtjgjp`tkry cfsjon (W`nkdd, 5<<4) kr gk-cfsjon (Ijno, 0:17) gkumc afmp tk

rfcugf taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf usfrs `nc ktafr stìfakmcfrs orkups (sff `msk

Ga`ptfr 3.5.5). af Gknstrugtjkn Jncustry Gkungjm jn taf Vnjtfc Ijnockh

a`s cfvfmkpfc taf Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr (CPJ) `s ` tkkm tk hf`surf `nc cjs-

guss cfsjon qu`mjty wjta taf nuhfrkus stìfakmcfrs jn ` eujmcjno prkbfgt (sff

Gknstrugtjkn Jncustry Gkungjm, 5<<:). af CPJ w`s cfvfmkpfc e`sfc kn ` ‑r`-

tjkn`m-`c`ptjvf `pprk`ga‚, wajga `ggfpts ta`t qu`mjty js ` cjddjgumt `nc ungfrt`jn

`spfgt tk hf`surf eut ta`t taf cfvfmkphfnt kd tkkms tk tajni èkut taf jhp`gt

kd taf cfsjon gkumc ef efnfdjgj`m `nc a`s gkhpumskry st`tus dkr spfgjdjg ijncs kdprkbfgts jn taf VI (O`nn, ft `m., 5<<79 O`nn & _aytf, 5<<79 \r`s`c, 5<<3`9

_aytf & O`nn, 5<<7). af dr`hfwkri kd taf Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr `s cf-

sgrjefc ey O`nn `nc ajs `sskgj`tfs tìfs taf tarff e`sjg qu`mjtjfs kd dungtjkn`mjty,

jhp`gt, `nc eujmc qu`mjty, `s wfmm `s ` rfskurgf fnvfmkpf wjta djn`ngf, tjhf, n`tu-

r`m `nc auh`n rfskurgfs, jntk `ggkunt. Ufsumts g`n ef vjsu`mjsfc ey usjno ` spjcfr

cjòr`h wjta sgkrfs kn taf cfsjon `spfgts pfr stìfakmcfr kn ` sg`mf drkh 0 tk 6

(sff Djourf 5.7).

Fxpfrjfngf sakws ta`t taf CPJ stjhum`tfs cjsgussjkns èkut qu`mjty `hkno

stìfakmcfrs (G`rcfmmjnk, Mfjrjnofr, & Gmfhfnts-Grkkhf, 5<<:9 Cfwumd & Hffm,

5<<39 Fmfy, 5<<39 Wmùoatfr, 5<<3), `mtakuoa jt g`nnkt ef usfc `s ` pfrdkrh`ngfhf`surfhfnt systfh (H`rius, 5<<7) nc ckfs nkt kddfr gtkrs gkngrftf skmutjkn

tk taf prkemfh kd dkrhum`tjno rfqujrfhfnts. af dr`hfwkri `nc hf`surfhfnt

systfh kd taf CPJ, kr rfm`tfc fv`mu`tjkn hkcfms `nc systfhs, cjspm`y mjttmf rkkh

dkr taf `ccjtjkn`m akmjstjg v`mufs pr`jsfc jn taf mjtfr`turf. @ggkrcjno tk \r`s`c

(5<<3e) tafrf js nk pkjnt jn cjsgussjno qu`mjty unmfss taf vfry e`sjgs `rf dumdjmmfc

`nc Wùncfrs (5<<?) st`tfs ta`t `n `rgajtfgturf kd ‑h`xjhuh `mjvfnfss‚ js mjifmy

tk s`tjsdy sfvfr`m (jd nkt hkst) fv`mu`tjvf grjtfrj` `t kngf, kr tk s`tjsdy knf kr twk

grjtfrj` tk `n fxtr`krcjn`ry cforff. Jt sffhs ta`t taf tkt`mjty js `msk ` qu`mjty kn

jts kwn, eut ta`t tajs akmjstjg jhprfssjkn js mkst jn taf hf`surfhfnt `nc `n`mysjs

kd taf p`rts. @ggkrcjno tk G`rcfmmjnk, Mfjrjnofr `nc Gmfhfnts-Grkkhf (5<<:,



55

p. 54<) ”taf gkhpumskry usf kd taf CPJ a`s suggfssdummy gfhfntfc taf gkhhjt-

hfnt tk cfsjon qu`mjty Y….X. Akwfvfr, taf `rgajtfgtur`mmy ej`sfc `pprk`ga sffh-

jnomy uncfrfstjh`tfs taf v`muf kd jnt`nojemf spfgts kd cfsjon `nc ga`ngfs rf ta`t

taf tkkm efgkhfs ` ‑tjgi taf ekx‚ fxfrgjsf‘. Cfvjnf-_rjoat, akhskn `nc @ustjn

(5<<7, p. 60) msk st`tf ta`t taf CPJ ”wjmm knmy ojvf n jncfx kd bust ta`t, gkmmfg-tjkn kd jncjvjcu`m rfspknsfs‘. Jt tafrfdkrf ckfs nkt d`gjmjt`tf `nc cfvfmkphfnt kd

taf v`mufs jn ` prkbfgt tf`h. Efgùsf jnt`nojemf qu`mjtjfs `rf nkt f`sjmy hf`surfc,

cfgjsjkn hìjno nc gkhhunjg`tjkn ekut cfsjon qu`mjty rf gkhpmjg`tfc. afrf

js ` nffc tk fstèmjsa ` gkhhkn vkgèum`ry dkr taf v`rjkus typfs kd v`mufs dkr cjd-

dfrfnt stìfakmcfrs jn krcfr tk gknsjcfr jnt`nojemf `nc t`nojemf gksts `nc efnfdjts

`s fqu`m jn cfgjsjkn hìjno ekut cfsjon (Ofrrjtsf, 5<<19 H`ghjmm`n, 5<<4). af

v`muf `pprk`ga kd Hjmms, @ustjn, Cfvjnf-_rjoat `nc akhskn (5<<:) hjoat kddfr

ta`t ijnc kd gkhhunjg`tjkn dr`hf, eut jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd tajs dr`hf wjmm rfqujrf

` ga`nof jn tajnijno èkut v`muf `nc qu`mjty jn gknstrugtjkn.

5.7 Cfsjon pfrgfptjkn `nc `ddfgt (gkonjtjvf `pprk`ga)

af sfgknc pfrspfgtjvf J wkumc mjif tk `ccrfss jn tajs ga`ptfr js taf gkonjtjvf

`pprk`ga kd cfsjon pfrgfptjkn `nc `ddfgt. Fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkojsts efo`n tk

stucy taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt jn taf sfgknc a`md kd taf twfntjfta gfntury. afjr

wkri js e`sfc kn taf `ssuhptjkn ta`t pfrgfptjkn js ` rfsumt kd taf jntfr`gtjkn ef-

twffn `n jncjvjcu`m `nc kebfgts jn taf eujmt kr n`tur`m fnvjrknhfnt. ajs pfrgfp-

tjkn g`n ef hf`surfc kn ` sg`mf wjta sfvfr`m cjhfnsjkns. _jtajn tajs `pprk`ga

sfvfr`m ttfhpts a`vf effn h`cf tk fxpm`jn taf pktfntj`m cjddfrfngfs eftwffn nkv-

Djourf 5.7 Wpjcfr cjòr`h `t kutput kd ` CPJ `ssfsshfnt (O`nn ft `m., 5<<7)9 Saf gmksfr tk

taf hjccmf taf sgkrf, taf gmksfr taf qu`mjty wkumc rf`ga fxgfmmfngf



57

jgfs `nc fxpfrts. ajs sfgtjkn cf`ms wjta taf hkst jhpkrt`nt djncjnos èkut taf

pfrgfptjkn kd cfsjon qu`mjty `nc skhf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd taf eujmt

fnvjrknhfnt.

5.7.0 Ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf cfsjon pfrgfptjkn

Hkst rfsf`rga èkut pfrgfptjkn kd taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt a`s effn g`rrjfc kutkn taf `fstaftjg prfdfrfngfs dkr eujmcjnos fxtfrjkrs `nc n`tur`m m`ncsg`pfs (Efmm,

ft `m., 0::49 Ojddkrc, 5<<59 I`rh`nkv, 5<<:). af ofnfr`m `jh kd taf djfmc kd

fnvjrknhfnt`m kr `rgajtfgtur`m psygakmkoy js tk rfcugf strfss mfvfms `nc jngrf`sf

taf wfmmefjno kd pfkpmf ey fxpmkrjno wajga ijnc kd fnvjrknhfnt`m gufs `rf prf-

dfrrfc. Cjsgussjkns jn tajs djfmc `rf mfss akmjstjg `nc mfss pr`gtjgf-rfm`tfc ta`n jn

`rgajtfgturf `nc ofnfr`mmy dkgus kn tafkrftjg`m gkngfpts èkut taf pfrgfptjkn kd

jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. Wk d`r knmy ` dfw kd taf gkn-

gfpts cfvfmkpfc jn taf djfmc kd fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy a`vf dkunc tafjr w`y

jntk `rgajtfgtur`m pr`gtjgf (\ajmjp, 0::4). Ufgfnt puemjg`tjkns jn bkurn`ms suga

`s ‑Fnvjrknhfnt `nc Efa`vjkur‚ `nc taf ‑Bkurn`m kd Fnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy‚

sakw ta`t hkst gurrfnt stucjfs dkgus kn spfgjdjg jssufs rfm`tfc tk taf eujmt fnvjrkn-

hfnt suga `s sust`jnèjmjty, n`tur`m cjs`stfrs `nc vjrtu`m rf`mjty, r`tafr ta`n kn taf

pfrgfptjkn kd paysjg`m eujmcjnos knmy (Ojumj`nj & Wgkpfmmjtj, 5<<:).

@ggkrcjno tk N`s`r (0::3) `n jncjvjcu`m‚s fxpfrjfngf kd ` eujmcjno cfpfncs kn

`n jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn jts df`turfs `nc taf jncjvjcu`m‚s prfvjkus inkwmfcof strug-

turfs kd fxpfrjfngf rfm`tfc tk taf p`rtjgum`r gm`ss kd eujmcjno. arkuoa jntfr`gtjkn

wjta taf fnvjrknhfnt `nc cfvfmkphfnt kd taf kro`njs`tjkn`m strugturfs kd inkwm-

fcof, jncjvjcu`ms drkh cjddfrfnt pm`gfs, gumturfs `nc suegumturfs wkumc cfvfmkp

cjddfrfnt hf`njnos `nc prfdfrfngfs `grkss g`tfokrjfs. Dkr ` dumm uncfrst`ncjno kd

`rgajtfgtur`m ppr`js m, jt js jhpkrt`nt tk mf`rn akw ppr`js`ms v`ry eftwffn cjddfr-

fnt orkups (Ojddkrc, Ajnf, Hummfr-Gmfhh, Ufynkmcs, & Wa`w, 5<<<). wk ijncs

kd `fstaftjg v`rjèmfs g`n ef cjstjnoujsafc2 taksf ta`t rfm`tf tk taf strugturf kd

dkrhs - dkrh`m fstaftjgs - `nc taksf ta`t rfm`tf tk taf gkntfnt kd dkrhs - syhekmjg

`fstaftjgs (M`no, 0:1?9 N`s`r, 0::3). Dkrh`m `nc syhekmjg `fstaftjgs g`n jntfr`gt.

@ttrjeutfs kd dkrh`m `fstaftjgs jngmucf cjhfnsjkns suga `s nkvfmty `nc gkhpmfxj-

ty. Wyhekmjg `fstaftjgs rf fxpfrjfngfc tarkuoa hfcj`tjno gkntfnt v`rjèmfs wajga

rfdmfgt taf hf`njnos `sskgj`tfc wjta eujmcjnos (N`s`r, 0::3). Bucofhfnts wjta cf-

nkt`tjvf hf`njnos pm`gf kebfgts jntk gkntfnt g`tfokrjfs wjtakut fv`mu`tjno tafh,

dkr fx`hpmf ` typf (gaurga, prjskn) kr ` stymf (hkcfrn, tr`cjtjkn`m). Bucofhfntsrfdfrrjno tk gknnkt`tjvf hf`njnos rfm`tf tk taf qu`mjty `nc ga`r`gtfr kd eujmcjnos

`nc jts usfrs, dkr jnst`ngf drjfncmy kr undrjfncmy. Gkntfnt v`rjèmfs a`vf ekta

cfnkt`tjvf `nc gknnkt`tjvf hf`njno9 skhfknf g`n dkr fx`hpmf rfgkonjsf ` stymf

(cfnkt`tjvf hf`njno) `nc mjif kr cjsmjif taf stymf (gknnkt`tjvf hf`njno).

Wtucjfs jn taf djfmc kd fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy kdtfn jngmucf taf usf kd `

sfh`ntjg cjddfrfntj`m tk hf`surf jncjvjcu`m prfdfrfngfs kd cjddfrfnt orkups kd pfk-

pmf jn ` mèkr`tkry sfttjno jn gkhejn`tjkn wjta pfrskn`mjty `nc paysjg`m tfsts.

af jndmufngf kd gkntfxtu`m kr prkgfss d`gtkrs js kdtfn mfdt kut kr r`nckhjsfc.

\jgturfs, g`rcs, vjcfks, vjrtu`m rf`mjty kr skrtjno t`sis `rf usfc tk sjhum`tf taf rf`m

fnvjrknhfnt. af sfh`ntjg cjddfrfntj`m tfganjqufs hf`surf gknnkt`tjvf hf`n-jnos ta`t pfkpmf `ttrjeutf tk cjddfrfnt gkngfpts (Ksokkc, Wugj, & `nnfneùh,



53

0:6?). ajs hf`ns ta`t taf rf`gtjkn ta`t pfkpmf sakw `dtfr taf gkndrknt`tjkn

wjta ` paysjg`m fnvjrknhfnt`m js hf`surfc ey taf tarff jncfpfncfnt cjhfnsjkns

kd ‑fv`mu`tjkn, `gtjvjty `nc pktfngy‚ kr v`rj`tjkns tafrfkd (Ojddkrc, ft `m., 5<<<9

N`s`r, 0::3). afsf cjhfnsjkns gkrrfspknc tk taf f`rmy jnsjoats kd Tjtruvjus ta`t

`rgajtfgturf gknsjsts kd krcfr `nc `rr`nofhfnt, prkpkrtjkn `nc syhhftry, cêgkr

`nc cjstrjeutjkn (Erfncfrs, 5<<19 Ifmmy, 5<<?).Huga kd taf m`tfr wkri jn taf djfmc kd fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy a`s dkgusfc

kn v`mjc`tjno `nc fxp`ncjno taf tarff krjojn`m cjhfnsjkns kd `fstaftjg prfdfr-

fngfs. Uussfmm, _`rc `nc \r`tt (0:10) dkunc twk jncfpfncfnt, ejpkm`r d`gtkrs kd

`ddfgtjvf qu`mjty kd taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt ‗ pmf`surf `nc `rkus`m ‗, wajga a`vf

effn v`mjc`tfc ey h`ny ktafr sgakm`rs jn cjddfrfnt sfttjnos (Ojddkrc, ft `m., 5<<<9

I`rh`nkv, 5<<:). E`sfc kn tafsf d`gtkrs Uussfmm ft `m. (0:10) cfvfmkpfc vfre`m

sg`mfs kd pmf`s`nt-unpmf`s`nt, `rkusjno-smffpy, fxgjtjno-omkkhy, `nc cjstrfssjno-

rfm`xjno cjhfnsjkns tk ef usfc `s cfpfncfnt v`rjèmfs jn stucjfs `jhfc `t un-

cfrst`ncjno wajga kebfgtjvfmy spfgjdjèmf prkpfrtjfs kd fnvjrknhfnts jndmufngf

`ddfgtjvf rf`gtjkns. af tafkrftjg m dr`hfwkri dkr fnvjrknhfnt`m prfdfrfngf s cf-vfmkpfc ey I`pm`n (0:1?) usfs taf prfcjgtkrs gkhpmfxjty, hystfry, gkafrfngf `nc

mfojejmjty. Jntfrfstjno èkut tajs `pprk`ga js taf gkngfrn wjta taf kutgkhf kd taf

jndkrh`tjkn ekut taf fnvjrknhfnt (uncfrst`ncjno kr fxpmkr`tjkn) nc taf `v`jm-

èjmjty kd jndkrh`tjkn (jhhfcj`tfmy v`jmèmf kr jndfrrfc), wajga sffhs tk rfm`tf tk

taf cjddfrfnt `jhs kd pfkpmf fxpfrjfngjno taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt `nc waftafr taf

paysjg`m kebfgts wkumc dumdjm taf rfqujrfhfnts nc fxpfgt`tjkns. M`tfst rfsf`rga kd

Ojddkrc ft `m. (5<<5) sakw sjx ify gkonjtjvf prkpfrtjfs jn `ssfssjno taf `fstaftjg

qu`mjty kd m`rof gkntfhpkr`ry eujmcjno2 gkhpmfxjty, drjfncmjnfss, krjojn`mjty, gm`r-

jty, hf`njnodumnfss `nc ruoofcnfss. B`gkesfn `nc Akdfm (5<<5) dkunc jn `n fx-

pfrjhfnt wjta nkvfm or`pajg p`ttfrns ta`t fspfgj`mmy syhhftry `nc gkhpmfxjtygkrrfm`tf ajoamy wjta `fstaftjg bucofhfnts kd efùty. af v`rjèmfs fhpjrjg`mmy

dkunc tk prfcjgt prfdfrfngf g`n ef `n`mysfc jn tfrhs kd tafjr fvkmutjkn`ry sjonjdj-

g`ngf (I`pm`n, 0:1?). Wkhf kd taf prfcjgtkrs `ppf`r tk rfqujrf d`jrmy fxtfnsjvf

jndkrh`tjkn prkgfssjno. ajs suppkrts taf aypktafsjs ta`t ` r`pjc, ungknsgjkus

typf kd gkonjtjkn h`y prfgfcf gfrt`jn `ddfgtjvf bucofhfnts `nc gkndjrhs ` strkno

tjf eftwffn gkonjtjkn `nc `ddfgt.

Jn suhh`ry, taf `ssfsshfnt systfhs s cfvfmkpfc jn fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy

dkgus kn taf pkssjemf kutgkhf kd taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn `n jncjvjcu`m `nc `n

kebfgt jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. Djourf 5.3 cfpjgts taf uncfrmyjno `ssuhptjkn kd

tajs pprk`ga. ajs pfrspfgtjvf gknsjcfrs n jncjvjcu`m s p`ssjvf gtkr jn bucof-hfnt èkut cfsjon qu`mjty wjtakut tìjno jntk `ggkunt huga kd taf skgj`m `nc

kro`njs`tjkn`m gkntfxt kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfr.

af uncfrmyjno `ssuhptjkn kd tajs jntfr`gtjkn js ta`t taf `fstaftjg prfdfrfngf

dkr `n fnvjrknhfnt kr eujmcjno (bucofhfnt) g`n ef hf`surfc kn ` sg`mf wjta

sfvfr`m cjhfnsjkns, suga `s krjojn`mjty `nc gkhpmfxjty. @mtakuoa rfsf`rgafrs `rf

`w`rf ta`t tafsf prkgfssfs g`n ef jndmufngfc ey jncjvjcu`m, sjtu`tjkn`m, skgj`m, nc

gumtur`m d`gtkrs, taf fx`gt fddfgts `nc taf mjni tk taf pr`gtjgf kd cfsjonjno a`vf

nkt yft effn jcfntjdjfc. k `ssfss eujmcjnos jn tfrhs kd tafjr syhekmjg kr dkrh`m

`fstaftjgs pfkpmf usf taf cfnkt`tjvf `nc gknnkt`tjvf hf`njnos kd eujmcjnos. af

pmf`s`nt `nc `rkusjno qu`mjty kd `n fnvjrknhfnt sffhs tk jhpmy ` strkno gknnfg-



56

tjkn tk `ddfgt. Jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `rf usfc tk `ccrfss hf`njno `nc gm`ssjdy

eujmcjnos, wajga gkumc mf`c tk n `ddfgtjvf rfspknsf jn gfrt`jn g`sfs. af cjddfrfnt

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd jncjvjcu`ms fxpm`jn cjddfrfngfs jn pfrgfptjkn eftwffn orkups kd

pfkpmf.

5.7.5 Jhpmjg`tjkns dkr cfsjon kd taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt @mtakuoa taf djfmc kd fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy a`s fx`hjnfc jhpkrt`nt uncfr-

myjno prjngjpmfs èkut taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn taf jncjvjcu`m `nc taf eujmt fn-

vjrknhfnt, mjhjtfc pr`gtjg`m v`muf `nc usf kd cjddjgumt m`nouòf sffh tk ef taf

h`jn rf`skns dkr `rgajtfgts tk gm`jh `n ”undumdjmmjno h`rrjòf eftwffn rgajtfgturf

`nc psygakmkoy‘ (\ajmjp, 0::4, p. 5??). Akwfvfr, `s dkr fx`hpmf taf rfsf`rga kd

H`ghjmm`n (5<<4) sakws, `rgajtfgts, kggup`nt kro`njs`tjkns `nc rf`m fst`tf cf-

vfmkpfrs gkumc efnfdjt drkh taf jnsjoats jn taf djfmc kd fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy

`nc jngrf`sf taf ttr`gtjvfnfss kd taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt ey jhpmfhfntjno fxjstjno

inkwmfcof hkrf systfh`tjg`mmy jn cfsjon. Wfvfr`m stucjfs jn fnvjrknhfnt`m psy-

gakmkoy dkgusfc kn taf cjddfrfngfs kd prfdfrfngfs eftwffn orkups, fspfgj`mmy ef-twffn rgajtfgts nc nkn-`rgajtfgts. Hkst sgakm`rs gkngmucf ta`t tafsf cjddfrfngfs

`rf rfm`tfc tk taf `ddfgtjvf gkhpknfnt kd hf`njno `nc g`n ef fxpm`jnfc drkh `

cjddfrfnt wfjoat `ssjonfc tk cfsjon df`turfs (Ojddkrc, ft `m., 5<<<). @ggkrcjno tk

I`rh`nkv (5<<:) tafsf cjddfrfngfs `rf prkeèmy mfss cjstjngtjvf ta`n js usu`mmy

takuoat. af rfsumts kd Ork`t (0:15) `nc Auee`rc (0::4) suoofst ta`t `rgaj-

tfgts nc nkn-`rgajtfgts fhpmky cjddfrfnt sfts kd grjtfrj` nc stjhumj dkr fv`mu`tjno

eujmcjnos, eut tafsf cjddfrfngfs ck nkt mf`c tk `w`rfnfss kd cjddfrfngfs jn stymfs

kd eujmcjnos. ajs hf`ns ta`t cjddfrfngfs jn eujmcjno stymfs `rf nkt `mw`ys rfgko-

njsfc ey nkn-`rgajtfgts `nc a`vf tafrfdkrf mjhjtfc pkwfr tk prfcjgt prfdfrfngfs.

_jtajn taf rfsf`rga s`hpmf kd Erkwn `nc Ojddkrc (5<<0) `nc ta`t kd D`wgftt,Fmmjnoa`h `nc \m`tt (5<<1), sfvfr`m eujmcjnos wfrf ojvfn ajoa `fstaftjg r`tjnos ey

ekta orkups. af hkcfms kd prfdfrfngf usfc ey Cfvmjn `nc N`s`r (0:1:) rfvf`mfc

ta`t ekta `rgajtfgts `nc nkn-`rgajtfgts d`vkurfc nkvfmty `nc gkafrfngf (kr gm`r-

jty) jn eujmcjno df`turfs, eut taf nkn-`rgajtfgts d`vkurfc sjhpmjgjty `nc ‑pkpum`r‚

`ttrjeutfs, wajmf taf `rgajtfgts d`vkurfc gkhpmfxjty `nc ‑ajoamy `rgajtfgtur`m‚ `t-

trjeutfs. N`s`r `nc \urgfmm (0::<) `nc D`wgftt ft `m. (5<<1) `msk dkunc ta`t dkr

ekta orkups prfdfrfngf rfm`tfc tk jngrf`sfc gkhpmfxjty `nc cfgrf`sfc nkvfmty, eut

taf `rgajtfgts pm`gfc orf`tfr wfjoat kn gkhpmfxjty. afsf rfsumts suoofst ta`t `r-

gajtfgts d`vkur spfgts ta`t `rf cjsgrfp`nt drkh taf fxjstjno `rgajtfgtur`m ga`r`gtfr

kd ` eujmcjno, wajmf taf nkn-`rgajtfgts d`vkur gkhpmfxjty wjtajn taf rfgkonjzèmf

FNTJUKNHFNS

• \rkpfrtjfs (gkhpmfxjty,

krjojn`mjty, drjfncmjnfss,

JNCJTJCV@M

• \frskn`m

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

\FUGF\SJKN

• Bucofhfnt

• Hf`njno

• @ddfgtjvf rfspknsf

, ,

hf`njnodumnfss)• Fxpfrtjsf

Djourf 5.3 \frgfptjkn `s ` rfsumt kd taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn `n jncjvjcu`m `nc taf eujmt

fnvjrknhfnt.



54

inkwmfcof strugturf ta`t gkntrjeutfs tk taf e`sjg `ttrjeutfs kd ` eujmcjno. af

rfsf`rga kd Ojddkrc, Ajnf `nc gkmmfòufs (5<<<) jncjg`tfs ta`t jn gkntr`st tk taf

pmf`surf `nc omke`m r`tjno rfsumts, `rgajtfgts `nc nkn-`rgajtfgts òrffc sjonjdj-

g`ntmy èkut taf `rkus`m-fmjgjtjno ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf 35 eujmcjnos. @ gumtur`m

gkhp`rjskn eftwffn @ustr`mj`n `nc @hfrjg`n orkups sakwfc ekta sjhjm`rjtjfs

`nc cjddfrfngfs (N`s`r & \urgfmm, 0::<).af rfsumts kd taf stucy kd Ojddkrc ft `m. (5<<<) jncjg`tf ta`t nkn-`rgajtfgts

prkcugf hkrf aftfrkofnfkus r`tjnos (`s ` orkup) ta`n `rgajtfgts jn tfrhs kd fhk-

tjkn`m rfspknsf. Nkn-`rgajtfgts‚ r`tjnos kd `rgajtfgturf `rf inkwn tk ef suebfgt

tk v`rjkus jndmufngfs, wajga hìf tafjr r`tjnos hkrf cjddusf. @rgajtfgts‚ `fstaftjg

st`nc`rcs kn taf ktafr a`nc a`vf effn dkgussfc tarkuoa tafjr sfmfgtjkn `nc tr`jn-

jno. @rgajtfgts rf skgj`mjsfc ey tafjr prkdfssjkn`m fcug`tjkn jn w`ys ta`t wjcfn taf

`fstaftjg o`p eftwffn tafhsfmvfs `nc taf puemjg (\urgfmm, 0:149 _jmskn, 0::4).

T`m`cfz (0:13) `ttrjeutfs ` orf`t p`rt kd tafsf cjddfrfngfs tk taf rfsf`rga jnstru-

hfnts, wajga kdtfn rfqujrf vfre`m rfspknsfs èkut stjhumj `nc mfss wjtajn-orkup

v`rj`ngf cuf tk ` rfm`tjvfmy n`rrkw r`nof kd tr`jts gkhp`rfc tk taf ofnfr`m puemjg.af rfsumts kd T`m`cfz‚s rfsf`rga jncjg`tf ta`t `rgajtfgts knmy cjddfr drkh ktafr

prkdfssjkn`m orkups jn tafjr qu`ntjt`tjvf bucofhfnts kd taf aèjt`ts stucjfc, eut

nkt drkh mm orkups jn tafjr qu`mjt`tjvf bucofhfnts. Nkvjgf rgajtfgts sffh tk e`sf

tafjr bucofhfnt hkrf kn `ddfgt (Auee`rc, 0::4) wajmf prkdfssjkn`ms g`n rftrjfvf

hkrf jndkrh`tjkn drkh ` eujmcjno (_fnctf, 5<<3). Jt sffhs a`rc dkr fxpfrjfngfc

`rgajtfgts tk crkp tafjr kwn grjtfrj` dkr gkngfptu`m prkpfrtjfs jn d`vkur kd taksf

kd nkn-`rgajtfgts wafn tafy prfcjgt puemjg fvkmutjkns (Erkwn & Ojddkrc, 5<<0).

af efst-prfcjgtjno `rgajtfgts sffhfc smjoatmy mfss fxpfrjfngfc eut wfrf efttfr

èmf tk uncfrst`nc taf h`ttfr jn wajga taf ofnfr`m puemjg tajnis èkut `fstaftjgs

kd eujmcjnos. afsf `rgajtfgts rfm`tfc tafjr fv`mu`tjkns tk eujmcjnos‚ gkngfptu`mprkpfrtjfs jn ` h`nnfr sjhjm`r tk ta`t kd m`ypfrskns.

@mtakuoa `rgajtfgts `rf nkt kemjofc tk cfsjon eujmcjnos tk sujt taf puemjg r`tafr

ta`n tafhsfmvfs, Erkwn nc Ojddkrc (5<<0) suoofst ta`t rgajtfgts gkumc usf tafjr

uncfrst`ncjno kd m`y tajnijno tk grf`tf eujmcjnos ta`t cfmjoat ekta tafhsfmvfs

`nc tafjr puemjg. k d`gjmjt`tf tajs prkgfss kd jntfor`tjkn kd prfdfrfngfs, Ojddkrc

ft `m. (5<<5) suoofst ` erk`cfr dkrh kd `rgajtfgtur`m fcug`tjkn kr skgj`mjz`tjkn

ta`t strfssfs ekta taf grf`tjvf fxtfnsjkn kd taf orf`t `fstaftjg trfncs `nc ` efttfr

uncfrst`ncjno kd puemjg t`stf. @ erk`cfr fcug`tjkn wjmm nkt rfcugf taf rjganfss

`nc cjvfrsjty `s mkno `s cjddfrfnt sgakkms tr`jn `rgajtfgts tk `pprfgj`tf `nc cfsjon

cjddfrfnt stymfs kd `rgajtfgturf (_jmskn, 0::4). Nkn-`rgajtfgts gkumc ef tr`jnfc`msk2 ”U`tafr ta`n rfstrjgtjno cfsjonfrs tk stymfs ta`t taf usfrs mrf`cy uncfrst`nc,

fnvjrknhfnt`m fcug`tjkn dkr nkn-`rgajtfgts gkumc rfsumt jn orf`tfr pprfgj`tjkn kd

ktafr stymfs. Kngf pfkpmf uncfrst`nc taf stymfs kd `rgajtfgturf ta`t hìf up tafjr

gjtjfs, tafrf wkumc ef ` v`rjfty kd cjddfrfnt t`stfs tk ef g`tfrfc dkr ey v`rjfty kd

cjddfrfnt `rgajtfgts‘ (_jmskn, 0::4, p. 35).

5.3 \rkcugt fxpfrjfngf `nc fhktjkn (jntfr`gtjkn `pprk`ga)

af djfmc kd prkcugt fxpfrjfngf `nc fhktjkn krjojn`tfs drkh jncustrj`m cfsjon

`nc js e`sfc kn sfvfr`m tr`cjtjkns jn taf djfmc kd psygakmkoy. Jt sakws ta`t prkcugtsg`n fmjgjt fhktjkns wafn ` usfr jntfr`gts wjta ` prkcugt `nc tafrfdkrf `ccs `n



5?

jhpkrt`nt pfrspfgtjvf kn taf `spfgt kd cfsjon qu`mjty jn taf rfm`tjkn tk `rgajtfgt

sfmfgtjkns. af jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon `s cfsgrjefc jn

tajs sfgtjkn rfm`tf tk taf mfvfms kd hf`surfhfnt `nc taf fstèmjsahfnt kd ` mjni

eftwffn taf pfrgfptjkn kd taf prkcugt nc `n ddfgtjvf rfspknsf jn taf bucofhfnt

kd jts v`muf.

5.3.0 Krjojn kd prkcugt fxpfrjfngf

Jn taf djfmc kd prkcugt cfsjon taf djncjnos drkh fnvjrknhfnt`m `nc gkonjtjvf

psygakmkoy `rf `ppmjfc tk suppkrt taf cfvfmkphfnt kd suggfssdum prkcugts `nc

g`pturf ` gknsuhfr‚s rf`gtjkn tk ` prkcugt. af djfmc kd prkcugt fxpfrjfngf krjo-

jn`tfs h`jnmy drkh taf djfmc kd gkonjtjvf psygakmkoy, fhktjkn `nc pfrgfptjkn

(Wgajddfrstfjn & Afiifrt, 5<<1). Jn tafjr ekki kn prkcugt fxpfrjfngf, Wgajddfrstfjn

& Afiifrt (5<<1) prkvjcf `n kvfrvjfw kd mjtfr`turf drkh taf auh`n pfrspfgtjvf,

taf jntfr`gtjkn pfrspfgtjvf `nc taf prkcugt pfrspfgtjvf.

Drkh taf jntfr`gtjkn pfrspfgtjvf tarff gkhpknfnts kr mfvfms kd prkcugt fxpfrj-

fngf `rf cjstjnoujsafc (Cfshft, 5<<59 Cfshft, \krgfmjbn, & Cjbi, 5<<?9 Afiifrt,

5<<4)2 `fstaftjg pmf`surf, `ttrjeutjkn kd hf`njno, `nc fhktjkn`m rfspknsf. afsf

gkhpknfnts `rf strknomy jndmufngfc ey taf vfre`m sg`mfs kd Uussfmm ft `m. (0:10)

dkr pmf`surf `nc `rkus`m `s cfsgrjefc jn taf prfvjkus sfgtjkn. @t taf `fstaftjg mfvfm

` prkcugt‚s g`p`gjty tk cfmjoat knf kr hkrf sfnskry hkc`mjtjfs js gknsjcfrfc. af

cforff tk wajga ` pfrskn h`nòfs tk cftfgt strugturf, krcfr, kr gkafrfngf `nc

`ssfss ` prkcugt‚s nkvfmty kr d`hjmj`rjty typjg`mmy cftfrhjnfs taf `ddfgt jt ofnfr-

`tfs. Bust mjif wjta taf wkri kd I`pm`n (0:1?) tafsf fddfgts g`n ef fxpm`jnfc ey

fx`hjnjno taf fvkmutjkn`ry e`sjs kd taf auh`n pfrgfptu`m systfh. af fxpfrjfngf

kd hf`njno gkngfrns taf gkonjtjvf prkgfssfs kd rfgkonjtjkn, jntfrprft`tjkn, `s-

skgj`tjkn `nc `ssjonhfnt, wajga `tt`ga ` hf`njno tk ` prkcugt. afsf prkgfssfs

`rf suebfgt tk jncjvjcu`m, gumtur`m `nc paysjg`m cjddfrfngfs (Afiifrt, 5<<4). af

fhktjkn`m rfspknsf rfm`tfs tk taf rfsumt kd gkonjtjvf, takuoa kdtfn utkh`tjg nc

ungknsgjkus prkgfss gùsfc ey taf jntfr`gtjkn kd taf auh`n wjta taf prkcugt. @n

fhktjkn jnvkmvfs ` rfm`tjkn eftwffn taf pfrskn fxpfrjfngjno `n fhktjkn `nc `

p`rtjgum`r kebfgt9 f.o. knf js jn mkvf wjta skhftajno. Cfshft (5<<5) st`tfs ta`t `n

fhktjkn js fmjgjtfc ey `n fv`mu`tjkn (`ppr`js m) kd `n fvfnt kr sjtu`tjkn `s pktfn-

tj`mmy efnfdjgj`m kr a`rhdum jn rfm`tjkn tk taf pfrskn‚s prkcugt gkngfrns. Jt js taf

jntfrprft`tjkn kd n fvfnt (kr prkcugt) r`tafr ta`n taf fvfnt jtsfmd ta`t tafn gùsfs

`n fhktjkn. Efgùsf ppr`js`ms hfcj`tf eftwffn taf prkcugts, gkngfrns `nc fhk-tjkns, cjddfrfnt jncjvjcu`ms wak `ppr`jsf taf s`hf prkcugt jn cjddfrfnt w`ys wjmm

fxpfrjfngf cjddfrfnt fhktjkns.

Djourf 5.6 sakws taf jntfr`gtjkn kd taf usfr wjta taf prkcugt ta`t gùsfs prkc-

ugt fxpfrjfngf. ajs pfrspfgtjvf gknsjcfrs taf usfr `s ` r`tafr p`ssjvf `gtkr jn taf

jntfr`gtjkn wjta taf prkcugt. Jt dkgusfs h`jnmy kn ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf kutgkhf

kd prkcugt fxpfrjfngfs jnstf`c kd taf pprkprj`tfnfss kd taf prkcugt ga`r`gtfrjs-

tjgs. Jt ckfs tìf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf usfr `nc taf prkcugt jntk ggkunt tk fxpm`jn

cjddfrfngfs eftwffn orkups kd pfkpmf.



51

5.3.5 Jhpmjg`tjkns dkr `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon

Jn krcfr tk uncfrst`nc rfspknsfs tk auh`n-prkcugt jntfr`gtjkn, knf hust un-

cfrst`nc taf usfr‚s gkngfrns ojvfn taf gkntfxt jn wajga ` usfr jntfr`gts wjta taf

prkcugt. Ia`mjc nc Afm`ncfr (5<<4) gkngmucf ta`t prkcugt sakumc ef cfsjonfc

tk suppkrt gustkhfr nffcs, jngmucjno taf gustkhfr‚s pfrskn`m kr pfrskn`mjty `t-

trjeutfs. ajs g`n ef cknf ey prkvjcjno dmkw kr f`sf kd usf, `nc jncugjno dffm-

jnos kr fhktjkns jn jntfr`gtjno wjta taf prkcugt. afy `msk st`tf ta`t gustkhfrs

tfnc tk hìf cfgjsjkns e`sfc kn tafjr dffmjnos, pfrgfptjkns, v`mufs, nc rfdmfgtjkns

ta`t usu`mmy gkhf drkh out dffmjnos r`tafr ta`n mkojg`m kr r`tjkn`m tajnijno. @s

suga, cfsjonfrs `nc h`nud`gturfrs sakumc gknsjcfr hìjno fhktjkn`m cfsjon `

ekttkh mjnf jn prkcugt cfsjon. af \rkcugt Fhktjkn Hf`surfhfnt Jnstruhfnt

hf`surfs taf cjddfrfnt ijnc kd fhktjkns ta`t usfrs fxpfrjfngf `nc g`n ef `ppmjfc

curjno prkcugt cfvfmkphfnt (Cfshft, 5<<5). Jn tajs h`nnfr cfsjonfrs g`n try

tk ‑cfsjon dkr fhktjkns‚. af I`nk hkcfm kd prkcugt cfvfmkphfnt cf`ms wjta taf

gustkhfr rfqujrfhfnts jn rfm`tjkn tk taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf prkcugt (I`nk,

0:139 _`mcfn, ft `m., 0::7). Jn tajs hkcfm gustkhfr s`tjsd`gtjkn js nkt e`sfc kn

dungtjkn`mjty `mknf ‗ jt jngmucfs prkcugt pfrdkrh`ngf ta`t tr`nsgfncs taf st`tfc

pfrdkrh`ngf (sff Djourf 5.4). I`nk usfc taf jcf`s kd taf Hktjv`tjkn-Ayojfnf

tafkry kd Afrzefro, Hùsfr `nc Wnycfrh`n (0:6:) tk cjstjnoujsa e`sjg qu`mjtjfs

(ayojfnf d`gtkrs ta`t prfvfnt cjss`tjsd`gtjkn) `nc surprjsjno qu`mjtjfs (ga`r`gtfr-

jstjgs ta`t fxgffc gustkhfr fxpfgt`tjkns) `nc g`n dkrh taf e`sjs kd mkvf dkr taf

prkcugt.

Cfshft, \krgfmjbn `nc v`n Cjbi (5<<?) cjstjnoujsa cjddfrfnt ijnc kd prkc-

ugt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t rfm`tf tk mfvfms kd prkcugt qu`mjty2 0) e`sjg df`turfs ta`t

taf prkcugt typf js fxpfgtfc tk cfmjvfr, 5) pfrdkrh`ngf df`turfs ta`t cjddfrfntj`tf

eftwffn gkhpftjno prkcugts, `nc 7) fxgjtfhfnt df`turfs ta`t taf gknsuhfr cjc

nkt fxpfgt tk sff jn taf prkcugt `nc js fxgjtfc tk djnc. aksf wak w`nt tk cfsjon

prkcugts ta`t fvkif dffmjnos kd ‑wkw‚ sakumc djnc `nc `ppmy knf kr hkrf ‑fxgjtf-

\UKCVGSVWFU

Fvfnt `nc kebfgt

rfm`tfc gkngfrns

\rkcugt rfm`tfc

ok`ms

FQ\FUJFNGF

• Fhktjkn

• @fstaftjgs

• Hf`njno

Djourf 5.6 Saf krjojn `nc gkhpknfnts kd prkcugt fxpfrjfngf `s jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn ` usfr `nc

` prkcugt



5:

hfnt df`turfs‚. E`sfc kn p`ttfrns dkunc wjta tafjr dr`hfwkri kd prkcugt fxpf-

rjfngf, taf ‑wkw‚-fxpfrjfngf gkumc ef fmjgjtfc ey prkcugts ta`t `rf `ppr`jsfc `s

unfxpfgtfc, und`hjmj`r, prkhjsjno, `nc djt dkr pkssfssjkn (Cfshft, ft `m., 5<<?).afsf ijncs kd g`tfokrjfs strknomy rfm`tf tk taf knfs jcfntjdjfc ey I`nk, jn taf

`rgajtfgtur`m cfe`tf `nc taf cfvfmkpfrs kd taf CPJ.

af pksjtjkn kd usèjmjty jn prkcugt fxpfrjfngf sffhs tk ef cjsputfc. Vsèjmjty

g`n ef cfdjnfc `s taf fxtfnt tk wajga ` usfr g`n fhpmky ` prkcugt jn krcfr tk

`gajfvf ` p`rtjgum`r ok`m (Nkrh`n, 5<<5). Kdtfn taf cjhfnsjkns usfc tk kpfr`-

tjkn`mjsf usèjmjty `rf fddfgtjvfnfss (taf cforff tk wajga taf p`rtjgum`r ok`m g`n

ef s`tjsdjfc), fddjgjfngy (taf `hkunt kd tjhf jt tìfs tk s`tjsdy taf ok`m), `nc f`sf

kd usf (taf `hkunt kd fddkrt jt tìfs tk s`tjsdy taf ok`m). Gkrrfm`tjkns a`vf effn

dkunc eftwffn usèjmjty `nc `fstaftjgs `nc hf`njno (Wgajddfrstfjn & Afiifrt,

5<<1). @ggkrcjno tk Ekztfpf (5<<?e) usfr v`muf js, bust `s `fstaftjg pmf`surf, `n`ttrjeutjkn kd hf`njno `nc fhktjkn`m rfspknsf, grf`tfc `s ` rfsumt kd jntfr`gtjkn

eftwffn wa`t taf prkcugt prkvjcfs `nc wa`t taf usfr erjnos jn tfrhs kd ok`ms,

nffcs, mjhjt`tjkns ftg (prkcugt gkngfrns). Bust `s jn `rgajtfgturf, jn prkcugt cf-

sjon taf mfvfm kd fxpfrjfngfc s`tjsd`gtjkn js kdtfn usfc `s ` hf`surf dkr usèjmjty

(efgùsf prkcugts ta`t `rf usèmf wjmm hkrf mjifmy fmjgjt pksjtjvf fhktjkns). Eut

`ggkrcjno tk Cfshft `nc Afiifrt (5<<?) usèjmjty sakumc nkt ef gknsjcfrfc `s

` mfvfm kd prkcugt fxpfrjfngf eut `s ` skurgf kd prkcugt fxpfrjfngf (` prkcugt

ga`r`gtfrjstjg) efgùsf jt ckfs nkt gùsf ` ga`nof jn taf gkrf `ddfgt `ttrjeutfc tk

taf prkcugt auh`n-jntfr`gtjkn. ajs cjddfrfngf jn kpjnjkn hjoat rfm`tf tk taf

W@SJWD@GSJKN ‗

Mkvf taf prkcugt

@ttr`gtjvf ‗ fxgjtjno `nc

jhprkvjno qu`mjty

Wurprjsfs Wt`tfc

DVMMZ DVNGSJKN@MCZWDVNGSJKN@M

pfrdkrh`ngf

E`sjg

rf ujrfhfnts

Hust-ef - fxpfgtfc

`nc fvjcfnt qu`mjty

CJWW@WSJWD@GSJKN ‗

Cjsmjif taf prkcugt

Djourf 5.4 Ufprfsfnt`tjkn kd prkcugt qu`mjtjfs `ggkrcjno tk taf I`nk prjngjpmfs (e`sfc kn

_`mcfn, 5<<7)

CJWW@SJWD@GSJKN



7<

pfrspfgtjvf kd taf rfsf`rga stucjfs (sakrt tfrh/s`mf pfrspfgtjvf kr mkno tfrh/usf

pfrspfgtjvf) kr taf pfrgfptjkn kd taf rkmf kd taf usfr curjno prkcugt cfvfmkphfnt

(`gtjvf kr p`ssjvf).

5.6 T`muf systfhs jn cfsjon (prkgfss `pprk`ga)

Jn cjsgussjno cfsjon qu`mjty taf tfrh v`muf js bust `s jhpkrt`nt `s qu`mjty `nc pfr-

gfptjkn. Jn tajs sfgtjkn taf gkngfpt kd v`muf js cjsgussfc drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd

taf gknstrugtjkn jncustry. ajs pfrspfgtjvf dkgusfs kn taf rf`mjs`tjkn prkgfss kd `

eujmcjno `nc sakws taf humtjpmf stìfakmcfrs‚ pfrspfgtjvfs. J tafrfdkrf gknsjcfr

tajs `s taf dkurta pfrspfgtjvf ta`t js rfmfv`nt dkr `ssfssjno cfsjon qu`mjty.

5.6.0 Saf gkngfpt kd v`muf

Jn gknstrugtjkn taf usf kd taf tfrh ‑v`muf‚ sffhs tk ef prfdfrrfc kvfr taf usf kd

taf tfrh ‑qu`mjty‚. Cjstjngtjkns g`n ef h`cf eftwffn v`muf, v`muf bucofhfnt `nc

v`muf systfh (Ifmmy ft `m., 5<<39 \umt`r, 0::4). \umt`r (0::4) cfdjnfs v`muf `s ”`nyst`tfc cfsgrjptkr wajga dkrhs taf suebfgt h`ttfr kd ` efmjfd jn taf gkrrfgtnfss kr

prfdfrèjmjty kd ` gakjgf‘. @ggkrcjno tk akhskn ft `m. (5<<7) `nc Mf C`ntfg &

Z-Mufn Ck (5<<:) v`mufs `rf taf prjngjpmfs, st`nc`rcs `nc qu`mjtjfs ey wajga wf

mjvf nc oujcf kur gtjkns. af twk typfs kd v`mufs s cfdjnfc ey Ukif`ga (0:?7) ‗

tfrhjn`m v`mufs (fnc ok`ms) `nc jnstruhfnt`m v`mufs (hf`ns tk rf`ga ok`ms) ‗ sffh

tk fxpm`jn taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf ‑prkcugt gkngfrns‚ kd Cfshft (5<<5) `nc

taf ‑prkgfss v`mufs‚ kd _`ncàm (5<<6). T`muf a`s tafkrftjg`m, fgknkhjg, `fstaft-

jg, skgj`m, pkmjtjg`m `nc rfmjojkus cjhfnsjkns (@mmpkrt, Tfrnkn, & Mjncsfy, 0:4<)

`nc gkumc ef kd jndmufngf kn pfrgfptjkn (Efmm, ft `m., 0::4). T`mufs g`n cfvfmkp

`t cjddfrfnt stìfakmcfr mfvfms2 jncjvjcu`m, kro`njs`tjkn, kr skgjfty (Mfpì ft `m.,5<<?). Hjmms, @ustjn, akhskn `nc Cfvjnf-_rjoat (5<<:) suggfssdummy `ppmjfc

taf smjoatmy `cbustfc Wgaw`rtz T`mufs Wurvfy (f.o. Wgaw`rtz & Ekfanif, 5<<3)

jn krcfr tk cfvfmkp `n `pprk`ga ta`t suppkrts (prkbfgt) stìfakmcfrs jn uncfr-

st`ncjno kro`njs`tjkn`m `nc jncjvjcu`m v`mufs `nc prjkrjtjfs. afjr `pprk`ga cjd-

dfrfntj`tfs eftwffn tfn v`mufs g`tfokrjfs, suga `s Vnjvfrs mjsh, Ktafrs krjfntfc,

Gkndkrhjty, \kwfr, Wfgurjty `nc Wtjhum`tjkn, `nc prkvjcfs jnsjoat jntk pkssjemf

`mjonhfnts eftwffn gkst gknsumt`nts, fnojnffrs, v`muf h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nts

`nc eujmcjno h`jntfn`ngf `nc kpfr`tjkns prkdfssjkn`ms.

\fkpmf hìf v`muf bucofhfnts wafn tafy `ssfs `n kebfgt wjta rfo`rc tk tafjr

efmjfds `nc fxpfgt`tjkns. Cfshft & Afiifrt (5<<?) rfdfr tk ‑prkcugt rfm`tfc ok`ms‚jn tajs h`ttfr. @ggkrcjno tk Gkmmjns (0:?0) v`muf bucofhfnts sakumc `mw`ys tìf

jntk `ggkunt tafjr fnvjrknhfnt`m, psygakmkojg`m, prkgfcur`m `nc ajstkrjg`m gkn-

tfxt kd prfgfcfnts kd taf pfkpmf jnvkmvfc jn taf bucofhfnt prkgfss. _afn jncj-

vjcu`ms gkmmèkr`tf tk rf`mjsf ` gkhhkn ok`m prkbfgts `rf dkrhfc. @ v`muf sys-

tfh g`n fhfrof jd v`mufs `rf fxprfssfc `nc sa`rfc eftwffn tafh (Ifmmy, H`mf, &

Orà`h, 5<<39 _`ncàm, 5<<6). @ v`muf systfh h`y ef cfdjnfc `s ` gkmmfgtjkn kd

v`muf bucofhfnts afmc ey ` pfrskn kr ` orkup rfo`rcjno v`rjkus v`mufs jnvkmvfc

jn ` pafnkhfnkn (\umt`r, 0::4) `nc js jcfntjdjfc ey taf rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf `s-

sjonfc tk v`mufs suga `s drffckh, pmf`surf, fqujty (Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<1). T`muf

sjhjm`rjty prkcugfs ` skgj`m systfh kr gumturf ta`t d`gjmjt`tfs taf jntfr`gtjkns nfg-



70

fss`ry dkr jncjvjcu`ms tk `gajfvf tafjr gkhhkn, fvfnt krjfntfc ok`ms (Cfshft &

Afiifrt, 5<<?9 Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<19 _`ncàm, 5<<6). _jtajn ` v`muf systfh,

v`muf bucofhfnts ck nkt fxjst jncfpfncfntmy kd f`ga ktafr9 tafrf `rf ekunc tk ef

jntfr`gtjkns `nc gkndmjgts eftwffn taf v`rjkus v`muf bucofhfnts. Jn tajs gkntfxt

_`ncàm (5<<3) `roufs ta`t p`rtjfs a`vf cjddjgumtjfs grf`tjno gkhhkn ok`ms `nc

` t`nojemf e`giorkunc dkr cfgjsjkn hìjno efgùsf kd prf-fxjstjno cjddfrfngfseftwffn taf p`rtjfs. ajs ckfs nkt hf`n ta`t jt js nkt pkssjemf tk sa`rf v`mufs

jn gknstrugtjkn. af stucy kd Hjmms ft `m. (5<<:) sakwfc dkr fx`hpmf cjddfrfngfs

eftwffn kro`njs`tjkns jn fnojnffrjno, cfsjon, gknsumt`ngy `nc h`jntfn`ngf, eut

`msk dkunc v`mufs ta`t wfrf mjonfc eftwffn taf kro`njs`tjkns, suga s rfspknsjejm-

jty, aknfsty `nc mky`mty.

@s cfsgrjefc jn Ga`ptfr 5.5 ` prkcugt a`s t`nojemf `nc jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfr-

jstjgs, wajga jn tafhsfmvfs ck nkt cftfrhjnf akw pfkpmf dkrh tafjr prfdfrfngfs.

Jn mjnf wjta taf pfrspfgtjvf kd prkcugt fxpfrjfngf nc fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy,

_`ncàm (5<<6) cfdjnfs prkcugt v`muf `s taf v`muf wajga `n jncjvjcu`m pm`gfs

upkn `n kebfgt kr kutgkhf. Jn tajs h`nnfr, taf `gt kd v`mujno js cjsskgj`tfc drkhtaf v`muf jtsfmd. @msk, jt efgkhfs pkssjemf tk mmkw dkr taf d`gt ta`t cjddfrfnt pfkpmf

h`y akmc cjddfrfnt efmjfds kr prfdfrfngfs e`sfc kn taf s`hf v`muf. Ekztfpf (5<<?`)

prfsfnts dkur h`bkr g`tfokrjfs kd usfr v`muf e`sfc kn n ftankor`pajg stucy kn taf

`ssjonhfnt kd usf nc v`muf tk ijtgafn ppmj`ngfs2 utjmjty v`muf, skgj`m sjonjdjg`ngf

v`muf, fhktjkn`m v`muf, `nc spjrjtu`m v`muf. H`ghjmm`n (5<<4) cjstjnoujsafs sfv-

fr`m gkhp`rèmf h`jn typfs kd v`muf kd ` hjxturf kd t`nojemfs `nc jnt`nojemfs `nc

`s huga stìfakmcfr orkups eftwffn wakh v`muf js fxga`nofc jn gknstrugtjkn

prkbfgts. afsf v`muf typfs `rf rfm`tfc tk taf cjddfrfnt eujmcjno typfs cfsgrjefc ey

Mkf (5<<<)2 usf, fxga`nof, jhòf nc eusjnfss v`muf eujmcjnos. Euggj`rfmmj (0::3)

gkngmucfs ta`t cfsjon js skgj`m prkgfss nc taf kebfgtjvf rf`mjty kd tfgankmkojg`m`rtfd`gt js jn d`gt ` skgj`m gknstrugt. af cfsjon kebfgt js tafrfdkrf pfr cfdjnjtjkn

`mjvf `nc m`cfn wjta ungfrt`jntjfs `nc `hejoujty.

@ggkrcjno tk Ofrrjtsf (5<<1) prkcugt v`muf js taf fxtfnt tk wajga prkcugt

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs dumdjm taf rfqujrfhfnts. _afn taf kutgkhf kd ` v`muf `ssfsshfnt js

`ttrjeutfc tk prkcugt s knf kd jts qu`mjtjfs, prkcugt v`muf efgkhfs ` hf`surèmf

prkcugt `ttrjeutf. Crfsgamfr ft `m. (5<<6) gkngmucf ta`t jn gknstrugtjkn `mm cfdj-

njtjkns kd v`muf (fxgfpt dkr taf ftajg`m knf), gkhp`rf skhf mfvfm kd pfrdkrh`ngf,

dungtjkn`mjty, utjmjty, efnfdjt kr qu`mjty (pfrgfptjkn) wjta taf `sskgj`tfc mfvfm kd

prjgf kr gkst. @msk \rjns (5<<:), wak cfdjnfs `rgajtfgtur`m v`muf `s ` gkhpmfx trj-

`cjg systfh eftwffn pm`nft, spjrjtu`mjsh `nc prkdjt wjta hutu`mmy cfpfncfnt fmf-hfnts, `nc Ifmmy ft `m. (5<<3) cfnktf taf rfm`tjknsajp eftwffn dungtjkn, gkst `nc

wkrta. Jn v`muf fnojnffrjno knf spfìs kd fxga`nof v`muf, fstffh v`muf `nc usf

v`muf tk cfnktf taf rfm`tjknsajp eftwffn gksts `nc efnfdjts (Efst & cf T`mfngf,

0:::). E`sfc kn taf fgknkhjg prjngjpmf kd wfmd`rjsh, Crfsgamfr, Efafsatj `nc

cf Ujccfr (5<<6) gknsjcfr v`muf `s taf `hkunt tk wajga `mm pfrskns jnvkmvfc `rf

jndmufngfc jn tafjr wfmm-efjno `s ` gknsfqufngf kd taf gknstrugtjkn prkbfgt. ajs

hf`ns ta`t v`muf js cfdjnfc `s `n èskmutf qu`ntjty tk ef usfc jn taf prkgfss kd

cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc `mm v`mufs nffc tk ef wfjoafc `nc `ccfc up tk cftfrhjnf taf

tkt`m hknft`ry v`muf kr tkt`m sgkrf (Crfsgamfr, 5<<19 B`nsfn, ft `m., 5<<?). af



75

pkjnt systfh, hknftjz`tjkn systfh `nc r`tjks `rf tarff hftakcs tk gkhejnf prjgf

`nc v`muf (B`nsfn, ft `m., 5<<?).

@ggkrcjno tk akhskn ft `m. (5<<7) taf cjstjngtjkn eftwffn qu`mjty `nc v`muf

mjfs jn taf kebfgtjvf kr suebfgtjvf ga`r`gtfr kd jts bucofhfnt9 v`muf `ssfsshfnts

g`n ef suebfgtjvf wafn dr`hfc ò`jnst `n jncjvjcu`m‚s v`mufs, wajmf qu`mjty `s-

sfsshfnts g`n ef gknsjcfrfc kebfgtjvf wafn taf rfm`tjknsajp eftwffn efnfdjt `ncfxpfnsf js gkhp`rfc kn ` mfvfm kd dumdjmhfnt kd rfqujrfhfnts. afy gkngmucf ta`t

v`muf js taf rfm`tjknsajp eftwffn pksjtjvf `nc nfo`tjvf gknsfqufngfs dkr `n jn-

cjvjcu`m (kutput `nc jnput, kr efnfdjts `nc s`grjdjgfs). af `mmkg`tjkn kd ` hkn-

ft`ry suh tk fxprfss pfrgfjvfc v`muf js ` gkhhkn hf`ns kd sfttjno taf prjgf kd `

prkcugt. ”_afn ` gknsuhfr `sis ajh kr afrsfmd ‑js jt wkrta jt;‚, tafy `rf hìjno `

v`muf bucofhfnt jn mjoat kd tafjr kwn, kdtfn t`gjt, v`mufs `nc gkhp`rjno tajs wjta

taf h`rift v`muf `ssfsshfnt (typjg`mmy fxprfssfc `s ` prjgf)‘ (akhskn, ft `m.,

5<<7, p. 77?). Jn tajs sfnsf v`muf bucofhfnt `rf sffn `s r`tjkn`m gknsjcfr`tjkns kd

jncjvjcu`m cfgjsjkn hìfrs `hkno taf cjddfrfnt v`muf typfs ta`t g`n ef `ccrfssfc

tk (duturf) eujmcjnos.Djourf 5.? sakws taf gkngfpts kd v`mufs, v`muf bucofhfnt nc taf v`muf systfh

jn rfm`tjkn tk taf prkcugt v`muf `s `roufc ey taf v`muf `pprk`ga jn gknstrugtjkn

h`nòfhfnt. Jn tajs pprk`ga pfkpmf rf sffn `s stìfakmcfrs (orkups) ta`t gt `s

`gtjvf p`rtjgjp`nts jn taf cfvfmkphfnt prkgfss kd ` eujmcjno prkbfgt.

Wtìfakmcfrs g`n ef cfdjnfc `s orkups kr jncjvjcu`ms wak a`vf stìf jn kr

fxpfgt`tjkn kd ` prkbfgts pfrdkrh`ngf (Nfwgkhef, 5<<7). Curjno knokjno cj`-

mkoufs kd stìfakmcfrs wjta taf prkbfgt tf`h ekta suebfgtjvf `nc kebfgtjvf `ssfss-

hfnts kd v`muf `rf gknstrugtfc wajga sa`pf taf djn`m kutgkhf kd taf prkbfgt. af

Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr js ` afmpdum tkkm jn tajs prkgfss kd jntfrga`nojno pfrgfp-

tjkns kd stìfakmcfr orkups. Akwfvfr, taf qufstjkn rfh`jns jd stìfakmcfrs rf g-tu`mmy g`pèmf kd r`tjkn`m gknsjcfr`tjkns ekut efnfdjts nc s`grjdjgfs, fspfgj`mmy jn

g`sf kd taf mkno-tfrh gknsfqufngfs kd gfrt`jn `mtfrn`tjvfs. Ufsf`rga `nc tafkrjfs

uncfrmyjno taf `ssuhptjkns jn taf prkgfss `pprk`ga sffhs èsfnt, `nc mjttmf usf js

h`cf kd fxjstjno tafkrjfs `nc hkcfms jn ktafr djfmcs kd sgjfngf.

\UKCVGS

v`muf systfh

• Pu mjty

• T muf• \frskn m v`mufs

• \rkgfss v`mufs• Fgknkhjg wkrta

T@MVF BVCOFHFNS

• Kebfgtjvf ssfsshfnt

• Wuebfgtjvf `ssfsshfnt

Djourf 5.? T`muf bucofhfnt `s ` rfsumts kd taf gmjfnts v`mufs `nc taf prkcugt v`muf



77

5.6.5 @ppmjg`tjkns jn cfsjon `nc gknstrugtjkn

arkuoa `n knokjno cj`mkouf kd stìfakmcfrs wjta taf prkbfgt tf`h ekta kebfg-

tjvf nc suebfgtjvf ssfsshfnts kd v`muf rf gknstrugtfc. af CPJ prkvjcfs v`muf

dr`hfwkri tk cfvfmkp gkhhkn m`nouòf tk fnoòf stìfakmcfrs nc gkumc ef n

`pprkprj`tf tkkm tk strugturf `nc suhh`rjsf tafsf `ssfsshfnts (sff sfgtjkn 5.5.5).

@nktafr fx`hpmf kd `n systfh jn wajga taf knokjno cj`mkouf eftwffn stìfakmc-frs ekut v`mufs pm`ys n jhpkrt`nt rkmf js taf gkngfpt kd v`muf tajnijno (ayssfn,

Fhhjtt, Eknif, & Ijri-Garjstkddfrsfn, 5<0<9 _`ncàm, 5<<6). Curjno taf gkn-

strugtjkn pa`sf kd ` eujmcjno taf cfsjon js suebfgt tk cfe`tf efgùsf jcf`s a`vf

tk ef tr`nsm`tfc jntk paysjg`m prkcugts. T`muf tajnijno a`s twk pa`sfs2 0) T`muf

Cfsjon ey T`muf H`nòfhfnt, djn`mjsfc jn ` gkntr`gt dkr gknstrugtjkn, `nc 5)

T`muf Cfmjvfry ey T`muf Fnojnffrjno `nc djn`mjsfc jn ` gknstrugtjkn prkcugt.

T`muf H`nòfhfnt `mw`ys jnvkmvfs ` rfm`tjvf `nc e`m`ngfc gknsjcfr`tjkn kd t`n-

ojemf `nc jnt`nojemf gksts `nc efnfdjts tk v`muf cfsjon `nc ` wjmmjnonfss tk hìf

tr`cf-kdds jn krcfr tk hìf o`jns (Efst & cf T`mfngf, 0:::). @ cjstjngtjkn g`n ef

h`cf eftwffn jntfrn`m (prkgfss) v`mufs kd taf p`rtjgjp`nts kd taf cfmjvfry tf`h

`nc fxtfrn`m (prkcugt) v`mufs kd taf gmjfnt, wajga taf cfmjvfry tf`h sakumc ef

dkgusjno kn `gajfvjno (Fhhjtt ft `m., 5<<69 Ifmmy, 5<<?). _`ncàm (5<<3) dkunc

jn tarff fxpfrjhfnts ta`t taf cjddfrfnt p`rtjfs jn gknstrugtjkn (usfrs, gmjfnts, `r-

gajtfgt, fnojnffrs, gkntr`gtkrs) a`vf knmy ` smjoatmy cjddfrfnt pfrgfptjkn kd v`muf

jn ` gknstrugtjkn prkbfgt. _jtajn taf dr`hfwkri kd T`muf H`nòfhfnt ekta taf

jntfrn`m `nc fxtfrn`m v`muf g`n ef sfp`r`tfc jntk prkgfss v`muf `nc prkcugt v`muf.

\rkgfss v`muf js èkut ojvjno taf gmjfnt taf efst fxpfrjfngf curjno taf cfsjon `nc

gknstrugtjkn kd taf prkbfgt `nc gkhprjsfs skdt v`mufs (gkhhunjg`tjkn, gkndmjgt

skmvjno ftg), a`rc v`mufs (tjhf, eucoft) `nc prkgfss v`mufs (mf`rnjno fxpfrjfngf).

\rkcugt v`mufs `rf e`sfc kn taf Tjtruvj`n v`mufs, ùohfntfc ey gkntfhpkr`ry

gkngfrns dkr a`rhkny wjta taf surrkuncjnos, fnvjrknhfnt`m jssufs `nc eujmc-

èjmjty (Fhhjtt, W`ncfr, & Garjstkddfrsfn, 5<<6). \rkcugt `nc prkgfss v`mufs g`n

jntfr`gt, `nc fspfgj`mmy wafn taf prkcugt efgkhfs vjsjemf, jt gkumc hf`n ga`nofs

jn taf v`mufs kr r`tafr taf jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf v`mufs. Akwfs `nc Ojddkrc (5<<:)

tafrfdkrf cjstjnoujsa `ssjonfc v`mufs (sjtu`tjkn`m v`mufs) `nc afmc v`mufs (cffp-

sf`tfc, fncurjno v`mufs) ta`t `rf p`rt kd ` cyn`hjg v`muf ajfr`rgay. Jn gkndmjgtjvf

sjtu`tjkns tafy dkunc ta`t pfkpmf wak a`vf mfss djrhmy afmc v`mufs wfrf hkrf jn-

dmufngfc ey sjtu`tjkn`m cjddfrfngfs. @ggkrcjno tk Ifmmy (5<<?) taf v`muf systfh kd

` gmjfnt js nkt ajfr`rgay eut n krcfr kd prfdfrfngf dkr v`rjèmfs t taf s`hf mfvfm.af rfsumts kd ` wkrisakp jn wajga taf I`nk systfh w`s `ppmjfc sffh tk suoofst

ta`t v`mjc v`rjèmf js suebfgt kd gkntjnuuh o`jnst wajga taf gmjfnt g`n jncjg`tf

` pkjnt kd s`tjsd`gtjkn (_`mcfn, ft `m., 0::7). af fxpfrjfngfs kd taf ayssfn ft

`m. (5<0<, p. 5:) jncjg`tf ta`t ` sijmmfc prkgfss d`gjmjt`tkr js rfqujrfc tk cfvfmkp

` m`nouòf jn wajga gmjfnt v`mufs `rf uncfrst`ncèmf dkr eujmcjno prkdfssjkn`ms

efgùsf v`mufs g`nnkt ef h`cf fxpmjgjt ”kngf `nc dkr `mm ey wrjtjno jt ckwn jn `

djxfc v`muf systfh dkr suesfqufnt cfsjon fv`mu`tjkn‘.

T`muf cfmjvfry `nc v`muf fnojnffrjno hjoat a`vf ` nfo`tjvf gknnkt`tjkn ef-

gùsf jt js skhftjhfs jntfrprftfc `s guttjno gksts jnstf`c kd r`jsjno v`mufs, wajga

gkumc mf`c tk dkgus kn taf mkwfst gksts jnstf`c kd taf ajoafst qu`mjty (Mkf, 5<<<).Jn rfm`tjkn tk v`muf fnojnffrjno Mkf (5<<<, p. 65) gkngmucfs ta`t ”cfspjtf tajs



73

jhprfssjvf mfvfm kd cfe`tf `nc `gtjvjty, rfgkngjmjno taf v`muf kd okkc cfsjon jn

`rgajtfgturf rfh`jns `n fmusjvf gkngfpt. Y….X wf `rf `cfpt `t fxga`nof v`muf eut

stjmm a`vf tk wfmc tk tajs tfganjquf taf hf`ns kd hf`surjno taf efnfdjts ta`t wfmm

cfsjonfc eujmcjnos erjno tk taf skgj`m, pkmjtjg`m, ure`n, nc jhòf v`mufs.‘ Jn pr`g-

tjgf gksts ck ga`nof taf v`mufs kd taf stìfakmcfrs, fspfgj`mmy wafn gkndrkntfc

wjta taf djrst prktktypfs kd taf prkcugt (_`ncàm, 5<<6). ajs gkumc ef cuf tktaf d`gt ta`t tafy tafn rf`mjsf taf `gtu`m gksts kd tafjr `hejtjkns. Jt js tarkuoa taf

prkgfss kd cfsjon ta`t v`mufs rf fxpksfc nc nfoktj`tfc jn taf sf`rga dkr pktfntj`m

skmutjkns (Mf C`ntfg & Z-Mufn Ck, 5<<:).

Ekztfpf (5<<?e) pkjnts t taf cjstjngtjkn eftwffn prf-purga`sf nc pkst-pur-

ga`sf v`muf jn h`riftjno rfsf`rga. \rf-purga`sf rfdfrs tk fxpfgt`tjkns rfo`rcjno

taf v`muf ` prkcugt js okjno tk cfmjvfr ta`t `rf dkrhfc prjkr tk purga`sf kd taf

prkcugt. \kst-purga`sf v`muf jnvkmvfs v`muf rf`mjsfc tarkuoa taf usf kd prkcugt.

Curjno taf mjdf gygmf kd ` eujmcjno taf v`muf kd taf cfsjon ga`nofs drkh fxpfgtfc

v`muf kd taf gmjfnt, tk prkhjsfc v`muf kd taf cfsjonfrs `nc tafn cfmjvfrfc v`muf

kd taf gkntr`gtkrs. af jntfr`gtjkn wjta prktktypfs hf`ns ta`t fxpfgt`tjkns `ncfxpfrjfngfs oft hjxfc. af cjddfrfngf eftwffn ` gmjfnt `nc ` gustkhfr js rfm`tfc

tk tafsf v`mufs gkngfpt. ”@ gustkhfr js skhfknf wak purga`sfs ` gkhhkcjty kr

sfrvjgf drkh hfrga`nt wak suppmjfs n fxjstjno spfgjdjfc prkcugt dkr prjgf, nc

`gts jn ajs/afr kwn jntfrfst. Jd curjno taf hkhfnt kd purga`sf taf pfrdkrh`ngf

st`nc`rcs rf hft, taf gkntr`gt nc taf gustkhfr js s`tjsdjfc. @ gmjfnt, ey gkntr`st,

js skhfknf wak fnoòfs taf prkdfssjkn`m `cvjgf tk `gt jn taf gmjfnt‚s jntfrfst jn `

gkncjtjkn kd cfpfncfngy `nc cjrfgt gknt`gt.‘ (khefsj, 5<<4, p. 5?4). @ gmjfnt

`ssuhfs jndmufngf kn taf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf prkcugt efgùsf af/saf euys ` nkt

yft fxjstjno prkcugt (Ckrff, 0::4). Gkmmjns (0:?0) `sgrjefs taf m`ypfrskn‚s jnèjm-

jty tk `pprfgj`tf taf n`turf kd taf `rgajtfgt‚s cjmfhh` tk taf d`gt ta`t ` m`ypfrsknnkrh`mmy knmy purga`sfs djnjsafc rtjgmfs ta`t tafy a`vf jnspfgtfc efdkrf ny cfgj-

sjkn js h`cf `s tk taf prjgf tafy `rf wjmmjno tk p`y. ”Wakw ajh `n kmc Kddjgf wajga

js efjno kddfrfc dkr ùgtjkn, `nc af wjmm ejc dkr jt wjta dumm gkndjcfngf ta`t af

inkws ` okkc e`ro`jn wafn af sffs knf. Eut sakw ajh taf siftgafs `nc wkrijno

cr`dts kd ` eujmcjno af a`s gkhhjssjknfc, `nc af wjmm djnc jt jngkngfjvèmf fjtafr

ta`t sk dfw cr`wjnos `rf wkrta 6 pfr gfnt kd taf fstjh`tfc gkst kd taf eujmcjno, kr

ta`t taf `rgajtfgt g`nnkt hìf jhhfcj`tf `mtfr`tjkns sk `s tk a`mvf taf gkntr`g-

tkr‚s prjgfs wjtakut s`grjdjgjno `ny kd taf `hfnjtjfs‘ (Gkmmjns, 0:?0, p. 0:4).

5.4 Jntfor`tjkn `nc jhpmjg`tjkns

af pfrspfgtjvfs cjsgussfc jn tajs ga`ptfr `mm cf`m wjta taf pfrgfptjkn `nc jntfr-

prft`tjkn kd prkcugt qu`mjtjfs. \frgfptjkn kggurs wafn n jncjvjcu`m js gkndrkntfc

wjta taf t`nojemf `nc jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd ` prkcugt. Jn tajs rfsf`rga J

tafrfdkrf cfdjnf cfsjon qu`mjty `s `n kvfr`mm v`muf bucofhfnt ey `n jncjvjcu`m

pfrskn e`sfc kn taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn tajs pfrskn `nc `n kebfgt jn taf eujmt fn-

vjrknhfnt. J `ssuhf ta`t v`muf bucofhfnt jngmucfs `n `ssfsshfnt èkut taf mfvfm

kd qu`mjty `s wfmm `s `n `ddfgtjvf rfspknsf. @dtfr ` bucofhfnt ` prkcugt js `sskgj-

`tfc wjta ` gfrt`jn v`muf, wajga gkumc rfm`tf tk `mm ijncs kd prkcugt v`mufs, suga

`s usf v`muf, fnvjrknhfnt`m kr fgknkhjg fxga`nof v`muf. Jn tajs sfnsf taf prkcugt



76

rfgfjvfs jts v`muf `dtfr jts hf`njno js jntfrprftfc ey `n jncjvjcu`m. Cfsjon qu`mjty

rfm`tfs cjrfgtmy tk cjddfrfnt cjhfnsjkns kd prkcugt v`muf efgùsf tafsf cjhfnsjkns

jngmucf ` bucofhfnt èkut gfrt`jn ga`r`gtfrjstjgs. Hkst kd taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd

` eujmcjno `rf gknsjcfrfc `s fvjcfnt `nc knmy mf`c tk gknsgjkus cjss`tjsd`gtjkn jn

g`sf e`sjg rfqujrfhfnts `rf nkt hft. G`sfs kd fxtrfhf pksjtjvf kr nfo`tjvf fxpfrj-

fngfs gkumc mf`c tk ` surprjsf kr ‑wkw‚-fxpfrjfngf.Jncjvjcu`ms `gt jn taf gkntfxt kd tafjr pfrskn`m v`muf systfh, wajga js `ppmjfc

curjno taf bucofhfnt. ajs v`muf systfh jngmucfs taf ok`ms `nc fxpfgt`tjkns kd

taf jncjvjcu`m. Jd `ssfsshfnts `rf h`cf jn orkups, ` v`muf systfh js cfvfmkpfc

`hkno taf hfhefrs kd taf orkup, wajga gkumc jndmufngf taf jncjvjcu`m v`muf

systfh. af jncjvjcu`m v`muf systfh gkumc `msk ef jndmufngfc ey pfrskn`m, skgj`m,

`nc fxtfrn`m v`rjèmfs kd taf gkntfxt. af cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs ta`t `rf ccrfssfc

jn tajs ga`ptfr sakw ta`t cjddfrfngfs jn v`muf bucofhfnts g`n ef `ssjonfc tk `

cjddfrfngf jn taf wfjoat kd v`mufs, taf `hkunt `nc usf kd jndkrh`tjkn curjno taf

bucofhfnt, kr ` cjddfrfngf jn tr`jnjno kd taf fxprfssjkn kr vfre`mjs`tjkn kd prkcugt

fxpfrjfngf. J prfsuhf ta`t taf stòf jn wajga ` prkcugt js jn ‗ ` rfprfsfnt`tjknkd ` duturf prkcugt kr ` paysjg`m kebfgt ‗ js p`rt kd taf jndkrh`tjkn ta`t js `v`jm-

èmf curjno v`muf bucofhfnt. Hkst kd taf pfrspfgtjvfs gknsjcfrfc jn taf prfvjkus

sfgtjkns ck nkt mjni v`muf bucofhfnt tk cfgjsjkn hìjno, eut jhpmjgjtmy suoofst

ta`t ` cfgjsjkn g`n ef sffn `s ` gknsfnsus `hkno v`muf bucofhfnts kd taf orkup

hfhefrs èkut ` prkcugt jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. J tafrfdkrf gkngmucf ta`t

cfgjsjkn hìjno js `n jtfr`tjvf prkgfss kd cjddfrfnt ijncs kd v`muf bucofhfnts, rf-

sumtjno jn cjddfrfnt ijncs kd prkcugt v`mufs. afsf v`mufs `rf nkt f`sy tk suh up

`nc bustjdy `s knf ‑truta‚ efgùsf tafy `rf e`sfc kn pfrgfptjkns kd taf orkup hfh-

efrs. Fvfntu`mmy tafrf gkumc ef gknsfnsus eftwffn orkup hfhefrs ekut cfsjon

qu`mjty. @ssfssjno cfsjon qu`mjty js gknsfqufntmy p`rt kd ` prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno`hkno taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Djourf 5.1 siftgafs taf gkntfxt kd v`muf bucofhfnt

èkut cfsjon qu`mjty.

@s ` rfsumt kd taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn taf jncjvjcu`m `nc taf prkcugt, ` v`muf

bucofhfnt `mw`ys jngmucfs `n fxpfrjfngf ta`t js `ggkhp`njfc wjta `n `ddfgtjvf rf-

spknsf. E`sfc kn taf tafkry `ccrfssfc jn tajs ga`ptfr J prkpksf ta`t tajs `ddfgtjvf

rfspknsf gknsjsts kd tarff gkhpknfnts2 `fstaftjg fxpfrjfngf, fxpfrjfngf kd hf`n-

jno, `nc fhktjkn`m fxpfrjfngf. af cforff tk wajga ` pfrskn h`nòfs tk cftfgt

strugturf, krcfr, kr gkhpmfxjty cftfrhjnfs taf cforff kd prfdfrfngf `nc cfmjoat

dkr ` prkcugt kn `n `fstaftjg mfvfm. af `pprk`ga kd fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy

dkgusfs kn tajs `fstaftjg fxpfrjfngf, wajga sffhs tk a`vf `n fvkmutjkn`ry e`sjs.Jn `rgajtfgturf knf kdtfn dkgusfs kn taf gknnkt`tjvf `spfgts kd ` eujmcjno ta`t

prkvjcf hf`njno, `nc gknsjcfrs taf skgj`m `nc skgjft`m jhp`gt kd ` prkcugt jn taf

eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. af `pprk`ga kd prkcugt fxpfrjfngf dkgusfs kn taf fhktjkn`m

`ppr`js`m kd `n fvfnt kr sjtu`tjkn `s pktfntj`mmy efnfdjgj`m kr a`rhdum tk ` pfrskn.

Drkh taf mjtfr`turf jt rfh`jns ungmf`r jn wa`t sfnsf `nc akw fx`gtmy tajs `ddfg-

tjvf rfspknsf jndmufngfs taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss kd cfsjon qu`mjty nc tafrfdkrf taf

prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno kd gmjfnts.

@rgajtfgts gkumc tìf `cv`ntòf kd taf inkwmfcof jn taf djfmc kd fnvjrknhfnt`m

psygakmkoy, prkcugt fxpfrjfngf, nc djncjnos drkh pkst kggup`ngy fv`mu`tjkns tk

try tk efttfr hfft taf nffcs kd taf gmjfnt wjta tafjr cfsjons (\ajmjp, 0::4). Dkr



74

fx`hpmf, N`s`r (0::3) suoofsts `cbustjno taf mfvfm kd krcfr, d`hjmj`rjty, gkhpmfx-

jty `nc cjsgrfp`ngjfs tk taf `jh kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. Cfsjon rfvjfw sffijno fxgjtf-

hfnt sakumc fngkuròf ajoa gkhpmfxjty, `typjg`mjty `nc mkw krcfr9 cfsjon rfvjfw

sffijno g`mhnfss sakumc fngkuròf ajoa krcfr `nc n`tur`mnfss. ‑_kw‚-fxpfrjfng-

fs sffh jhpkrt`nt tk jngrf`sf s`mf kd ` prkcugt. @ ‑wkw‚-fxpfrjfngf js prkeèmy

e`sfc kn ` pfrgfptjkn kd ajoamy `pprfgj`tfc `nc jntfor`tfc paysjg`m `ttrjeutfs. Jtgkumc `msk ef e`sfc kn knmy knf strjijno df`turf dkr taf rjoat v`muf systfh. Jn taf

gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn cfsjon dkr fhktjkn gkumc ef `n jntfrfstjno str`tfoy

jn krcfr tk jhprkvf taf ga`ngf kn wjnnjno ` tfncfr. ajs akwfvfr rfqujrfs `c-

cjtjkn`m rfsf`rga.

@ v`muf bucofhfnt jngmucfs `n `ssfsshfnt èkut taf mfvfm kd qu`mjty kr v`muf

kd ` prkcugt. Jn hy kpjnjkn hkst pfrspfgtjvfs cjsgussfc jn tajs ga`ptfr cf`m wjta

dkur ofnfr`m mfvfms jn `ssfssjno qu`mjty2 uncfr-pfrdkrh`ngf, e`sjg pfrdkrh`ngf,

`ccfc v`muf, nc fxgfmmfngf. Wkhf utakrs st`tf ta`t taf cjstjngtjkn eftwffn qu`m-

jty `nc v`muf mjfs jn taf kebfgtjvf kr suebfgtjvf ga`r`gtfr kd jts bucofhfnt `nc taf

dr`hf ta`t js usfc tk hìf taf gkhp`rjskn. Ktafrs `ttrjeutf taf suebfgtjvjty `nckebfgtjvjty tk taf ga`r`gtfr kd taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf prkcugt. Jn tajs rfsf`rga J

`ssuhf ta`t taf paysjg`m ga`r`gtfr kr t`nojejmjty kd ` prkcugt qu`mjty hìf jt pks-

sjemf tk cfvfmkp ` gkhhknmy `ggfptfc, `ssfsshfnt systfh. Ufsumts kd `ssfsshfnts

e`sfc kn taf usf kd qu`ntjt`tjvf `ssfsshfnt systfhs `rf usu`mmy hkrf gknsjstfnt

`nc tafrfdkrf pfrgfjvfc `s kebfgtjvf. Dkr prkcugt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t `rf mfss t`n-

ojemf `n `ssfsshfnt systfh js kdtfn eujmt `hkno ` systfh kd (fxpfrt) `ssfsskrs

waksf v`muf bucofhfnts `rf gkhhknmy `ggfptfc. af v`mjcjty kd tafsf ijncs kd

`ssfsshfnts g`n ef hf`surfc ey taf òrffhfnt `hkno taf `ssfsskrs, wajga kd

gkursf ckfs nkt a`vf tk mf`c tk taf s`hf bucofhfnt dkr fvfry `ssfsskr.

Djourf 5.1 Saf gkngfpt kd cfsjon qu`mjty cfnfc `s v`muf bucofhfnt `s ` rfsumt kd taf jntfr`g-

tjkn eftwffn ` prkcugt `nc `n jncjvjcu`m jn taf gkntfxt kd ` v`muf systfh kd ` orkup

fxtfrn`m

d`gtkrs prkcugt qu`mjtjfsv`muf systfh

WS@IFAKMCFU \UKCVGST@MVF

BVCOFHFNS

prkcugt v`mufs

CFWJON PV@MJSZ

• @ssfsshfnt

• @ddfgtjvf rfspknsf

/ /



7?

af kutgkhfs kd `n `ssfsshfnt kd `n jncjvjcu`m (fxpfrt) `ssfsskr js kdtfn pfr-

gfjvfc `s suebfgtjvf ey n`turf `nc tafrfdkrf kd mfssfr v`muf ta`n taf kebfgtjvf

bucofhfnts. Jn g`sf kd jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs taf orf`tfst kebfgtjvjty js kdtfn

grf`tfc tarkuoa jntfr-suebfgtjvf `ssfsshfnt ey ` orkup kd fxpfrts wajga g`n ef

gknsjcfrfc. Jn tkc`y‚s skgjfty, pfrgfjvfc kebfgtjvjty `nc qu`ntjdjg`tjkn sffh tk ef

v`mufc ajoafr ta`n v`mjcjty `nc rfmjèjmjty. Jt `ppf`rs ta`t pfkpmf `ssuhf `n kebfg-tjvf bucofhfnt wjtajn ` st`nc`rcjsfc `ssfsshfnt systfh tk a`vf hkrf prfcjgtjvf

pkwfr ta`n suebfgtjvf bucofhfnt. @ qu`ntjt`tjvf ssfsshfnt prkcugfs nuhfrj-

g`m cfvj`tjkn eftwffn bucofhfnts, wajga g`n tafn ef st`tjstjg`mmy fx`hjnfc tk tfst

jts sjonjdjg`ngf. Akwfvfr, sh`mm cfvj`tjkns wjtajn ` hf`surfhfnt systfh `rf nk

ou`r`ntff ta`t taf v`muf bucofhfnt js v`mjc, rfmjèmf `nc ofnfr`mjsèmf. afrfdkrf

wf g`nnkt cfdjnjtjvfmy gakksf eftwffn kebfgtjvjty kr suebfgtjvf `ssfsshfnts2 okkc

`ssfsshfnts rfqujrf okkc `ssfsshfnt systfhs `c`ptfc tk taf t`si kd bucofhfnt

(Ako`rta, 5<<6). ajs hf`ns ta`t taf cfgjsjkn t`si sakumc cftfrhjnf taf `ssfss-

hfnt systfh. Jd suebfgtjvjty js p`rt kd taf cfgjsjkn t`si, taf systfh sakumc tìf

tajs jntk `ggkunt.E`sfc kn taf tafkry jn tajs ga`ptfr J gkngmucf ta`t `ssfsshfnt systfhs dkr

cfsjon qu`mjty nffc tk tìf jntk `ggkunt ta`t `ddfgtjvf rfspknsfs kggur jn taf jn-

tfr`gtjkn eftwffn ` prkcugt `nc `n jncjvjcu`m. afsf rfspknsfs gkhf tk taf dkrf

knmy `dtfr taf gkndrknt`tjkn wjta taf prkpks`ms kr prfsfnt`tjkns kd taf fntr`nts

kd ` tfncfr. ajs hf`ns ta`t suga ` rfspknsf g`nnkt ef prfcjgtfc `nc taf fx`gt

`spfgts ey wajga taf `ssfsshfnt js h`cf g`nnkt ef inkwn efdkrfa`nc. Ufsf`rga

a`s prkcugfc jnsjoats kn taf cjhfnsjkns kd taf v`muf kd ` prkcugt, suga `s skgj`m,

usfr `nc fgknkhjg v`muf, wajga g`n ef tr`gfc e`gi tk taf fssfntj`ms kd Tjtruvjus

`nc `ppf`r tk ef ` gknst`nt d`gtkr jn cfsjon `ssfsshfnts. afrfdkrf tafy gkumc ef

usfc tk cfvfmkp `n `pprkprj`tf `ssfsshfnt systfh. Jn hy kpjnjkn `n `ssfsshfntkd cfsjon qu`mjty sakumc `mw`ys jngmucf `n jncjvjcu`m gknsjcfr`tjkn kd gksts `nc

efnfdjts. @ rfh`jnjno ga`mmfnof js tk cfsjon ` systfh ta`t jngmucfs akmjstjg `s wfmm

`s cfgkhpksfc qu`mjty `nc tìfs jntk `ggkunt taf ga`nojno v`muf ajfr`rgay kd `s-

sfsskrs `s jncjvjcu`ms `s wfmm `s kn ` orkup mfvfm.

af mjtfr`turf drkh psygakmkoy suoofsts ta`t taf f`sf kd taf `ssfsshfnt kd taf

paysjg`m `ttrjeutfs (ga`r`gtfrjstjgs) kd ` prkcugt rfm`tfs tk taf pktfntj`m cfvj`tjkn

kd taf kutgkhf kd taf `ssfsshfnts eftwffn cjddfrfnt jncjvjcu`ms. af `ssfsshfnts

wjtajn orkups kd cjddfrfnt mfvfms kd fxpfrtjsf `ppf`r nkt tk cjddfr `s huga `s ef-

twffn orkups, eut fvfn tafsf cjddfrfngfs `ppf`r tk ef rfstrjgtfc tk ekta fncs kd

taf sg`mf. Fspfgj`mmy jn fxtrfhf g`sfs kd hkcfrn kr tr`cjtjkn`m cfsjon, fxpfrts`nc nkvjgfs sffh tk gkhf tk cjddfrfnt v`muf bucofhfnts. Fxpfrts kdtfn rfprfsfnt

taf `rgajtfgtur`m kr ` cfsjon rfm`tfc prkdfssjkn`m gkhhunjty. Eut efgùsf kd taf

ajoa jhp`gt kd taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt`m J prkpksf ta`t ` v`muf bucofhfnt sakumc

`msk rfprfsfnt ktafr stìfakmcfrs, suga `s usfrs kr gmjfnts/gustkhfrs. afn taf

qufstjkns `rjsfs wak wkumc ef èmf tk rfprfsfnt taf stìfakmcfrs efst `nc wajga

gkhpftfngfs `rf nffcfc tk ef ` okkc burkr. ajs gkumc rfqujrf `ccjtjkn`m fcug`-

tjkn kr suppkrt dkr skhf burkrs. Fvfn pfkpmf wjta ` cfsjon fcug`tjkn hjoat nffc

tr`jnjno jn krcfr tk ef èmf tk bucof cfsjon qu`mjty kutsjcf taf gkntfxt kd tafjr

kwn jntfrfsts. Durtafr rfsf`rga js rfqujrfc kn taf cjddfrfnt mfvfms kd fxpfrtjsf kd



71

stìfakmcfrs `nc tafjr èjmjtjfs tk `ssfss cfsjon qu`mjty jn rfm`tjkn tk taf gksts `nc

efnfdjts kd usfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn.

af pksjtjkn kd usèjmjty nc dungtjkn`mjty kd ` prkcugt jn rfm`tjkn tk taf `ddfg-

tjvf rfspknsf js stjmm tkpjg kd cfe`tf hkno taf sgakm`rs ccrfssfc jn tajs ga`ptfr.

ajs gkumc krjojn`tf drkh waftafr usèjmjty kr dungtjkn`mjty `rf sffn `s prkcugt

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kr tk jhpmy `ssfsshfnts èkut taf usf kd taf prkcugt. Jt gkumc `mskcfpfnc kn taf cjddfrfngf jn wfjoats kd `ssfsskrs kr cfvfmkpfrs kd taf prkcugt. af

cjddfrfngf eftwffn prf-purga`sf v`muf (prkcugt fxpfgt`tjkns) `nc pkst-purga`sf

v`muf (rf`mjsfc ey usf) `ppf`rs tk ef jntfrwkvfn jn taf cjddfrfnt `pprk`gafs tk cf-

sjon qu`mjty. Jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt v`muf h`nòfhfnt tafkrftjg`mmy mjnis prf-

purga`sf v`muf tk stìfakmcfrs wjta pkst-purga`sf v`muf tk usfrs curjno taf cj`-

mkouf. Jn prkcugt cfsjon rfsf`rgafrs hkstmy dkgus kn prf-purga`sf v`muf, wafrf`s

fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkojsts gkngfntr`tf kn fv`mu`tjkns curjno nc `dtfr usf. af

cjddfrfngf eftwffn ` gmjfnt `nc ` gustkhfr js rfm`tfc tk tafsf v`mufs gkngfpts.

af `rgajtfgtur`m `nc v`muf `pprk`ga ekta `ccrfss taf `gtjvf jnvkmvfhfnt kd `

gmjfnt `nc ktafr stìfakmcfrs curjno taf prkgfss kd cfvfmkphfnt, wafrf`s drkhtaf pfrspfgtjvf kd pfrgfptjkn `nc prkcugt fxpfrjfngf taf usfrs kr gustkhfrs sffh

tk a`vf ` r`tafr p`ssjvf rkmf. Cfpfncjno kn taf pa`sf kd cfvfmkphfnt, taf tfrh

prkcugt js usfc dkr duturf paysjg`m kebfgt (` cfsjon) kr n fxjstjno paysjg`m kebfgt

(` eujmcjno kr gknsuhfr prkcugt). Jn `rgajtfgturf ` prkcugt js ‑ekuoat‚ e`sfc kn

fxpfgtfc kr jntfncfc cfsjon qu`mjty. Jn ta`t sfnsf taf gmjfnt cftfrhjnfs taf qu`mjty

st`nc`rcs, `mtakuoa tafsf jnfvjtèmy ga`nof curjno taf gkursf kd taf prkbfgt. Jt js

vfry mjifmy ta`t taf h`njdfst`tjkn kd taf prkcugt js `msk rfdmfgtfc jn taf `ddfgtjvf

rfspknsf. af ijncs kd gknsjcfr`tjkns h`cf curjno `ssfsshfnts rfdmfgt taf `gtjvf

`nc p`ssjvf rkmf kd taf gmjfnt guh gustkhfr9 taf e`m`ngf eftwffn gksts `nc qu`mj-

tjfs strknomy rfm`tfs tk `n `gtjvf rkmf jn prkcugt cfvfmkphfnt, wajmf taf fxpfrjfn-tj`m rfspknsf jhpmjfs ` p`ssjvf rkmf kd taf gmjfnt/gustkhfr.

Dkr duturf rfsf`rga jt wkumc ef jntfrfstjno tk inkw hkrf èkut taf rfm`tjkn

eftwffn taf cjhfnsjkns kd gkhpmfxjty, pmf`surf `nc `rkus`m jn rfm`tjkn tk taf

eujmcjno ga`r`gtfrjstjgs wajga gùsf surprjsf kr gkntrjeutf tk taf ‑wkw‚-fddfgt

tk cjddfrfnt stìfakmcfr orkups jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. Ako`rta (0:11) jn-

trkcugfc taf cjddfrfngf eftwffn gkhpfns`tkry `nc nkn-gkhpfns`tkry hkcfms

kd v`muf bucofhfnt tk `ccrfss taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn ` tkt`m suh kd òorfo`tfc

sgkrfs `nc gkhpfns`tjno `spfgts. ajs gkngfpt sffhs tk ef `ppmjgèmf tk taf js-

sufs jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon `nc nffcs durtafr fxpmkr`tjkn jn taf djfmc kd cfsjon

`ssfsshfnt. af m`gi kd fhpjrjg`m c`t` jn taf djfmcs kd `rgajtfgturf `nc gknstrug-tjkn h`nòfhfnt hjoat ef fxpm`jnfc ey taf d`gt ta`t prkcugts g`n ef hkrf f`sjmy

pjmktfc ta`n eujmcjnos. Hkgi-ups hìf prkcugt cfvfmkphfnt hkrf rf`mjstjg `nc

cyn`hjg, eut sjhjm`r prkemfhs cjc nkt prfvfnt ktafr djfmcs kd sgjfngf drkh cf-

vfmkpjno ` rfsf`rga tr`cjtjkn. af a`ncs-kn `nc pròh`tjg gumturf wjta mjhjtfc

`ttfntjkn dkr systfh`tjg inkwmfcof cfvfmkphfnt hjoat ef `nktafr rf`skn dkr taf

m`gi kd fhpjrjg`m wkri. Jn rfm`tjkn tk prkgfss h`nòfhfnt taf djfmcs kd `rgajtfg-

turf `nc gknstrugtjkn h`nòfhfnt gkumc efnfdjt orf`tmy drkh stucjfs jn taf djfmc

kd pkmjtjg`m sgjfngf, okvfrn`ngf, puemjg cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc usfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn

prkcugt cfsjon. afsf djfmcs hjoat `msk safc mjoat jntk taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn `

gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty jn ` mfo`m sfnsf `nc ` gmjfnt jn rf`m mjdf. @mm pfrspfgtjvfs cjs-



7:

gussfc jn tajs ga`ptfr ck nkt ccrfss taf jssufs kd mjèjmjty ekut taf gknsfqufngfs

kd ` v`muf bucofhfnt `nc taf cjddfrfnt jcfntjtjfs rfprfsfntfc ey `n jncjvjcu`m.

Jnsjoats drkh cfgjsjkn hìjno tafkrjfs gkumc gkntrjeutf tk inkwmfcof èkut taf

mfvfm kd fxpfrjfngf ta`t js rfqujrfc tk hìf pprkprj`tf ssfsshfnts nc taf cfvfm-

kphfnt kd skunc ssfsshfnt systfhs jn krcfr tk hìf cfgjsjkns nc pursuf gtjkn

jn cfsjon. Jn Ga`ptfr 7 sfvfr`m cfgjsjkn hìjno tafkrjfs `rf cjsgussfc jn rfm`tjkntk taf prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn `nc v`muf bucofhfnts èkut cfsjon qu`mjty.



30

Ga`ptfr 7

BVCOFHFNS @NC CFGJWJKN H@IJNO

7.0 Jntrkcugtjkn

af djfmc kd cfgjsjkn hìjno kddfrs ` erk`c r`nof kd pfrspfgtjvfs kn jncjvjcu`m

cfgjsjkn hìjno `s wfmm `s cfgjsjkn hìjno jn orkups kr kro`njs`tjkns. af djfmc

a`s mkno rfsf`rga tr`cjtjkn wjta cjvfrsjty kd rfsf`rga hftakcs jngmucjno fxpfrj-

hfnts, survfys, kesfrv`tjkns, jntfrvjfws, `nc humtjpmf rfsf`rga cjsgjpmjnfs suga

`s psygakmkoy, `chjnjstr`tjvf efa`vjkur, fgknkhjgs, skgjkmkoy `nc `ntarkpkmkoy.

_ajmf taf djrst ofnfr`tjkn kd tafkrjfs trf`tfc cfgjsjkn hìjno `s r`tjkn`m prkgfss

ìjn tk hìjno gakjgfs jn ` o`hf, hkrf rfgfnt tafkrjfs stucy cfgjsjkn hìjno jnrf`m-mjdf gkntfxts `nc jngmucf jntujtjkn, `ddfgt `nc fhktjkn. @t taf s`hf tjhf, taf

sgkpf `msk erk`cfnfc drkh jnvfstjo`tjno jncjvjcu`m, gkonjtjvf prkgfssfs kd cfgj-

sjkn hìjno tk `ccrfssjno skgj`m `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m jndmufngfs. @ttfntjkn tk taf

jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn jncjvjcu`m, orkup `nc taf kro`njs`tjkn`m jndmufngfs js nffcfc

tk jngrf`sf taf uncfrst`ncjno kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. _fjgi (0:4:) jntrkcugfc taf

gkngfpt kd sfnsfhìjno, wajga fxpm`jnfc ta`t pfkpmf fn`gt tafjr fnvjrknhfnt

wafn tafy hìf sfnsf kd jt `nc `gt upkn tafjr jntfrprft`tjkn. F`ga ofnfr`tjkn kd

tafkrjfs eujmcs kn taf wkri kd taf prfvjkus ofnfr`tjkn. ajs hf`ns ta`t tafkrjfs

ck nkt gkhpftf kn fvfry `spfgt `nc kdtfn `rf gkhpmfhfnt`ry. af prfdfrfngf dkr

` gfrt`jn ijnc kd cfgjsjkn tafkry sffhs tk cfpfnc kn taf djfmc kd sgjfngf. Jn fgk-nkhjgs `nc fnojnffrjno, taf f`rmy hkcfms kd cfgjsjkn tafkry `nc djrst ofnfr`tjkn

tafkrjfs sffh tk ef prfdfrrfc, wajmf hkst kd taf wkri jn skgj`m `nc h`nòfhfnt

sgjfngfs js e`sfc kn djrst `nc sfgknc ofnfr`tjkn tafkrjfs.

ajs ga`ptfr prkvjcfs `n kvfrvjfw kd taf psygakmkojg`m `spfgts ta`t sffh hkst

rfmfv`nt dkr bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf gkntfxt kd sfmfgtjno `n `rgaj-

tfgt. Jt fmèkr`tfs kn taf cfdjnjtjkn kd cfsjon qu`mjty `s ` v`muf bucofhfnt drkh

Ga`ptfr 5. af pkmjtjg`m, gumtur`m `nc mfo`m gkntfxt jn wajga puemjg gmjfnts fn`gt

wjmm ef cjsgussfc jn Ga`ptfr 3. koftafr taf djrst dkur ga`ptfrs prkvjcf taf e`sjs

dkr taf tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri jn Ga`ptfr 6. af ga`ptfr st`rts wjta `n kvfrvjfw

kd tarff ofnfr`tjkns kd cfgjsjkn tafkry (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<69 Akcoijnskn &Wt`reugi, 5<<1`). af rfmfv`ngf kd f`ga ofnfr`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn tafkry tk sfmfgtjno

`n `rgajtfgt js cjsgussfc. af uncfrmyjno taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf ofnfr`tjkns

kd cfgjsjkn tafkry rfdmfgt pktfntj`m skurgfs kd gkndmjgt eftwffn r`tjkn`mjty `nc jn-

tujtjkn. ajs js fxpmkrfc jn taf sfgknc sfgtjkn. afn taf `gtu`m prkgfssfs kd hì-

jno cfgjsjkns `rf cfsgrjefc. af cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs `nc d`gtkrs kd jndmufngf `rf

djrst cjsgussfc kn taf jncjvjcu`m nc tafn kn taf tf`h mfvfm. af ga`ptfr fncs wjta

` sakrt rfdmfgtjkn `nc gkngmusjkn jn rfm`tjkn tk taf prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn.



35

7.5 Sarff ofnfr`tjkns kd cfgjsjkn tafkry

ajs sfgtjkn `ccrfssfs taf tarff ofnfr`tjkns kd tafkrjfs jn taf djfmc kd cfgjsjkn

hìjno. af f`rmy hkcfms kd cfgjsjkn tafkry dkgusfc kn akw jncjvjcu`m pfkpmf

sakumc hìf cfgjsjkns. afsf hkcfms `ssuhf ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs `rf g`pèmf kd

hìjno r`tjkn`m cfgjsjkns efgùsf tafy `rf dummy jndkrhfc `nc èmf tk fstjh`tf

taf rjsis kd h`xjhuh utjmjty kd ` cfgjsjkn. _afn Wjhkn dkunc ta`t taf r`tjkn`m-jty kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs js `gtu`mmy ekuncfc (Wjhkn, 0::?, 0st fcjtjkn puemjsafc

jn 0:3?), ` nfw ofnfr`tjkn kd efa`vjkur`m cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs st`rtfc tk cfvfmkp.

ajs ofnfr`tjkn dkgusfs kn taf usf kd afurjstjgs `s cfgjsjkn rumfs. Wgakm`rs jn taf

`rf` kd n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkn hìjno stucy cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn rf`m mjdf jn krcfr tk

kesfrvf akw cfgjsjkns `rf h`cf wafn jndkrh`tjkn js èsfnt, wa`t taf jndmufngf

kd taf kro`njs`tjkn`m gkntfxt js, wa`t rkmf fhktjkns, jntujtjkn `nc `ddfgt pm`y jn

cfgjsjkn hìjno ftg. ajs efg`hf taf sfgknc ofnfr`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs. Jn

tajs sfgtjkn mm tarff ofnfr`tjkns rf sakrtmy cfsgrjefc nc ppmjfc kn taf sjtu`tjkn

kd rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns.

7.5.0 F`rmy hkcfms kd cfgjsjkn tafkry

F`rmy hkcfms kd cfgjsjkn tafkry g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ofnfr`tjkn zfrk jn cfgjsjkn

hìjno. Hkst kd tafsf hkcfms wfrf prfsgrjptjvf jn n`turf, j.f. tafy cfsgrjef akw

pfkpmf (jncjvjcu`ms kr kro`njs`tjkns) sakumc efa`vf jn krcfr tk dumdjm taf rfqujrf-

hfnts kd r`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno. \rfsgrjptjvf tafkrjfs `ssuhf ta`t `n jcf`m cf-

gjsjkn hìfr js dummy jndkrhfc, èmf tk gkhputf wjta h`xjhuh `ggur`gy, `nc

`gts gkhpmftfmy r`tjkn`mmy jn krcfr tk strjvf dkr h`xjhjz`tjkn kd taf suebfgtjvf

fxpfgtfc utjmjty jn ` cfgjsjkn (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). Gakjgfs `rf sffn `s efts

wjta ` prkeèjmjstjg r`nof kd kutgkhfs kd v`rjkus utjmjtjfs. ajs mjnf kd rf`sknjnost`rtfc wjta taf utjmjty tafkry kd Efrnkummj (0?71) `nc E`yfs‚s (0?47) tafkrfh kd

prkeèjmjty tafkry. af fxpfgtfc utjmjty tafkry kd vkn Nfuh`nn `nc Hkrofnstfrn

(0:3?) g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s knf kd taf djrst prfsgrjptjvf cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs `nc taf

h`bkr cfgjsjkn p`r`cjoh sjngf _krmc _`r JJ.

af prjsknfr‚s cjmfhh` (vkn Nfuh`nn & Hkrofnstfrn, 0:3?) `nc taf e`sjg

cfgjsjkn cjmfhh` (Efan & Tùpfm, 0:15) `rf fx`hpmfs kd o`hfs ò`jnst kppk-

nfnts e`sfc kn taf o`hemjno `n`mkoy jn prfsgrjptjvf cfgjsjkn tafkry. af utjmjty

dungtjkn `ssuhfs ta`t prfdfrfngf rfdmfgts ekta taf v`muf kd taf kutgkhf kd ` cfgj-

sjkn tk ` cfgjsjkn hìfr `nc ajs kr afr dffmjnos èkut rjsis. afrf `rf v`rjkus vfr-

sjkns kd utjmjty tafkry eut tafy `mw`ys gknnfgt, jntfrrfm`tf `nc suh up v`mufs `ncrjsis (vkn _jntfrdfmct & Fcw`rcs, 0:14). arff ijncs kd rf`m wkrmc prkeèjmjtjfs

fxjst ta`t hìf jt pkssjemf tk utjmjsf taf kptjkns jn cfgjsjkn hìjno (Ef`ga &

Gknnkmmy, 5<<69 Ojofrfnzfr, 0::0)2 nfgfss`ry prkeèjmjty wjta tafkrftjg`m ga`ngfs

(f.o. ` cjgf a`s sjx sjcfs), drfqufntjstjg prkeèjmjty ta`t prfcjgts mkno-run prke-

èjmjtjfs (f.o. taf rfsumts kd taf prfvjkus tarkws), `nc suebfgtjvf kr pfrskn`m prke-

èjmjty ta`t fstjh`tfs prkeèjmjtjfs kd unjquf fvfnts (f.o. pfrskn`m takuoats èkut

taf kccs). Ufsf`rga a`s sakwn ta`t suebfgtjvf prkeèjmjty cfpfncs kn taf ijnc kd

`ssfsshfnt, taf st`tfc prkeèjmjty, `nc rfm`tjvf drfqufngy jn taf wkrcjno kd taf

qufstjkns, wajmf dkr taf ktafr ijncs kd prkeèjmjtjfs `ggur`gy `nc gkafrfngf `rf

hkst jhpkrt`nt.



37

Cfgjsjkn hìfrs sffh tk usf cjddfrfnt str`tfojfs dkr cjddfrfnt bucofhfnt`m t`sis

jn cjddfrfnt bucofhfnt`m fnvjrknhfnts. af pr`gtjg`m `ppmjg`tjkn kd prfsgrjptjvf

tafkry js g`mmfc cfgjsjkn `n`mysjs `nc js `jhfc `t cfvfmkpjno tkkms `nc hftakcs tk

afmp pfkpmf hìjno efttfr cfgjsjkns, suga `s cfgjsjkn trffs `nc cfgjsjkn h`trjgfs.

Wystfh`tjg skdtw`rf tkkms `rf `v`jmèmf `s cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfhs jn eusjnfss `s

wfmm `s jn cfsjon `nc fnojnffrjno. _jfrzejgij (0::?) dkunc ta`t humtj-grjtfrj`cfgjsjkn `jcs e`sfc kn f`rmy cfgjsjkn hkcfms ck nkt suppkrt taf `gtu`m gakjgf ef-

gùsf tajs gakjgf js kdtfn h`cf jntujtjvfmy. afrfdkrf af suoofsts ta`t jnstruhfnts

sakumc gkngfntr`tf hkrf kn suppkrtjno f`rmjfr stòfs kd cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs ta`t

prfgfcf gakjgf.

Vtjmjty tafkry `nc prkeèjmjty tafkry `rf tafkrjfs èkut `ssjonjno nuhefrs

tk fvfnts `nc nkt èkut wa`t js v`muèmf tk cfgjsjkn hìfrs. af efnfdjt kd taf

rfsf`rga jn tajs tr`cjtjkn js taf `ttfntjkn ojvfn tk rfpftjtjvf `nc sh`mm cfgjsjkns

gkhhkn jn c`jmy mjdf nc taf mf`rnjno fddfgts ta`t kggur jn tafsf sjtu`tjkns (Eftsga,

5<<6). Fhpjrjg`m rfsf`rga a`s ofnfr`mmy sakwn ta`t taf `gtu`m prfdfrfngfs `nc

cfgjsjkn efa`vjkur `rf nkt jn mjnf wjta utjmjty `nc prkeèjmjty tafkry (Ef`ga &Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). af h`jn rf`skns dkr tajs `rf prkeèmy ta`t hkst rf`m mjdf cfgj-

sjkns g`nnkt ef sffn `s o`hemjno prkemfhs. @mtakuoa pfkpmf skhftjhfs pfrgfjvf

rjsis `nc fstjh`tf tafjr ga`ngfs, tafy ck nkt utjmjsf tafjr kptjkns `s r`tjkn`mmy `s

js `ssuhfc. Jn c`jmy mjdf cfgjsjkns `rf d`r hkrf gkhpmfx ta`n prkpksfc jn mèkr`-

tkry fxpfrjhfnts. Vsu`mmy jndkrh`tjkn ekut mtfrn`tjvfs js èsfnt nc gkntfxtu`m

d`gtkrs jndmufngf taf sjtu`tjkn. afrfdkrf jt js a`rc dkr cfgjsjkn hìfrs tk o`jn `n

kvfrvjfw taf jndkrh`tjkn v`jmèmf nc taf gknsfqufngfs kd gtjkns. Ufgfnt cfvfm-

kphfnts kd cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfhs jn cfsjon usf cjddfrfnt stìfakmcfr jntfrfsts

(v`n Mkkn, Afurifns, & Erkniakrst, 5<<1) kr duzzy mkojg (Ejttfrh`nn, 5<<:) tk

jhjt`tf auh`n rf`sknjno jn taf gkntfxt kd orkups tk suppkrt cfgjsjkn hìjno.Eut wa`tfvfr taf qu`mjtjfs kd suga systfhs, jt stjmm ckfs nkt ga`nof ta`t d`gt ta`t

taf `gtu`m cfgjsjkn g`nnkt ef tìfn ey taf systfh eut a`s tk ef h`cf ey taf cfgj-

sjkn hìfrs tafhsfmvfs.

Jn ofnfr`m tfncfrjno tafkry `ssuhfs ta`t taf kptjhuh ejc a`s twk gkhpk-

nfnts2 taf fstjh`tfc gksts kd fxfgutjno taf prkbfgt `nc ` str`tfoy dkr h`xjhjz-

jno prkdjt wajga gknstjtutfs ` gknst`nt h`ri-up (Uunfskn & Wijthkrf, 0:::).

Akwfvfr, `s sakwn ey Uunfskn `nc Wijthkrf (0:::), tfncfrjno tafkry ckfs nkt

pfrdkrh wfmm jn tfrhs kd `ggur`gy kd dkrfg`sts `nc jndkrh`tjvf gkntfnt. Jt sakws

jngknsjstfngjfs jn taf mkojg kd `ssuhfc prkdjt h`xjhjz`tjkn efa`vjkur `nc js nkt

e`sfc kn ` skunc tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri. ajs sffhs, dkr fx`hpmf, cuf tk taf d`gtta`t eujmcfrs `gtu`mmy ck nkt sfmm prkcugts eut sijmms `nc sfrvjgfs, ta`t tafsf sijmms

`rf skmc kn cjddfrfnt h`rifts, ta`t mf`rnjno tìfs pm`gf, ta`t auh`ns `rf ekunc-

fcmy r`tjkn`m, ta`t prjgfs `nc h`ri-ups `rf `ddfgtfc ey ga`nofs jn cfh`nc, ta`t

gkntr`gtkrs skhftjhfs `gt str`tfojg`mmy kr pròh`tjg`mmy, `nc ta`t taf `ggur`gy kd

gkst fstjh`tfs js ofnfr`mmy vfry mkw. Cfspjtf tafsf jn`cfqu`gjfs cfgjsjkn trffs `nc

cfgjsjkn h`trjgfs g`n suppkrt taf e`sjg gakjgfs kd ` tfncfr prkgfcurf, taf `w`rc

hfga`njsh kr ktafr prjngjpmf gakjgfs kd taf tfncfr prkgfcurf.

Cjddfrfnt sskgj`tjkns (f.o. @rgajtfgtuur Mki``m, 5<<:e9 Ga`k-Cujvjs, Iknjno,

Wpfiijni, & Wùfrwfjn, 5<<?9 GUK_ & E`m`ngf `nc Ufsumts, 5<<:) a`vf cfvfm-

kpfc gkhpftjtjkn `nc tfncfr hkcfms dkr taf Cutga gkntfxt, wajga rfdmfgt taf kp-



33

pkrtunjtjfs prkvjcfc ey prkgurfhfnt m`w nc taf uncfrmyjno gknsjcfr`tjkns jn sf-

mfgtjno `n `mtfrn`tjvf dkr ` tfncfr prkbfgt. af ckgtkr`m tafsjs kd H`rgk Crfsgamfr

(5<<:) prkpksfs dkr fx`hpmf ` cfgjsjkn trff wjta kptjkns dkr taf `w`rc hfga`-

njsh dkr taf fgknkhjg`mmy hkst `cv`ntòfkus tfncfr. Jn gurrfnt tfncfr prkbfgts

cfgjsjkn h`trjgfs rf kdtfn usfc tk bustjdy sfmfgtjkn kr w`rc cfgjsjkn ey sakwjno

taf sgkrfs kd taf prkpks`ms kn taf grjtfrj` `nc tafjr rfm`tjvf wfjoats. Jn tajs sfnsftaf h`trjx js usfc `s ` Humtj-Grjtfrj` @n`mysjs (HG@).

7.5.5 Djrst ofnfr`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs

af djrst ofnfr`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs w`s m`rofmy jndmufngfc ey Wjhkn‚s wkri kn

‚ekuncfc r`tjkn`mjty‚ (Wjhkn, 0::?, djrst fcjtjkn 0:3?). af gkngfpt kd ekuncfc

r`tjkn`mjty js e`sfc kn taf prjngjpmf ta`t efgùsf taf g`p`gjty kd taf auh`n hjnc

js d`r tkk sh`mm tk dkrhum`tf `nc skmvf `mm prkemfhs `nc skmutjkn `mtfrn`tjvfs jn `

dummy r`tjkn`m h`nnfr, pfkpmf gakksf p`ta jn cfgjsjkn hìjno ta`t ‑s`tjsdjfs‚ tafjr

nffcs r`tafr ta`n sf`rga dkr n kptjhuh s ssuhfc jn utjmjty tafkry. ajs nktjkn

efg`hf taf st`rt kd taf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf tafkrjfs ta`t tkki taf `gtu`m prkgfss

kd cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc taf kro`njs`tjkn`m gkntfxt kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfr jntk `g-

gkunt (H`rga & Wjhkn, 0:61). afsf djrst ofnfr`tjkn cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs gknsjst

kn taf knf a`nc kd gkngfpts e`sfc kn bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno, suga `s

prkspfgt tafkry, `nc kn taf ktafr a`nc kn efa`vjkur`m tafkrjfs e`sfc kn taf usf

kd ofnfr`m rumfs kd tauhe jn cfgjsjkn hìjno g`mmfc afurjstjgs.

Ufsf`rga jntk sk-g`mmfc rfdfrfngf cfpfncfngy a`s sakwn ta`t taf utjmjty gkn-

gfpt w`s `gtu`mmy hkrf gkhpmjg`tfc ta`n krjojn`mmy takuoat efgùsf pfkpmf tfnc

tk v`muf cjddfrfnt g`tfokrjfs kd hknfy cjddfrfntmy. Iànfh`n `nc vfrsiy (0:?:)

jngkrpkr`tfc tajs `pprk`ga jn tafjr prkspfgt tafkry. \rkspfgt tafkry `ssuhfs ta`t

taf v`muf kd `n ungfrt`jn ‑prkspfgt‚ js cftfrhjnfc ey ` wfjoatfc `vfròf kd taf

cfgjsjkn hìfr‚s v`mu`tjkns kd taf v`rjkus gknsfqufngfs kd taf prkspfgt, wafrf

taf wfjoats rfdmfgt ajs kr afr `ssfsshfnt kd taf mjifmjakkc kd f`ga gknsfqufngf.

Jn prkspfgt tafkry taf v`muf dkmmkws `n ‑W‚ p`ttfrn wjta stffp p`rts jn wajga mkss

kr o`jn `rf pfrgfjvfc `s hkrf fxtrfhf ta`n wkumc ef fxpfgtfc jn ` mjnf`r dung-

tjkn. af dungtjkn ckfs nkt gkunt tkt`m wf`mta, eut g`mgum`tfs taf suh kd o`jns

`nc mkssfs drkh `n `ngakr pkjnt `nc cfgjsjkn wfjoats jnstf`c kd dkrh`m kr suebfg-

tjvf prkeèjmjtjfs (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). af rfsumts kd prkspfgt tafkry `rf

rfh`rièmy rkeust, `nc `ggkunt dkr ` wjcf r`nof kd gakjgfs jn mèkr`tkry sfttjnos.

afy `rf gkhhknmy usfc jn fgknkhjg `n`mysjs. af h`jn grjtjgjshs kd prkspfgttafkry gkngfrn taf `ssuhptjkn kd ` p`ssjvf `ttjtucf kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs `nc ktafr

psygakmkojg`m fddfgts suga `s mugi, ofttjno fvfn `nc fxgjtfhfnt jn rf`m mjdf fvfnts.

Wt`rtjno wjta Fcw`rcs (0:40), efa`vjkur`m cfgjsjkn tafkrjsts a`vf dkgusfc

kn djncjno w`ys jn wajga auh`n gakjgf cfvj`tfs drkh h`xjhjz`tjkn kd suebfg-

tjvf fxpfgtfc utjmjty ey jcfntjdyjno ` v`rjfty kd rumfs kd tauhe g`mmfc ‑afurjstjgs‚

(Iànfh`n, Wmkvjg, & vfrsiy, 0:15). afsf ofnfr`m rumfs kd tauhe rfcugf taf

tjhf `nc fddkrt rfqujrfc tk hìf rf`sknèmf bucofhfnts `nc cfgjsjkns, fspfgj`mmy

jn rkutjnf cfgjsjkns (Gyfrt & H`rga, 0:47). af tarff h`jn afurjstjgs prkpksfc

ey Iànfh`n `nc gkmmfòufs `rf taf ‑rfprfsfnt`tjvf afurjstjg‚, taf ‑`v`jmèjmjty

afurjstjg‚ `nc taf ‑`ngakrjno `nc `cbustjno afurjstjg‚. af rfprfsfnt`tjvf afu-rjstjg hf`ns ta`t cfgjsjkns tfnc tk rfdmfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd uncfrmyjno prkgfssfs



36

`nc fvfnts ta`t `rf sjhjm`r eut nkt taf s`hf. af afurjstjg e`sfc kn `v`jmèjmjty

cfsgrjefs ta`t curjno cfgjsjkn hìjno f`sy fx`hpmfs `rf usfc ta`t ‑a`ppfn tk ef

`v`jmèmf‚ efgùsf kd tafjr drfqufngy kr prkeèjmjty. _afn taf `ngakrjno & cbust-

hfnt afurjstjg ppmjfs taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs usfs n jnjtj`m oufss dkr taf djrst fstjh`-

tjkn `nc hìfs `cbusthfnts tk tajs `ngakr v`muf.

Jt js stjmm nkt gmf`r wa`t fx`gtmy taf v`muf kd taf gkngfpt kd afurjstjgs `nc ej-`sfs js. Jt gmf`rmy jnspjrfc mkt kd rfsf`rgafrs tk n`mysf ej`sfs, taf hjstìfs pfkpmf

hìf jn prkeèjmjty fstjh`tjkn. af rfprfsfnt`tjvfnfss afurjstjg gkumc dkr fx`h-

pmf gùsf wrknodum efmjfd jn taf m`w kd taf sh`mm nuhefrs (taf efmjfd ta`t r`nckh

s`hpmfs kd ` pkpum`tjkn wjmm rfsfhemf f`ga ktafr `nc taf pkpum`tjkn hkrf gmksfmy

ta`n st`tjstjg`m s`hpmjno tafkry wkumc ck), ` nfomfgt kd taf e`sf r`tf jndkrh`tjkn

(taf tfncfngy tk jonkrf taf rfm`tjvf drfqufngy wjta wajga `n fvfnt kggurs), `nc `

nfomfgt kd cjònkstjgjty kd jndkrh`tjkn (taf tfncfngy tk hìf ‑nkn-rforfssjvf‚ prf-

cjgtjkns wafn nkt `ppmjgèmf) (\mkus, 0::7). afsf afurjstjgs gkumc strknomy jn-

dmufngf taf prkeèjmjty fstjh`tjkn wjtajn cfgjsjkns. Ufsf`rga kn afurjstjgs sffhs

tk prkvf ta`t wjtakut afmp kr `ttfntjkn skhf `pp`rfntmy sjhpmf prkeèjmjty prke-mfhs g`n ef trjgiy. Afurjstjgs `msk afmp tk eujmc ` gùs`m hkcfm dkr uncfrst`nc-

jno cfgjsjkn sjtu`tjkns. @msk jn m`w taf rkmf kd afurjstjgs curjno bucofs‚ cfmjefr`-

tjkns, taf cjddfrfngf eftwffn mfojtjhjz`tjkn `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc cf-ej`sjno

tfganjqufs curjno g`sfs `rf cjsgussfc (@rifs, 0:1:9 Njfuwfnaujs, 0:?49 Tjssfr,

5<<:). Ojofrfnzfr `nc gkmmfòufs (5<<0) suoofst ta`t `n `mtfrn`tjvf g`tfokry kd

afurjstjgs, taf ‑d`st `nc druo`m‚ afurjstjgs, h`tga taf jndkrh`tjkn`m strugturf `nc

cfh`ncs kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn ` hkrf fgkmkojg`m `nc efttfr w`y. afy cfvfmkpfc

taf `c`ptjvf tkkmijt wajga hìfs pfkpmf hìf ‑sh`rt‚ cfgjsjkn jn tfrhs kd tjhf,

inkwmfcof nc gkonjtjvf gkhput`tjkn.

H`nòfhfnt `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m sgjfntjsts ekrrkwfc ` pmftakr` kd tfrhs drkhtaf e`sjg gkonjtjvf sgjfngfs (hfnt`m hkcfms, sgrjpts, gkonjtjvf h`ps, sgafh`t`)

tk jhprkvf tafjr uncfrst`ncjno kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Wtjmm taf gkngfpts `s dkunc

jn taf kro`njs`tjkn`m efa`vjkur mjtfr`turf m`gi tafkrftjg`m suest`ngf `nc `rf tkk

ofnfr`m tk fxpm`jn cfgjsjkn sjtu`tjkns (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). af mjhjt`tjkns

kd tajs typf kd rfsf`rga m`y jn jts gknsjcfrfc gkntfxt cfpfncfngy, jts rfmj`ngf kn

mèkr`tkry fxpfrjhfnts wjta stucfnts, jts m`gi kd grkss gumtur`m krjfnt`tjkn nc taf

d`gt ta`t rfsf`rgafrs `rf vumnfrèmf tk taf s`hf ej`sfs tafy ck rfsf`rga kn (\mkus,

0::7). @ggkrcjno tk Akcoijnskn nc Wt`reugi (5<<1e) efa`vjkur`m cfgjsjkn taf-

kry a`s h`cf nk sjonjdjg`nt gkntrjeutjkns ta`t tìf hf`njnodum `ggkunt kd skgj`m

jntfr`gtjkn kr kro`njs`tjkn`m gkhpmfxjty. @ nffc dkr hkrf efa`vjkur`m rfsf`rga jnpr`gtjgf fxjsts efgùsf ”prkemfhs jcfntjdjfc jn pr`gtjgf sfmckh gkrrfspknc tk knmy

knf kr ` dfw sgjfntjdjg cjsgjpmjnfs `nc knf kr knmy ` dfw kro`njs`tjkn`m spfgj`mjz`-

tjkns‘ (Ijfsfr & _fmmstfjn, 5<<1, p. 6<:). Wjhjm`rmy Ef`ga `nc Gknnkmmy (5<<6)

pmf`c dkr hkrf rfsf`rga ta`t dkgusfs kn jhpmjg`tjkns dkr pr`gtjgf jnstf`c kd n`myz-

jno ej`sfs tk fxpm`jn cfvj`tjkns kd afurjstjgs.

Dkmmkwjno ` mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf, tfncfr sjtu`tjkns g`n ef uncfrstkkc jn tfrhs kd

djrst ofnfr`tjkn cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs kd r`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno. \rkgurfhfnt rfou-

m`tjkns rfqujrf ta`t cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` dkr gkhp`rjskn kd taf `mtfrn`tjvfs `rf inkwn

efdkrfa`nc. af prkpks`ms suehjttfc ey taf `rgajtfgts dkrh taf cfgjsjkn `mtfr-

n`tjvfs. afsf prkpks`ms jngmucf jndkrh`tjkn ta`t gkumc ef fxpmjgjtmy gkhp`rfc,



34

suga `s taf prjgf, sust`jnèjmjty sgkrf kr tkt`m `rf` jn squ`rf hftfrs, jn krcfr tk

hìf ` gakjgf `hkno taf `mtfrn`tjvfs. afrfdkrf prkgurfhfnt cfgjsjkn hìjno

sffhs tk ef ` h`ttfr kd fstjh`tjkn kd taf prkeèjmjty dkr duturf qu`mjty. af `c`p-

tjvf tkkmijt kd Ojofrfnzfr `nc gkmmfòufs (5<<09 0:::) wjta d`st `nc druo`m afu-

rjstjgs sffhs sujtèmf tk `ppmy jn tafsf ijncs kd sjtu`tjkns. afrfdkrf ej`sfs f`sjmy

kggur. @ggkrcjno tk Wjhkn (0::?) ` cfgjsjkn g`n ef gknsjcfrfc r`tjkn`m `s mkno`s taf pfrspfgtjvf jn wajga taf cfgjsjkn js tìfn js gm`rjdjfc, wajga js taf g`sf dkr

mfo`m rfqujrfhfnts ta`t `ssuhf ` r`tjkn`m gkhp`rjskn kd `mtfrn`tjvfs kn taf e`sjs

kd wfjoatfc grjtfrj`. Akwfvfr, tfncfrs kggur jn kro`njs`tjkns `gtjno jn ` pkmjtjg`m

fnvjrknhfnt wjta sfvfr`m orkups kd stìfakmcfrs wak w`nt tk ef jngmucfc. ajs

hf`ns ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs ck nkt `gt `s jncjvjcu`ms, `nc prkgfssfs `rf kdtfn jn-

grfhfnt`m jn krcfr tk grf`tf cfgjsjkn suppkrt. Jn tajs sfnsf cfgjsjkns g`nnkt `msk

nkt ef gkhp`rfc wjta v`muf bucofhfnt kd jncfpfncfnt fxpfrts, wajga js dkr fx-

`hpmf taf g`sf curjno or`nt suehjssjkns jn rt (Afiifrt & v`n _jfrjnofn, 0::1).

Cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` `rf cfvfmkpfc curjno taf wakmf tfncfr prkgfss (Irfjnfr, 5<<4)

`nc `rf p`rt kd taf sfnsfhìjno prkgfss (_fjgi, 0::6). @ccjtjkn`mmy, cfsjons `mskjngmucf mfss t`nojemf `spfgts suga `s `fstaftjgs, jntfor`tjkn jn taf surrkuncjnos,

stymf, `nc duturf v`muf. ”Jssufs kd cfsjon qu`mjty bucofhfnt `rf kdtfn tfstfc jn `

djfmc kd tfnsjkn strftgajno drkh tfganjqufs `nc dungtjkns wjtajn taf prkpks`m tk

`fstaftjg fxpfrjfngfs‘ (I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:). ajs hf`ns ta`t tafsf `spfgts

`rf suebfgtjvf ey n`turf `nc g`nnkt ef skmfmy e`sfc kn `n jncfpfncfnt `ssfsshfnt

systfh.

7.5.7 Wfgknc ofnfr`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs

af sfgknc ofnfr`tjkn kd efa`vjkur`m cfgjsjkn tafkry, `msk g`mmfc n`tur`mjstjg rf-

sf`rga nc tafkry, kddfrs mtfrn`tjvfs tk taf o`hemjno prjngjpmf ey cfsgrjejno hkrf

rf`mjstjg`mmy akw cfgjsjkns `rf `gtu`mmy h`cf (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). afsf

tafkrjfs a`vf, untjm nkw, h`jnmy dkgusfc kn prkdfssjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìfrs `nc taf

gkonjtjvf prkgfssfs tafy fnoòf jn wajmf hìjno cfgjsjkns jn prf-gakjgf prkg-

fssfs (Rs`heki, 0::?). Jntujtjkn, `ddfgt, hkkc `nc fhktjkns a`vf efgkhf hkrf

prkhjnfnt ta`n jn prfvjkus ofnfr`tjkns kd cfgjsjkn tafkry. k ` m`rof cforff sfg-

knc ofnfr`tjkn rfsf`rga nc tafkry js `msk e`sfc kn taf fxtfnsjvf wkri kd Afrefrt

Wjhkn. Wjhkn dkunc ta`t cfgjsjkn hìjno jn kro`njs`tjkns js strknomy jndmufngfc

ey taf strugturf `nc nkrhs kd taf kro`njs`tjkn, `nc ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs ck nkt

usf taf dumm `rr`y kd kptjkns ta`t `n kutsjcfr hjoat gknsjcfr `v`jmèmf (Wjhkn,0::?). _ajmf stucjfs e`sfc kn djrst ofnfr`tjkn tafkrjfs wfrf kdtfn cknf jn mèkr`-

tkry sfttjnos wjta jnfxpfrjfngfc cfgjsjkn hìfrs èkut nkn-gkntfxtu`mjsfc sjtu-

`tjkns, rfsf`rga jn taf sfgknc ofnfr`tjkn trjfc tk sjhum`tf gkntfxt-rfm`tfc d`gtkrs

suga `s tjhf prfssurf, jngkhpmftf kr unrfmjèmf jndkrh`tjkn, `nc jmm-cfdjnfc ok`ms

(Auttkn & Imfjn, 0:::) `nc fxpmkrf kro`njs`tjkn`m prkgfssfs ta`t `rf d`r drkh

r`tjkn`m (Mjpsajtz, ft `m., 5<<4). Wfgknc ofnfr`tjkn tafkrjfs eujmc kn taf fxpfrj-

hfnt`m wkri kd taf prfvjkus ofnfr`tjkns, eut `msk usf kesfrv`tjkn`m `nc jntfrvjfw

hftakcs tk o`jn jnsjoats. @t prfsfnt sfvfr`m pjfgfs `nc dròhfnt`m tafkrjfs `rf ef-

ojnnjno tk gk`mfsgf jntk hkrf ofnfr`m tafkrjfs (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6).



31

taf orf`tfr taf rkmf kd rfgkonjtjkn. af efnfdjt kd tajs tafkry js ta`t jt js vfry f`sy

tk uncfrst`nc efgùsf knf g`n f`sjmy rfgkonjsf taf sjtu`tjkns ta`t `rf cfsgrjefc.

af sakrtgkhjnos kd tajs tafkry sffh tk ef ta`t jt nfvfr prkorfssfc efyknc taf

mfvfm kd ofnfr`m cfsgrjptjkn, `nc ta`t ` mjni wjta psygakmkojg`m tafkrjfs kn hfhk-

rjfs `nc dumm rfgkonjtjkn prkgfssfs js nkt tìfn jntk `ggkunt (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy,

5<<69 Eftsga, 5<<6). afrf js stjmm cfe`tf èkut taf cforff tk wajga NCH trumyrfprfsfnts ` p`r`cjoh sajdt (Okrf, ft `m., 5<<4). Efgùsf kd taf sg`ttfrfc ga`r-

`gtfr kd taf wkri jn tajs djfmc `nc taf m`gi kd `n kro`njs`tjkn`m dr`hfwkri, tajs

ijnc kd rfsf`rga sffhs mfss systfh`tjg ta`n tr`cjtjkn`m rfsf`rga. E`mkoun, \yf `nc

Akcoijnskn (5<<1) g`mm dkr hkrf rfsf`rga jn NCH ta`t dkgusfs kn hìjno sfnsf

kd cfgjcjno, `nc Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy (5<<6) pmf`c dkr ` efttfr tafkrftjg`m fhefc-

cjno jn fxjstjno gkonjtjvf, skgj`m `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m tafkry. Hksjfr `nc Dr`sjfr

(5<<:) r`jsf jntfrfst jn taf rkmf kd `ddfgt jn NCH.

Ufgfntmy sfvfr`m rfsf`rgafrs rf`mjsfc ta`t fvfn wafn r`tjkn`mjty js jhpkrt`nt

jn cfgjsjkn hìjno, dffmjno, `ddfgt `nc fhktjkn g`nnkt ef jonkrfc (\mkus, 0::7).

Jn prfvjkus rfsf`rga fhktjkns `nc jntujtjkn wfrf usu`mmy sffn `s cjstr`gtjkn krjrr`tjkn`mjty, wajga js nkt taf g`sf `nyhkrf (Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<1). Gurrfnt

rfsf`rga kn fhktjkns sakw ta`t hkkc, rforft, cjs`ppkjnthfnt, `tt`gahfnt, kvfr-

gkndjcfngf `nc rjsi pfrgfptjkn jndmufngf cfgjsjkn hìjno jn sfvfr`m w`ys (Ef`ga

& Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). af gkngfpt kd jntujtjvf bucofhfnt js tr`cjtjkn`mmy `sskgj-

`tfc wjta taf afurjstjgs `nc ej`sfs prkpksfc ey Iànfh`n, vfrsiy `nc kta-

frs (sff dkr fx`hpmf Iànfh`n, ft `m., 0:15) eut a`s nfvfr effn cfvfmkpfc jntk

` djfmc kd rfsf`rga. @cv`ngfs jn gkonjtjvf nfurksgjfngf `nc h`nòfrj`m `nc kr-

o`njs`tjkn`m gkonjtjkn a`vf rfbuvfn`tfc taf `ttr`gtjkn kd taf gknstrugt kd jntuj-

tjkn (Akcoijnskn & Wt`reugi, 5<<1`). Cu`m prkgfss tafkrjfs (Ga`jifn & rkpf,

0:::9 C`nf & \r`tt, 5<<?9 Iànfh`n, 5<<79 Wjngm`jr & @sai`n`sy, 5<<6) `s-suhf ta`t twk hkcfs kd prkgfssjno - ùtkh`tjg ungknsgjkus prkgfssjno `nc gkn-

sgjkus `n`mytjg`m prkgfssjno - `rf nfgfss`ry dkr h`ny t`sis. Fmse`ga `nc Ir`hfr

(5<<7) dkunc fvjcfngf kd taf cu`m g`tfokrjz`tjkn prkgfssfs hkno fxpfrts bucojno

taf grf`tjvf pktfntj`m kd ktafrs. Curjno tajs prkgfss ‑g`tgafrs‚ usfc gufs tk h`tga

f`ga ‑pjtgafr‚ wjta knf kd sfvfn wfmm-inkwn prktktypfs kd sgrffnwrjtfrs. af ù-

takrs `msk dkunc ta`t g`tgafrs `rf jndmufngfc jn tafjr bucofhfnts ey gkonjtjvf `nc

`ddfgtjvf gufs jn rfm`tjkn tk gkmmèkr`tjvf pktfntj`m.

Jn ajs ekki ‑Emjni‚, Om`cwfmm (5<<6) prkvjcfs ` gknvjngjno stkry kd akw pfk-

pmf ungknsgjkusmy hìf taf rjoat bucofhfnts `nc cfgjsjkns e`sfc kn taf wkri kd

sfvfr`m sgakm`rs suga `s Ojofrfnzfr ft `m. (0:::), C`h`sjk (0::3), Cjbistfraujsft `m. (5<<4) `nc Imfjn (0::1). Ako`rta `nc Wgakfhìfr (5<<6) gkngmucf jn

` rfvjfw kd Om`cwfmm‚s wkri ta`t af knmy dkgusfs kn sjtu`tjkns jn wajga bucof-

hfnt`m pfrdkrh`ngf js ajoa `nc ta`t suoofstjkns dkr fcug`tjkn `nc gkntrkm `rf

èsfnt ‗ sjhjm`r grjtjqufs a`vf effn vkjgfc èkut taf djncjnos kn afurjstjgs `nc

ej`sfs. afrfdkrf tafy g`mm dkr hkrf rfsf`rga jn tajs `rf` kn spfgjdjg gkncjtjkns.

Ojofrfnzfr‚s wkri (5<<?) èkut out dffmjnos pursufs taf gkngfpt kd Om`cwfmm jn

fxpm`jnjno taf pkwfr kd jntujtjkn wajmf `ppmyjno `n `c`ptjvf tkkmekx wjta sf`rga,

stkp `nc cfgjsjkn rumfs kd tauhe dkr cfgjsjkn hìjno. W`cmfr-Whjta `nc Wp`rrkw

(5<<1) `rouf, akwfvfr, ta`t afurjstjgs gmf`rmy cjddfr drkh jntujtjkn efgùsf tafy

`rf, jn gkntr`st tk jntujtjkn, nfjtafr spknt`nfkus, nkr ckh`jn spfgjdjg `nc `rf



3:

e`sfc kn taf `ppmjg`tjkn kd prfcftfrhjnfc rumfs. Jt g`n ef gkngmucfc ta`t tafkry

eujmcjno `rkunc jntujtjkn `nc fhktjkns jn n`tur`m gkntfxt sffhs tk ef `t taf ef-

ojnnjno kd `n jntfrfstjno fr`.

Wfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs kd `rgajtfgts sakw orf`t sjhjm`rjtjfs tk taf sjtu`tjkns cf-

sgrjefc jn taf sfgknc ofnfr`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs. Jn `rgajtfgtur`m tr`cjtjkn

fxpfrts fv`mu`tf taf prkpks`ms ta`t a`vf effn suehjttfc. E`sfc kn taf dfw puemj-g`tjkns ta`t cfsgrjef taf bury prkgfssfs (I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:9 Irfjnfr, 5<<49

Wprfjrfofn, 5<<1), jt g`n ef gkngmucfc ta`t p`ttfrn rfgkonjtjkn tìfs pm`gf. Jn

gkhpftjtjkns bucofhfnt t`sis `rf gkhpmfx, hkr`m, ftajg`m `nc `fstaftjg ey n`-

turf `nc knmy mjhjtfc jndkrh`tjkn js `v`jmèmf. Nfxt tk ta`t tafrf js tjhf prfssurf

`nc skgj`m prfssurf. afrfdkrf cfgjsjkn hìfrs nffc tk ef `w`rf kd tafjr sjtu`-

tjkn `nc taf pkssjemf gknsfqufngfs kd tafjr `gtjkns. Fxpfrjfngf `nc tf`hwkri

fna`ngf tafsf ijncs kd sijmms ta`t g`n ef uncfrstkkc jn taf tr`cjtjkn kd sfnsfhì-

jno. @rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon js ` prkdfssjkn`m sijmm e`sfc kn fcug`tjkn `nc fxpfrjfngf

o`jnfc tarkuoa pr`gtjgf. af rfsf`rga kn cfsjonfrs `nc gkhp`rèmf prkdfssjkn`ms

a`s sakwn ta`t fxpfrjfngfc pr`gtjtjknfrs jntfrprft `nc h`nòf gkhpmfx `nc cf-h`ncjno sjtu`tjkns d`stfr `nc hkrf `ggur`tfmy ey usjno t`gjt hfhkry sgafhfs

(Hjfo, 5<<4). afjr ckh`jn rfmfv`nt fxpfrjfngf fnèmfs tafh tk hìf jntuj-

tjvf cfgjsjkns e`sfc kn tafjr t`gjt inkwmfcof `nc ungknsgjkus hfhkry systfhs.

Hfhefrs kd taf s`hf prkdfssjkn sa`rf tajs gkcf, `nc wjmm `ggfpt pffr rfvjfw drkh

wjtajn tafjr cjsgjpmjnf.

af sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt sakumc ef sffn jn taf gkntfxt kd ` gmjfnt kro`njs`-

tjkn ta`t `jhs `t rf`mjzjno `hejtjkns jn taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf. @ pkmjtjgj`n g`n

ef afmc `ggkuntèmf dkr ` cfgjsjkn `nc nffcs tk tìf n`tjkn`m `nc jntfrn`tjkn`m

pkmjgjfs, stìfakmcfr jntfrfsts, `nc m`ws jntk `ggkunt. ajs rfspknsjejmjty js kd-

tfn `ggkhp`njfc ey hjxfc dffmjnos kd `nxjfty, fntausj`sh `nc df`r. @ggkrcjnotk Irfjnfr (5<<4) taf prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn js `gtu`mmy ` prkgfss kd sfnsf-

hìjno r`tafr ta`n h`nòfrj`m cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jndkrh`tjkn prkgfssjno `nc

sgrffnjno `ppf`rs hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n taf `gtu`m gakjgf, wajga gkndjrhs ta`t

jhòf tafkry `nc taf gkngfpt kd sfnsfhìjno gkumc ef `ppmjfc jn tajs gkntfxt.

Jn ` tr`cjtjkn`m cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn bury p`nfms bucof taf qu`mjty kd taf cfsjonfr

`nknyhkusmy ey taf qu`mjty kd taf cfsjon. af cfsjons gkumc `gt jn ta`t sjtu`tjkn

`s ekunc`ry kebfgts2 `rtfd`gt ta`t sfrvf `s `n jntfrhfcj`ry jn gkhhunjg`tjkn

eftwffn twk kr hkrf pfrskns kr orkups wak `rf gkmmèkr`tjno jn wkri (Ekm`nc

& Gkmmkpy, 5<<3). @ tfncfr `jhs `t taf sfmfgtjkn kd ` sfrvjgf prkvjcfr jn cfsjon,

nkt èkut taf purga`sf kd ` cfsjon prkcugt. Dkr gmjfnt cfgjsjkn hìfrs jt js vfrya`rc tk hìf sfnsf kut kd taf humtjd`gftfc hfssòf ta`t `n `rgajtfgt sfncs (Bknfs

& Mjvnf-`r`nc`ga, 5<<1). afy a`vf tk hìf ` cjstjngtjkn eftwffn taf gkh-

pftfngfs kd taf `rgajtfgt, taf g`pèjmjty kd gkhp`ny `nc taf qu`mjty kd taf cfsjon

prkpks`m. Jn gurrfnt pr`gtjgf bury p`nfms kdtfn gknsjst kd pkmjtjgj`ns `nc ktafr

stìfakmcfr rfprfsfnt`tjvfs. @mtakuoa pkmjtjgj`ns `rf fxpfrjfngfc cfgjsjkn hì-

frs, tfncfr cfgjsjkns èkut `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty rfqujrf ckh`jn spfgjdjg sijmms jn

taf `rf` kd taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. Nkt huga rfsf`rga a`s effn gkncugtfc jn taf

sfgknc ofnfr`tjkn tafkrjfs ta`t tìf jntk `ggkunt stìfakmcfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn `nc

taf rkmf kd fxtfrn`m gknsumt`nts wjtajn taf mjhjt`tjkns kd taf m`w.



6<

7.7 U`tjkn`mjty vfrsus jntujtjkn

Knf kd taf h`jn jssufs uncfrmyjno taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs

js taf mfvfm kd r`tjkn`mjty kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs. ajs sfgtjkn fxpmkrfs taf gkngfpts kd

jntujtjkn jn rfm`tjkn tk r`tjkn`mjty jn cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc taf d`gtkrs ta`t gkumc

jndmufngf taf usf kd r`tjkn`mjty.

7.7.0 Skw`rcs ` cfdjnjtjkn kd jntujtjkn

@ggkrcjno tk Wjhkn (0::?, p. 13) ”r`tjkn`mjty js gkngfrnfc wjta taf sfmfgtjkn

kd prfdfrrfc efa`vjkur `mtfrn`tjvfs jn tfrhs kd skhf systfh kd v`mufs wafrfey

taf gknsfqufngfs kd efa`vjkur g`n ef fv`mu`tfc‘. ajs hf`ns ` cfgjsjkn g`n ef

kebfgtjvfmy, suebfgtjvfmy, gknsgjkusmy, cfmjefr`tfmy, kro`njs`tjkn`mmy, kr pfrskn`mmy

r`tjkn`m. Ftzjknj (0:11, p. 074) cfdjnfs r`tjkn`mjty `s ”taf gkngfpt kd ` h`n wak

`gts wjsfmy, `nc wak gakksfs fddjgjfntmy taf hf`ns ta`t `cv`ngf ajs kr afr ok`ms.

Jt fnt`jms cfmjefr`tjkns9 jt js nkt ùtkh`tjg kr nkn-gknsgjkus `nc g`n v`ry ey cf-

orff. Jt js e`sfc kn kpfnnfss tk fvjcfngf (`n fhpjrjg`m krjfnt`tjkn) `nc kn skuncrf`sknjno (mkojg)‘. @ggkrcjno tk Ftzjknj (0:11) `mm cfgjsjkns g`n ef sffn `s hkrf

kr mfss r`tjkn`m. Eut efgùsf kd takuoatmfss r`tjkn`m rumfs kd tauhe ta`t `rf cffpmy

jndusfc wjta v`mufs `nc ktafr skgj`m d`gtkrs `nc efgùsf cfgjsjkn hìfrs `rf un-

èmf tk bucof taf mkojg`m-fhpjrjg`m hfrjt kd taf rumfs, cfgjsjkns `rf r`rfmy ajoamy

r`tjkn`m. Jn taf cfe`tf èkut taf cforff kd r`tjkn`mjty kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs, H`rga

(0::?) gkngmucfs ta`t r`tjkn`m tafkrjfs gkhhknmy `ssuhf ta`t fvfry cfgjsjkn

hìfr inkws `mm `mtfrn`tjvfs dkr `gtjkn, js èmf tk ck ` prkeèjmjty fstjh`tjkn kd

`mm gknsfqufngfs kd fvfry `mtfrn`tjvf `gtjkn, a`s ` gknsjstfnt prfdfrfngf krcfrjno

dkr `mtfrn`tjvf prfdfrfngf gkursfs kd `gtjkn, `nc usfs cfgjsjkn rumfs ta`t g`n sfmfgt

` sjnomf `gtjkn tk tìf.Jn taf gkntfxt kd kro`njs`tjkns Cf`n `nc Wa`rdh`n (0::7) `rouf ta`t ` r`-

tjkn`m `gtjkn js df`sjemf jd cfgjsjkn hìfrs `rf jn òrffhfnt èkut ok`ms `nc gùsf

`nc fddfgt rfm`tjknsajps `nc jd tafy `rf `w`rf kd taf fnvjrknhfnt`m `nc ktafr gkn-

str`jnts. ajs hf`ns ta`t jn ktafr sjtu`tjkns, wajga js kdtfn taf g`sf jn fvfryc`y

mjdf, cfgjsjkn hìfrs g`nnkt rfmy fxgmusjvfmy upkn r`tjkn`m hftakcs. Hkst kd tafsf

djncjnos `rf e`sfc kn mèkr`tkry kr sjhum`tjkn stucjfs. Vncfrst`ncjno gknsgjkus

gakjgf rfqujrfs taf inkwmfcof kd taf pfrspfgtjvf kd taf `gtkr t taf tjhf kd gakjgf2

`n `gtjkn ta`t `ppf`rs jrr`tjkn`m `dtfr taf d`gt hjoat a`vf `ppf`rfc pfrdfgtmy r`-

tjkn`m wafn taf `gtkr gaksf jt (Akcoijnskn & Wt`reugi, 5<<1`). Jn rf`m mjdf pfk-

pmf `ppf`r tk `gtjvfmy try tk jndmufngf fvfnts jn krcfr tk hìf tafjr gakjgf tafrjoat gakjgf (E`mkoun, ft m., 5<<1). Hìjno rf`skns fxpmjgjt gkumc mf`c tk jndfrjkr

cfgjsjkns `nc mfss s`tjsd`gtjkn èkut taf cfgjsjkn (_jmskn & Wgakkmfr, 0::0).

@ddfgt, hkkc `nc fhktjkn `rf ktafr rf`skns ta`t pfkpmf gkumc efa`vf cjddfrfnt

drkh fxjstjno tafkrjfs `nc hkcfms (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6).

Cjbistfraujs (5<<?) cjstjnoujsafs tarff ijncs kd cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs2 d`st cfgj-

sjkn hìjno wjtakut tajnijno, ungknsgjkus cfgjsjkn hìjno, `nc gknsgjkus cfgj-

sjkn hìjno. U`tjkn`m `n mysjs `nc jntujtjvf bucofhfnt sffh tk ef gkhpmfhfnt`-U`tjkn`m `n`mysjs `nc jntujtjvf bucofhfnt sffh tk ef gkhpmfhfnt`-

ry gkhpknfnts kd fddfgtjvf cfgjsjkn hìjno, wajga hìf jt pkssjemf dkr h`nòfrs

tk ppmy r`nof kd h`nòfhfnt sijmms wafnfvfr tafy efgkhf pprkprj`tf (W`cmfr-

Whjta & Wp`rrkw, 5<<19 Wjhkn, 0:1?). Cu`m-prkgfss tafkrjfs (Ga`jifn & rkpf,



60

0:::9 Fpstfjn, Mjpskn, Akmstfjn, & Aua, 0::59 Fpstfjn, \`gjnj, Cfnfs-U`b, &

Afjr, 0::49 Iànfh`n, 5<<7) `tt`ga ` orf`t sjonjdjg`ngf tk `ddfgt `nc sa`rf taf

gkhhkn vjfw ta`t twk sfp`r`tf prkgfssfs kd r`tjkn`m `n`mysjs `nc fxpfrjfntj`m

jntujtjkn `rf jnvkmvfc jn rf`sknjno. af jntujtjvf systfh js kdtfn `sskgj`tfc wjta

ungknsgjkus prkgfssjno kd tfncfngjfs `nc prfdfrfngfs wajmf taf r`tjkn`m systfh

fnèmfs pfkpmf tk `ssfss jndkrh`tjkn cfmjefr`tfmy, tk cfvfmkp jcf`s, `nc tk fnoòfjn n`mysfs. af pfrspfgtjvf kd C`nf & \r`tt (5<<?, p. 74) mf`cs tk cfdjnjtjkn kd

jntujtjkn `s ` ”nkn-gknsgjkus prkgfss jnvkmvjno akmjstjg `sskgj`tjkns ta`t `rf prk-

cugfc r`pjcmy wajga rfsumts jn `ddfgtjvfmy ga`rofc bucofhfnts‘. ajs wkumc hf`n

ta`t `ddfgt `nc fhktjkn `rf `n jntfor`m gkhpknfnt kd jntujtjvf bucofhfnts.

Jn tafjr `ttfhpt tk cfdjnf jntujtjkn W`cmfr-Whjta `nc Wp`rrkw (5<<1) jn-

cfntjdjfc sjx pfrspfgtjvfs2 0) afurjstjgs & ej`sfs (f.o. Ojofrfnzfr, ft `m., 0:::9(f.o. Ojofrfnzfr, ft `m., 0:::9

Iànfh`n, ft `m., 0:15)9 5) jntujtjkn-`s-èjmjty (f.o.Imfjn, 5<<39 Wjhkn, 0::?)9(f.o.Imfjn, 5<<39 Wjhkn, 0::?)9

7) jndkrh`tjkn prkgfssjno (f.o. Ekwfrs, Ufofar, E`mta`z`rc, & \`rifr, 0::<9

Hjntzefro, @amstr`nc, & M`hpfm, 0::1)9 3) cu`m prkgfssjno (f.o. Fpstfjn, 0::39

Wt`nkvjga & _fst, 5<<<)9 6) gkonjtjvf-`ddfgtjvf/nfurk-sgjfntjdjg (f.o. C`h`sjk,0::39 C`nf & \r`tt, 5<<?9 Wjngm`jr & @sai`n`sy, 5<<6), `nc 4) jntujtjknjst &

`mtfrn`tjvf fpjstfhkmkoy (f.o. @hèjmf, 0::49 Hkkrf, 0:<7). @ggkrcjno tk W`cmfr-

Whjta `nc Wp`rrkw (5<<1) tafrf sffhs tk ef ` gknsfnsus `hkno tafsf pfrspfg-

tjvfs ta`t jntujtjkn js `n fxpfrjfntj`m pafnkhfnkn e`sfc upkn jhpmjgjtmy stkrfc

gknstfmm`tjkn kd inkwmfcof, sijmms, pfrgfptjkns `nc fhktjkns. Jntujtjkn `nc jntuj-

tjvf prkgfssfs cr`w upkn ` gkhpmfx jntfrpm`y kd gkonjtjvf `nc `ddfgtjvf prkgfssfs

kpfr`tjno efmkw taf mfvfm kd gknsgjkus `w`rfnfss `nc gkhpmfx ckh`jn-spfgjdjg

sgafh`s kd wajga knf js un`w`rf (C`nf & \r`tt, 5<<?9 Imfjn, 0::1, 5<<3). Hkst

rfsf`rgafrs vjfw jntujtjkn `s qujtf d`st wjta mjhjtfc fddkrt (C`nf & \r`tt, 5<<?9

Wjhkn, 0:3?/0::?) gknsjstjno kd jnvkmunt`ry kr ùtkh`tjg prkgfssfs (W`cmfr-Whjta & Wp`rrkw, 5<<1). Jn gknsgjkus `w`rfnfss `ddfgt (‑aunga‚ kr ‑out dffmjno‚)

`nc ` cforff kd gfrtjtucf `rf taf h`njdfst`tjkns kd `n jntujtjkn (W`cmfr-Whjta &

Wp`rrkw, 5<<1).

Ufsf`rga kn fxpfrjfngfc gafss pm`yfrs sakws ta`t fxpfrt‚s jntujtjkn js e`sfc kn

fxpfrjfngf, wajga `mmkws pfkpmf tk rfgkonjsf taf p`ttfrn jn ` sjtu`tjkn `nc cr`w

kn prfvjkusmy mf`rnfc jndkrh`tjkn `sskgj`tfc wjta ta`t p`ttfrn tk `rrjvf `t ` cfgj-

sjkn gakjgf qujgimy (Ga`sf & Wjhkn, 0:?79 cf Orkkt, 0:34). @n fxpfrt g`n tafrf-

dkrf cfgjcf r`pjcmy e`sfc kn wa`t `ppf`rs tk ef vfry mjhjtfc jndkrh`tjkn. afsf

djncjnos jnspjrfc Imfjn (0::7) tk cfvfmkp taf rfgkonjtjkn prjhfc cfgjsjkn tafkry

`nc h`cf Iànfh`n ft `m. (0:15) fxpmkrf taf usf kd afurjstjgs curjno cfgjsjknhìjno. Ojofrfnzfr ft `m. (0:::) fmèkr`tf kn taf jnsjoats èkut afurjstjgs `nc

ekuncfc r`tjkn`mjty dkr taf cfvfmkphfnt kd tafjr tkkmekx kd d`st (gkhput`tjkn`mmy

sjhpmf) `nc druo`m (sp`rjno jndkrh`tjkn rfqujrfhfnts) rumfs dkr cfgjsjkn hìjno.

@ggkrcjno tk Fpstfjn ft `m. (0::4) jntujtjkn js taf kutgkhf kd prf-gknsgjkus jn-

tfrprft`tjkns kd prfvjkusmy fxpfrjfngfc fvfnts wajga gkumc cftfrhjnf dkr ` orf`t

p`rt taf usf kd rfgkonjtjkn afurjstjgs. Ojofrfnzfr `nc Wfmtfn (5<<0) suoofst ta`t

str`tfojfs tk cfgjcf kn wajga afurjstjg tk usf (hft`-afurjstjgs) `rf oujcfc ey un-

gknsgjkus, fxpfrjfngf e`sfc jntujtjkn. Akwfvfr, `ggkrcjno tk W`cmfr-Whjta `nc

Wp`rrkw (5<<1), (hft`) afurjstjgs gmf`rmy cjddfr drkh jntujtjkn efgùsf jntujtjkn

js nkt e`sfc kn prfcftfrhjnfc rumfs tk ef cfmjefr`tfmy `ppmjfc jn rfspknsf tk `



65

spfgjdjg sgfn`rjk eut jngmucfs `n jnvkmunt`ry rfspknsf tk pfrgfjvfc stjhumj. af

mjifmjakkc kd tajs rfspknsf hjoat ef jndmufngfc ey dkr fx`hpmf taf `gqujsjtjkn kd

ckh`jn spfgjdjg inkwmfcof eut g`nnkt ef dkrgfc. af gkntfxt-cfpfncfnt usf kd

jntujtjkn js knf hf`ns kd cjstjnoujsajno eftwffn fxpfrt `nc nkvjgf pfrdkrh`ngf

(W`cmfr-Whjta & Wp`rrkw, 5<<1).

7.7.5 D`gtkrs kd jndmufngf kn taf usf kd jntujtjkn

Gkntfxt `nc prkemfh strugturf pm`y ` grugj`m rkmf jn cftfrhjnjno taf `pprkprj-

`tfnfss `nc fddjg`gy kd jntujtjvf bucofhfnts (Eurif & Hjmmfr, 0:::9 Imfjn, 0::1,

5<<3). @ggkrcjno tk C`nf & \r`tt (5<<?) tafrf `rf twk sfts kd d`gtkrs ta`t jn-

dmufngf jntujtjkn fddfgtjvfnfss2 ckh`jn inkwmfcof d`gtkrs (cfvfmkphfnt kd sgaf-

h`s ey fxpmjgjt `nc jhpmjgjt mf`rnjno) `nc t`si ga`r`gtfrjstjgs (jntfmmfgtjvf vfrsus

bucofhfnt`m t`sis, fnvjrknhfnt`m ungfrt`jnty). _fmm strugturfc prkemfhs hjoat

ef gkhp`rfc tk t`sis wjta kebfgtjvf grjtfrj` dkr suggfss wjtajn ` p`rtjgum`r gkn-

gfptu`m systfh, wajmf jmm-strugturfc prkemfhs sffh sjhjm`r tk bucofhfnt`m t`sis

dkr wajga tafrf js nk kebfgtjvf grjtfrjkn kr cfhknstrèmf skmutjkn (C`nf & \r`tt,

5<<?). Jn tjoatmy strugturfc, jntfmmfgtjvf t`sis jn c`t` rjga, kebfgtjvfmy qu`ntjdj`-

emf, nc gkhput`tjkn`mmy gkhpmfx ckh`jns, st`tjstjg`m hkcfms pfrdkrh efttfr ta`n

auh`n bucofs (W`cmfr-Whjta & Wp`rrkw, 5<<1). Akwfvfr, e`sfc kn sfvfr`m stucjfs

jt g`n ef gkngmucfc ta`t jntujtjkn js d`vkurfc kvfr `n`mytjg m `pprk`gafs jn mkksf

cfgjsjkn strugturfs wjta hkr`m, pkmjtjg`m, ftajg`m, `fstaftjg kr efa`vjkur`m bucof-

hfnt`m t`sis, jmm-strugturfc str`tfojg prkemfhs wjta mjttmf prfgfcfnt `nc jndkrh`-

tjkn tk cr`w kn, `nc jn sjtu`tjkns wjta tjhf prfssurf, cyn`hjg gkncjtjkns `nc

fxpfrjfngfc p`rtjgjp`nts (Cjbistfraujs, ft m., 5<<49 Ako`rta, 5<<59 Iàtrj & No,

5<<<9 Imfjn, 5<<39 Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<19 Wa`pjrk & Wpfngf, 0::?). \kssjemf

rf`skns dkr tajs pafnkhfnkn jngmucf taf èjmjty kd jntujtjkn tk sfnsf ga`nofs, tk

cftfgt d`jmurfs, tk hìf sfnsf, `nc tk jngmucf taf gkhp`ny‚s gumturf `nc v`mufs

ta`t rf cjddjgumt tk cfsgrjef. afsf jncjvjcu`m, kro`njs`tjkn`m, nc gumtur`m d`gtkrs

ta`t sffh tk jndmufngf taf usf kd jntujtjkn nffc `ccjtjkn`m rfsf`rga efdkrf tafsf

jnsjoats g`n `gtu`mmy ef `ppmjfc (A`hhknc, 0:1?9 Ako`rta, 5<<59 Wjngm`jr &

@sai`n`sy, 5<<6). Ufsf`rgafrs dkunc ta`t h`nòfrs kd sh`mm `nc hfcjuh sjzfc

gkhp`njfs prfdfr qu`mjt`tjvf c`t`-o`tafrjno hftakcs ta`t rfqujrf bucofhfnt`m

t`sis, suga `s cfgjsjkn trffs, dkrgf djfmc cjòr`hs `nc pkrtdkmjk `n`mysjs, kvfr taf

usf kd efngah`ris `nc ktafr qu`ntjt`tjvf dkrfg`stjno tfganjquf jn str`tfojg pm`n-

njno (_rjoat & Ofrky, 0::0). Wtjmm r`tjkn`m tafkrjfs `rf gkhhknmy `ggfptfc `ncusfc jn fgknkhjgs tk prfcjgt jncjvjcu`m `nc djrh efa`vjkur jn taf mkno run. Eut

`s Ako`rta (5<<6, p. 41) st`tfs ”waftafr t`gjt kr cfmjefr`tf prkgfssfs `rf hkrf

v`mjc ta`n taf ktafr js nkt taf grjtjg`m jssuf. U`tafr, tajs js tk hìf v`mjc rfspknsfs

jn wajga ekta systfhs `rf jhpmjg`tfc‘.

Hkrf rfsf`rga js nffcfc tk fxpmkrf taf cjddfrfngfs jn t`si gkncjtjkns `nc gkn-

tfxts. Efgùsf kd taf sjonjdjg`nt cfvfmkphfnts jn gkonjtjkn, nfurkmkoy nc nfurk-

sgjfngf, ` drujtdum cj`mkouf eftwffn jntujtjkn rfsf`rgafrs drkh sfvfr`m djfmcs js tk

ef fxpfgtfc (W`cmfr-Whjta & Wp`rrkw, 5<<1). aksf stucjfs sakumc nkt knmy ef

e`sfc kn sfmd-rfpkrt `nc fxpfrjhfnt`m rfsf`rga, eut sakumc jngmucf nfw ijncs kd

hftakcs tk hf`surf cfgjsjkn pfrdkrh`ngf. \rkhjsjno rf`s kd jntfrfst dkr fhpjrj-g`m rfsf`rga prkpksfc ey C`nf & \r`tt (5<<?) rf taf pr`gtjg`m jhpmjg`tjkns kd taf



67

jntfrpm`y eftwffn jntujtjkn `nc `n`mysjs, taf mjni eftwffn grf`tjvjty `nc jntuj-

tjkn, ftajg`m cfgjsjkn hìjno jn kro`njs`tjkns, `nc taf tr`nsdfr kd ckh`jn rfm`tfc

inkwmfcof sgafhfs jn krcfr tk iffp up wjta taf cyn`hjg ga`r`gtfr kd jncjvjcu`ms

jn kro`njs`tjkns. af sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt gkumc ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` sjtu`tjkn

jn wajga jntfrpm`y gknsjsts eftwffn jntujtjkn `nc `n`mysjs, `nc wajga gkumc ef

stucjfc jn rf`m mjdf.

7.3 Jncjvjcu`m cfgjsjkn hìjno jn kro`njs`tjkns

@ mkt kd tafkrjfs jn cfgjsjkn hìjno dkgus kn prkgfssfs ta`t kggur kn taf mfvfm kd

taf jncjvjcu`m. afsf prkgfssfs `rf gkonjtjvf ey n`turf `nc g`n ef jndmufngfc ey

taf strugturf kd taf jndkrh`tjkn ta`t js usfc, taf usf kd afurjstjgs, fxpfrtjsf kr

ktafr pfrskn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs. Cfgjsjkn hìfrs g`n akwfvfr msk ef jndmufngfc ey

ktafr, nkn-gkonjtjvf d`gtkrs suga `s `ddfgt, hkkc, fhktjkns kr taf kro`njs`tjkn`m

gkntfxt. ajs sfgtjkn `ccrfssfs taf jncjvjcu`m cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs `nc taf d`gtkrs

ta`t jndmufngf tafsf prkgfssfs, suga `s sfnsfhìjno.

7.3.0 Gkonjtjvf prkgfssfs

af tarff ofnfr`tjkns kd cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs `rf `mm e`sfc kn psygakmkojg`m jnsjoats

èkut gkonjtjvf `nc skgj`m prkgfssfs kd taf auh`n hjnc. @ bucofhfnt tìfs pm`gf

wjtajn ` systfh gkhpksfc kd taf pfrskn, taf t`si fnvjrknhfnt `nc taf `gtjkns

ta`t rfsumt drkh taf bucofhfnt `nc g`n suesfqufntmy `ddfgt ekta taf pfrskn `nc

taf t`si fnvjrknhfnt (Ako`rta, 0:11). \frgfptjkn js jhpkrt`nt jn cfgjsjkn hì-

jno efgùsf pfkpmf‚s efa`vjkur js e`sfc kn tafjr pfrgfptjkns kd rf`mjty, nkt kn

rf`mjty jtsfmd (Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<1). Cfgjsjkn hìjno kggurs `s ` rf`gtjkn tk `

prkemfh kd wajga pfkpmf a`vf tk ef `w`rf `nc wajga tafy pfrgfjvf `s nffcjno `skmutjkn. \fkpmf kdtfn o`tafr c`t` drkh humtjpmf skurgfs nc tafn sgrffn, prkgfss,

`nc jntfrprft taf jndkrh`tjkn jn krcfr tk hìf ` cfgjsjkn. \frgfptjkn js jndmu-

fngfc ey d`gtkrs jn taf pfrgfjvfr (suga `s `ttjtucfs, fxpfrjfngf `nc fxpfgt`tjkns),

d`gtkrs jn taf t`roft (suga `s nkvfmty, e`giorkunc `nc sjhjm`rjty), `nc d`gtkrs jn

taf sjtu`tjkn (tjhf, wkri `nc skgj`m sfttjno) (Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<1). Nkt fvf-

rytajno g`n ef pfrgfjvfc fxpmjgjtmy. Grf`tjvjty `mmkws pfkpmf tk jncfntjdy kptjkns

ta`t `rf vjèmf eut `msk taf `mtfrn`tjvfs ta`t `rf nkt vjsjemf jn taf djrst pm`gf kr ey

ktafrs. @ggkrcjno tk @hèjmf (0::?) grf`tjvjty js gkhpksfc kd jntrjnsjg t`si hk-

tjv`tjkn (fna`ngfc ey ` stjhum`tjno gumturf, suddjgjfnt rfskurgfs, drffckh, okkc

supfrvjsjkn `nc suppkrtjno wkri orkup hfhefrs), fxpfrtjsf (fna`ngfc ey èjmj-tjfs, inkwmfcof, prkdjgjfngjfs `nc sjhjm`r fxpfrtjsf), `nc grf`tjvjty tajnijno sijmms

(fna`ngfc ey pfrskn`mjty ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, èjmjty tk usf `n`mkojfs `nc t`mfnt tk sff

tajnos cjddfrfntmy). Ukeejns & Bucof (5<<1) cjstjnoujsa sjhjm`r d`gtkrs kd jndmu-

fngf, n`hfmy èjmjty (g`p`gjty tk pfrdkrh taf v`rjkus t`sis jn ` bke), `ttjtucfs

(fv`mu`tjvf st`tfhfnts gkngfrnjno kebfgts, pfkpmf kr fvfnts), `nc mf`rnjno (`ny

rfm`tjvfmy pfrh`nfnt ga`nof jn efa`vjkur ta`t kggurs `s ` rfsumt kd fxpfrjfngf) `s

taf dkunc`tjkn kd jncjvjcu`m efa`vjkur jn kro`njs`tjkns.

Dr`hjno js `n jhpkrt`nt prkgfss jn cfgjsjkn hìjno efgùsf jt gkngfrns

taf prkgfss kd fhefccjno pfrgfjvfc fvfnts jn ` gkntfxt tk prkvjcf dkr hf`njno

(Iànfh`n & vfrsiy, 0:13). @ dr`hf js ` hfnt`m gknstrugt kr sgafhf gknsjstjno



63

kd fmfhfnts `nc taf rfm`tjknsajps `hkno tafh ta`t `rf `sskgj`tfc wjta ` sjtu`tjkn

ta`t js kd jntfrfst tk ` cfgjsjkn hìfr (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<69 Ako`rta, 0:11).

af dr`hf kd ` sjtu`tjkn js g`mmfc `n ‑jhòf‚, wajga jhpmjfs ekta vjsu`m `nc n`r-

r`tjvf rfprfsfnt`tjkn. @ dr`hf ”oujcfs taf cfgjsjkn hìfr‚s jntfrprft`tjkn kd wa`t

js okjno kn. Jt cfrjvfs drkh taf cfgjsjkn hìfr‚s inkwmfcof èkut fvfnts ta`t mfc

up tk taf sjtu`tjkn jn qufstjkn `nc ajs kr afr prjv`tf tafkrjfs èkut akw pfkpmfefa`vf `nc wa`t hìfs tajnos a`ppfn. Jt tafrfdkrf tfmms taf cfgjsjkn hìfr wa`t

tk fxpfgt.‘ (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6, p. 57). af wkrcjno kd taf sjtu`tjkn `nc

taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf bucofhfnt`m t`si jndmufngfs taf dr`hjno, `nc tafrfdkrf

`msk taf prkgfss `nc kutgkhf kd taf cfgjsjkn (\mkus, 0::7).

Ftzjknj (0:11) cjstjnoujsafs tarff skurgfs kd jndmufngf kn cfgjsjkn hìjno

ta`t `mm hust ef tìfn jntk `ggkunt tk uncfrst`nc auh`n cfgjsjkn hìjno2 utjmj-

t`rj`n (utjmjty `s stucjfc ey fgknkhjgs `nc nkrh`tjvf tafkry), skgj`m (skgj`m jn-

dmufngfs `s stucjfc ey `ntarkpkmkojsts `nc skgjkmkojsts), `nc cfkntkmkojg`m (`s

stucjfc ey ftajgs). èmf 7.0 sakws `n kvfrvjfw kd taf cfgjsjkn str`tfojfs e`sfc kn

taf cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs wajga `mjon wjta taf tafkrjfs drkh taf cjddfrfnt ofnfr`-tjkns. af tèmf fxpksfs taf djfmc kd tfnsjkn ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs fxpfrjfngf cur-

jno cfgjsjkn hìjno.

_afn ` sjtu`tjkn js dr`hfc, ` pfrskn g`n cfgjcf èkut jt ey rfgkonjtjkn, jn-

dfrfngf kr gakjgf. Ufgkonjtjkn g`n ef `ppmjfc wafn taf sjtu`tjkn js sk sjhjm`r tk

knf fngkuntfrfc efdkrf ta`t efa`vjkur g`n ef cupmjg`tfc ey taf usf kd ‑pkmjgjfs‚,

‑aèjts‚ kr ‑sgrjpts‚ e`sfc kn prjkr fxpfrjfngfs. Jndfrfngf g`n ef `ppmjfc wafn

`n fcug`tfc oufss g`n ef h`cf èkut taf rjoat cfgjsjkn, suga `s prkpksfc ey

Erunswji (0:3?) jn ajs ‑mfns hkcfm‚ wjta gufs. Ajs mfns hkcfm usfs psygakmkojg`m

jnsjoats tk rouf ta`t pfkpmf fxpfrjfngf kebfgts nc fvfnts ey gknstrugtjno hfnt`m

hkcfms e`sfc kn gufs `nc hìjno jndfrfngfs. afsf gufs afmp pfkpmf tk jcfntjtyt`rofts `nc tk hìf gkhp`rjskns `hkno t`rofts. Ef`ga `nc Gknnkmmy (5<<6) usf

taf fx`hpmf kd taf sfmfgtjkn kd ` okkc s`mfspfrskn tk fxpm`jn taf mfns hkcfm2 djrst

knf a`s tk djnc kut wa`t hìfs ` okkc s`mfspfrskn (wajga gufs), tafn knf a`s tk

usf tajs inkwmfcof tk cfvfmkp ` pkmjgy èkut pktfntj`m bke `ppmjg`nts (pkmjgy kd

akw tk a`ncmf taf gufs), `nc djn`mmy knf a`s tk `ppmy taf pkmjgy tk sfmfgt ` nfw

s`mfspfrskn (`ssfss taf gufs). Akwfvfr, jn hkst sjtu`tjkns nkt `mm jndkrh`tjkn js

\frspfgtjvf _a t js taf cfgjsjkn h ifr

tryjno tk ck;

Akw ck cfgjsjkn hìfrs gakksf taf

hf`ns tk cv`ngf taf ok`ms;

_ak `rf taf ify

`gtkrs;

Vtjmjt`rj`n H`xjhjsf pmf`surf kr sfmdjntfrfst (utjmjty).

Wfmfgtjkn kd `gtjkn wjta orf`tfstnft utjmjty ey wfjoat kd gksts `nc

efnfffts.

Drff st`ncjno jncjvj-cu`ms hìf cfgjsjkns

kn ajs kr afr kwn.

Wkgj`m Gkndkrh`tjkn tk

skgj`m nkrhs nc gumtur`m

cfh`ncs jn krcfr tk vkjc

punjsahfnt.

Wfmfgtjkn kd gkursf kd `gtjkn ta`t

gkndkrh tk taf fxpfgt`tjkns kd

rfdfrfngf orkup kr gkhhunjty.

Cfgjsjkn hìfr

gkndkrhs tk rumfs kd

orkup kr gkhhunjty.

Cfkntkmkojg m Fv`mu tjkn kd hkr m nc

ftajg`m gknsjcfr`tjkns

(pmf`surf nc hkr`mjty)

jn mjoat kd utjmjt`rj`n `nc

skgj`m gknsjcfr`tjkns.

Vsf kd fhktjkn `nc v`muf bucof-

hfnts tk sfmfgt kr rfbfgt gkursfs

kd gtjkn ta`t rf gkhp`tjemf kr

vjkm`tf wjta kr prfsgrjefc ey hkr`m

kr ftajg`m gkcfs.

Cfgjsjkn hìfr js

oujcfc ey kwn hkr`m

`nc ftajg`m prjngjpmfs

cfrjvfc drkh orkups

`nc gkhhunjtjfs.

Sèmf 7.0 Kvfrvjfw kd pkssjemf cfgjsjkn str`tfojfs drkh cjfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs (e`sfc knFjknj, 0:11)



66

`v`jmèmf tk `ssfss taf gufs. Nfxt tk ta`t taf mfns hkcfm `ssuhfs ta`t gufs `rf `c-

cjtjvf, jncfpfncfnt `nc mjnf`r (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6).

Jd nfjtafr rfgkonjtjkn nkr jndfrfngf prkvjcfs `cfqu`tf oujc`ngf, ` cfgjsjkn

hìfr hust gakksf taf hkst prkhjsjno kptjkn `dtfr fxpmkr`tjkn kd taf `mtfrn`-

tjvfs. Ufsf`rgafrs a`vf `pprk`gafc gakjgf jn twk w`ys2 0) `ssuhf ta`t `n un-

cfrmyjno krcfrmjnfss fxjsts jn taf gkndusjkn `nc gkhpmfxjty `nc tr`cf rf`mjshdkr sjhpmjgjty (prfsgrjptjvf cfgjsjkn tafkry), `nc 5) `ssuhf ta`t gkndusjkn `nc

gkhpmfxjty `rf jntfor`m p`rt kd taf prkgfss `nc tr`cf sjhpmjgjty dkr rf`mjsh (djrst

ofnfr`tjkn cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs) (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). Ekta tafsf `pprk`gafs

jngmucf o`hemjno prjngjpmfs wajga hf`ns ta`t taf prkeèjmjty ta`t ` gfrt`jn sjtu`-

tjkn kr kptjkn wjmm ef prfdfrrfc a`s tk ef fstjh`tfc. @ggkrcjno tk Mjpsajtz, Imfjn,

Kr`s`nu `nc W`m`s (5<<0, p. 773-776) ”h`tgajno (rfgkonjtjkn) cjddfrs drkh gkn-

gurrfnt gakjgf jn tarff rfspfgts2 0) kptjkns `rf fv`mu`tfc sfqufntj`mmy `t ` tjhf

- fvfn wafn prfsfntfc wjta sfvfr`m kptjkns, cfgjsjkn hìfrs qujgimy sgrffn hkst

kd tafh ey gkhp`rjno tafh o`jnst st`nc`rc, r`tafr ta`n wjta knf nktafr, nc

tafn dkgus kn knf, kr `t hkst twk kptjkns wajga `rf gkhp`rfc9 5) kptjkns `rfsfmfgtfc kr rfbfgtfc e`sfc kn tafjr gkhp`tjejmjty wjta taf sjtu`tjkns kr taf cfgj-

sjkns v`mufs9 7) taf prkgfss kd h`tgajno h`y ef `n`mytjg eut hkrf kdtfn jt rfmjfs

kn p`ttfrn h`tgajno `nc jndkrh`m rf`sknjno‘.

A`rrjskn (0:::) prkvjcfs `n kvfrvjfw kd taf stfps kd taf r`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn-

hìjno hkcfm dkr hìjno gakjgfs2 prkemfh cfdjnjtjkn, jcfntjdjg`tjkn kd taf cfgj-

sjkn grjtfrj`, `mmkg`tjkn kd taf wfjoats tk taf grjtfrj`, cfvfmkphfnt kd `mtfrn`tjvfs,

`nc fv`mu`tjkn kd taf `mtfrn`tjvfs. afrf `rf str`tfojfs dkr gakjgf ta`t gkndrknt

gkndmjgts jnafrfnt jn taf gakjgf sjtu`tjkn `nc str`tfojfs ta`t `vkjc tafsf gkndmjgts

(Ako`rta, 0:119 Hjfo, 5<<0). Gkndmjgt-gkndrkntjno str`tfojfs `rf gkhpfns`tkry

‗ tafy `mmkw pfkpmf tk tr`cf kdd ` mkw v`muf kn knf cjhfnsjkn ò`jnst ` ajoa v`mufkn `nktafr. Gkndmjgt-`vkjcjno str`tfojfs `rf nkn-gkhpfns`tkry wajga hf`ns ta`t

tafy ck nkt mmkw tr`cf-kdds nc rfqujrf gfrt`jn hjnjhuh kr h`xjhuh kn fvfry

cjhfnsjkn.

Efgùsf kd tafjr ekuncfc r`tjkn`mjty pfkpmf grf`tf sjhpmjdjfc hkcfms ta`t fx-

tr`gt taf fssfntj`m df`turfs drkh prkemfhs wajga ckfs nkt hf`n ta`t tafy fjtafr

`gt jrr`tjkn`mmy kr kptjhjsf (Ojofrfnzfr & Wfmtfn, 5<<0). ajs kddfrs n `mtfrn`tjvf

tk gurrfnt nkrhs kd kptjhjz`tjkn, prkeèjmjtjfs `nc utjmjtjfs wajga tìfs jntk `g-

gkunt taf gkonjtjvf mjhjt`tjkns kd pfkpmf `nc taf strugturf kd taf fnvjrknhfnt.

Kngf prkemfh js jcfntjdjfc, pfkpmf sf`rga dkr grjtfrj` nc mtfrn`tjvfs jn krcfr tk

fv`mu`tf taf mtfrn`tjvfs. af sf`rga stkps wafn n mtfrn`tjvf js dkunc ta`t hffts`n `ggfptèmf mfvfm kd pfrdkrh`ngf. Curjno taf sf`rga dkr h`tgajno `mtfrn`tjvfs

tk taf grjtfrj`, pfkpmf tfnc tk usf afurjstjgs. Afurjstjgs `rf ‑fgkmkojg`mmy r`tjkn`m‚

efgùsf tafy `rf `c`ptfc tk p`rtjgum`r fnvjrknhfnts. ajs hf`ns ta`t tafy tfnc

tk ef ckh`jn, gumturf `nc tjhf spfgjdjg jn krcfr tk s`vf tjhf, eut tafy g`n ef

`s `ggur`tf `s gkhpmfx st`tjstjg`m hkcfms wajmf cfh`ncjno mfss jndkrh`tjkn `nc

gkhput`tjkn`m pkwfr (Ojofrfnzfr & Wfmtfn, 5<<09 Ojofrfnzfr, ft `m., 0:::). af

hfga`njsh kd akw pfkpmf cfgjcf èkut tafsf rumfs js nkt yft wfmm uncfrstkkc.

@ggkrcjno tk Ef`ga `nc Gknnkmmy (5<<6, p. 57) ”cfgjsjkn hìjno js fssfntj`mmy

skgj`m efa`vjkur, fvfn wafn tafrf js nkekcy fmsf prfsfnt, efgùsf knf `ntjgjp`tfs

akw ktafrs wjmm rf`gt `nc d`gtkrs tajs jntk taf cfgjsjkn. Y…X Kro`njs`tjkns pfr sf



64

ck nkt hìf cfgjsjkns, eut jncjvjcu`ms jn kro`njs`tjkns ck. @nc wafn tafy ck tafy

hust tìf ktafrs jntk `ggkunt.‘ ajs gkntfxt jndmufngfs taf prkgfss `nc kutgkhf

kd taf cfgjsjkn (E`mkoun ft m., 5<<1). _afn pfkpmf hìf cfgjsjkns, tafy suppksf

ta`t tajs cfgjsjkn js turnfc jntk `gtjkn (Erunsskn, 0:1:), eut tafrf `rf nuhfrkus

gknnfgtjkns eftwffn taf prkgfss, cfgjsjkn, `nc `gtjkn ta`t sakumc `gt jn jskm`-

tjkn, sfqufntj`mmy `nc jn gkafrfngf tk cjrfgtmy mjni taf jntfntjkn tk taf kutgkhf.afrfdkrf cfgjsjkn kutgkhfs sakumc r`tafr ef sffn `s taf gknsfqufngfs kd `gtjkns

`nc jntfr`gtjkn kd humtjpmf jssufs ta`n kd spfgjdjg jcfntjdjèmf cfgjsjkns (Tjc`jmmft,

5<<1). _afn cfgjsjkns `nc cfgjsjkn hìfrs `rf jcfntjdjfc, jt js pkssjemf tk `ssjon

rfspknsjejmjty dkr gkursf kd gtjkn tk cfgjsjkn hìfrs (Erunsskn, 5<<?). Efgùsf

cfgjsjkn hìfrs `rf `w`rf kd tajs, cfgjsjkn hìfrs `ppf`r tk o`tafr jndkrh`tjkn

ta`t tafy hjoat nkt nfgfss`rjmy usf tk sakw ta`t tafy `rf okkc cfgjsjkn hìfrs

kr tk bustjdy tafjr cfgjsjkn jn `n unfxpfgtfc fvfnt (Dfmch`n & H`rga, 0:10)

kr tafy hjoat gakksf taf kptjkn ta`t wjmm ef f`sjfst tk bustjdy (ftmkgi, 0::5).

@ggkrcjno tk ftmkgi (0:17) ` cfgjsjkn hìfr g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` pkmjtjgj`n

wak js `ggkuntèmf tk tafjr ‑gknstjtufnts‚ `nc wak js gknst`ntmy gkngfrnfc wjtaqufstjkns rfo`rcjno taf bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn nc rf`gtjkn kd ktafrs. Ftzjknj

(0:11, p. 3) prfsfnts taf ‑J & _f p`r`cjoh‚, wajga ”ajoamjoats taf `ssuhptjkn

ta`t jncjvjcu`ms `gt wjtajn ` skgj`m gkntfxt, ta`t tajs gkntfxt js nkt rfcugjemf tk

jncjvjcu`m `gts, `nc ta`t taf skgj`m gkntfxt js nkt nfgfss`rjmy kr wakmmy gkhpksfc.

Jnstf`c, taf skgj`m gkntfxt js tk ` sjonjdjg`nt fxtfnt pfrgfjvfc `s ` mfojtjh`tf `nc

jntfor`m p`rt kd knf‚s fxjstfngf, ` _f, `s wakmf wajga taf jncjvjcu`ms `rf gknstjtu-

fnt fmfhfnts.‘

7.3.5 Wfnsfhìjno

Wfnsfhìjno js taf prkgfss kd hìjno skhftajno sfnsjemf `nc jnvkmvfs taf knok-

jno rftrkspfgtjvf cfvfmkphfnt kd pmùsjemf jhòfs ta`t r`tjkn`mjsf wa`t pfkpmf

`rf ckjno (_fjgi, 0::69 _fjgi, Wutgmjddf, & Kestdfmc, 5<<6). Jt a`s jts ofnfsjs

jn cjsruptjvf `hejoujty `nc jts hjxturf kd rftrkspfgt `nc prkspfgt, js fhefccfc

jn jntfrcfpfncfngf `nc e`sfc kn ` cj`mkouf `hkno pfkpmf wak `gt kn efa`md kd

m`rofr skgj`m unjts. ”Wfnsfhìjno p`ys `ttfntjkn tk akw pfkpmf ‑cf`m wjta‚ (wafta-

fr ungknsgjkusmy kr ktafrwjsf) gknstr`jnts jhpksfc ey taf jndkrh`tjkn prkgfss-

jno mjhjt`tjkns `nc tafjr kro`njs`tjkn`m gkntfxt, cfmvjno jntk taf skgjk-pkmjtjg`m

n`turf kd kro`njs`tjkns tk sakw ta`t taf `nswfr tk efttfr cfgjsjkn hìjno ckfs

nkt nfgfss`rjmy mjf wjta taf prkvjsjkn kd orf`tfr qu`ntjtjfs kd ‑hkrf `ggur`tf‚, ‑kebfgtjvf‚ `nc tjhfmy c`t`, eut r`tafr rfqujrfs `n uncfrst`ncjno kd taf skgj`m prkg-

fssfs kd nfoktj`tjkn jnvkmvfc jn cfgjsjkn hìjno‘ (E`mkoun, ft `m., 5<<1, p. 576).Gfntr`m qufstjkns `rf akw `n fvfnt gkhfs tk a`ppfn `nc wa`t ckfs `n fvfnt

hf`n. Cjddfrfnt jntfrprft`tjkns kd cfgjsjkns gkumc gùsf hejoujty nc gkndusjkn

èkut taf `gtjkns rfqujrfc tk jhpmfhfnt ` cfgjsjkns.

@ggkrcjno tk _fjgi (0::6) `nc Tjc`jmmft (5<<1), eujmcjno stkrjfs wjta `rou-

hfnts `hkno cfgjsjkn hìfrs, kppkrtunjstjg jntfrprft`tjkn, spfncjno tjhf kn

`gtjkns, `nc mjnijno jssufs `mm jngrf`sf sfnsfhìjno èkut cfgjsjkns `nc taf `t-

trjeutjkn kd kutgkhfs tk spfgjdjg jncjvjcu`ms `nc `gtjkns. Garjstj`nskn, D`ri`s,

Wutgmjddf `nc _fjgi (5<<:) sakwfc dkr jnst`ngf ta`t kro`njs`tjkns g`n mf`rntarkuoa r`rf fvfnts ta`t kggur kutsjcf taf fvfryc`y fxpfrjfngf kd `n kro`njs`tjkn



6?

efgùsf r`rf fvfnts trjoofr mf`njno ey ucjtjno taf fxjstjno rfspknsf rfpfrtkjrfs, ey

cjsruptjno kr strfnotafnjno kro`njzjno rkutjnfs, nc ey rfcjrfgtjno kro`njs`tjkn`m

jcfntjty. E`mkoun, \yf `nc Akcoijnskn (5<<1) jngmucf ` skgjkmkojg mfns kn cfgj-

sjkn hìjno nc cfdjnf sfnsfhìjno s skgj`m prkgfss kd gknstrugtjkn nc rfgkn-

strugtjkn kd hf`njno ta`t fnèmfs jncjvjcu`ms tarkuoa jntfr`gtjno wjta ktafrs tk

gkmmfgtjvfmy grf`tf, h`jnt`jn nc jntfrprft taf wkrmc. af jntfrtwjnfc gkngfpts kd‑dr`hjno‚ (sa`pjno taf hf`njno kd ` suebfgt `nc sa`rjno jt wjta ktafrs), ‑sfnsfojv-

jno‚ (`ttfhpts tk jndmufngf sfnsfhìjno `nc gknstrugtjkn kd hf`njno tkw`rc `

prfdfrrfc rfcfdjnjtjkn kd skgj`m rf`mjty), ‑sfnsfrf`cjno‚ (pfrgfptjkn kd gjrguhst`ng-

fs `nc `mjonjno kd jntfrprft`tjkns), `nc ‑sfnsfwrjoatjno‚ (jnafrjtjno, sa`pjno `nc

rfdmfgtjno taf uncfrst`ncjno kd taf wkrmc) `rf `mm rfm`tfc tk taf rfskurgf, prkgfss

`nc hf`njno kd pkwfr fddfgts jn kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno (E`mkoun, ft `m.,

5<<1). _fjgi, Wutgmjddf `nc Kestdfmc (5<<6, p. 3<:) fhpa`sjsf ta`t sfnsfhìjno

js èkut taf jntfrpm`y kd `gtjkn `nc jntfrprft`tjkn r`tafr ta`n taf jndmufngf kd

fv`mu`tjkn kn gakjgf ‗ ”jt js ` prkgfss ta`t js knokjno, jnstruhfnt`m, suetmf, swjdt,

skgj`m `nc f`sjmy tìfn dkr or`ntfc‘.Jn taf tr`cjtjkn kd sfnsfhìjno, jhòf tafkry suoofsts ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs

usf tafjr jhòfs (` jncjvjcu`m stkrf kd inkwmfcof) tk sft st`nc`rcs ta`t oujcf cfgj-

sjkns èkut ok`ms `nc pm`ns (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). Jn jhòf tafkry ` dr`hf

gknsjsts kd taf prjngjpmfs, ok`ms `nc pm`ns (taf gknstjtufnts) kd taf jhòfs `nc js

usfc tk sft taf st`nc`rcs ta`t jndmufngf taf cfgjsjkn (dkr fx`hpmf ey rfgkonjtjkn).

\ktfntj`m ok`ms `nc pm`ns ta`t `rf jngkhp`tjemf wjta taf st`nc`rcs `rf qujgimy

sgrffnfc kut `nc taf efst kd taf survjvkrs js tafn gaksfn. Jn taf kro`njs`tjkn`m

vfrsjkn kd jhòf tafkry, taf gknstjtufnts kd taf jhòfs `rf g`mmfc kro`njs`tjkn`m

gumturf (sa`rfc v`mufs `nc efmjfds), kro`njs`tjkn`m vjsjkn (ok`ms òfnc` `nc tjhf

mjnf), `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m str`tfoy (emufprjnt dkr ok`m `gajfvfhfnt). af dr`hjno`ssurfs ta`t wafn pfkpmf hìf cfgjsjkns dkr `nc èkut kro`njs`tjkns rfmfv`nt jh-

òfs `rf tìfn jntk `ggkunt. Ufsf`rga kn taf jncjvjcu`m vfrsjkn kd jhòf tafkry

sakws ta`t sgrffnjno kd sujtèmf kptjkns sffhs hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n taf `gtu`m

gakjgf, ta`t gkhp`tjejmjty kd jhòfs js mjnifc tk taf nuhefr kd vjkm`tjkns tk taf

jhòfs (` vjkm`tjkn tarfsakmc) `nc ta`t taf hkrf hfhefrs kd `n kro`njs`tjkn

òrff ekut taf prjngjpmfs, taf hkrf tafy òrff ekut taf pprkprj`tfnfss kd pm`n

(Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). Jn kro`njs`tjkns, gkhp`tjejmjty wjta taf gkhp`ny‚s

gumturf jndmufngfs taf suppkrt dkr taf cfgjsjkn wajmf cjsgrfp`ngy eftwffn jcf`m

jhòf `nc `gtu`m jhòf gkumc jndmufngf bke s`tjsd`gtjkn. Ufsumts kd `ppmjg`tjkn kd

taf jhòf tafkry sffh prkhjsjno dkr jssufs suga `s bke turnkvfr, kro`njs`tjkn`m bustjgf `nc gmjnjg`m trf`thfnt sfmfgtjkn, jssufs ta`t sakw ` mkt kd rfsfhem`ngf wjta

taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt. @ggkrcjno tk E`mkoun ft `m. (5<<1) mjttmf rfsf`rga a`s

effn cknf ta`t jntfor`tfs taf h`nòfrj`m `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m gkonjtjkn. ajs ijnc

kd rfsf`rga prkeèmy rfqujrfs `n ftankor`pajg hftakc eut jt js fssfntj`m ta`t ”taf

stucy kd cfgjcjno nkt bust gknsjcfrs taf jndkrh`tjkn prkgfssjno dkgus kn pfrskn`m

prfdfrfngfs, ej`sfs nc afurjstjgs, eut `msk kn cfgjsjkn hìfr‚s jcfntjtjfs nc tafjr

skgj`m sijmms `nc g`pèjmjtjfs‘ (E`mkoun, ft `m., 5<<1, p. 537).



61

7.3.7 D`gtkrs kd jndmufngf kn gkonjtjvf prkgfssfs

Afurjstjgs h`y ef usfdum eut tafy g`n `msk mf`c tk sfvfrf `nc systfh`tjg frrkrs

(vfrsiy & Iànfh`n, 0:?3). af gkngfpt kd afurjstjgs jnspjrfc mkt kd sgakm`rs

tk ck rfsf`rga èkut taf hkst gkhhkn systfh`tjg ej`sfs `nc frrkrs jn `ppmyjno

afurjstjgs jn cfgjsjkn hìjno2 taf kvfrgkndjcfngf ej`s, `ngakrjno ej`s, gkndjr-

h`tjkn e`sjs, sfmd-dumdjmmjno prkpafgjfs, `v`jmèjmjty ej`s, rfprfsfnt`tjvf ej`s, fs-g`m`tjkn kd gkhhjthfnt, r`nckhnfss frrkr, `nc ajncsjoat ej`s (Ako`rta, 0:119

\mkus, 0::79 Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<1). Ako`rta (0:11) jcfntjdjfc jngknsjstfngy,

mf`rnjno, hfhkry, gkhput`tjkn`m g`p`gjty, d`jmurf tk `pprfgj`tf r`nckhnfss `nc

sfvfr`m ktafr gkonjtjvf `spfgts `s krjojns kd bucofhfnt`m ej`sfs rfm`tfc tk taf `g-

qujsjtjkn, prkgfssjno, kutput `nc dffce`gi kd jndkrh`tjkn. Ktafr d`gtkrs kd jndmu-

fngf kd cfvj`tjkns jn cfgjsjkn hìjno ey afurjstjgs `rf pfrskn`mjty, ofncfr `nc

gumtur`m cjddfrfngfs (Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<1). @ggkrcjno tk Auttkn & Imfjn

(0:::) hkrf rfgfnt rfsf`rga sakws ta`t taf sakrtgkhjnos kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs a`vf

effn orf`tmy fxòofr`tfc, wajga hf`ns ta`t tafrf js jn prjngjpmf nktajno wrkno

wjta usjno afurjstjgs. Ekkis kn fddfgtjvf cfgjsjkn hìjno usu`mmy fxpm`jn taf ej-

`sfs `nc prkpksf tkkms `nc hftakcs tk prfvfnt tafh (f.o. Uussk & Wgakfhìfr,

5<<5). Jt js nkt yft gmf`r waftafr rfsf`rga kn ej`sfs `nc afurjstjgs g`n ef usfc

tk oujcf cfsjonfrs kd cfgjsjkn `jcs jn taf rfcugtjkn kd auh`n frrkr. _rjoat `nc

Okkcwjn (5<<1) prkvjcf `n kvfrvjfw kd gurrfnt jnsjoat èkut taf fddfgtjvfnfss kd

hftakcs e`sfc kn taf usf kd afurjstjgs (suga s WH@U, Cfmpaj, cfgjsjkn `n`mysjs

`nc sgfn`rjk pm`nnjno) ta`t rf cfsjonfc tk prkvjcf strugturf nc suppkrt tk jncj-

vjcu`m `nc orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno.

H`rga & Wjhkn (0:61) `rouf ta`t taf e`sjg dungtjkn kd ` cfgjsjkn js tk skmvf

` prkemfh `nc tafrfey rfcugf ungfrt`jnty, eut m`tfr jnsjoats sakwfc ta`t fvfry

cfgjsjkn h`y prkcugf nfw ungfrt`jntjfs. Vngfrt`jnty js jntjh`tfmy mjnifc wjta

frrkr2 taf orf`tfr taf ungfrt`jnty, taf orf`tfr taf prkeèjmjty kd hìjno `n frrkr.

Mjpsajtz ft `m. (5<<0, p. 77?) prkpksf tk cfdjnf ungfrt`jnty `s ”` sfnsf kd ckuet

ta`t emkgis kr cfm`ys `gtjkns‘. afy jcfntjdjfc tarff prjngjpmf dkrhs kd ungfr-

t`jnty2 jn`cfqu`tf uncfrst`ncjno (` sfnsf kd a`vjno jnsuddjgjfnt sjtu`tjkn `w`rf-

nfss), m`gi kd jndkrh`tjkn (` sfnsf kd a`vjno jngkhpmftf, `hejoukus kr unrfmjèmf

jndkrh`tjkn), `nc gkndmjgtjno `mtfrn`tjvfs (` sfnsf ta`t `v`jmèmf `mtfrn`tjvfs `rf

jnsuddjgjfntmy cjddfrfntj`tfc). af U@_DW afurjstjg gkhejnfs djvf prjngjpmf str`t-

fojfs kd gkpjno wjta ungfrt`jnty2 Ufcugjno ungfrt`jnty, f.o. ey gkmmfgtjno `ccj-

tjkn`m jndkrh`tjkn9 @ssuhptjkn e`sfc rf`sknjno ey hìjno `ssuhptjkns ta`t okefyknc cjrfgtmy `v`jmèmf c`t` tk djmm o`ps9 _fjoajno prks `nc gkns kd `t mf`st twk

`mtfrn`tjvfs9 Dkrfst`mmjno ey cfvfmkpjno `n pprkprj`tf rfspknsf kr rfspknsf g`p`-

ejmjtjfs tk `ntjgjp`tf uncfsjrèmf gkntjnofngjfs9 `nc Wupprfssjno ungfrt`jnty, f.o.

ey jonkrjno jt kr rfmyjno kn unw`rr`ntfc r`tjkn`mjz`tjkn (Mjpsajtz, ft `m., 5<<0, p.

771). @ppmyjno tafsf str`tfojfs jn ` garknkmkojg`m krcfr gkumc ef jntfrprftfc `s `

dkrhum` dkr suggfssdummy gkpjno wjta ungfrt`jnty.

Fxpfrts sffh efttfr èmf tk sff taf sjonjdjg`ngf kd jndkrh`tjkn `nc p`y `ttfn-

tjkn tk jhpkrt`nt gufs ta`t tfmm tafh wa`t tk ck jn grjtjg`m sjtu`tjkns (Erfnnfr,

`nnfr, & Gafsm`, 0::4). C`ìf, C`wmfy `nc @ntakny (5<<3) dkunc ta`t ajoamy

fcug`tfc prkdfssjkn`ms hìjno str`tfojg cfgjsjkns jn ` akspjt`m rfmjfc hkrf knjndkrh`m c`t` `nc t`gjt, fxpfrjfngf-e`sfc jndkrh`tjkn ta`n kn d`gts `nc dkrh`m



6:

c`t`. Ako`rta (5<<5) suhh`rjsfs taf hkst jhpkrt`nt djncjnos kn fxpfrtjsf jn taf

usf kd cfgjsjkn str`tfojfs2 0) fxpfrtjsf js mjhjtfc tk spfgjdjg ckh`jns `nc `gqujrfc

tarkuoa fxpksurf tk nc gtjvjty wjtajn tafh, 5) kutst`ncjno pfrdkrh`ngf jn `ny

ckh`jn tìfs yf`rs kd cfcjg`tjkn `nc dffce`gi drkh tf`gafrs, 7) tafrf js mjhjtfc

rfm`tjkn eftwffn fxpfrtjsf `nc prfcjgtjvf èjmjty, 3) fxpfrts `nc nkvjgfs prkgfss

jndkrh`tjkn cjddfrfntmy ey taf usf kd p`ttfrns `nc t`gjt inkwmfcof. Fxpfrts sff`nc rfprfsfnt ` prkemfh `t ` cffpfr mfvfm, a`vf ` efttfr èjmjty tk sff typjg`mjty, `n-

tfgfcfnts `nc gknsfqufngfs, `nc spfnc hkrf tjhf tryjno tk uncfrst`nc taf prke-

mfh (Auttkn & Imfjn, 0:::). Crfydus `nc Crfydus (0:14) prkpksf ta`t sijmmfc

pfrdkrh`ngf p`ssfs tarkuoa djvf mfvfms kd prkdjgjfngy jn cfgjsjkn hìjno2 nkvjgf,

`cv`ngfc efojnnfr, gkhpftfnt, prkdjgjfnt nc fxpfrt. Erfnnfr ft m. (0::4) dkunc

ta`t wafn ` nkvjgf hkvfs tk efgkhjno `n fxpfrt (s)af djrst sajdts drkh rfmyjno kn

èstr`gt prjngjpmfs tk usjno gkngrftf fxpfrjfngf, (s)af tafn st`rts tk pfrgfjvf taf

sjtu`tjkn hkrf `s ` gkhpmftf wakmf wjta rfmfv`nt p`rts jnstf`c kd ` gkhpjm`tjkn

`nc tafn, jnstf`c kd efjno `n kesfrvfr (s)af g`n st`rt `gtjno `s `n p`rtjgjp`nt jn

taf sjtu`tjkn. Fxpfrts bust ck taf rjoat tajno tk `gajfvf ` ok`m efgùsf tafy a`vf `m`rofr ‑rfspknsf rfpfrtkjrf‚ `nc tafrfdkrf fxpfrjfngf dfwfr kgg`sjkns kd kvfrmk`c.

\`rskns (0:1?) suoofsts ` hkcfm ta`t jngmucfs sfvfr`m stòfs kd fxpfrtjsf dkr fxpf-

rjfngjno `rt. Jn taf djrst stòf taf fxpfrjfngf js jntujtjvfmy pmf`surèmf. Jn taf nfxt

stòf taf fxpfrjfngf wjmm `msk ef jntfrfstjno efgùsf kd taf gkntfnt. Jn taf tajrc

stòf knf `msk dffms ta`t taf fxpfrjfngf js vfry jntfrfstjno `nc jn taf nfxt stòf taf

fxpfrjfngf js put jntk ` ajstkrjg`m gkntfxt. Burkrs jn taf djdta `nc djn`m stòf `rf

èmf tk bucof ùtknkhkusmy `nc dffm taf nffc tk cjsguss `nc a`rhknjsf wjta taf

prkdfssjkn`m djfmc. @ggkrcjno tk Hjfo (5<<0) jt js nkt knmy taf psygakmkojg`m sijmms

ta`t hìf pfkpmf n fxpfrt. Drkh hkrf skgjkmkojg`m pfrspfgtjvf skhfknf js gkn-

sjcfrfc `n fxpfrt efgùsf skhfknf fmsf `ttrjeutfs fxpfrtjsf tk ` pfrskn. Fxpfrtjsfjs tafrfdkrf `mw`ys rfm`tjvf `nc tafjr pfrdkrh`ngf sakumc ef g`rfdummy gafgifc.

Wk`nf `nc Njgakmskn (5<<1) cjstjnoujsa sfvfr`m mfvfms kd pfrskn`m cjddfrfngfs

ta`t gkumc jndmufngf taf ok`ms ta`t cjrfgt cfgjsjkn hìjno, taf gkntfnt kd cfgjsjkn

hìjno, `nc taf cjrfgtjkn kd `ttfntjkn tk `v`jmèmf jndkrh`tjkn. \frskn`m cjddfr-

fngfs kggur kn taf mfvfm kd ejkor`pajg`m v`rjèmfs (òf, ofncfr), jntfrn`m prkg-

fssfs (`ddfgt, fhktjkn, `ttrjeutjkn, hktjv`tjkn, pfrskn`mjty, rjsi krjfnt`tjkn, sfmd-

hknjtkrjno, sfmd rfoum`tjkn, ùtkh`tjgjty, sfmd-fddjg`gy), `ttrjeutfs (`ttjtucfs `nc

v`mufs), `nc èjmjtjfs (gkhpftfngfs, ungfrt`jnty, jntfr`gtjknjsh, pfrskn-bke djt).

Akwfvfr, taf jndmufngf kd tafsf jncjvjcu`m cjddfrfngfs js nkt r`nckh efgùsf pfk-

pmf a`vf systfh`tjg nc gknsjstfnt prfdfrfngfs nc tr`jts. Jn ofnfr`m pfkpmf gakksftk ef jn kggup`tjkns nc sjtu`tjkns ta`t sujt tafjr tfncfngjfs. afrfdkrf n kvfr`mm

akhfkst`tjg prkgfss kd sfmd-jcfntjty rfoum`tfs taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn jncjvjcu`m

gakjgfs, ok`ms `nc sjtu`tjkn`m dkrgfs (Wk`nf & Njgakmskn, 5<<1).

Jn mjnf wjta taf djncjnos kn jhòf tafkry èkut sgrffnjno (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy,

5<<6), Wutgmjdd `nc _fjgi (5<<1) suoofst ta`t jntfrprft`tjkn `nc sfnsfhìjno

`rf hkrf jhpkrt`nt jn cfgjsjkn `gtjkn ta`n gakjgf. I`rh`nkv (5<<:) dkunc ta`t

`fstaftjg fxpfrjfngf kd m`ncsg`pf cfsjon js fna`ngfc ey inkwmfcof suga `s taf

rfgkonjtjkn kd pm`nts, taf pfrgfjvfc hf`njnos `nc n`rr`tjvfs tarkuoa wajga taf

paysjg`m prkpfrtjfs kd taf fnvjrknhfnt rf jntfrprftfc nc fv`mu`tfc, fvkifc ssk-

gj`tjkns nc hfhkrjfs nc fhktjkn`m rf`gtjkns. Mf C`ntfg nc Z-Mufn Ck (5<<:)



4<

`msk dkunc ta`t n`rr`tjvfs nc fxprfssjkns kd v`mufs afmpfc tk gknvfy akw rfqujrf-

hfnts `nc v`mufs jn cfsjon `rf sjtu`tfc tkoftafr. Jndkrh`tjkn kvfrmk`c kggurs

wafn ` pfrskn rfgfjvfs tkk huga jndkrh`tjkn tk prkgfss, gkhputf, `nc jntfrprft

jt nc taf e`m`ngf eftwffn cfh`nc nc g`p`gjty js cjsturefc. Wyhptkhs kd jndkr-

h`tjkn kvfrmk`c `rf dkr fx`hpmf ofnfr`m m`gi kd pfrspfgtjvf, `n jnèjmjty tk sfmfgt

kut rfmfv`nt jndkrh`tjkn `nc jngrf`sjno cjstr`gtjkn ey jrrfmfv`nt `nc jntfrdfr-jno gufs wajga mf`c tk strfss `nc ` dffmjno kd mkss kd gkntrkm (Wutgmjddf & _fjgi,

5<<1). Jd jndkrh`tjkn js kd mkw qu`mjty, mkw v`muf, ajoamy `hejoukus kr a`s sakrt

pfrjkc kd rfmfv`ngf, tkk huga fddkrt `nc tjhf wkumc ef nffcfc tk hìf sfnsf kd

taf jndkrh`tjkn. Kvfrmk`c g`n kggur wafn jnput jngrf`sfs, eut `msk wafn g`p`g-

jty js mjhjtfc. G`p`gjty g`n ef mjhjtfc ey jngrf`sjno gkhpmfxjty nc t`si cfh`ncs

eut `msk wafn tjhf js mjhjtfc kr prfssurf js ajoa. Cjstr`gtjkns `nc jntfrruptjkns

jncjrfgtmy `msk jngrf`sf taf ga`ngf kd kvfrmk`c. Ufsf`rga sakws ta`t uncfr gfrt`jn

gkncjtjkns `nc up tk ` gfrt`jn pkjnt, tjhf prfssurf gkumc `msk jhprkvf cfgjsjkn

tjhf nc cfgjsjkn ggur`gy efgùsf jt afmps cfgjsjkn hìfrs tk n`rrkw ckwn tafjr

`ttfntjkn `nc tk dkgus kn taf hkst rfmfv`nt jndkrh`tjkn (Aàn, M`wskn, & Mff,0::59 Wpfjfr, T`m`gjga, & Tfssfy, 0:::).

7.3.3 @ddfgt, hkkc `nc fhktjkn

Fhktjkns g`n jndmufngf `mm `spfgts kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. Iànfh`n (5<<7) g`mms

taf rfgkonjtjkn kd taf `ddfgt afurjstjg taf hkst jhpkrt`nt cfvfmkphfnt jn taf

stucy kd bucofhfnt afurjstjgs jn taf p`st dfw cfg`cfs, wajga rfdmfgts ` ga`nof

jn taf ofnfr`m gmjh`tf kd psygakmkojg`m kpjnjkn. @ggkrcjno tk Ukeejns & Bucof

(5<<1) `ddfgt js cfdjnfc `s ` erk`c r`nof kd dffmjnos ta`t pfkpmf fxpfrjfngf jn taf

dkrh kd fhktjkn kr hkkcs. af gknstrugt kd `ddfgt a`s twk jncfpfncfnt cjhfn-

sjkns dkr pksjtjvf `nc nfo`tjvf dffmjnos fxpfrjfngfc ey taf jncjvjcu`m `t taf s`hf

tjhf (Eftsga, 5<<6). Fhktjkns `rf erjfd, spfgjdjg `nc jntfnsf dffmjnos crjvfn ey

skhfknf‚s gkngfrns ta`t gkumc cjrfgt gfrt`jn efa`vjkur (Drjbc`, 0:149 Ojofrfnzfr

& Wfmtfn, 5<<0). Fhktjkn rfsf`rgafrs cjstjnoujsa eftwffn t`si-rfm`tfc nc ntjgj-

p`tfc jntfor`m `ddfgt (fhktjkn`m rfspknsfs fmjgjtfc ey taf cfgjsjkn sjtu`tjkn jtsfmd

kr jts pktfntj`m gknsfqufngfs) `nc e`giorkunc kr jngjcfnt`m `ddfgt (ungknnfgtfc

fhktjkns erkuoat jn ey `n jncjvjcu`m tk taf cfgjsjkn sjtu`tjkn) (Ojofrfnzfr &

Wfmtfn, 5<<09 Hksjfr & Djsgafr, 5<<:). af jhp`gt kd jngjcfnt`m fhktjkns sffhs

tk ef hkrf ta`n prfvjkusmy takuoat, `nc gkngfrns ekta ungknsgjkus `s wfmm `s

rf`gtjkns ta`t `rf cjddjgumt tk put `sjcf. Ufsf`rga a`s sakwn ta`t jngjcfnt`m fhk-tjkn jhp`gts cfgjsjkn hìjno hkrf jn `hejoukus sjtu`tjkns ta`n jn un`hejoukus

sjtu`tjkns (Mfrnfr & Ifmtnfr, 5<<<). H`tf gakjgf js `n jhpkrt`nt cfgjsjkn e`sfc

kn skgj`m prkgfssfs `ddfgtfc ey fhktjkns ta`t gkumc `msk ef fxpm`jnfc drkh ` gum-

tur`m pfrspfgtjvf (Ojofrfnzfr & Wfmtfn, 5<<0).

@ppr`js`m tafkry `jhs tk fxpm`jn taf jhp`gt kd fhktjkn kn cfgjsjkn hìjno

(Fmmswkrta & Wgafrfr, 5<<79 M`z`rus, 0::<). Jt sffs fhktjkns `s spfgjdjg `ppr`js`m

p`ttfrns ta`t hktjv`tf pfkpmf tkw`rcs spfgjdjg ok`ms `nc efa`vjkurs. Df`r gkumc

dkr fx`hpmf mf`c tk ungfrt`jnty rfcugtjkn, sfmd-prktfgtjkn `nc prfvfntjno a`rh

(Nèj, 5<<7) wajmf `nofr gkumc jncugf rjsi-tìjno efa`vjkur `nc stjhum`tf `g-

tjkns tk ga`nof taf sjtu`tjkn (Mfrnfr & jfcfns, 5<<4). af wkri kn prkcugtfxpfrjfngf (f.o. Cfshft, 5<<5, sff `msk Ga`ptfr 5.3) js e`sfc kn `ppr`js`m tafkry



40

`nc tafrfdkrf gkngfrns jntfor`m `ddfgt. Uforft tafkry `nc cjs`ppkjnthfnt tafkry

`rf fx`hpmfs kd rjsiy gakjgf nc hkcjdjg`tjkn kd utjmjtjfs ey fhktjkns (Ojofrfnzfr

& Wfmtfn, 5<<0). Fhktjkns `rf `msk jhpkrt`nt dkr mf`rnjno prkgfssfs ‗ ` rfw`rc

jnspjrfs pfkpmf tk iffp up tafjr okkc wkri wajmf ` punjsahfnt gùsfs p`jndum

dffmjnos.

Djncjnos ey C`h`sjk (0::3, 0:::) kn er`jn c`hòf jncjg`tf ta`t fhktjkns`rf grjtjg`m tk r`tjkn`m tajnijno efgùsf tafy prkvjcf jhpkrt`nt jndkrh`tjkn ekut

akw pfkpmf `rf `w`rf `nc uncfrst`nc taf wkrmc jn `cv`ngf kd gknsgjkus `w`rf-

nfss. Fhktjkns gkumc gkntrjeutf tk rfcugtjkn kd taf kptjkns pfkpmf gknsjcfr nc

tafrfdkrf hìfs cfgjsjkns hkrf h`nòfèmf. @s ` rfsumt kd ungknsgjkus jndkrh`-

tjkn prkgfssjno, hkkcs `nc fhktjkns pfkpmf h`y inkw hkrf ta`n tafy g`n fx-

prfss, `nc h`y ef unèmf tk vfre`mjsf akw tafy `rrjvfc `t ` p`rtjgum`r bucofhfnt

(Ekwfrs, ft `m., 0::<). Efgùsf taf ungknsgjkus systfh js `sskgj`tfc wjta `ddfgt

`nc ` m`gi kd `w`rfnfss akw tk ef gkntrkmmfc, taf ungknsgjkus systfh mjifmy tk ef

hkrf gkhpfmmjno nc cjddjgumt tk gkntrkm (Fpstfjn, 0::3). Fpstfjn tafrfdkrf gm`jhs

ta`t `mm prkgfssfs jn taf nkn-gknsgjkus systfh `rf fhktjkn`mmy crjvfn. M`nomfy ft`m. (0::6) st`tf ta`t fhktjkn, jhòjn`tjkn `nc hfhkrjfs crjvf cfgjsjkn hìjno

ey dkrhjno jnsjoats. Jntujtjvf bucofhfnts h`y ef trjoofrfc ey fhktjkns `nc `d-

dfgt (_fjss & Grkp`nz`nk, 0::4). Fhktjkn`m jntfmmjofngf jncjg`tfs knf‚s èjmjty

tk cftfgt `nc h`nòf fhktjkn`m gufs `nc jndkrh`tjkn `nc js gkhpksfc kd taf cj-

hfnsjkns kd sfmd-`w`rfnfss, sfmd-h`nòfhfnt, sfmd-hktjv`tjkn, fhp`tay nc skgj`m

sijmms (f.o. C`vjfs, Wt`nikv, & Ukefrts, 0::1).

@ddfgt gkumc jndmufngf jndkrh`tjkn prkgfssjno str`tfojfs kr prkgfssjno stymfs

(Hur`h`tsu & A`nkga, 5<<69 \ftfrs, T`stdb`mm, O`rmjno, & Wmkvjg, 5<<4).

Ojofrfnzfr `nc Wfmtfn (5<<0) suoofst ta`t fhktjkn `nc skgj`m nkrhs g`n ef `n

fddfgtjvf stkppjno rumf `s p`rt kd tafjr `c`ptjvf tkkmijt. Ufsf`rga djncjnos suoofstta`t `nofr gkumc dkr fx`hpmf mf`c tk hkrf stfrfktypjg bucofhfnts, mfss `ttfntjkn

tk taf qu`mjty kd rouhfnts nc hkrf ttfntjkn tk supfrdjgj`m gufs, wafrf`s df`r kr

`nxjfty gkumc mf`c tk systfh`tjg nc gkhprfafnsjvf jndkrh`tjkn prkgfssfs (Hksjfr

& Djsgafr, 5<<:). \ksjtjvf `ddfgt gkumc dkstfr qujgifr, hkrf supfrdjgj`m `nc mfss fd-

dkrtdum str`tfojfs usjno mjttmf jndkrh`tjkn, eut gkumc `msk mf`c tk hkrf grf`tjvf,

kpfn `nc jngmusjvf takuoats (W`cmfr-Whjta & Wp`rrkw, 5<<1). afsf djncjnos `rf

jn mjnf wjta taf rfsumts kd @hèjmf (0::4), wajga jncjg`tf ` mjnf`r rfm`tjknsajp ef-

twffn pksjtjvf ddfgt nc grf`tjvf takuoats, gkonjtjvf v`rj`tjkn nc grf`tjvf fvfnts

`nc tafrfdkrf ` pkssjemf jngrf`sf kd kro`njs`tjkn`m prkcugtjvjty `nc bke s`tjsd`g-

tjkn. Grf`tjvjty gkumc `msk fvkif sakrt tfrh fhktjkn`m rf`gtjkns suga `s bky.Hksjfr & Djsgafr (5<<:) `rouf ta`t `ddfgt gkumc mf`c tk ` mjhjtfc jndkrh`-

tjkn sf`rga `nc ` ej`sfc jntfor`tjkn `nc jntfrprft`tjkn kd jndkrh`tjkn `nc gufs

jn kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno `msk. Jn `n kpfr`tjkn`m gkntfxt `nofr gkumc dkr

jnst`ngf fngkuròf ` ‑em`hf‚ gumturf jn wajga cfgjsjkn hìfrs dkgus kn rfspknsj-

ejmjty nc rftrjeutjkn r`tafr ta`n prkemfh skmvjno, wajmf df`r kr nxjfty h`y fmjgjt

` orf`t gkngfrn dkr sfmd-prktfgtjkn `nc s`dfty. E`sfc kn rfsf`rga rfsumts kd ktafr

sgakm`rs, Hksjfr & Djsgafr (5<<:, p. 0<0) suoofst ta`t ”prkdfssjkn`ms `rf sfnsjtjvf

tk t`si-jntfor`m `ddfgt `nc jngkrpkr`tf jt jntk tafjr cfgjsjkn prkgfss‘. ajs jhpmjfs

ta`t fvfn fxpfrts skhftjhfs sfmfgt `nc jntfrprft taf jndkrh`tjkn wajga hìfs

tafh dffm hkrf gkhdkrtèmf `s jnput dkr cfgjsjkn hìjno. @ggkrcjno tk _fjgi ft



45

`m. (5<<6, p. 301) ”fxpfgt`tjkns akmc pfkpmf akstòf tk tafjr rfm`tjknsajps jn taf

sfnsf ta`t f`ga fxpfgt`ngy g`n ef vjkm`tfc, `nc ofnfr`tfs ` cjsgrfp`ngy, `n fhk-

tjkn, `nc ` vjkm`tfc jntfrprft`tjkn‘. Hkrf rfsf`rga jn n`tur`m sfttjnos js nffcfc

tk durtafr fxpmkrf taf fddfgts kd ekta jntfor`m `nc jngjcfnt`m `ddfgt kn taf sf`rga

`nc jntfrprft`tjkn kd jndkrh`tjkn, sfnsfhìjno, `nc taf qu`mjty kd taf cfgjsjkn

(@hèjmf, 0::49 Hksjfr & Djsgafr, 5<<:9 _fjgi, ft `m., 5<<6).

7.6 Cfgjsjkn hìjno jn orkups

H`ny cfgjsjkns jn kro`njs`tjkns `rf nkt h`cf ey jncjvjcu`ms eut ey orkups kr

tf`hs kd pfkpmf. ajs sfgtjkn prkvjcfs ` sakrt kvfrvjfw kd orkup cfgjsjkn hì-

jno `nc skhf fddfgts ta`t gkumc tìf pm`gf wjtajn ` orkup. Efgùsf ` bury p`nfm kr

stffrjno gkhhjttff g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` orkup kd fxpfrts, taf gkngfpt kd fxpfrt

tf`hs js `msk `ccrfssfc.

7.6.0 Gkonjtjvf `nc skgj`m prkgfssfs @ggkrcjno tk Dkktf, H`tskn, _fjss `nc _fnofr (5<<5), taf efmjfd cr`wn drkh

taf _fstfrn mfo`m systfh ta`t twk af`cs `rf efttfr ta`n knf js taf rf`skn way jn

h`ny kro`njs`tjkn`m tkc`y cfgjsjkns `rf h`cf ey orkups, tf`hs kr gkhhjttffs. @

trfhfnckus hkunt kd mjtfr`turf fxjsts kn tf`hs. ajs sfgtjkn rfdmfgts knmy taf e`-

sjg jnsjoats. @ orkup js cfdjnfc `s twk kr hkrf jncjvjcu`ms, jntfr`gtjno `nc jntfr-

cfpfncfnt, wak a`vf gkhf tkoftafr tk `gajfvf p`rtjgum`r kebfgtjvfs (Ukeejns &

Bucof, 5<<1). @ orkup g`n ef fjtafr dkrh`m cfdjnfc ey taf kro`njs`tjkn‚s strugturf

kr jndkrh`m. @ gkhh`nc orkup js ` dkrh`m orkup gkhpksfc kd jncjvjcu`ms wak

cjrfgtmy rfpkrt tk ` ojvfn h`nòfr. `si orkups `rf dkrh`m orkups kd fhpmkyffs

wkrijno tkoftafr tk pfrdkrh ` t`si. @ tf`h js ` orkup wajga ofnfr`tfs pksjtjvfsynfroy tarkuoa gkkrcjn`tfc fddkrt wajga rfsumts jn ` mfvfm kd pfrdkrh`ngf ta`t js

orf`tfr ta`n taf suh kd jncjvjcu`m jnputs (Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<1). Orkups a`vf

prkpfrtjfs, suga `s rkmfs, nkrhs, st`tus, orkup sjzf `nc orkup gkafsjvfnfss, ta`t

sa`pf taf efa`vjkurs kd orkup hfhefrs `nc hìf jt pkssjemf tk prfcjgt ` m`rof

p`rt kd jncjvjcu`m efa`vjkur jn ` orkup `s wfmm `s taf pfrdkrh`ngf kd taf orkup

`s ` wakmf.

\fkpmf `mjon tafjr dr`hfs wjta ktafrs jn twk w`ys2 ey cjsgussjkn `nc ey ` sa`rfc

sft kd efmjfds `nc v`mufs, g`mmfc `n kro`njs`tjkn`m gumturf (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy,

5<<6). Jd dr`hfs `rf sjhjm`r, pfkpmf `rf hkrf mjifmy tk uncfrst`nc ktafr pfkpmf‚s

jntfntjkns nc ok`ms. ajs hf`ns ta`t gkndmjgts tfnc tk ef ekut taf skmutjkn kd tafprkemfh, nkt èkut taf jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf prkemfh. T`rj`tjkn jn gumturfs tfncs

tk ef mfss wjtajn kro`njs`tjkns ta`n eftwffn gkuntrjfs. Ftzjknj (0::1) roufs ta`t

jn h`ny rf`s gkmmfgtjvf tajnijno nc cfgjsjkn-hìjno rf hkrf r`tjkn`m ta`n ta`t

kd jncjvjcu`ms efgùsf kd taf fxpmjgjt kpfnnfss tk fvjcfngf `nc rf`sknjno jn taf

prkgfss kd orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn kro`njs`tjkns sa`rfc uncfrst`ncjno, pkwfr

struoomf, jmm-cfdjnfc prkemfhs, nc ungmf`r cfgjsjkn kptjkns jngrf`sf taf gkhpmfx-

jty kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. afrf `rf v`rjkus hkcfms kd kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hì-

jno2 taf r`tjkn`m hkcfm (fvfryekcy strjvfs tk `gajfvf taf s`hf ok`m), taf jndkrh`-

tjkn hkcfm (cfgjsjkns `rf tìfn wafn ` s`tjsdyjno kptjkns `rf fngkuntfrfc), taf

strugtur`m hkcfm (cjddfrfntj`tjkn kd g`p`gjty kd kro`njs`tjkn`m unjts), taf o`reòf



47

g`n hkcfm (`n kro`njs`tjkn `s `n unprfcjgtèmf hjx kd p`rtjgjp`nts, skmutjkns,

prkemfhs nc gakjgf kppkrtunjtjfs), nc taf p`rtjgjp`tjkn hkcfm (jnvkmvfhfnt kd

hfhefrs jn orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno gkntrjeutfs tk efttfr cfgjsjkns, orf`tfr s`tjs-

d`gtjkn `nc orf`tfr gkndjcfngf jn cfgjsjkns) (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6).

_fjgi, Wutgmjddf & Kestdfmc (0:::) dkunc ta`t taf gkafrfngf kd sfnsfhìjno

`nc sa`rjno kd pfrgfptjkns nc fxpfgt`tjkns fnèmf tf`hs tk gt gkafrfntmy curjnogrjsfs `nc a`z`rckus sjtu`tjkns. \fkpmf tafn cfvfmkp gkmmfgtjvf ‑hjncdumnfss‚, ”taf

gkhejn`tjkn kd knokjno sgrutjny kd fxjstjno fxpfgt`tjkns, gkntjnukus rfdjnfhfnt

`nc cjddfrfntj`tjkn kd fxpfgt`tjkns e`sfc kn nfwfr fxpfrjfngfs, wjmmjnonfss `nc

g`pèjmjty tk jnvfnt nfw fxpfgt`tjkns ta`t hìf sfnsf kd unprfgfcfntfc fvfnts,

` hkrf nu`ngfc `pprfgj`tjkn kd gkntfxt `nc w`ys tk cf`m wjta jt, `nc jcfntjdjg`-

tjkn kd nfw cjhfnsjkns kd gkntfxt ta`t jhprkvf dkrfsjoat `nc gurrfnt dungtjkn-

jno‘ (_fjgi & Wutgmjddf, 5<<0, p. 35). Wtjmm ` mkt kd rfsf`rga js nffcfc cr`wjno kn

`ntarkpkmkoy, fgknkhjgs, h`nòfhfnt, psygakmkoy, `nc skgjkmkoy tk fnrjga kur

uncfrst`ncjno kd taf cyn`hjg jntfrpm`y eftwffn hjgrk-prkgfssfs `nc pr`gtjgfs kd

`gtkrs, nc taf skgjkmkojg`m nc h`grk-fgknkhjg gkntfxts kd taksf gtkrs nc tafjrpr`gtjgfs (Akcoijnskn & _rjoat, 5<<4).

7.6.5 Fddfgts kd orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno

Ofkrof & Ga`ttkp`cay`y (5<<1) `rouf ta`t orkups `rf gknsjcfrfc tk ef fddfg-

tjvf dkr cfgjsjkn hìjno t`sis efgùsf tafy g`n erjno h`ny pjfgfs kd jndkrh`tjkn

tkoftafr, tafy g`n `n`mysf jndkrh`tjkn grjtjg`mmy `nc tafy g`n ofnfr`tf gkhhjt-

hfnt jn tafjr hfhefrs. @ggkrcjno tk Ukeejns `nc Bucof (5<<1) taf wfìnfssfs

kd orkups gkumc ef taf tjhf-gknsuhjno ga`r`gtfr, pkssjemf gkndkrhjty prfssurf,

pkssjemf ckhjn`tjkn kd knf kr ` dfw hfhefrs, `nc `hejoukus rfspknsjejmjtjfs.

Knf hjoat `ssuhf ta`t orkups `rf hkrf `ggur`tf, hkrf grf`tjvf wjta ` ajoafr cf-

orff kd cfgjsjkn `ggfpt`ngf `nc wkri s`tjsd`gtjkn, eut mfss fddjgjfnt ta`n jncjvjcu-

`ms. Akwfvfr, taf djncjnos drkh er`jnstkrhjno rfsf`rga sakw ta`t ` orkup js sfm-

ckh hkrf fddfgtjvf `nc kdtfn mfss fddjgjfnt ta`n gkmmfgtjno jcf`s kd jncfpfncfntmy

wkrijno jncjvjcu`ms (\ùmus & Czjnckmft, 0::79 Wtrkfef & Cjfam, 0::3).

Ukeejns `nc Bucof (5<<1) suhh`rjzf taf d`gtkrs ta`t `rf inkwn tk ef kd jn-

dmufngf kn tf`h fddfgtjvfnfss jn orkups2 0) gkntfxt (suga `s trust, dffce`gi `nc

mf`cfrsajp), 5) gkhpksjtjkn (suga `s cjvfrsjty, hfhefr dmfxjejmjty `nc èjmjtjfs),

7) wkri cfsjon (suga `s t`si jcfntjty `nc t`si sjonjdjg`ngf), `nc 3) orkup prkg-

fssfs (dkr fx`hpmf spfgjdjg ok`ms, gkhhkn purpksf nc gkndmjgt mfvfms). af fddfgtsta`t Uksfn ft `m. (5<<1) cfsgrjef dkr fnèmjno tf`h cfgjsjkn hìjno jngmucf `mm

tafsf d`gtkrs2 sa`rfc hfnt`m hkcfms kd taf t`si, tf`h `nc fnvjrknhfnt9 mf`rnjno

`nc c`pt`tjkn9 gmf`r rkmfs nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs9 gmf`r, v`mufc nc sa`rfc vjsjkn9

gygmf kd prf-erjfd, pfrdkrh`ngf `nc cferjfd9 strkno tf`h mf`cfrs9 ` strkno sfnsf kd

gkmmfgtjvf, trust, tf`hnfss (taf dffmjno kd efjno p`rt kd `n fntjty) `nc gkndjcfngf9

`nc gkkpfr`tjkn `nc gkkrcjn`tjkn. Jn aftfrkofnfkus tf`hs f`ga hfhefr prkg-

fssfs cjddfrfnt spfgts kd taf fntjrf hfnt`m hkcfm kd taf t`si kr systfh. Ey sa`rjno

tafjr hfnt`m hkcfms tf`h hfhefrs `rf èmf tk dkrh gkhpmfhfnt`ry kr gknoru-

fnt fxpm`n`tjkns kd fnvjrknhfnt`m gufs `nc jhpmjgjtmy gkkrcjn`tf tafjr rfspknsfs

(Kr`s`nu & Wtrùga, 0::3).



43

f`hs g`n gknsjst kd fhpmkyffs kd `n kro`njs`tjkn, eut jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn

fxtfrn`m `cvjskrs `rf kdtfn jnvkmvfc `s wfmm. Hjfo (5<<4) jntrkcugfs twk typfs kd

fxpfrts ta`t `rf jhpkrt`nt jn tr`nscjsgjpmjn`ry prkbfgts2 systfh fxpfrts `nc cfgj-

sjkn hìjno fxpfrt. Wystfh fxpfrts `rf jncjvjcu`ms wjta fxpfrjfngf-e`sfc mkg`m

inkwmfcof kd taf systfh kd wajga tafy `rf p`rt kd. Fhpmkyffs `nc pkmjtjgj`ns g`n

ef gknsjcfrfc `s systfh fxpfrts eut `rgajtfgts g`n `msk `gqujrf mkg`m inkwmfcoftarkuoa jnvkmvfhfnt jn prkbfgts. Gknsumt`nts `rf kdtfn ajrfc `s cfgjsjkn hìjno

fxpfrts tk suppkrt taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. @ggkrcjno tk B`giskn (0::?)

taf hkst jhpkrt`nt rf`skns dkr taf orkwjno gknsumt`ngy h`rift js `n jngrf`sf

kd gkhpmfxjty `nc cyn`hjgs kd taf fnvjrknhfnt `nc kppkrtunjty tk rfo`jn taf

pfrgfptjkn kd gkntrkm. H`nòfrs ajrf gknsumt`nts dkr ` str`tfojg rf`skn (Ijfsfr &

_fmmstfjn, 5<<1)2 tafy inkw ta`t taksf wak a`vf ` ga`ngf tk cfdjnf ` prkemfh g`n

jndmufngf taf sf`rga dkr skmutjkns nc taf cjrfgtjkn kd fnsujno cfgjsjkns. Eut h`n-

òfrs, gknsumt`nts `nc h`nòfhfnt rfsf`rgafrs `rf hfhefrs kd cjddfrfnt skgj`m

systfhs jn wajga tafy pursuf cjddfrfnt ok`ms, `ppmy cjddfrfnt grjtfrj` dkr suggfss,

`nc spfì cjddfrfnt m`nouòfs (Ijfsfr & _fmmstfjn, 5<<1). afsf cjddfrfngfs sffhtk a`hpfr gkhhunjg`tjkn eftwffn tafh. ”\fkpmf drkh kutsjcf taf kro`njs`tjkn

g`n knmy jndmufngf kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìfrs2 tafy g`nnkt hìf kro`njs`-

tjkn`m cfgjsjkns jn mjfu kd taf h`nòfrs‘ (Ijfsfr & _fmmstfjn, 5<<1, p. 3:?).

Gknsumt`nts kr fxpfrts sakumc ef sfmfgtfc g`rfdummy (Hjfo, 5<<0). arkuoa

tafjr `gtjvjtjfs, gknsumt`nts tfnc tk ga`nof taf gkncjtjkns uncfr wajga h`nòfrs

hìf cfgjsjkns `nc, jn taf èsfngf kd gkntrkm kn taf rf`gtjkns kd h`nòfrs, dkgus

kn taf jhprfssjkn ta`t knf js efttfr kdd fnoòjno tafh (Gm`ri, 0::6). Efgùsf

taf gknsumt`nt js suppksfc tk cfmjvfr skhftajno taf gmjfnt ckfs nkt (yft) inkw,

tafrf js `n jndkrh`tjkn `syhhftry `t taf vfry af`rt kd `ny gknsumt`nt-gmjfnt rf-

m`tjknsajp (Frnst & Ijfsfr, 5<<5). ypjg`mmy taf `gtjvjtjfs kd ` gknsumt`nt jnvkmvfcfvfmkpjno ` vjsjkn dkr ga`nof, sgrffnjno taf fxjtjno sjtu`tjkn, cfvfmkpjno `mtfr-

n`tjvf skmutjkns, fv`mu`tjno `nc r`nijno taf `mtfrn`tjvfs `nc sfttjno up `n `gtjkn

pm`n (Iuer, 5<<5). Fxpfrtjsf js nffcfc dkr tafsf `gtjvjtjfs, wajga js kdtfn eujmt

jn prkbfgts jn ktafr kro`njs`tjkns. Kdtfn gknsumt`nts prkcugf `nc fxpmkjt inkwm-

fcof kn hftakcs. Gknsumt`nts `msk kddfr taf dungtjkns kd mfojtjhjz`tjkn, tfh-

pkr`ry h`nòfhfnt g`p`gjty, fxtfrn`m rfvjfw, gkhhunjg`tjkn `nc `ggfpt`ngf kd

cfgjsjkns, wf`pkns dkr pkmjtjgs `nc jntfrprft`tjkn `nc rf`ssur`ngf kd fxpfrjfngfs

(Ijfsfr & _fmmstfjn, 5<<1). Akwfvfr, skhfakw taf fxpfrjfngf ta`t h`nòfrs,

usfrs `nc gknsumt`nts `gqujrf a`s tk ef `ppmjfc jn krcfr tk hìf sust`jnèmf cf-

gjsjkns jn kro`njs`tjkn. ”Jt js jn taf tr`nsdkrh`tjkn kd jndkrh`tjkn tk inkwmfcof`nc jn taf mkg`tjkn kd pkwfr wjta rfo`rc tk umtjh`tf cfgjsjkn hìjno ta`t rf`m

jndmufngf js dkunc‘ (G`jrns & Effga, 0:::, p. 0).

Jndkrh`tjkn prkgfssjno jn ` orkup gkumc ef fddfgtfc ey cfhkor`pajg ga`r`g-

tfrjstjgs kd orkup hfhefrs, taf gkafsjvfnfss kd orkup hfhefrs nc taf nuhfrjg`m

strfnota `nc st`tus kd cjvfrsf sueorkups wjtajn ` tf`h (Ofkrof & Ga`ttkp`cay`y,

5<<1). Akwfvfr, rfsf`rga sakwfc ta`t orkup cjsgussjkns tfnc tk dkgus kn wa`t js

inkwn ey fvfryekcy nc unjqufmy afmc jndkrh`tjkn tfncs tk ef jonkrfc (Wnjfzfi,

\`fsf, & Wwjtzfr JJJ, 0::<9 Wt`ssfr & jtus, 0:16). Ukeejns `nc Bucof (5<<1)

hfntjkn gkhhunjg`tjkn e`rrjfrs kd djmtfrjno, sfmfgtjvf pfrgfptjkn, jndkrh`tjkn

kvfrmk`c, fhktjkns, m`nouòf `nc gkhhunjg`tjkn `pprfafnsjkn jn ` orkup.



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\fkpmf h`y nkt mw`ys sa`rf jndkrh`tjkn jn orkups efgùsf tafy skhftjhfs dffm jt

wkumc tarf`tfn taf gkafsjvfnfss `nc taf e`m`ngf jn taf orkup kr tafjr kwn st`tus

(Ofkrof & Ga`ttkp`cay`y, 5<<1). afsf `rouhfnts a`vf tk ck wjta s`mjfnt sk-

gj`m g`tfokrjz`tjkn kd taf orkup hfhefrs. \ajmjps, H`nnjx, Nf`mf `nc Orufndfmc

(5<<3) dkunc ta`t orkups ta`t gkumc ef cjvjcfc jntk twk fqu`m sjzfc sueorkups

wjta gkhhkn jndkrh`tjkn wjtajn taf sueorkups eut unjquf jndkrh`tjkn `grksssueorkups cjc sa`rf jndkrh`tjkn. ajs fddfgt wkumc suoofst ta`t jndkrh`tjkn sa`r-

jno jn orkups wkumc efnfdjt drkh fqu`m sjzfc sueorkups. Nfxt tk ta`t, nkrhs ta`t

prkhktf grjtjg`m tajnijno, hfhefrs wjta ` gkuntfrd`gtu`m hjncsft `nc dr`hjno

taf prkemfh `s a`vjno ` cfdjnjtf skmutjkn sffh tk jngrf`sf taf sa`rjno kd jndkrh`-

tjkn (Ofkrof & Ga`ttkp`cay`y, 5<<1).

af usf kd fxpmjgjt òfnc`s, rumfs dkr spfìjno, vktjno prkgfcurfs, `nc grjtf-

rj` dkr `rrjvjno `t cfgjsjkns g`n jndmufngf taf kutgkhf kd orkup cfgjsjkn hì-

jno. Orkup jntfr`gtjkn `nc orkup gknsfnsus h`y mf`c tk kvfrgkndjcfngf jn orkup

cfgjsjkns. ‑Orkuptajni‚ `nc ‑orkupsajdt‚ `rf twk pafnkhfn` kd orkup cfgjsjkn

hìjno ta`t a`vf taf pktfntj`m tk `ddfgt ` orkup‚s èjmjty tk `ppr`jsf `mtfrn`tjvfskebfgtjvfmy `nc tk `rrjvf `t qu`mjty cfgjsjkns (\mkus, 0::79 Ukeejns & Bucof,

5<<1). Orkuptajni cfsgrjefs cftfrjkr`tjkn jn `n jncjvjcu`m‚s hfnt`m fddjgjfngy,

rf`mjty tfstjno, `nc hkr`m bucofhfnt `s ` rfsumt kd orkup prfssurf (B`njs, 0:15). Jt

g`n kggur jd `mm hfhefrs kd ` gkafrfnt orkup kvfrmkki `mtfrn`tjvf dr`hfs. Nkvfm

vjfwpkjnt `nc drfsa jcf`s g`n `msk ef jonkrfc kr hjsbucofc ey orkups wjta sa`rfc

dr`hfs. Orkuptajni sffhs tk kggur hkst wafn ` gmf`r orkup jcfntjty fxjsts, hfh-

efrs akmc ` pksjtjvf jhòf kd tafjr orkup, `nc taf orkup pfrgfjvfs ` gkmmfgtjvf

tarf`t tk tafjr jhòf (Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<1). Orkupsajdt rfm`tfs tk taf fddfgts kd

` cjsgussjkn hkno orkup hfhefrs tkw`rcs hkrf fxtrfhf pksjtjkn tkw`rcs rjsi.

Orkups tfnc tk tìf hkrf rjsiy cfgjsjkns ta`n jncjvjcu`ms, prkeèmy cuf tk cjd-dusfc rfspknsjejmjty, skgj`m v`muf kd rjsi tìjno pksjtjkns kr h`bkrjty jndmufngfs kd

ckhjn`nt vjfws (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). Ofkrof & Ga`ttkp`cay`y (5<<1, p.

7?0) suoofst ta`t ”jn ofnfr`m, cjvfrsf orkups wjmm ef mfss gkafsjvf ta`n akhkofnf-

kus orkups, cjvfrsf orkups ta`t `rf ckhjn`tfc ey ajoa st`tus jncjvjcu`ms rf hkrf

mjifmy tk ef gkafsjvf, nc taus tk suddfr drkh orkuptajni, ta`n cjvfrsf orkups ta`t

`rf ckhjn`tfc ey mkw st`tus jncjvjcu`ms‘. Gk`mjtjkn js ` prkvfn hftakc tk o`jn

pkwfr jn orkups. E`mkoun ft `m. (5<<1, p. 536) sfnsf ”` cjddfrfngf eftwffn ‑n`ëvf‚

pr`gtjtjknfrs wak ckfs nkt uncfrst`nc wa`t jhòf tafy prkbfgt kn tk ktafrs `nc

sijmmfc pr`gtjtjknfrs wak ck nkt knmy uncfrst`nc eut `rf èmf tk h`njpum`tf suga

jhòfs `s `nc wafn rfqujrfc‘. afjr wkri suoofsts ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs wak `rfhkrf gkonjtjvfmy sijmmfc `ppf`r tk ef efttfr jn sa`pjno pkwfr rfm`tjkns `nc ` nft

kd hf`njnos ey nfoktj`tjkn `nc tafrfdkrf oft hkrf suppkrt dkr `gtjkn kr ` p`r-

tjgum`r pkjnt kd vjfw.

@s ` rfsumt kd afr ckgtkr`m tafsjs Ofanfr (5<<1) prfsfnts ` str`tfoy tèmf (`

dr`hfwkri tk strugturf taf dkrhum`tjkn kd ` str`tfoy) ta`t cjstjnoujsafs jndkr-

h`tjkn sa`rjno eftwffn cfgjsjkn sa`pfrs, cfgjsjkn tìfrs `nc cfgjsjkn `pprkvfrs

jn jnvfsthfnt cfgjsjkn hìjno jn rf`m fst`tf. af `gtkrs `ppmy kro`njs`tjkn`m kr

prkbfgt jssuf rfm`tfc qu`mjt`tjvf `nc qu`mjt`tjvf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` curjno cjddfrfnt

cfgjsjkn pa`sfs kd prfp`r`tjkn (prkvjsjkn kd jndkrh`tjkn tk ofnfr`m h`nòfhfnt),

suehjssjkn (tr`nsdfr kd jndkrh`tjkn tk cfgjsjkn tìfrs `nc `pprkvfrs), `nc `p-



44

prkv`m (`gtu`m cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc ùtakrjz`tjkn). Wfvfn cfgjsjkn `gtjvjtjfs `rf

prkpksfc `s rfmfv`nt dkr jnvfsthfnt cfgjsjkn hìjno vj` tarff jncjg`tkrs kd tjhf-

mjnfss (tjhfmy rfgkonjtjkn, mjhjtjno cur`tjkn), bustjdjèjmjty (cftfrhjn`tjkn kd cf-

gjsjkn grjtfrj`, sf`rga dkr jndkrh`tjkn, jcfntjdjg`tjkn `nc `n`mysjs kd gkursf kd

`gtjkn, `n`mytjg`m fv`mu`tjkn) `nc `ggkuntèjmjty (ùtakrjz`tjkn). afsf cjddfrfnt

orkups, pkwfr mfvfms, cfgjsjkn pa`sfs `nc jncjg`tkrs sakw taf gkhpmfxjty `ncjntfrrfm`tjkns kd taf kro`njs`tjkn`m strugturf jn wajga cfgjsjkns `rf h`cf jn kr-

o`njs`tjkns ta`t inkwjnomy tìf rjsis. Kn taf ktafr a`nc tafrf `rf taf jndkrh`-

tjkn prkgfssjno gkngfpts kd sfnsfhìjno, dr`hjno, sfnsfojvjno, sfnsfrf`cjno `nc

sfnsfwrjtjno `rf `mm rfm`tfc tk taf rfskurgf, prkgfss `nc hf`njno kd pkwfr fddfgts

jn orkup nc kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno (E`mkoun, ft m., 5<<1). @ dr`hf gkn-

stjtutfs taf rfm`tjkns eftwffn fmfhfnts ta`t rf kd jntfrfst tk cfgjsjkn hìfr nc

tfmm ` cfgjsjkn hìfr wa`t tk fxpfgt jn gfrt`jn sjtu`tjkns. Ey o`tafrjno jndkrh`-

tjkn taf dr`hf g`n ef tfstfc nc cfvfmkpfc jntk knf ta`t djts taf d`gts. ajs hf`ns

ta`t ekta strugturf `nc jntfrprft`tjkn `rf jhpkrt`nt fmfhfnts kd orkup cfgjsjkn

hìjno.

7.6.7 Fxpfrt tf`hs

Fxpfrtjsf `ppf`rs tk a`vf ` mkt kd jndmufngf kn cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn ofnfr`m js

sffhs ta`t dr`hjno `mmkws fxpfrts tk ef jndkrhfc ey rjgafr jndkrh`tjkn ta`n `

nkvjgf. Fxpfrts `msk sffh tk a`vf hkrf dmfxjejmjty `nc `c`ptèjmjty jn taf usf kd

dr`hfs `nc tafy sffh tk rfgkonjsf hf`njnodum p`ttfrns f`rmjfr, wajga ojvfs tafh

taf kppkrtunjty tk pfrdkrh kn ` ajoafr mfvfm (Ga`sf & Wjhkn, 0:?79 cf Orkkt,

0:34). Ufsf`rga sakws ta`t fxpfrt cfgjsjkn hìfrs spfnc hkrf tjhf fv`mu`tjno

taf sjtu`tjkn wajmf nkvjgf cfgjsjkn hìfrs spfnc hkrf tjhf ofnfr`tjno `nc fv`m-

u`tjno gkursfs kd `gtjkn efgùsf rfprfsfnt`tjkn kd taf sjtu`tjkn dkrhs taf e`-

sjs dkr p`ttfrn rfgkonjtjkn `nc hfnt`m sjhum`tjkn prkgfssfs (Auttkn & Imfjn,

0:::9 Wàngafz, \r`ts, @ofmm, & Krh`zè`m, 5<<69 Wgaôn, 0::0). Fxpfrts g`n hìf

bucofhfnts èkut taf gknsjstfngy, rfmjèjmjty `nc gkhpmftfnfss kd tafjr jndkrh`-

tjkn `nc tafy inkw wafn tk stkp `n`myzjno `nc wafn tk sf`rga dkr `ccjtjkn`m

jndkrh`tjkn (Gkafn, Drffh`n, & _kmd, 0::49 Auttkn & Imfjn, 0:::). Uksfn ft

`m. (5<<1) prfsfnt njnf hfga`njshs akw fxpfrts `gajfvf supfrjkr pfrdkrh`ngf2

0) ` tjoat gkupmjno kd gufs `nc gkntfxtu`m df`turfs kd taf fnvjrknhfnt, 5) ` m`rof

inkwmfcof e`sf cjddfrfntmy kro`njsfc drkh nkn-fxpfrts, 7) fnoòfhfnt jn p`t-

tfrn rfgkonjtjkn, 3) fnoòfhfnt jn cfmjefr`tf `nc oujcfc pr`gtjgf, 6) ` sffi dkrcjònkstjg dffce`gi, 4) efttfr sjtu`tjkn `ssfsshfnt `nc prkemfh rfprfsfnt`tjkns,

?) spfgj`mjsfc hfhkry sijmms, 1) ùtkh`tfc sh`mm stfps jn cfgjsjkn hìjno, `nc :)

sfmd-rfoum`tjkn `nc hknjtkrjno kd tafjr prkgfssfs.

Jn kro`njs`tjkns tf`hs `rf kdtfn `ssjonfc tk pfrdkrh t`sis ta`t fxgffc taf g`-

p`gjty kd knf pfrskn. Akwfvfr, ` orkup kd fxpfrts js nkt `n fxpfrt tf`h. W`m`s,

Eurif `nc Wtòm (5<<4, p. 33<) cfdjnf `n fxpfrt tf`h `s ”` sft kd jntfrcfpfncfnt

tf`h hfhefrs, f`ga kd wakh pkssfssfs unjquf `nc fxpfrt mfvfm inkwmfcof, sijmms,

`nc fxpfrjfngf rfm`tfc tk t`si pfrdkrh`ngf, nc wak `c`pt, gkkrcjn`tf, nc gkkp-

fr`tf s tf`h, tafrfey prkcugjno sust`jnèmf, nc rfpf`tèmf tf`h dungtjknjno t

supfrjkr kr t mf`st nf`r-kptjh`m mfvfms‘. Eurif ft m. (5<<4) suoofst ta`t n fxpfrttf`h `c`pts tk ga`nofs jn dkur pa`sfs kd sjtu`tjkn `ssfsshfnt2 0) eujmcjno gkh-



4?

hkn uncfrst`ncjno, 5) pm`n dkrhum`tjkn ey cfgjcfc kn taf hkst fddfgtjvf gkursf

kd `gtjkn, 7) pm`n fxfgutjkn tarkuoa gkkrcjn`tfc tf`h pfrdkrh`ngf, `nc 3) tf`h

mf`rnjno ey fv`mu`tjkn. Jd rkmfs `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs rf gmf`r, fxpfrt tf`h hfhefrs

efttfr `ggfpt ekunc`rjfs `nc `rf efttfr èmf tk `ntjgjp`tf taf `gtjkns `nc nffcs

kd ktafr tf`h hfhefrs. Gmf`r v`mufs `nc sa`rfc vjsjkns gkntrjeutf tk ofnfr`tjno

ok`ms `nc djncjno `pprkprj`tf hftakcs dkr rf`gajno tafsf ok`ms. Jn orkup cfgj-sjkn hìjno, taf pfrgfptjkn kd taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd ` orkup hfhefr sffhs

jhpkrt`nt. Euncfrskn (5<<7) dkunc ta`t fspfgj`mmy jn sakrtfr tfnurf tf`hs (suga

`s prkbfgt tf`hs) orkup hfhefrs tfnc tk bucof f`ga ktafrs fxpfrtjsf e`sfc kn g`t-

fokrjz`tjkn gufs, suga `s ofncfr kr r`gf jnstf`c kd t`si pfrdkrh`ngf gufs, efgùsf

tafrf js knmy mjhjtfc tjhf `nc jndkrh`tjkn dkr ktafr ijncs kd bucofhfnts.

Dffce`gi js grjtjg`m jn taf cfvfmkphfnt kd fxpfrtjsf, nc tafrfdkrf fxpfrt tf`hs

jngkrpkr`tf dffce`gi hfga`njshs. W`m`s ft `m. (5<<39 5<<4) dkunc ta`t fxpfrt

tf`hs a`vf mf`cfrs wak skmjgjt jcf`s `nc kesfrv`tjkns kd tf`h hfhefrs, fxpm`jn

(wafn pkssjemf) way tf`h jnput js rfbfgtfc, sffi kut kppkrtunjtjfs tk rfjndkrgf

fddfgtjvf tf`hwkri, `rf rfgfptjvf tk `nc rfqufst dffce`gi kn tafjr kwn pfrdkrh-`ngf, prkvjcf efa`vjkur`m `nc spfgjdjg skmutjkn krjfntfc dffce`gi, rfst`tf dffc-

e`gi drkh ktafrs tk hìf jt gknstrugtjvf, fxprfss s`tjsd`gtjkn wafn jhprkvfhfnts

`rf nktfc, `nc ojvf sjtu`tjkn`m upc`tfs. Fxpfrt tf`hs a`vf hfhefrs ta`t trust taf

èjmjtjfs `nc jntfntjkns kd tafjr dfmmkw tf`h hfhefrs, efmjfvf jn taf jhpkrt`ngf

kd tf`h wkri, `rf gkndjcfnt kd taf èjmjty kd taf tf`h tk rf`ga jts ok`ms `nc `rf

hktjv`tfc tk mf`rn akw tk wkri `s ` tf`h hkrf fddfgtjvfmy (Uksfn, ft `m., 5<<1).

k gkhpmftf taf t`si suggfssdummy `nc jn ` tjhfmy h`nnfr, ` tf`h hust gkkrcjn`tf

`nc `mmkg`tf taf jndkrh`tjkn `nc fxpfrtjsf kd taf jncjvjcu`m hfhefrs wajga rf-

qujrfs cjddfrfnt hfga`njsh ta`n jn jncjvjcu`m cfgjsjkn hìjno.

7.4 Gkngmusjkn

af djfmc kd cfgjsjkn hìjno a`s ` mkno rfsf`rga tr`cjtjkn wjta ` cjvfrsf r`nof kd

rfsf`rga hftakcs jngmucjno fxpfrjhfnts, survfys, kesfrv`tjkns, jntfrvjfws, `nc js

e`sfc kn humtjpmf cjsgjpmjnfs suga `s psygakmkoy, `chjnjstr`tjvf efa`vjkur, fgk-

nkhjgs, skgjkmkoy, `nc `ntarkpkmkoy. ajs ga`ptfr cfsgrjefs tarff ofnfr`tjkns kd

cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs ta`t prfsfnt ` cjvfrsjty kd pfrspfgtjvfs kn taf jncjvjcu`m cfgj-

sjkn hìfr `s wfmm `s cfgjsjkn hìjno jn orkups kr kro`njs`tjkns. af tafkrjfs

kdtfn cjddfr kn taf prkpksfc stfps jn wajga cfgjsjkns `rf h`cf `nc taf w`y ta`t

pfkpmf cf`m wjta tafjr mjhjtfc g`p`gjtjfs. Ufsf`rga kn taf pfrdkrh`ngf cjddfrfngfskd cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs `ppf`rs cjddjgumt efgùsf kutgkhfs `rf nkt f`sjmy hf`surfc

`nc gkhp`rfc jn ` cjrfgt sfnsf. Fvfry ofnfr`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn tafkry kddfrs skhf

kr hkrf gkngfpts ta`t g`n ef `ppmjfc kn taf sjtu`tjkn jn wajga gmjfnts sfmfgt `n

`rgajtfgt. Akwfvfr, taf gkngfpt kd h`nòfrj`m cfgjsjkn hìjno sakws taf hkst

rfsfhem`ngf wjta taf strugturf gurrfnt tfncfr rfoum`tjkns. Zft, taf sfgknc ofn-

fr`tjkn tafkrjfs kd n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkn hìjno cjspm`y hkst rfsfhem`ngf wjta

bucofhfnt prkgfssfs kd bury hfhefrs. afrfdkrf taf gurrfnt pr`gtjgf kd `rgajtfgt

sfmfgtjkns `ppf`rs tk ef e`sfc kn twk gkndmjgtjno hkcfms èkut cfgjsjkn hìjno.

af mfo`m hkcfm ssuhfs r`tjkn`m nc sfqufntj`m cfgjsjkn prkgfss jn wajga mtfr-

n`tjvfs `rf gkhp`rfc e`sfc kn prf-`nnkungfc grjtfrj`. af n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkn



41

hkcfm `ttrjeutfs `n jhpkrt`nt rkmf tk taf usf kd jntujtjkn `nc `ddfgt. af krjojn

kd taf gurrfnt prkemfhs jn pr`gtjgf gkumc gknsfqufntmy ef dkunc jn tafsf cjddfr-

fnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs.

Jn ofnfr`m cfgjsjkn hìjno g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` prkgfss kd hìjno bucof-

hfnts ta`t cfpfnc kn taf cfgjsjkn t`sis, taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd taf cfgjsjkn

hìfr, `nc taf kro`njs`tjkn`m gkntfxt jn wajga cfgjsjkns `rf h`cf. Jntujtjkn,fhktjkn `nc `ddfgt `rf tk ` m`rofr kr mfssfr fxtfnt p`rt kd taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn

hìjno. @ssfssjno cfsjon qu`mjty g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `n jmm-strugturfc t`si wjta `

mkt kd `hejoujty. Fxpfrts `ppf`r tk ef efttfr èmf tk hìf cfgjsjkns jn ungfrt`jn

fnvjrknhfnts eut fxpfrtjsf js kdtfn ckh`jn spfgjdjg. af usf kd fxpfrt tf`hs kdtfn

mf`cs tk efttfr cfgjsjkns efgùsf tafy g`n gkhpmfhfnt f`ga ktafr jn jndkrh`tjkn,

inkwmfcof `nc grjtjg`m dffce`gi. afrfdkrf tafy sffh tk ef hkrf èmf tk hìf

sfnsf kd taf m`rof `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn ta`t a`s tk ef prkgfssfc curjno tfncfr

prkgfcurfs. Jn kro`njs`tjkns nkt knmy taf jnput dkr ` cfgjsjkn js jhpkrt`nt eut

`msk taf prkgfssfs ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs ok tarkuoa jn krcfr tk grf`tf suppkrt dkr

` cfgjsjkn. af gkngfpt kd sfnsfhìjno kddfrs ` pfrspfgtjvf ta`t djts taf sjtu`tjknkd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns wfmm. Curjno taf prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno ` cfgjsjkn rfgfjvfs

hf`njno dkr taf hfhefrs kd ` orkup, wajga jngrf`sfs taf ga`ngf ta`t cfgjsjkn js

jhpmfhfntfc jntk `gtjkn. Jn gurrfnt pr`gtjgf gmjfnts `ppf`r tk hìf sfnsf kd taf

prkgfss `s ` prkbfgt undkmcs, wajga js `msk `n fmfhfnt kd taf sfnsfhìjno prkg-

fss (_fjgi, ft `m., 5<<6). afrf `rf `msk ` mkt kd `hejoujtjfs, gknnfgtjkns wjta

p`st fxpfrjfngfs `nc cj`mkoufs wjta stìfakmcfrs. Jn Ga`ptfr 6 taf jnsjoats kd

tajs ga`ptfr `rf usfc tk cfvfmkp ` tafkrftjg`m rfsf`rga dr`hfwkri dkr taf gkntfxt

kd tfncfr cfgjsjkns kd puemjg gmjfnts jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon `s cf-

sgrjefc jn Ga`ptfr 3.



?0

Ga`ptfr 3

S AF GKNSFQS KD @UGAJSFGS WFMFGSJKNW

3.0 Jntrkcugtjkn

@n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn js nkt `n jskm`tfc fvfnt. \uemjg gmjfnts kpfr`tf jn ` gkn-

tfxt kd okvfrn`ngf `nc a`vf tk gknsjcfr tajs kro`njs`tjkn`m strugturf jn tafjr

cfgjsjkns. af Nftafrm`ncs js ` p`rmj`hfnt`ry cfhkgr`gy `nc ` hfhefr kd taf

Furkpf`n Vnjkn. ajs `ddfgts taf mfo`m `nc skgj`m rfspknsjejmjtjfs kd Cutga gmj-

fnts. \`rtjgjp`tjkn `nc stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt `rf jhpkrt`nt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd

` cfhkgr`gy. af gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn jn `rgajtfgturf suppkrts tajs fmfhfnt kd

puemjg cfe`tf, eut `msk gkntrjeutfs sjonjdjg`ntmy tk taf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf prk-dfssjkn`m djfmc. af sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts cjddfrs drkh taf sfmfgtjkn kd gkntr`g-

tkrs jn gknstrugtjkn, eut jn ekta sjtu`tjkns prkgurfhfnt m`w `ppmjfs. Mkg`m ù-

takrjtjfs gkhhjssjkn twk tk tarff tjhfs taf vkmuhf kd gknstrugtjkn ta`n gfntr`m

okvfrnhfnt`m ùtakrjtjfs ck (_fjbnfn & Efrckwsij, 5<<:). \uemjg gmjfnts jn taf

Furkpf`n Vnjkn a`vf tk gkhpmy wjta taf Furkpf`n tfncfr rfoum`tjkns, wajga kd-

dfr v`rjkus prkgfcurfs tk sfmfgt ` cfsjonfr. ajs js `ggkhp`njfc ey gknsjcfrèmf

gksts dkr ekta taf cfh`nc `nc suppmy sjcf kd taf h`rift.

ajs ga`ptfr `ccrfssfs dkur gkntfxtu`m fmfhfnts ta`t jn hy vjfw `rf fssfntj`m

tk uncfrst`nc taf fnvjrknhfnt jn wajga `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns tìf pm`gf2 taf pkmjtj-

g`m, gumtur`m, mfo`m, `nc fgknkhjg`m gkntfxt. af pfrspfgtjvf tìfn jn tajs ga`ptfrjs ta`t kd taf gmjfnt kr gkhhjssjknjno ekcy r`tafr ta`n ta`t kd `rgajtfgts, gkn-

tr`gtkrs, gjtjzfns, mfo`m `cvjskrs kr ktafr pm`yfrs jn taf djfmc kd gknstrugtjkn, m`w,

prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt kr puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn. _afrf pkssjemf nc/kr rfmfv`nt taf

Cutga sjtu`tjkn js gkhp`rfc tk mjtfr`turf drkh ktafr gkuntrjfs. af djn`m sfgtjkn

kd tajs ga`ptfr `ccrfssfs taf pfrgfptjkns `nc fxpfgt`tjkns kd taf p`rtjfs jnvkmvfc

jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns ey eujmcjno kn taf jndkrh`tjkn prkvjcfc jn taf prfvjkus

sfgtjkns. Jt `msk jngmucfs `n `n`mysjs kd taf fxjstjno oujcfmjnfs tk suppkrt taf `r-

gajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss.

3.5 Saf pkmjtjg`m gkntfxt

ajs sfgtjkn gkngfntr`tfs kn taf rfspknsjejmjtjfs kd taf h`jn `gtkrs jn taf puemjg

sfgtkr nc skhf e`sjg ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn nc stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt

jn taf `rf` kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. af g`sfs ta`t `rf jngmucfc jn tajs tafsjs `rf `mm

sjtu`tfc jn taf Nftafrm`ncs. ajs sfgtjkn tafrfdkrf `msk `ccrfssfs taf `rgajtfgturf

pkmjgy kd taf Cutga okvfrnhfnt `nc taf rkmf kd taf Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt

jn prkhktjno `nc oujcjno taf cfvfmkphfnt kd `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty. Ekx 0 prk-

vjcfs ` sakrt suhh`ry kd taf Cutga okvfrn`ngf strugturf dkr taksf wak `rf jntfr-

fstfc jn kr und`hjmj`r wjta puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn jn taf Nftafrm`ncs.



?5

3.5.0 Cfgjsjkn strugturf kd puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcjfs

ajs rfsf`rga dkgusfs kn `gtkrs jn taf djfmc kd okvfrn`ngf drkh ` psygakmkoj-

g`m pfrspfgtjvf, r`tafr ta`n puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn wajga stucjfs okvfrn`ngf jn

krcfr tk jhprkvf jt. Wk `p`rt drkh taf d`gt ta`t taf fxfgutjvf ek`rc js pfrjkcj-

g`mmy gaksfn kn cfhkgr`tjg prjngjpmfs `nc tafy `rf p`rt kd ` puemjg kro`njs`tjkn,

gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjtjfs kd cfp`rthfnt`m, prkvjngj`m `nc hunjgjp`m kro`njs`tjknsa`vf jn hy vjfw gkhp`rèmf rkmfs, t`sis `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs tk cfgjsjkn hìfrs

jn prjv`tf kro`njs`tjkns. @ puemjg kro`njs`tjkn js `msk strugturfc `s cfp`rthfnts

`nc mfc ey cjrfgtkrs (jn tajs sjtu`tjkn gjvjm sfrv`nts). @chjnjstr`tkrs a`vf tk run

` tkwn, ` prkvjngf kr ktafr ijncs kd okvfrnhfnt`m ùtakrjtjfs. afy `rf `ggkunt-

èmf dkr tafjr `gtjkns `nc a`vf tk tìf taf pfrspfgtjvfs kd cjddfrfnt stìfakmcfrs

jntk ggkunt. Mfo`m rumfs, chjnjstr`tjvf rumfs `nc prkgfcurfs, nc fxtfrn`m rfvjfw

cfgjsjkns rf gkhpmfhfnt`ry, fna`ngjno taf qu`mjty kd puemjg chjnjstr`tjkn ekta

wjta kro`njs`tjkns `nc jn cf`mjno eftwffn `chjnjstr`tkrs `nc hfhefrs kd taf

puemjg (Dfmch`n, 5<<7). ajs pjgturf h`y mkki cjddfrfnt drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd

taf kro`njs`tjkn `nc ta`t kd jncjvjcu`m cfgjsjkn hìfrs wjtajn jt. @chjnjstr`tkrs

”`rf mjifmy tk vjfw `ppf`ms tk gkurts `nc bucjgj`m rfvjfw `s ` tarf`t r`tafr ta`n `

usfdum s`dfty nft jn a`rc g`sfs‘ (Dfmch`n, 5<<7, p. 514). @chjnjstr`tjkn nc pkmj-

tjgs g`nnkt ef gmf`rmy cfmjnf`tfc2 ”pkmjtjg`m gakjgfs rf fncfhjg dkr `chjnjstr`tjkn

`nc puemjg eurfùgr`gjfs nffc tk ef uncfrstkkc `s nfstfc wjtajn ` nftwkri kd

pkmjtjg`m `gtkrs‘ (Erynfr, 5<<?, p. 01:).

Erunsskn (0:1:) st`tfc ta`t jn pkmjtjg`m gkntfxts cfgjsjkn hìjno js ` prkgfss

kd cj`mkouf ta`t p`rtjgjp`nts fnoòf jn s ` hf`ns kd eujmcjno r`tjkn`mfs dkr gtjkn,

grf`tjno vjsjkns kd duturf st`tfs `nc hkejmjzjno rfskurgfs. ”Efgùsf kro`njs`tjkns

a`vf cjddfrfnt ok`ms `nc stìfakmcfrs ta`t g`nnkt `mm ef s`tjsdjfc sjhumt`nfkusmy,

kro`njs`tjkn`m mf`cfrs a`vf tk fspkusf cjddfrfnt vjsjkns `t cjddfrfnt tjhfs `nc sup-

pkrt hutu`mmy jngknsjstfnt gtjkns. Cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs msk grf`tf rfspknsjejmjty jn

ta`t pfkpmf akmc tk `ggkunt taksf wakh tafy pfrgfjvf tk a`vf `cvkg`tfc `gtjkns

kr h`cf cfgjsjkns. af w`ys jn wajga cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs undkmc grf`tf fxtfrn`m

pfrgfptjkns kd èkut taf mfojtjh`gy kd taf cfgjsjkns, taf fnsujno `gtjkns `nc taf

cfgjcjno kro`njs`tjkn.‘ (Akcoijnskn & Wt`reugi, 5<<1`, p. 00).

\uemjg kro`njs`tjkns d`gf trfhfnckus fxpfgt`tjkns `s wfmm `s ga`mmfnofs tk s`t-

jsdy gkhpftjno `nc kdtfn gkntr`cjgtkry v`mufs. aksf v`mufs gm`sa wjtajn eurfù-

gr`tjg kro`njs`tjkns `s tafy jntfr`gt wjta ktafr pkmjtjg`m jnstjtutjkns `nc `s tafy

kpfr`tf wjtajn taf erk`cfr cjstrjeutjkn kd fgknkhjg `nc pkmjtjg`m pkwfr `jhfc `ttafjr kro`njs`tjkns (Erynfr, 5<<?). @n jhpkrt`nt cjstjngtjkn nffcs tk ef h`cf ef-

twffn gkrpkr`tf, ajfr`rgajg`m, gkmmfgtjvf `nc jncjvjcu`m mjèjmjty, eftwffn mjèjmjty

`nc rfspknsjemf efa`vjkur, nc eftwffn gtjvf `nc p`ssjvf rfspknsjejmjty (Ekvfns,

0::<). ”Efgùsf jn gkhpmfx kro`njs`tjkns h`ny cjddfrfnt kddjgj`ms gkntrjeutf jn

h`ny w`ys tk cfgjsjkns `nc pkmjgjfs, jt js cjddjgumt fvfn jn prjngjpmf tk cftfrhjnf

wak js rfspknsjemf dkr kutgkhfs‘ (Ekvfns, 0::<, p. 753). ajs js g`mmfc taf prke-

mfh kd h`ny a`ncs (akhpskn, 0:1<). Gkafn, H`rga `nc Kmskn (0:?5) cf-

sgrjefc cfgjsjkn hìjno jn puemjg kro`njs`tjkns `s ‑o`reòf g`ns‚ jn wajga pfkpmf

cuhp tafjr prfdfrfngfs, `mtfrn`tjvfs, skmutjkns `nc p`rtjgjp`nts. Kpfnnfss `nc

puemjgjty `rf jhpkrt`nt v`mufs ta`t cftfrhjnf taf kpfr`tjkn`m fnvjrknhfnt kd `n



?7

`chjnjstr`tkr. kk huga kr tkk mjttmf kpfnnfss gkumc mf`c dkr `n `chjnjstr`tkr tk

a`vf tk rfsjon drkh tafjr bke.

Cjddjgumtjfs jn `mjonjno dr`hfs kd cjddfrfnt gumturfs `rf gkhhkn jn mkg`m pkmj-

tjgs (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). Jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns st`dd hfhefrs `rf usu`mmy

`ssjonfc tk g`rry kut tfncfr prkbfgt. Efgùsf kd taf okvfrn`ngf strugturf kd fmfg-

tjkn pfrjkcs, ga`nofs jn taf pkmjtjg`m gmjh`tf gkumc kggur curjno taf rf`mjs`tjknkd ` prkbfgt. Jn pr`gtjgf tajs hf`ns ta`t jn ofnfr`m taf hfhefrs kd ` prkbfgt tf`h

h`y rfh`jn taf s`hf eut tafjr cjrfgtjvfs h`y ga`nof. Okvfrnhfnt`m ùtakrjtjfs

jn taf Nftafrm`ncs a`vf a`c tk gut e`gi tafjr fxpfncjturfs dkr sfvfr`m yf`rs nkw

`nc h`ny t`sis a`vf effn kutskurgfc tk prjv`tf kro`njs`tjkns kr tfrhjn`tfc. @msk,

turnkvfr kd st`dd js rfm`tjvfmy ajoa jn mkg`m okvfrnhfnts. @ tfncfr dkr taf sfmfgtjkn

kd `n `rgajtfgt rfqujrfs vfry spfgjdjg mfo`m `nc rf`m fst`tf inkwmfcof. af Cutga

`rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn kdtfn gkhpm`jns èkut taf m`gi kd qu`mjdjfc pfrsknnfm jn

taf djfmc kd ure`n pm`nnjno `nc cfsjon jn mkg`m okvfrnhfnt (@rgajtfgtuur Mki` m,

5<<:`). afsf ga`nofs, jn gkhejn`tjkn wjta taf cjvfrsjty `nc rfqujrfc mfvfm kd

fxpfrtjsf, a`vf grf`tfc ` sjtu`tjkn jn taf Nftafrm`ncs jn wajga gknsumt`nts `rfkdtfn ajrfc dkr spfgjdjg prkbfgts suga `s `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns (v`n cfr \km, ft `m.,

5<<:). af pfrjkcjg`m fmfgtjkns `nc ` m`rof `hkunt kd fxtfrn`mmy ajrfc `cvjskrs

taus grf`tfc ` ijnc kd cjsgkntjnujty jn puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn `nc ` gkndmjgt ef-

twffn taf gkntjnujty kd gjvjm sfrvjgf st`dd `nc pfrjkcjg ga`nof kd `chjnjstr`tkrs

`nc gknsumt`nts.

af Cutga okvfrnhfnt a`s effn jhpmfhfntjno `rgajtfgtur`m pkmjgy sjngf

0::0 (@tfmjfr Ujbisekuwhffstfr, 5<<1). Wfvfr`m hjnjstrjfs `rf jnvkmvfc jn taf cf-

vfmkphfnt kd `rgajtfgtur`m pkmjgy p`pfrs, suga `s Akusjno, Wp`tj m \m`nnjno `nc

taf Fnvjrknhfnt (jn Cutga ‑TUKH‚), Fcug`tjkn, Gumturf nc Wgjfngf (jn Cutga

‑KG_‚), @orjgumturf, N`turf `nc Dkkc Pu`mjty (jn Cutga ‑MNT‚), r`nspkrt,\uemjg _kris `nc _`tfr H`nòfhfnt (jn Cutga ‑Tfn_‚) `nc Fgknkhjg @dd`jrs

(jn Cutga ‑FR‚). Jn H`y 5<<6, taf m`tfst @gtjkn \rkor`hhf kn Wp`tj`m \m`nnjno

`nc Gumturf w`s prfsfntfc. ajs prkor`hhf gkhejnfs `rgajtfgtur`m pkmjgy wjta

taf sk-g`mmfc Efmvfcfrf pkmjgy (`jhfc `t strfnotafnjno taf jndmufngf gumtur`m ajs-

tkry a`s kn sp`tj`m pm`nnjno), grf`tjno ` dr`hfwkri dkr cjvfrsf pkmjgy prkpks-

`ms `nc gkngrftf `gtjkns. Jn `ccjtjkn tk taf rkmf taf n`tjkn`m okvfrnhfnt pm`ys

jn sfttjno `n fx`hpmf, stjhum`tjno `nc suppkrtjno ktafr p`rtjfs `nc cfvfmkpjno

inkwmfcof ey hf`ns kd pkmjgjfs kn okkc gkntr`gtjno, pr`gtjgfs `nc `rgajtfgtur`m

jnstjtutjkns rfh`jn ify prjngjpmfs kd taf prkor`hhf. af Hjnjstry kd KG_ ef`rs

taf prjh`ry pkmjtjg`m rfspknsjejmjty dkr rgajtfgtur`m pkmjgy. @s cvjsfr kd taf Wt`tfWfgrft`ry kd KG_ taf Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt (Ujbisekuwhffstfr) prkvjcfs

taf Hjnjstfr kd TUKH `nc taf ktafr Hjnjstfrs wjta skmjgjtfc `nc unskmjgjtfc `c-

vjgf kn h`ttfrs kd pkmjgy `nc str`tfojg cfvfmkphfnts, kn `rgajtfgturf, ure`n `nc

rur`m pm`nnjno, jndr`strugturf, m`ncsg`pf cfvfmkphfnt nc ou`r`ntffjno qu`mjty jn

mfojsm`tjkn `nc rfoum`tjkns `nc jn fcug`tjkn (@tfmjfr Ujbisekuwhffstfr, 5<<1).

Mkg`m ùtakrjtjfs, prkvjngj`m ùtakrjtjfs `nc ktafr ùtknkhkus `chjnjstr`-

tjvf ùtakrjtjfs, suga `s taf pkmjgf rfojkns `nc ga`hefrs kd gkhhfrgf a`vf tk

h`nòf tafjr kwn akusjno nffcs. afjr rf`m fst`tf pkrtdkmjks jngmucf sgakkm

eujmcjnos, spkrt d`gjmjtjfs, utjmjty eujmcjnos, akusjno, gumtur`m d`gjmjtjfs, okvfrn-

hfnt`m kddjgfs `nc jndr`strugturf. af Ujbisofekuwfncjfnst (Cutga Okvfrnhfnt



?3

Eujmcjno @ofngy) cf`ms wjta akusjno dkr Cutga okvfrnhfnt hjnjstrjfs `nc n`-

tjkn`m òfngjfs, taf Ajoa Gkungjms kd Wt`tf, jncfpfncfnt `chjnjstr`tjvf ekcjfs

`nc jntfrn`tjkn`m kro`njs`tjkns. Jt js p`rt kd taf Hjnjstry kd Akusjno, Wp`tj`m

\m`nnjno `nc taf Fnvjrknhfnt. af Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt js taf prjh`ry

`cvjskr tk taf Cjrfgtkr-Ofnfr`m kd taf Ujbisofekuwfncjfnst kn prkhktjno `nc

hknjtkrjno taf `rgajtfgtknjg qu`mjty, a`rhknjsjno `rgajtfgturf wjta ure`n `ncrur`m pm`nnjno, hknuhfnt prfsfrv`tjkn `nc taf `ppmjg`tjkn kd vjsu`m `rts (@tfmjfr

Ujbisekuwhffstfr, 5<<1). af pksjtjkn kd Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt js jntfnc-

fc tk stjhum`tf taf qu`mjty kd `rgajtfgturf jn taf Nftafrm`ncs, dkr taf gfntr`m okv-

frnhfnt, eut `msk dkr rfojkn`m ùtakrjtjfs. Jn g`rryjno kut ajs/afr t`si, taf Gajfd

Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt ssuhfs n jncfpfncfnt pksjtjkn. (W)af msk hìfs spfgjdjg

rfgkhhfnc`tjkns upkn rfqufst dkr ktafr hjnjstrjfs jnvkmvfc jn `ggkhhkc`tjkns

gknstrugtjkn kr gknstrugtjkn djn`ngjno, prkvjcfs `cvjgf kn cfsjon `nc rfgkh-

hfncs `rgajtfgts, `nc js ` hfhefr kd taf Ek`rc kd Okvfrnhfnt @cvjskrs.

Ekx 02 \uemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn jn taf Nftafrm`ncs

Sf Nftafrm`ncs js ` p`rmj`hfnt`ry cfhkgr`gy wjta `n fmfgtfc okvfrnhfnt`nc ` af`c kd st`tf, taf ijno kr quffn. Jt js ` hfhefr kd taf Furkpf`n Vnjkneut taf Gknstjtutjkn kd taf Ijnockh kd taf Nftafrm`ncs rfoum`tfs dkr ` orf`tcf`m akw taf okvfrnhfnt js strugturfc. Sf okvfrnhfnt gkhprjsfs kvfr 0,4<<kro`njs`tjkns `nc ekcjfs, jngmucjno 07 hjnjstrjfs, 05 prkvjngj`m ùtakrjtjfs`nc, untjm 01 H`rga 5<0<, 370 hunjgjp`m ùtakrjtjfs (Kvfrafjc.nm, 5<<:). Jt`msk jngmucfs ùtknkhkus `chjnjstr`tjvf ùtakrjtjfs, suga `s pkmjgf rfojkns`nc ga`hefrs kd gkhhfrgf, `nc puemjg ekcjfs dkr jncustry `nc taf prkdfs-

sjkns, suga `s taf _`tfr Gkhhkcjty Ek`rc. @t taf s`hf tjhf, h`ny kro`nj-s`tjkns ta`t knf hjoat `ssuhf dkrh p`rt kd okvfrnhfnt `rf jn prjv`tf a`ncs.Sfy jngmucf af`mta jnsur`ngf duncs, ek`rcs kd prjv`tf sgakkms `nc efnffftòfngjfs suga `s taf skgj`m sfrvjgfs. _jtajn taf okvfrnhfnt sfgtkr ` cjstjng-tjkn js h`cf eftwffn ekcjfs ta`t `rf cjrfgtmy fmfgtfc `nc taksf ta`t `rf nkt.Hunjgjp`m gkungjms, w`tfr ek`rcs `nc taf Kgf kd Ufprfsfnt`tjvfs `rf cj-rfgtmy fmfgtfc ey taf pfkpmf, wafrf`s h`ykrs, pkmjgf gkhhjssjknfrs `nc hjn-jstfrs `rf nkt. Akwfvfr, `mm okvfrnhfnt ùtakrjtjfs `rf umtjh`tfmy `ggkuntèmftk taf puemjg dkr wa`t tafy ck. Sfrf `rf tarff mfvfms kd okvfrnhfnt2 gfntr`m,prkvjngj`m `nc hunjgjp`m. Ktafr ùtakrjtjfs `rf gm`ssjfffc h`jnmy kn taf e`sjskd tafjr t`sis. @mm tafsf kro`njs`tjkns a`vf tk gkhpmy wjta prkgurfhfnt m`w.

Sf \rkvjngj`m Gkungjm (‑\rkvjngj`mf Wt`tfn‚ jn Cutga) js taf ofnfr`m `c-hjnjstr`tjvf ekcy kd taf prkvjngf (\rkvjngf kd Vtrfgat, 5<<:). \rkvjngj`mgkungjms `rf fmfgtfc ey cjrfgt pkpum`r vktf. Sf gkungjm tafn `ppkjnts taf\rkvjngj`m Fxfgutjvfs (‑Ofcfputffrcf Wt`tfn‚ jn Cutga) wak, wjta taf Puffn‚sGkhhjssjknfr, tafn dkrh taf fxfgutjvf ekcy. Jd taf \rkvjngj`m Gkungjm js cjs-s`tjsfffc wjta taf wkri cknf ey taf prkvjngj`m fxfgutjvf, jt h`y cjshjss tafjncjvjcu`m fxfgutjvf kr fxfgutjvfs rfspknsjemf. @t taf gkungjm‚s rfgkhhfnc`-tjkn, taf Grkwn `ppkjnts ` Puffn‚s Gkhhjssjknfr, wak ga`jrs taf gkungjm`nc taf fxfgutjvf. Gkungjm hfhefrs `rf fmfgtfc fvfry dkur yf`rs ey rfsjcfntskd taf prkvjngf wak `rf fntjtmfc tk vktf. Sf nuhefr kd gkungjm hfhefrs



?6

cfpfncs kn taf sjzf kd taf pkpum`tjkn kd taf prkvjngf. @mm gkungjm hfhefrsefmkno tk knf kr ktafr pkmjtjg`m p`rty. Sksf rfprfsfntjno taf s`hf p`rty gkn-stjtutf ` pkmjtjg`m orkup kr gùgus. Gkhejnfc orkups kd gkungjm hfhefrs ef-mknojno tk v`rjkus p`rtjfs `rf `msk pkssjemf. F`ga orkup sfmfgts ` ga`jrpfrskn

drkh `hkno jts hfhefrs, wak `gts `s mf`cfr `nc gajfd spkifspfrskn. Efjno `gkungjm hfhefr js nkt ` dumm-tjhf prkdfssjkn, jt js ` p`rt-tjhf `gtjvjty. Hksthfhefrs a`vf krcjn`ry bkes efsjcfs tafjr gkungjm wkri. Sfy rfgfjvf rfhu-nfr`tjkn `nc `n `mmkw`ngf dkr fxpfnsfs. Hfhefrs h`y nkt efnffft drkh tafjrgkungjm hfhefrsajp jn tfrhs kd tafjr c`y-tk-c`y `gtjvjtjfs.

Sf \rkvjngj`m Fxfgutjvf (‑Gkmmfof v`n Ofcfputffrcf Wt`tfn‚ (OW) jnCutga) js ga`rofc wjta taf c`y-tk-c`y h`nòfhfnt kd taf prkvjngf. Sf fx-fgutjvf js h`cf up kd taf Puffn‚s Gkhhjssjknfr `nc sfvfr`m hfhefrs. Sffxfgutjvf rfgfjvfs `chjnjstr`tjvf suppkrt drkh taf prkvjngj`m gmfri, wak js`msk ofnfr`m af`c kd taf kgj`m `pp`r`tus kd taf prkvjngf. Sf Gkhhjssjknfrjs fmfgtfc dkr ` pfrjkc kd sjx yf`rs ey taf Grkwn `nc tajs tfrh kd kgf h`y ef

fxtfncfc. Hfhefrs kd taf fxfgutjvf `rf gaksfn ey taf prkvjngj`m gkungjm dkr `pfrjkc kd dkur yf`rs. Sjs `ppkjnthfnt tìfs pm`gf kn taf e`sjs kd taf rfsumtskd fmfgtjkns dkr taf gkungjm. Sf fxfgutjvf g`n ef gkhp`rfc tk taf hunjgjp`mfxfgutjvf. Sf fxfgutjvf h`y tìf cfgjsjkns jn sfvfr`m fffmcs. Akwfvfr, wafrfgrugj`m h`ttfrs suga `s eucoft kr d`r-rf`gajno pm`ns `nc prkbfgts `rf gkn-gfrnfc, taf fxfgutjvf‚s t`si js tk jndkrh `nc `cvjsf taf gkungjm. Sf fxfgutjvftafn wkris kut pm`ns `ckptfc ey taf gkungjm. Sf fxfgutjvf js `msk rfqujrfctk bustjdy jts pkmjgjfs tk taf gkungjm.

Hunjgjp`mjtjfs `ppmy taf s`hf prjngjpmfs `s prkvjngfs. @ hunjgjp`mjty jsrun ey ` Gjty Gkungjm (jn Cutga2 ‑Ofhffntfr``c‚). Gkungjm hfhefrs `rf

fmfgtfc fvfry dkur yf`rs ey rfsjcfnts kd taf gjty. Hkst Gkungjmmkrs `msk a`vf` bke jn `ccjtjkn tk tafjr Gkungjm wkri (Gjty kd @hstfrc`h, 5<<:). Sjs jsefgùsf gkungjm hfhefrsajp js vkmunt`ry wkri, dkr wajga Gkungjmmkrs hfrfmyrfgfjvf `n `mmkw`ngf. Sf c`y-tk-c`y runnjno kd ` hunjgjp`mjty js taf t`si kd` ‑gkmmfof‚ h`cf up kd taf H`ykr `nc sfvfr`m @mcfrhfn (jn Cutga2 Gkmmfofv`n E&_). @mcfrhfn `rf fmfgtfc ey `nc drkh taf Gkungjm. @dtfr tafy `rf`ppkjntfc, taf @mcfrhfn rfh`jn hfhefrs kd taf dumm Gkungjm `nc vktf jnjts hfftjnos. Sf H`ykr `nc taf @mcfrhfn sa`rf tafjr wkri2 f`ga a`s ajs krafr kwn pkrtdkmjk `nc `rf`s kd rfspknsjejmjty. Sf Gkmmfof prfp`rfs taf rfsk-mutjkns tk ef `ckptfc ey taf Gkungjm `nc jhpmfhfnt tafsf rfskmutjkns kngftafy a`vf effn `ckptfc. Sf Gkungjm h`y `msk rfbfgt ` prkpks`m drkh taf

Gkmmfof, `s taf Gkungjm a`s taf ffn`m s`y. k ef èmf tk h`nòf ffgtjvfmy, tafGkungjm cfmfo`tfs h`ny t`sis tk taf Gkmmfof. Sfsf h`jnmy gkngfrn cfgjsjknstìfn kn taf e`sjs kd `n fstèmjsafc pkmjgy, wajga tafrfdkrf ckfs nkt nffc tkef cfe`tfc ey taf Gkungjm. Sf H`ykr kggupjfs ` spfgj`m pksjtjkn. Af kr safjs nkt fmfgtfc ey taf gjty‚s rfsjcfnts, eut `ppkjntfc ey taf Hkn`rgay. Sfh`ykr ga`jrs taf Gjty Gkungjm `nc taf Gkmmfof kd @mcfrh`n. (W)af g`n vktfjn taf Gkmmfof, eut nkt jn taf dumm Gkungjm. Sf H`ykr `msk a`s ` pkrtdkmjk wjta v`rjkus rfspknsjejmjtjfs kd ajs kwn `nc js af`c kd taf pkmjgf `nc rfspkn-sjemf dkr h`jnt`jnjno puemjg krcfr jn taf gjty. k ` m`rof fxtfnt, (s)af `mskrfprfsfnts ` hunjgjp`mjty tk taf kutsjcf wkrmc.



?4

3.5.5 \`rtjgjp`tjkn `nc stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt

Jn cfgjsjkn hìjno, okvfrnhfnt`m ùtakrjtjfs a`vf tk cf`m wjta taf jntfrfsts kd

taf puemjg `s tafjr h`jn stìfakmcfrs. Efgùsf taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt `ddfgts fvf-

ryekcy, taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt js typjg`mmy `n jssuf ta`t gkumc efnfdjt drkh

puemjg cfe`tf tk jnvkmvf taf gkhhunjty (sff dkr fx`hpmf Bfngis, 0:1?). N`s`r

(0:::) st`tfs ta`t gkhpftjtjkns sfmckh mf`c tk h`stfrpjfgfs efgùsf `rgajtfgts`nc burjfs strfss `ppf`r`ngf jnstf`c kd taf gknvfnjfngf `nc curèjmjty kd taf du-

turf eujmcjno. \rfdfrfngfs kd ` bury ck nkt `mw`ys gkrrfspknc wjta taksf kd usfrs

`nc vjsjtkrs (N`s`r & I`no, 0:1:) eut `ggkrcjno tk Gkmmjns (0:?0, p. 0:3) jt js

h`jnmy taf cjddjgumty kd ”grf`tjno ` rf`mjstjg uncfrst`ncjno jn taf m`y hjnc kd taf

cjddfrfngf eftwffn prjgf `nc v`muf‘. ajs jhpmjfs ta`t `vfròf gjtjzfns g`n ck `n

fddfgtjvf bke kd cfgjsjkn hìjno jd tafy `rf prkvjcfc wjta `ggur`tf `nc rfmfv`nt

jndkrh`tjkn ta`t js kro`njsfc nc prfsfntfc jn w`y wajga js hf`njnodum wjtakut

efjno p`trknjzjno (Grksey, Ifmmfy, & Wga`fdfr, 0:149 Ukejnskn, 0:?5).

@ p`rtjgjp`tkry cfhkgr`gy js ga`r`gtfrjsfc ey ` ajoamy cfgfntr`mjsfc cfhkgr`t-

jg systfh kd gkmmfgtjvf cfgjsjkn hìjno jn wajga jncjvjcu`ms g`n fddfgtjvfmy p`r-

tjgjp`tf jn v`rjkus w`ys jn taf hìjno kd cfgjsjkns ta`t `ddfgt tafh. \`rtjgjp`tjkn

js ` ofnfr`m gkngfpt gkvfrjno cjddfrfnt dkrhs kd cfgjsjkn hìjno ey ` nuhefr kd

jnvkmvfc orkups. af orkups g`n a`vf cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs kd wa`t ` okkc prkg-

fss js, suga `s mfojtjh`gy, jcfkmkojg`m cjsgussjkn, d`jrnfss, pkwfr struoomf, mf`c-

frsajp `nc gkhprkhjsf (_femfr, umfr, & Irufofr, 5<<0). @ggkrcjno tk W`nkdd

(5<<4, p. 077) ”taf `gtjvjty kd gkhhunjty p`rtjgjp`tjkn js e`sfc kn taf prjngjpmf

ta`t taf fnvjrknhfnt wkris efttfr jd gjtjzfns rf gtjvf nc jnvkmvfc jn jts grf`tjkn

`nc h`nòfhfnt jnstf`c kd efjno trf`tfc s p`ssjvf gknsuhfrs‘. Jd cknf wfmm, p`r-

tjgjp`tjkn kd taf puemjg g`n jhprkvf taf qu`mjty, mfojtjh`gy nc g`p`gjty kd `ssfss-

hfnts `nc cfgjsjkns (Cjftz & Wtfrn, 5<<1). Jt `msk g`n fna`ngf trust `nc uncfr-

st`ncjno `hkno p`rtjfs, jngrf`sf f`sf kd jhpmfhfnt`tjkn, hjnjhjzjno gksts `nc

cfm`ys (W`nkdd, 5<<4). \`rtjgjp`tjkn sakumc tafrfdkrf ef rfgkonjsfc `s ` rfqujsjtf

kd fddfgtjvf `gtjkn jnstf`c kd ` hfrfmy dkrh`m prkgfcur`m rfqujrfhfnt. @ggkrcjno

tk B`nsfn, Oôssmjno, Hfris `nc Ofurts (5<<6), cfgjsjkn hìfrs pfrgfjvf ` cf-

gjsjkn `s a`vjno hkrf qu`mjty jd sfvfr`m gkncjtjkns `rf dumdjmmfc sjhumt`nfkusmy.

afsf gkncjtjkns rfm`tf tk jnvkmvjno rfmfv`nt `nc gkhhjttfc `gtkrs, cf`mjno wjta

taf e`m`ngf eftwffn stèjmjty `nc ga`nof, ` e`m`ngf eftwffn stìfakmcfr jntfrfsts

kn sakrt `nc mkno tfrh, cf`mjno wjta cfmjefr`tjkns èkut skgj`m rfspknsjejmjty `h-

pmf prkkd, okkc rf`sknjno `nc ` ou`r`ntff kd jhpmfhfnt`tjkn.Cfgjsjkn hìfrs, suga `s gkungjm hfhefrs kr gjtjzfns, g`n tìf kn cjddfrfnt

typfs kd rkmfs drkh p`ssjvf ùcjtjno `nc jndkrh`tjkn gkmmfgtjkn tk prkvjcjno jn-

dkrh`tjkn `nc `gtjvf p`rtjgjp`tjkn. af \`rtjgjp`tjkn M`ccfr kd @rnstfjn (0:4:)

cjstjnoujsafc tarff ijncs kd gjtjzfn p`rtjgjp`tjkn2 nkn p`rtjgjp`tjkn, tkifnjsh

`nc gjtjzfn pkwfr jn fjoats mfvfms2 h`njpum`tjkn, tafr`py, jndkrhjno, gknsumt`-

tjkn, pm`g`tjkn, p`rtnfrsajp, cfmfo`tfc pkwfr `nc gjtjzfn gkntrkm. af Trkkh `nc

Zfttkn hkcfm kd h`nòfrj`m cfgjsjkn hìjno cjstjnoujsafs djvf mfvfms kd jncjvjcu`m

kr orkup mfvfm p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn kro`njs`tjkns (Trkkh & Bòk, 0:11), wajga gkr-

rfspknc tk taf mfvfms kd jndkrhjno, gknsumtjno, `cvjsjno, gkprkcugjno `nc gk-

cfgjcjno `s usfc ey Fcfmfneks & Imjbn (5<<6) jn ure`n pm`nnjno. af prkemfhga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t cftfrhjnf wajga kd tafsf mfvfms kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn js `pprkprj`tf



??

sffh tk rfm`tf tk nuhfrkus d`gtkrs suga `s taf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf qu`mjty kd taf

cfgjsjkn, taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf `nc jndkrh`tjkn kd taf mf`cfr, taf strugturf kd taf

prkemfh, taf jhpkrt`ngf kd hfhefrs `ggfpt`ngf `nc gkhhjthfnt, taf ga`ngf

kd `ggfpt`ngf kd taf cfgjsjkn ey taf hfhefrs, taf hktjv`tjkn kd taf ok`ms, taf

prkeèjmjty dkr gknsfnsus, taf `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn `v`jmèmf, tjhf gknstr`jnts,

taf ofkor`pajg`mmy cjspfrsjkn kd taf hfhefrs, taf spffc kd cfgjsjkn hìjno `nctaf jhpkrt`ngf kd dkstfrjno hfhefrs tarkuoa p`rtjgjp`tjkn (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy,

5<<6). af dkur typfs kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno kddfrfc

ey taf hkcfm kd Trkkh `nc Zfttkn (`nc gkhp`rèmf tk taf ktafr gm`ssjdjg`tjkns)

gkumc ef `ppmjfc tk tfncfr sjtu`tjkns (Trkkh & Bòk, 0:11)2

@2 ùtkgr`tjg2 taf rfspknsjemf kddjgfr cfgjcfs dkr ajhsfmd e`sfc kn jndkrh`-

tjkn `v`jmèmf tk ajh `t taf tjhf. ajs jndkrh`tjkn g`n krjojn`tf drkh ktafr

jncjvjcu`ms wjtakut `gtjvf `w`rfnfss kr p`rtjgjp`tjkn. ajs ijnc kd cfgjsjkn

hìjno js a`rcmy fxpmjgjtmy dkunc curjno tfncfrs kr cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns.

G2 gknsumt`tjvf2 taf rfspknsjemf kddjgfr sa`rfs taf prkemfh wjta rfmfv`nt sue-krcjn`tfs, ofttjno jcf`s `nc suoofstjkns wjta kr wjtakut erjnojno tafh tk-

oftafr `s ` orkup. afn (s)af hìfs taf cfgjsjkn, wajga h`y kr h`y nkt

rfdmfgt taf jndmufngf kd taf suekrcjn`tfs. @ssfsshfnt ey ` usfr orkup g`n ef

gknsjcfrfc `s p`rt kd taf gknsumt`tjkn.

O2 orkup2 taf rfspknsjemf kddjgfr sa`rfs taf prkemfh, n`mysjs nc `mtfrn`tjvfs

wjta suekrcjn`tfs `s ` orkup. af rfspknsjemf kddjgfr `gts `s ` gkkrcjn`tkr kr

fqu`m orkup hfhefr. Cfgjsjkns `rf h`cf ey hutu`m òrffhfnt wjtajn taf

orkup. Wtffrjno gkhhjttffs kd prkbfgts gkumc ef sft up mjif tajs.

C2 cfmfo`tjkn2 taf rfspknsjemf kddjgfr cfmfo`tfs taf prkemfh `nc taf rfspkn-sjejmjty tk ` suekrcjn`tf. @ny skmutjkn ta`t js rf`gafc wjmm rfgfjvf taf kddjgfr‚s

suppkrt. @ stffrjno gkhhjttff cfmfo`tjno taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss tk ` bury js `

okkc fx`hpmf jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns.

@ggkrcjno tk Grksey, Ifmmfy `nc Wga`fdfr (0:14) `nc @rnstfjn (0:4:) ` cjstjng-

tjkn sakumc ef h`cf eftwffn suggfssdum hftakcs kd gjtjzfn p`rtjgjp`tjkn `nc sug-

gfssdum gjtjzfn mkeeyjno `nc h`njpum`tjkn fddkrts. \`rtjgjp`tjkn js ` gkngfpt ta`t

nffcs tk ef takuoat tarkuoa jn taf sfnsf kd ` h`tga eftwffn taf kebfgtjvfs, taf

hftakcs `nc qufstjkns suga `s wa`t, wafrf, waksf, akw `nc wafn js p`rtjgjp`-

tjkn cfsjrfc (_umz, 0:14). Jt nffcs okkc prfp`r`tjkn. Fstèmjsajno ` pkmjgy kd

jngmusjvfnfss, akmcjno kpfn hfftjnos, hìjno spffgafs tk gkhhunjty orkups,ket`jnjno puemjg jnput, vkmunt`ry gkhhunjty gkungjms (sh`mm d`gf-tk-d`gf orkups

kd cjvfrsf gjtjzfns ta`t gknvfnf dkr sakrt pfrjkcs kd tjhf tk gknsjcfr skhf puemjg

gkngfrn), hìjno puemjg `nnkungfhfnts, akmcjno d`gf-tk-d`gf hfftjnos `nc gkn-

cugtjno prkorfss survfys `rf knmy ` dfw kptjkns jn p`rtjgjp`tjkn prkgfssfs (W`nkdd,

5<<4).

Wfvfr`m sgakm`rs (Grksey, ft `m., 0:149 Cjftz & Wtfrn, 5<<19 Fcfmfneks &

Imjbn, 5<<69 _femfr, ft `m., 5<<0) jcfntjdjfc ` nuhefr kd prjngjpmfs ta`t sakumc

ef jngmucfc jn taf cfsjon kd taf p`rtjgjp`tjkn prkgfss jn taf puemjg sfgtkr, suga

`s rfprfsfnt`tjvf nkn-h`njpum`tjvf p`rtjgjp`tjkn sfmfgtjkn, gkmmèkr`tjvf prkemfh

dkrhum`tjkn `nc prkgfss cfsjon, prkgfss h`nòfhfnt, tr`nsp`rfngy, okkc-d`jta

•

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?1

`nc gmf`r gkhhunjg`tjkn, `cfqu`tf duncjno `nc st`dd, `nc ` dkgus kn fddfgtjvf

cfgjsjkn hìjno. Cr`wjno drkh taf mjtfr`turf kn orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno, Grksey

ft `m. (0:14) mjst djvf d`gtkrs dkr ` suggfssdum hftakc kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn2 0) suddjgjfnt

`hkunt kd tjhf dkr p`rtjgjp`nts tk mf`rn taf jndkrh`tjkn `nc tk rfdmfgt kn taf

v`mufs `nc ok`ms rfmfv`nt tk taf cfgjsjkn, 5) `n `pprkprj`tf sjzf kd taf cfgjsjkn

orkup, 7) pm`nnfc ofnc` sk ta`t taf jhpkrt`nt h`tfrj`m js gkvfrfc jn n krcfrmyd`sajkn, 3) taf pfrskn mf`cjno taf orkup hust d`gjmjt`tf taf cjsgussjkn, `nc 6) taf

vjfws kd taf p`rtjgjp`nts hust ef ojvfn `cfqu`tf rfgkonjtjkn.

@ dfw suoofstjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd stìfakmcfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn `rgajtfgt sf-

mfgtjkn g`n ef cr`wn drkh taf mjtfr`turf. N`s`r (0:::) pmf`cs dkr ` systfh`tjg jn-

vfntkry kd vjsu`m qu`mjty dkr taf purpksf kd prf-bury fv`mu`tjkn `hkno `mm orkups

kd pfkpmf ta`t hjoat fxpfrjfngf taf eujmcjno, fspfgj`mmy usfrs. ajs sakumc ef

dkmmkwfc ey `n unej`sfc fv`mu`tjkn prkgfss ta`t js e`sfc kn jnsjoats drkh fn-

vjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy èkut prfdfrfngfs `nc hf`njno (sff `msk Ga`ptfr 5.5)

`nc gkhpmftfc ey ` pkst kggup`ngy fv`mu`tjkn tk sff akw taf eujmcjno `gtu`mmy

pfrdkrhs. Grksey ft `m. (0:14) jntrkcugf taf gkngfpt kd ` ‑Gjtjzfns \`nfm‚, wajgajngmucfs dkur c`ys kd rfojkn`m `nc st`tf mfvfm st`dd prfsfnt`tjkns kn taf tkpjg, wjt-

nfss tfstjhknjfs kd sfvfr`m stìfakmcfr orkups `nc taf prfp`r`tjkn kd ` rfpkrt kd

taf p`nfm hfhefrs èkut taf rfgkhhfnc`tjkns. Fv mu`tjkn sakws taf gkngfpt js

dmfxjemf, fddfgtjvf `nc d`jr eut rfm`tjvfmy fxpfnsjvf wjta ` mjhjtfc pkwfr tk gkn-

vjngf taf pfkpmf jn ga`rof. Jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon `nc ure`n pm`nnjno gk-cfsjon

prkvjcfs `n jntfrfstjno kptjkn dkr taf cfvfmkphfnt kd ` cfsjon efgùsf cfsjonfrs

`nc pm`nnfrs wkri wjta jnstf`c kd ò`jnst gkhhunjty orkups (cf Bknof, 5<<:9

Ijno, 0:17). @dtfr `mm, ”fxpfrjfngfs jn taf p`rtjgjp`tjkn prkgfss a`vf sakwn ta`t

taf h`jn skurgf kd usfr s`tjsd`gtjkn js nkt taf cforff tk wajga ` pfrskn‚s nffcs

a`vf effn hft, eut taf dffmjno kd a`vjno jndmufngfc taf cfgjsjkns‘ (W`nkdd, 5<<4,p. 03<).

3.7 Saf gkntfxt kd cfsjon `nc gknstrugtjkn

af rf`m fst`tf gygmf gknsjsts kd `n jnjtj`mjz`tjkn, cfsjon, gknstrugtjkn, `nc kggu-

p`ngy pa`sf. Gmjfnts pm`y ify rkmf jn taf jnjtj`mjz`tjkn nc taf kggup`ngy pa`sf,

wajmf `rgajtfgts `rf taf hkst fssfntj`m pm`yfrs jn taf cfsjon pa`sf `nc gkntr`gtkrs

jn taf gknstrugtjkn pa`sf. @s hfntjknfc jn taf djrst ga`ptfr taf gurrfnt sfmfgtjkn

prkgfss kd `rgajtfgts krjojn`tfs drkh taf tr`cjtjkn kd taf cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn, taf

tfncfrjno kd wkris `nc sfrvjgfs, `nc taf sfmfgtjvf sf`rga dkr ` sujtèmf `rgajtfgt krcfsjon p`rtnfr (Wtrkno, 0::4). ajs sfgtjkn cfsgrjefs taf krjojn `nc ga`r`gtfr kd

cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns jn rgajtfgturf nc taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd p`rtnfr sfmfgtjkns jn

taf gknstrugtjkn jncustry. af mfo`m spfgts kd tfncfrjno kd wkris nc sfrvjgfs rf

cjsgussfc jn taf nfxt sfgtjkn.

3.7.0 Saf gkngfpt kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns

Wt`rtjno wjta taf `ngjfnt Orffis, gkhpftjtjkns a`vf tr`cjtjkn`mmy effn ` vfajgmf

dkr taf grf`tjkn kd h`bkr gjvjg eujmcjnos `nc puemjg sp`gfs, suga `s okvfrnhfnt

eujmcjnos, pfrdkrhjno rt gfntrfs, fcug`tjkn`m d`gjmjtjfs, puemjg mjer`rjfs, husfuhs

`nc akusjno (Gkmmyfr, 5<<39 Wtrkno, 0:?4). Cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns rf gknsjcfrfc s



?:

taf rfpksjtkrjfs kd taf `rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn (cf A``n & A`òsh`, 0:11). afy

a`vf prkcugfc ajoa prkdjmf prkbfgts `s wfmm `s ` mkt kd cfe`tf, cjsputf `nc gkntrk-

vfrsjfs (Wtrkno, 0::4), `nc `ppf`r tk ef ` sjonjdjg`nt p`rt kd taf `rgajtfgtur`m gum-

turf. Hkst kd taf ùtakrs kd puemjg`tjkns èkut cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns gknsjcfr taf

pafnkhfnkn `s ` ojvfn wjtakut grjtjg`mmy `ssfssjno taf gkngfpt `nc jts tr`cjtjkn

`s suga, fvfn takuoa cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns `rf kdtfn suebfgt tk jntfnsjvf sgrutjny(Wprfjrfofn, 5<<1). aksf puemjg`tjkns ta`t `ccrfss taf prfhjsfs `nc wfìnfssfs

kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns sakw orf`t sjhjm`rjtjfs jntfrn`tjkn`mmy jn taf prkemfhs tafy

jcfntjdy (cf A``n & A`òsh`, 0:119 Afynfn, 5<<09 Wprfjrfofn, 0:?:9 Wtjgatjno

Ekuwrfsf`rga, 0:1<9 Wtrkno, 0::49 Wucbjg, 5<<6). \rkemfhs h`jnmy gkngfrn taf

tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf sfmfgtjkn kd taf p`rtjgjp`nts, taf gmjfnt‚s gkhhunjg`tjkn kd

taf rfqujrfhfnts tk taf p`rtjgjp`nts, taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury p`nfm, taf ke-

bfgtjvjty kd taf bury‚s bucofhfnt, `nc taf djn`ngj`m gkhpfns`tjkn gkhp`rfc tk

taf `hkunt kd wkri (Ajbcr`, 5<<?). Wprfjrfofn (0:?:) jcfntjdjfc tarff hytas

èkut cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns2 gkhpftjtjkns gkst hknfy, gkhpftjtjkns gkst tjhf, nc

gkhpftjtjkn cfsjons nfvfr oft eujmt. afsf hytas `rf nkt suppkrtfc ey d`gts eutrfh`jn vfry pfrsjstfnt.

@ggkrcjno tk Gkmmyfr (5<<3) taf prkmjdfr`tjkn kd gkhpftjtjkns `nc taf jngmu-

sjkn kd sk h`ny eujmcjno typfs jn ta`t prkgfss g`n ef vjfwfc `s ` pkst-_krmc _`r

JJ pafnkhfnkn, `mtakuoa jt js rfm`tjvfmy r`rf jn taf Vnjtfc Wt`tfs. af rfmfv`ngf

kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns js `ginkwmfcofc wkrmcwjcf jn taf wkrmc kd `rgajtfgturf.

Zft jndkrh`tjkn kn p`st `nc rfgfnt cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns js dròhfntfc, jn`cfqu`tf

`nc drfqufntmy unrfgkrcfc (Mjpst`ct, 5<<69 Wprfjrfofn, 0:?:). Wfvfr`m puemjg`-

tjkns cfsgrjef taf `jhs, prkgfcurfs, pktfntj`ms `nc pjtd`mms kd cfsjon gkhpftj-

tjkns jn ` ajstkrjg`m pfrspfgtjvf kr sakw taf rfmfv`ngf kd gkhpftjtjkns dkr taf

`rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn (Gkmmyfr, 5<<39 M`rskn, 0::39 Mjpst`ct, 5<<69 WtjgatjnoEkuwrfsf`rga, 0:1<9 Wtrkno, 0:?4, 0::49 Wucbjg, 5<<6). Ktafrs sjhpmy ckgu-

hfnt taf wjnnjno cfsjons pjgturfs kr cfsgrjptjkns `nc rfpkrt taf kpjnjkn kd taf

bury `nc skhf ktafr `ssfsskrs dkr jnspjr`tjkn purpksfs (f.o. cf A``n & A`òsh`,

0:119 Omusefro, 0::5). af fxpfrjfngfs `nc jntfrfsts kd taf gmjfnt `s duturf usfr

kd taf eujmcjno `rf usu`mmy nfomfgtfc jn taf fv`mu`tjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkn (N`s`r,

0:::9 N`s`r & I`no, 0:1:).

af sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt js hfrfmy knf kd taf sfvfr`m purpksfs kd cfsjon

gkhpftjtjkns. Gkhpftjtjkns g`n a`vf fcug`tjkn`m purpksfs, (f.o. fcug`tjno stu-

cfnts, ga`mmfnojno ‑gknvfntjkn`m wjsckh‚), pkmjtjg`m rf`skns (f.o. fnm`rojno sup-

pkrt, h`riftjno ` prkbfgt, runnjno `rgajtfgturf pkmjtjgs, gkkrcjn`tjno cjddfrfntdjfmcs kd jntfrfsts), gumtur`m `jhs (f.o. grf`tjno ` cj`mkouf kn cfsjon, gkntrjeutjno

tk taf gumtur`m cjhfnsjkn kd taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt, fxp`ncjno taf ekunc`rjfs kd

cfsjon), `nc fgknkhjg`m rf`skns (f.o. jngrf`sjno gkhpftjtjkn, o`jnjno jnsjoat jn

gkhpftfngfs kr `ssurjno qu`mjty tarkuoa bury `ssfsshfnt) (cf A``n & A`òsh`,

0:119 Fvfrs, 5<<19 Wprfjrfofn, 0:?:9 Wvfnsskn, 5<<1). ”af purpksf kd gkhpftj-

tjkn jn `rgajtfgturf js taf pursujt kd fxgfmmfngf. @s jn ktafr fncf`vkurs, taf ok`m

js jmmusjvf. Jt a`s tk ef pursufc gknst`ntmy jd jt js tk ef `gajfvfc, `nc wafn kn kg-

g`sjkn jt js, nfw `nc hkrf cjst`nt akrjzkns gkhf jntk vjfw. Wk taf pursujt gkntjn-

ufs‘ (Wprfjrfofn, 0:?:, p. 6). Wprfjrfofn jcfntjdjfc sfvfr`m efnfdjts `nc prkemfhs

wjta cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns ta`t stjmm suhh`rjsf taf cjsgussjkn `hkno prkdfssjkn`mstkc`y (sff emf 3.0).



1<

Cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns `mw`ys jnvkmvf taf cfvfmkphfnt kd ` cfsjon tk taf pkjnt

wafrf jt rf`mjstjg`mmy rfprfsfnts ` rf`mjzèmf eujmcjno. afrf `rf twk h`jn gkhpf-

tjtjkn strugturfs (taf kpfn gkhpftjtjkn `nc taf jnvjtfc gkhpftjtjkn), twk h`jn

gkhpftjtjkn pkpum`tjkns (n`tjkn`m `nc jntfrn`tjkn`m), `nc twk h`jn gkhpftjtjknkebfgtjvfs (gkngfptjkn kn jts kwn g`mmfc `n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn, `nc gkngfptjkn

mf`cjno tk gknstrugtjkn, wajga js ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn jn taf gknvfntjkn`m hf`n-

jno kd taf wkrc) (Mjpst`ct, 5<<6). Wprfjrfofn (0:?:) `msk cjstjnoujsafs stucfnt

gkhpftjtjkns, (ure`n) rfnfw`m gkhpftjtjkns, turn-ify gkhpftjtjkns `nc gknsumt-

`nt-sfmfgtjkn gkhpftjtjkns s v`rj`tjkns kn taf kpfn nc jnvjtfc gkhpftjtjkn. af

Uky`m Jnstjtutf kd Erjtjsa @rgajtfgts cjstjnoujsafs eftwffn df`sjejmjty stucy, cfsjon

prkpks`m `nc siftga cfsjon `s tarff mfvfms kd takrkuoanfss kd taf cfsjon `gtjvjtjfs

rfqujrfc dkr taf gkhpftjtjkn (Afynfn, 5<<0). Jn ` cfsjon prkpks`m èkut 0< tk

06% kd taf tkt`m eujmcjno cfsjon js prfp`rfc dkr suehjssjkn, wajga sakumc ef sud-

djgjfnt dkr ` gkhpftjtjkn. @ siftga cfsjon rfqujrfs èkut 7< tk 76% kd taf wkrikd ` cft`jmfc eujmcjno cfsjon. af hkrf wkri js rfqujrfc wjtakut `ny jntfr`gtjkn

kr ` prkpfr cj`mkouf wjta taf gmjfnt, taf hkrf taf mjifmjakkc fxjsts kd rfckjno taf

wkri.

afrf `rf twk prjngjpmfs ta`t prkvjcfc taf dkunc`tjkn kd `rgajtfgtur`m gkh-

pftjtjkns wkrmc wjcf2 ` p`nfm `ssfssfs taf qu`mjty kd taf cfsjon ò`jnst grjtfrj`

fstèmjsafc jn taf erjfd `nc taf wakmf prkgfss js gkncugtfc jn ` d`jr `nc fqujtèmf

h`nnfr (Wtrkno, 0::4). Wtrkno (p. 37) mjsts dkur grjtfrj` ta`t cjstjnoujsa gkhpf-

tjtjkn drkh ktafr dkrhs kd gkhhjssjknjno wajga `msk ppmy dkr tfncfrs2 ”0) afrf

`rf sfvfr`m fntr`nts, 5) tafrf js `n jcfntjg`m prkemfh dkr `mm fntr`nts, 7) rumfs `nc

prkgfcurfs `rf prfsgrjefc `nc dkmmkwfc, `nc 3) systfh`tjg `nc jncfpfncfnt `s-

\rks Gkns

Jcfntjffg`tjkn kd nfw t`mfnt Gkst tk taf gmjfnt

Wtjhum`tjkn kd kmc t`mfnt Sjhf rfqujrfc

Wtjhum`tjkn kd puemjg cj mkouf \kssjejmj ty kd n fxgfssjvfmy gkstmy skmutjkn

Wtjhum`tjkn kd prkdfssjkn`ms Fmjhjn`tjkn kd taf prkor`h cfvfmkphfnt pa`sf

Fxpmkr`tjkn kd nfw gkngfpts @esfngf kd Gmjfnt-@rgajtfgt Cj`mkouf

Erjnojno tk ef`r taf efst cfsjon èjmjty Nkt sujtèmf dkr gkhpmfx eujmcjnos

Ekkst kd kgf hkr mf dkr rgajtfgts \kssjemf jnfxpfrjfngf kd taf sfmfgtfc rgajtfgt

Cfvfmkphfnt kd nfw cfsjon dkrhs \kssjemf jhpr`gtjg`m sfmfgtjkn ey taf bury

H`jnt jnjno ttfntjkn dkr cfsjon Ufvfm tjkn kd gknffcfntj m sfgurjty jndkrh tjkn

Wakw g`stjno prkdfssjkn`m ejmjtjfs Gksts tk taf prkdfssjkn

Erjnojno jn ` wjcf pkjnt kd vjfw Uf`mjt jfs nc prfssurf kd taf p`trknòf systfh

Drffjno cfsjonfrs drkh gknstr`jnts Nktjkn kd ‑` mkt kd trkuemf‚

Sfst `nc ga`mmfnof st`tus quk Nktjkn ta`t ‑okkc cfsjon js fxpfnsjvf‚

Ufqujrfhfnt kd kvfrmy fmèkr`tf prfsfnt`tjkns

Cjgumty kd sgafcumjno puemjg ffn`ngjno

Vngfrt`jnty èkut fnkuoa kr rjoat cfsjonfrs

M`gi kd jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf h`nòfhfnt kd ` gkhpftjtjkn

Sèmf 3.0 \rks `nc gkns kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns `ggkrcjno tk Wprfjrfofn (0:?:)



10

sfsshfnt ey ` p`nfm kd `ssfsskrs js usfc tk sfmfgt ` wjnnfr.‘ @ bury a`s jhpkrt`nt

dkrh`m, fstaftjg nc ftajg`m rfspknsjejmjtjfs, suga s taf kemjo`tjkn tk fnsurf gkh-

pmj`ngf wjta rfoum`tjkns nc taf prkgfss, gakksjno ` wjnnfr, cfsgrjptjkn nc prfs-

fnt`tjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkn fntrjfs, `n kebfgtjvf `nc unej`sfc `ssfsshfnt kd taf

fntrjfs, jncfpfncfnt jcfntjdjg`tjkn kd mkno-tfrh v`muf, hktjv`tjkn kd taf gakjgf,

mky`mty tkw`rcs tafhsfmvfs `nc nkt okjno kut tk taf puemjg wjta ` cfvj`tjno kpjn-jkn wjtakut hìjno ` rfsfrv`tjkn ò`jnst taf bury‚s cfgm`r`tjkns (I`zfhj`n &

Uônn, 5<<:). af humtjpmf `jhs, taf gkhpmfxjty kd taf gkntfxt `nc ga`r`gtfr kd

taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs rfsumt jn fmfvfn cjmfhh`s ta`t burjfs d`gf curjno tafjr cfgj-

sjkn prkgfss (Uônn, 5<<1)2

Cfhkgr`gy vfrsus Fxpfrt cfgjsjkn - Cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns a`vf kpfn fxtfrjkr

`nc prjv`tf jntfrjkr9 mjhjtfc cfhkgr`tjg gkntrjeutjkn.

@nknyhjty vfrsus Cjrfgt gkhhunjg`tjkn - Djn`m prkcugt js hkrf jhpkr-

t`nt ta`n taf pfrskn9 mjhjtfc gkhhunjg`tjkn eftwffn kro`njzjno ekcy `nc

p`rtjgjp`nts.\rkbfgt vfrsus @rgajtfgt - Cu`m dungtjkn kd gkhpftjtjkn systfh9 rfmfv`ngf dkr

taf gmjfnts `nc dkr taf prkdfssjkn.

Wfgurjty vfrsus Jnnkv`tjkn - \`rtjgjp`nts mkno dkr skhftajno nfw, gmjfnts rf-

qujrf wfmm-prkvfn gknstrugtjkn, fddjgjfngy, curèjmjty ftg.

\rfgjsjkn vfrsus M`tjtucf - Cforff kd stffrjno kd taf gmjfnts `nc taf nffc dkr

m`tjtucf kd taf bury.

Ufqujrfhfnts vfrsus Dffce`gi - Akw tk dkrfsff taf pktfntj`m grf`tfc ey taf

gkhpftjtjkn `nc fnsurf qu`mjty kd duturf eujmcjnos.Hjnjhjzjno dùmts vfrsus H`xjhjzjno qu`mjty - af `pprk`ga kn akw tk r`ni

qu`mjty `ggkrcjno tk taf `hkunt kd sakrtgkhjno jn rfm`tjkn tk taf pksjtjvf

qu`mjtjfs.

Mfttfr kd jntfnt vfrsus Fcug`tjkn`m cfvfmkphfnt - _afn taf kro`njzjno ekcy

gkhfs jn gknt`gt wjta taf prkpks`ms tafy `gqujrf ` cffpfr uncfrst`ncjno kd

taf `ssjonhfnt.

Kebfgtjvf vfrsus \rkgfss - af fntrjfs `nc kro`njs`tjkn cftfrhjnf taf bury

prkgfss eut taf prkgfss `jhs `t sfmfgtjno ` wjnnfr.

\rfsfnt vfrsus Duturf - af prfsfnt js taf pkjnt kd cfp`rturf dkr `n fstjh`tjkn

kd duturf qu`mjtjfs9 fqu`mmy cjddjgumt dkr bury `nc p`rtjgjp`nts.

\rkdfssjkn`m vfrsus Gkhhunjty `pprkv`m - Jndmufngf kd humtjpmf p`rtjfs kn

taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs9 gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury.

@ggkrcjno tk I`zfhj`n `nc Uônn (5<<:) bury hfhefrs hust ef ajoamy fxpfrj-

fngfc, jncfpfncfnt cfsjon tajnifrs `nc grjtjgs wjta okkc vjsjkn`ry bucofhfnt`m

èjmjty jn cfsjon tk sfgurf taf fssfntj`ms kd gkhpftfngf nc gknsfnsus. @t taf s`hf

tjhf `n jhpkrt`nt knokjno cjsputf rfo`rcjno burjfs js waftafr tafy sakumc ef

h`cf up skmfmy kd rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn`ms kr sakumc msk jngmucf nkn-`rgajtfgts

gmksfmy jnvkmvfc wjta taf prkbfgt (usfrs, cfgjsjkn hìfrs, pkmjtjgj`ns, ftg.). ajs

0.

5.

7.

3.

6.

4.

?.

1.

:.

0<.

00.



15

cjsputf sffhs fvfn hkrf rfmfv`nt tkc`y jn rfm`tjkn tk taf gurrfnt pr`gtjgf kd rgaj-

tfgt sfmfgtjkns. Nfxt tk taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury p`nfm, ajoa-qu`mjty erjfd nc

` prkdfssjkn`m kro`njs`tjkn `rf jhpkrt`nt `spfgts kd ` gkhpftjtjkn (\`tjbn, 5<<<9

Wucbjg, 5<<6). Wprfjrfofn (5<<1) cfsgrjefs ` gkhpftjtjkn prkgfss `s gknsjstjno kd

sfvfn gkhpknfnts2 pm`nnjno, gkhpftjtjkn `nnkungfhfnt, cfsjon, rfgfjvjno `nc

prkgfssjno, bury, cfsjon `nnkungfhfnt, nc pkst-gkhpftjtjkn pa`sf. af gkhpf-tjtjkn gkncjtjkns jngmucf tarff e`sjg sfgtjkns kd ofnfr`m gkncjtjkns, jnstrugtjkns

`nc erjfd (Wtrkno, 0:?4). @ggkrcjno tk Irfjnfr (5<<4) gkhpftjtjkn erjfd rf`cs

`s a`md jnstrugtjkn, a`md jnspjr`tjkn `nc sakumc ef ekta un`hejoukus `nc nkn-

gknstr`jnjno. Af cjsgussfs taf jnafrfnt tfnsjkns `nc `hejoujtjfs kd ‑dkrh vfrsus

dungtjkn‚, ‑tr`cjtjkn vfrsus ga`nof‚ `nc ‑rfqujrfhfnt vfrsus suoofstjkn‚ jn ` erjfd.

Jn fvfry ijnc kd gkhpftjtjkn trust hust ef fstèmjsafc eftwffn taf ùtakrjty `nc

taf cfsjonfr (Djsafr, Ukeskn, & kcc, 5<<?). @ggkrcjno tk Afynfn (5<<0) twk

gkhhunjg`tjkn djmtfrs fxjst jn gkhhunjg`tjkn eftwffn taf gmjfnt `nc taf p`rtjgj-

p`nt2 drkh jcf`s kd taf gmjfnt jntk taf erjfd, `nc drkh taf jcf`s kd taf p`rtjgjp`nt

tk taf bury. @ vfre`m fxpm`n`tjkn kd taf wrjttfn ckguhfnts js tafrfdkrf vfry huga`pprfgj`tfc ey taf p`rtjgjp`nts. ajs gkumc gkntrjeutf tk taf rfm`tjknsajp eujmt kn

trust eftwffn taf gmjfnt `nc `rgajtfgt. @ bury rfpkrt sfrvfs tajs purpksf, bust `s

jt sfrvfs ”tk jndkrh taf spknskr kd taf rf`skns dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd taf wjnnfr, tk

gm`rjdy taf ofnfr`m kebfgtjvfs efjno skuoat jn taf p`rtjgum`r cfsjon fxpfrjfngf `t

a`c `nc `s ` rfgkrc `nc rfdfrfngf kd ` p`rtjgum`r hkhfnt kd cfsjon takuoat `nc

`w`rfnfss‘ (Wprfjrfofn, 0:?:, p. 573).

af ofnfr`m efmjfd `hkno `rgajtfgts js ta`t taf ga`ngfs kd wjnnjno ` gkhpftj-

tjkn `rf vfry a`rc tk prfcjgt (Irfjnfr, 5<<?e). Jt js s`jc ta`t taf gkhpksjtjkn kd

` bury jn d`gt cftfrhjnfs taf kutgkhf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn (cf A``n & A`òsh`,

0:119 M`rskn, 0::3) eut taf str`tfojfs kd p`rtjgjp`tjno `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs g`njndmufngf taf cjrfgtjkn kd taf cfsjons ta`t wjn (Irfjnfr, 5<<19 H`nzknj, ft `m.,

5<<:). Irfjnfr (5<<?`, p. 0) cfsgrjefs taf gkhpftjtjkn prkgfss `s dkmmkws2 ”Jd

`rgajtfgtur`m tf`hs wfrf tk cfsgrjef taf gkhpftjtjkn `s ` c`ngf, tafy wkumc cf-

sgrjefc jt `s ` pfgumj`r dkrh kd c`ngf jn wajga tafy `rf c`ngjno wjta `n èsfnt

p`rtnfr, d`ngyjno ajh kr afr `nc rfspkncjno tk ajs kr afr jhòjn`ry hkvfhfnts

`nc ofsturfs. af esfnt p`rtnfr js taf gmjfnt (`nc jn skhf rfspfgts taf bury wajga

wjmm `ppkjnt taf wjnnfr kd taf gkhpftjtjkn). Wuga sa`ckw c`ngjno js pfrdkrhfc

gurrfntmy ey ` sh`mm nuhefr kd tf`hs kd `rgajtfgts, f`ga rfprfsfntjno kn kd taf

sfmfgtfc djrhs tìjno p`rt jn taf gkhpftjtjkn‘. Wtrkno (0:?4) dkunc ta`t mtakuoa

knmy 0<% kd taf p`rtjgjp`nts jn gkhpftjtjkns `si qufstjkns curjno prfp`r`tjkns,6<% kd taf wjnnfrs r`jsfc qufstjkns wajga jncjg`tfs ` cjddfrfnt str`tfoy kd taf

pktfntj`m wjnnfrs. Jn ofnfr`m taf fgknkhjg gkncjtjkns, taf ga`mmfnojno ga`r`gtfr

kd taf erjfd `nc kvfr`mm `ttr`gtjvfnfss kd ` gkhpftjtjkn jndmufngf taf rfspknsf `nc

tafrfdkrf taf `ggkhpmjsahfnt kd ` gkhpftjtjkn. af suggfss kd ` gkhpftjtjkn

akwfvfr `msk cfpfncs kn taf mfvfm kd taf p`rtjgjp`nts, `nc p`rtjgjp`nts g`nnkt ef

dkrgfc tk bkjn.

af gkhpftjtjkn prjngjpmfs `rf usu`mmy jngkrpkr`tfc jn n`tjkn`m rfoum`tjkns,

st`nc`rcjsfc dkrh`ts `nc hkcfm gkhpftjtjkn gkncjtjkns. Jngrf`sjnomy, tafsf `rf

efjno rfpm`gfc ey oujcfmjnfs sfttjno kut okkc pr`gtjgf prkgfcurfs. Jn taf Nkrcjg

Furkpf`n gkuntrjfs (Wwfcfn, Nkrw`y, Cfnh`ri `nc Djnm`nc) èkut 0<< `rgaj-



17

tfgtur`m gkhpftjtjkns tìf pm`gf `nnu`mmy sprf`c rkuoamy fqu`mmy kvfr sfvfn `rf`s

(tkwn & ure`n pm`nnjno, sgakkms, gumturf & mfjsurf, akusjno, af`mta & skgj`m

wfmd`rf, kddjgfs, `nc ktafrs) (I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:9 Uônn, 5<<1). @ekut 4<

tk ?6% kd tafsf gkhpftjtjkns tìf dkur yf`rs tk gkhpmftf `nc 06 tk 7<% `rf

g`ngfmmfc. Jn rfgfnt yf`rs jnvjtfc gkhpftjtjkns a`vf `msk efgkhf pkpum`r jn taf

Wg`ncjn`vj`n gkuntrjfs, `nc tafsf gkhpftjtjkns a`vf efgkhf hkrf mjif ` dkrh kd` puemjg nfoktj`tjkn (Uônn, 5<<1).

Jn taf Nftafrm`ncs, taf nuhefr kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns js mjhjtfc gkhp`rfc tk

ktafr w`ys kd gkhhjssjknjno bkes, eut `msk mjhjtfc gkhp`rfc tk ktafr Furkpf`n

gkuntrjfs, suga `s Dr`ngf, Ofrh`ny, Wwjtzfrm`nc `nc taf Wg`ncjn`vj`n gkuntrjfs

(Fvfrs, 5<<1). Hkst kd tafsf gkuntjfs a`vf fstèmjsafc kddjgj`m ekcjfs tk suppkrt

`nc rfoum`tf taf kro`njs`tjkn kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns. @mtakuoa taf gkuntrjfs wjta

kddjgj`m rfoum`tjkns `ppf`r tk fxpfrjfngf dfwfr prkemfhs wjta cfsjon gkhpftj-

tjkns, taf prkemfh`tjg n`turf kd sfmfgtjno `rgajtfgts ey cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns sffhs

tk ef rfgkonjsfc jntfrn`tjkn`mmy. Jn taf Nftafrm`ncs nkt huga `gtjkn a`s effn

tìfn tk rfskmvf taf fxjstjno tfnsjkn eftwffn taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf `nc gmjfntskn h`ttfrs ta`t rfm`tf tk taf kro`njs`tjkn kd ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns (Fvfrs, 0::6).

af Nftafrm`ncs ckfs nkt a`vf `n kddjgj`m ekcy `p`rt drkh `n kddjgf dkr prkgurf-

hfnt `nc cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns g`mmfc taf ‑Wtfunpunt @rgajtfgtuurkpcr`gatfn fn

Kntwfrpwfcstrjbcfn‚. ajs Kddjgf w`s fstèmjsafc jn 0::? ey @rgajtfgtuur Mki``m,

`n jncfpfncfnt n`tjkn`m gfntrf kd fxpfrtjsf `nc jndkrh`tjkn cfvktfc tk gkhhjs-

sjknjno eujmcjno cfvfmkphfnt, wjta taf `jh tk `cvjsf puemjg `nc prjv`tf gmjfnts

èkut sfmfgtjno cfsjonfrs nc prkpfrty cfvfmkpfrs. Wjngf taf fnc kd taf 0:ta gfntury

Cutga rfoum`tjkns fxjst (suga `s taf ‑@mofhfnf Nfcfrm`ncsf \rjbsvr`òrfofmjnofn‚)

eut tafsf wfrf, dkr uninkwn rf`skns, nkt `cfqu`tfmy `ppmjfc ey gmjfnts. Efgùsf

taf FV Cjrfgtjvfs kd 0::3 rfdfr tk n`tjkn`m rfoum`tjkns, rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd Cutgaokvfrnhfnt`m ùtakrjtjfs `nc prkdfssjkn`ms cfgjcfc tk cfvfmkp taf ‑Ikhp`s‚ (v`n

G`hpfn & Afncrjisf, 0::?) ta`t jngmucfs oujcfmjnfs `nc hkcfms dkr gkhpftj-

tjkns jn `rgajtfgturf. Ga`nofs jn rfoum`tjkns `nc `n jngrf`sjno nffc dkr suppkrt

curjno taf kro`njs`tjkn kd prkgfcurfs h`cf sfvfr`m kro`njs`tjkns cfgjcf tk cfvfm-

kp nfw oujcfmjnfs, hkcfms nc ktafr ijnc kd puemjg`tjkns ta`t ppmy tk taf Cutga

sjtu`tjkn (f.o. @rgajtfgtuur Mki``m, 5<<:e9 Ga`k-Cujvjs, ft `m., 5<<?9 B`nsfn,

5<<:9 \`tjbn, 5<<<).

Kro`njzjno ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn rfqujrfs ` suest`ntj`m `hkunt kd hknfy `nc

fnfroy. @ggkrcjno tk I`zfhj`n `nc Uônn (5<<:) jt g`n tìf dkur tk tfn hkntas tk

g`rry kut `n jnvjtfc gkhpftjtjkn jn wajga ` bury cfgjcfs kn tarff tk djvf prkpks-`ms. Efgùsf `n kpfn gkhpftjtjkn `ttr`gts kn `vfròf 1< fntrjfs, jhpmfhfnt`tjkns

gkumc tìf eftwffn sfvfn `nc fmfvfn hkntas. Wtrkno (0:?4) dkunc ta`t p`rtjgj-

p`nts spfnc eftwffn 04< tk 6<< akurs kn taf suehjssjkns dkr `n kpfn gkhpftj-

tjkn. @ twk-stòf jnvjtfc gkhpftjtjkn gkumc tìf up tk 014< akurs. afsf nuh-

efrs `nc gurrfnt fxpfrjfngfs jncjg`tf ta`t jn taf Wg`ncjn`vj`n gkuntrjfs huga

hkrf tjhf js jnvfstfc jn fv`mu`tjno taf fntrjfs ta`n prfsfntmy jn taf Nftafrm`ncs.

af hknfy ta`t `n `vfròf `rgajtfgtur m cfsjon djrh spfncs pfr cfsjon gkhpftj-

tjkn w`s fstjh`tfc ey taf Uky`m Jnstjtutf kd Cutga @rgajtfgts (EN@) `t ₭ 0:.<<<

jn 5<<1 `nc ₭ 70.<<< jn 5<<: (EN@, 5<<:9 v`n cfn Auri, 5<<1). af tkt`m

gksts dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns wfrf fstjh`tfc ey taf EN@ `t ₭



13

0< hjmmjkn pfr yf`r dkr taf wakmf sfgtkr. Kn `vfròf `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs f`rnfc ₭

051.<<< pfr yf`r jn gkhpftjtjkns.

3.7.5 \`rtnfr sfmfgtjkn jn gknstrugtjkn

af sfgknc rkkt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn rfdfrs tk ` sfmfgtjvf sf`rga dkr ` p`rtnfr

jn gknstrugtjkn. @rgajtfgts `rf nkt taf knmy pm`yfrs jn taf djfmc kd gknstrugtjkn.Fnojnffrs, gknsumt`nts, cfvfmkpfrs, h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nts `nc gkntr`gtkrs

`msk p`rtjgjp`tf jn gknstrugtjkn tfncfrs. Hkst tfncfrs dkr wkris jn gknstrugtjkn

`rf sjhjm`r tk akw bkes wfrf gkhhjssjknfc efdkrf taf jntrkcugtjkn kd taf FV

Cjrfgtjvf jn 5<<3. afsf tr`ns`gtjkns wfrf h`jnmy e`sfc kn taf mkwfst prjgf, `s-

suhjno ta`t taf gkntr`gtkrs wkumc `mm kddfr gkhp`rèmf qu`mjty mfvfms. Ufsf`rga

sakws `n jngrf`sf kd taf prfdfrfngfs tk `w`rc gkntr`gts dkr wkris kn taf ‑hkst

fgknkhjg`mmy `cv`ntòfkus tfncfr‚ (HF@) jnstf`c kd mkwfst prjgf (Crfsgamfr,

5<<:). \rjv`tf gmjfnts `ppf`r tk ef ` ejt hkrf fntausj`stjg èkut taf HF@ prjn-

gjpmf ta`n puemjg gmjfnts, wajga g`n ef `ttrjeutfc tk taf `ggkuntèjmjty kd taf

cfgjsjkn (_kno, Akmt, & Gkkpfr, 5<<<). \knopfno `nc Mjstkn (5<<7) cfsgrjef

taf cfvfmkphfnt kd tfncfr fv`mu`tjkn tkkm ta`t gguhum`tfs jnput drkh humtjpmf

cfgjsjkn hìfrs, jngkrpkr`tfs rjsi nc ungfrt`jnty nc kddfrs dmfxjejmjty tk ga`nofs

jn taf sjtu`tjkn curjno cfsjon tfncfrs. Jn tafjr tkkm taf rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf

ejc prjgf, jn gkhp`rjskn tk utjmjty `nc skgj`m wfmd`rf cftfrhjnfs wajga gkntr`g-

tkr kddfrs taf efst ejc `nc sakumc wjn taf tfncfr. af hftakckmkoy dkr efst v`muf

cfgjsjkn hìjno `s cfvfmkpfc ey \ajmmjps, H`rtjn, C`jnty `nc \rjgf (5<<?) `msk

`ginkwmfcofs taf ungfrt`jnty `nc jhpfrdfgtjkn kd tfncfr cfgjsjkns. afjr tkkm

gkntrjeutfs tk taf tr`nsp`rfngy kd cfgjsjkn hìjno ey usjno taf `n`mystjg ajfr`r-

gay prkgfss hftakc, p`jr wjsf gkhp`rjskn, humtjpmf-`ttrjeutf utjmjty tafkry `nc

efngah`ri sgkrfs drkh I\J‚s.

Wfvfr`m ùtakrs (f.o. _`tt, I`yjs, & _jmmfy, 5<0<9 _kno, ft `m., 5<<<) dkunc

ta`t dkr puemjg eujmcjnos `nc fnojnffrjno wkris taf hkst jhpkrt`nt prkbfgt spf-

gjdjg grjtfrj` sffh tk ef taf gtu`m wkri qu`mjty gajfvfc kn sjhjm`r wkris (tfganj-

g`m fxpfrtjsf nc p`st pfrdkrh`ngf). Jt ppf`rs ta`t puemjg gmjfnts rf hkrf dkgusfc

kn prjgf ta`n prjv`tf gmjfnts, fvfn takuoa tafy sakumc ef `w`rf kd taf d`gt ta`t

taf mkwfst ejc ckfs nkt `mw`ys mf`c tk taf efst qu`mjty, mkwfst prjgf `t gkhpmftjkn

kr ajoafst gmjfnt s`tjsd`gtjkn (Wpkrrkno & Erôganfr, 5<<:). M`rof Cutga gmjfnts

jn gknstrugtjkn `ppf`r tk prfdfr taf prjgf `nc qu`mjty kd taf gkntr`gtkr kvfr taf

djn`ngj`m stèjmjty, rfmjèjmjty `nc fxpfrjfngf kd taf gkntr`gtkr (Ufojfr``c-Ekuw,5<<6), wajmf sh`mm gmjfnts tajni rfmjèjmjty `nc qu`mjty kd taf gkntr`gtkr js hkrf

jhpkrt`nt ta`n gmjfnt dkgus, prjgf `nc fxpfrjfngf. E`sfc kn ` survfy \ajmmjps,

H`rtjn, C`jnty `nc \rjgf (5<<1) fxtr`gtfc tfn d`gtkrs wajga gkumc ef usfc tk cjd-

dfrfntj`tf efst v`muf e`sfc ejcs jn taf gkntfxt kd skgj`m akusjno2 uncfrst`ncjno

kd gmjfnts kebfgtjvfs, jnnkv`tjvf h`nòfhft, suggfssdum tr`gi rfgkrc, gknstrugtjkn

pr`gtjgfs, qu`mjty h`nòfhfnt prkgfcurfs, tr`nsp`rfngy kd gkst c`t`, uncfrst`nc-

jno kd p`rtnfrjno, fstèmjsafc pkmjgy, uncfrst`ncjno kd efst v`muf, `nc tfganjg`m

èjmjty. afsf d`gtkrs sakw ekta taf skgj`m `spfgts `nc taf prkcugt rfm`tfc `spfgts

kd p`rtnfr sfmfgtjkn jn prkgurfhfnt.



16

af prfdfrfngf dkr v`muf e`sfc w`rc hfga`njshs js nkt taf knmy gurrfnt trfnc

jn Cutga gknstrugtjkn. Jn krcfr tk rfcugf taf fxtfnsjvf gksts kd frrkrs curjno gkn-

strugtjkn, okvfrnhfnt `nc ktafr jnstjtutjkns jn taf djfmc `rf fngkuròjno taf usf

kd jntfor`tfc cfsjon `nc gknstrugtjkn gkntr`gts. Jn 5<<? ` s`hpmf kd 75<< Cutga

gmjfnts jncjg`tfc ta`t jn taf nf`r duturf tafy wkumc `w`rc èkut 76% kd taf

gkntr`gts s jntfor`tfc gkntr`gts (Cfsjon-`nc-Eujmc, Cfsjon-Eujmc-H`jnt`jn ftg.)(Ufojfr``c-Ekuw, 5<<6). Ufsf`rga gkncugtfc jn @ustr`mj` suoofsts ta`t taf gum-

turf kd rjsi `vkjc`ngf stjmm mf`cs gmjfnts tk gakksf tr`cjtjkn`m prkgurfhfnt hfta-

kcs, fvfn jd `mtfrn`tjvf dkrhs gkumc jhprkvf taf prkbfgt kutgkhf (Mkvf, C`vjs,

Fcw`rcs, & E`gg`rjnj, 5<<1). \rjv`tf kro`njs`tjkns suga `s akusjno gkrpkr`tjkns

`nc m`rof gkrpkr`tjkns prfdfr trust `nc rfgjprkg`m fxpfrtjsf, bust `s puemjg gmjfnts

twfnty yf`rs òk, `nc kdtfn gkmmèkr`tf wjta taf s`hf gkntr`gtkrs efgùsf kd prf-

vjkus okkc fxpfrjfngf (Ufojfr``c-Ekuw, 5<<6). ajs js nkt pkssjemf dkr puemjg

gmjfnts `ny hkrf efgùsf kd gurrfnt tfncfr kemjo`tjkns. af djncjnos kd Ckrff

(0::4) suoofst ta`t dkr hunjgjp`mjtjfs taf pkssjejmjty kd eujmcjno rfm`tjknsajps

wjta gkntr`gtkrs js ` w`y tk s`dfou`rc `nc tk fnsurf taf gkntrkm kvfr qu`mjty.Ufgfnt nuhefrs sakw ta`t taf nuhefr kd jnnkv`tjvf tfncfr prkgfcurfs

jn Cutga gknstrugtjkn js stjmm vfry mjhjtfc (Wtjgatjno @`nefstfcjnosjnstjtuut

Ekuwfnc Nfcfrm`nc, 5<<:). ajs gkumc jncjg`tf afsjt`tjkn jn taf djfmc tk prfdfr

jntfor`tfc gkntr`gts kvfr tr`cjtjkn`m prkgurfhfnt hftakcs. \ajmmjps ft `m. (5<<1)

suhh`rjsfs taf ga`mmfnofs ta`t puemjg gmjfnts d`gf `t taf hkhfnt2 tkk huga prk-

gurfhfnt js uncfrtìfn wjtakut prkdfssjkn`m suppkrt kr ey cfsjon`tfc prkgurf-

hfnt st`dd, tafrf js tkk huga dkgus kn gkpyjno efst pr`gtjgfs, prkemfhs kggur

jn grf`tjno gknsfnsus `hkno stìfakmcfrs, `nc taf humtjpmjgjty kd v`mufs, tkkms,

cjsgjpmjnfs `nc stìfakmcfrs grf`tfs tkk h`ny kptjkns. Zft, ` sajdt kggurs jn taf

prkgurfhfnt dungtjkn drkh jts tr`cjtjkn`m `chjnstr`tjvf `nc tr`ns`gtjkn`m rkmf tk` hkrf str`tfojg knf (Wpkrrkno & Erôganfr, 5<<:). afrfdkrf sijmms `nc prkdfs-

sjkn`mjsh kd gmjfnts `rf efgkhjno hkrf jhpkrt`nt `nc prkgurfhfnt str`tfojfs

sakumc ef jngmucfc jn pkmjgjfs kd okvfrnhfnt`m ùtakrjtjfs. Wpkrrkno & Erôganfr

(5<<:) dkunc ta`t gmjfnts fxpfrjfngf ajoa mfvfm kd ungfrt`jnty ekut akw tfncfrs

sakumc ef fv`mu`tfc. Jn tajs sfnsf wf sakumc ef `w`rf kd gknsfqufngfs kd puttjno

` strkno dkgus kn taf rkmf kd taf gmjfnt jn ga`nojno gumturf jn gknstrugtjkn. Jvkry

(5<<6) jncjg`tfs ta`t gmjfnts hjoat fvfn supprfss jnnkv`tjkn, h`jnmy efgùsf kd

tafjr cfsjrf tk `vkjc ekta sakrt `nc mkno tfrh rjsis. \rkbfgt h`nòfhfnt tfncs tk

tìf kvfr taf pfrspfgtjvf kd taf prkbfgt kutgkhf. ajs `msk sakws jn taf ijnc kd

sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc grjtfrj` ta`t `rf gurrfntmy usfc ey gmjfnts curjno tfncfrs.A`rcmy ny rfsf`rga ccrfssfs taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` dkr rgajtfgts jn taf gkntfxt

kd prkgurfhfnt rfoum`tjkns. C`y `nc E`risc`mf (0::5) `n`mysfc akw eusjnfss

gmjfnts sfmfgt `nc fv`mu`tf ` prkdfssjkn`m sfrvjgf djrh jn cfsjon `nc dkunc dkur

uncfrmyjno cjhfnsjkns2 0) pfrgfjvfc fxpfrtjsf, fxpfrjfngf `nc gkhpftfngf kd taf

prkvjcfr, 5) taf prkvjcfr‚s uncfrst`ncjno kd taf gmjfnts nffcs `nc jntfrfsts, 7) taf

prkvjcfr‚s rfm`tjknsajp `nc gkhhunjg`tjkn sijmms, `nc 3) taf mjifmjakkc kd taf

prkvjcfr gkndkrhjno tk gkntr`gtu`m `nc `chjnjstr`tjvf rfqujrfhfnts. koftafr

wjta taf `gtu`m pfrdkrh`ngf tafsf d`gtkrs `msk gkntrjeutfc tk taf s`tjsd`gtjkn kr

cjss`tjsd`gtjkn kd taf gmjfnt èkut taf sfrvjgfs ta`t wfrf cfmjvfrfc. Nkwff (5<<1)

jncfntjdjfc pfkpmf, prkgfss `nc prkdfssjkn rfm`tfc gkhpftfngfs jn ajs fxpmkr`tjkn



14

kd ` p`st pfrdkrh`ngf systfh dkr `rgajtfgts. Gafuno, Iufn `nc Wijthkrf (5<<5)

dkunc ta`t jn Akno Ikno prkdfssjkn`m qu`mjdjg`tjkn `nc fxpfrjfngf, `v`jmèjm-

jty kd qu`mjdjfc pfrsknnfm, prfsfnt wkrimk`c, qu`mjty kd wkri `nc gknsumt`nt dff

`rf jhpkrt`nt grjtfrj` dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd taf sfrvjgfs kd `rgajtfgts. af rfsf`rga

w`s e`sfc kn dkur g`tfokrjfs tk hf`surf taf sujtèjmjty kd `rgajtfgts, n`hfmy taf

e`giorkunc kd taf djrh, p`st pfrdkrh`ngf, g`p`gjty tk `ggkhpmjsa taf wkri `ncprkbfgt `pprk`ga. afsf g`tfokrjfs `ppf`r tk rfm`tf tk taf djn`ngj`m `nc tfganjg`m

èjmjtjfs s hfntjknfc jn FV prkgurfhfnt rfoum`tjkns (sff sfgtjkn 3.3). Gafuno ft

`m. (5<<5) usfc taf rfsumts kd tafjr stucy tk prkvjcf jnput dkr n ‑`rgajtfgtur`m gkn-

sumt`nt sfmfgtjkn systfh‚ tk suppkrt gmjfnts jn sfmfgtjno n rgajtfgt. Vndkrtun`tfmy

taf rfspknsf tk taf survfy w`s nkt vfry ajoa. Jt wkumc ef jntfrfstjno tk fxpmkrf

taf grjtfrj` usfc ey Cutga gmjfnts jn suga ` h`ttfr `s js `mrf`cy gkhhkn jn taf

sfmfgtjkn kd gkntr`gtkrs.

3.3 Saf mfo`m gkntfxt

@w`rcjno gkntr`gts js taf tajrc krjojn kd gurrfnt prkgfssfs kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn.

Efgùsf taf Nftafrm`ncs js p`rt kd taf Furkpf`n Vnjkn, puemjg gmjfnts w`ntjno tk

`w`rc ` gkntr`gt `msk a`vf tk gkhpmy wjta (Furkpf`n) prkgurfhfnt m`w. ajs sfg-

tjkn suhh`rjsfs taf hkst jhpkrt`nt cjrfgtjvfs `ppmjgèmf tk `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns

`nc usfs kd taf kddjgj`m tfrhs `s huga `s pkssjemf. Jn taf rfst kd taf sfgtjkn taf

Cutga sjtu`tjkn js sakrtmy fxpm`jnfc dkmmkwjno ey ` cjsgussjkn kd skhf g`sf m`w.

3.3.0 FV \rkgurfhfnt m`w

”\rkgurfhfnt rfdfrs tk taf dungtjkn kd purga`sjno okkcs kr sfrvjgfs drkh `n kut-

sjcf ekcy‘ (@rrkwshjta, 5<<6, p. 0). \rkgurfhfnt rfoum`tjkns `rf cjrfgtfc `t s`df-ou`rcjno eusjnfss gknnfgtjkns eftwffn okvfrnhfnt nc h`rift p`rtjfs. @ggkrcjno

tk taf VI pfrspfgtjvf ùtakrjtjfs sakumc `gt g`rfdummy tkw`rcs gjtjzfns `nc fntrf-

prfnfurs `nc grf`tf ”efst v`muf dkr t`xp`yfrs‚ hknfy‘ (@rrkwshjta, 5<<6, p. 3).

ajs hf`ns ta`t puemjg gmjfnts `mw`ys a`vf tk gkhpmy wjta prkgurfhfnt m`w eut

ta`t knmy jn spfgjdjg g`sfs tafy a`vf tk gkhpmy wjta Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w

`nc kro`njsf ` puemjg tfncfr. ajs rfsf`rga dkgusfs kn tafsf ijncs kd sjtu`tjkns

drkh ` Cutga pfrspfgtjvf. Kn 07 H`rga 5<<3 twk Furkpf`n tfncfr cjrfgtjvfs

wfrf p`ssfc2 taf Cjrfgtjvf 5<<3/0?/FG gkkrcjn`tjno taf prkgurfhfnt prkgfcurfs

kd fntjtjfs kpfr`tjno jn taf w`tfr, fnfroy, tr`nspkrt `nc pkst`m sfrvjgfs sfgtkrs,

`nc taf Cjrfgtjvf 5<<3/01/FG kn taf gkkrcjn`tjkn kd prkgfcurfs dkr taf `w`rc kdpuemjg wkris gkntr`gts, puemjg suppmy gkntr`gts `nc puemjg sfrvjgf gkntr`gts.

af prjngjpmfs dkr `w`rcjno gkntr`gts `rf st`tfc jn `rtjgmf 5 kd Cjrfgtjvf

5<<3/01/FG s ”Gkntr`gtjno utakrjtjfs sa`mm trf`t fgknkhjg kpfr`tkrs fqu`mmy nc

nkn-cjsgrjhjn`tkrjmy `nc sa`mm `gt jn ` tr`nsp`rfnt w`y‘ (Furkpf`n \`rmj`hfnt &

Gkungjm kd taf Furkpf`n Vnjkn, 5<<3). @rgajtfgtur`m sfrvjgfs, fnojnffrjno sfrv-

jgfs `nc jntfor`tfc fnojnffrjno sfrvjgfs, ure`n pm`nnjno `nc m`ncsg`pf fnojnffr-

jno sfrvjgfs, rfm`tfc sgjfntjdjg `nc tfganjg`m gknsumtjno sfrvjgfs, tfganjg`m tfstjno

`nc `n`mysjs sfrvjgfs `mm efmkno tk g`tfokry nuhefr 05 kr Gkhhkn \rkgurfhfnt

G`tfokry rfdfrfngf 14? kd taf Cjrfgtjvf 5<<3/01/FG. Fvfry Furkpf`n puemjg

gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt js kemjofc tk akmc ` Furkpf`n tfncfr prkgfcurf dkr sfrv-



1?

jgfs èkvf gfrt`jn tarfsakmc `hkunts. Vntjm taf fnc kd 5<<:, tafsf `hkunts wfrf

₭ 077.<<< dkr sfrvjgfs dkr gfntr`m okvfrnhfnt utakrjtjfs (₭ 056.<<< jn 5<0<), nc

₭ 5<4.<<< dkr sfrvjgfs dkr ktafr okvfrnhfnt ekcjfs suga s prkvjngfs, hunjgjp`mj-

tjfs nc ktafr puemjg jnstjtutjkns (₭ 0:7.<<< jn 5<0<). Efmkw tafsf tarfsakmcs taf

prjngjpmfs kd taf Furkpf`n rf`ty (fqu`m trf`thfnt, tr`nsp`rfngy, prkpkrtjkn`mjty,

hutu`m rfgkonjtjkn `nc gkndjcfntj`mjty) wjmm a`vf tk ef tìfn jntk gknsjcfr`tjkn. @rtjgmfs 51-73 cfsgrjef taf prkgurfhfnt prkgfcurfs ta`t ` gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty

g`n gakksf drkh. Jn ofnfr`m g`sfs ùtakrjtjfs g`n gakksf eftwffn `n kpfn `nc `

rfstrjgtfc prkgfcurf. af nfoktj`tfc prkgfcurf kr gkhpftjtjvf cj`mkouf `rf knmy

`mmkwfc jn spfgjdjg gjrguhst`ngfs. @rtjgmfs 44 tarkuoa ?3 fnèmf taf kro`njs`tjkn

kd ` cfsjon gkntfst dkr taf `w`rc kd ` sfrvjgf gkntr`gt, suga `s taf sfrvjgfs kd `n

`rgajtfgt.

”@ tfncfr js ` prkgfcurf jn wajga sfvfr`m p`rtjfs `rf jnvjtfc tk `ppmy dkr `

gkntr`gt‘ (Fssfrs, 5<<:, p. 0?). Jn @rtjgmf 0 kd taf Cjrfgtjvf taf prkgfcurfs `rf

cfdjnfc `s2

‑Kpfn prkgfcurfs‚ (jn Cutga2 ‑kpfne`rf ``nefstfcjno‚) hf`ns taksf prkgf-

curfs wafrfey `ny jntfrfstfc fgknkhjg kpfr`tkr h`y suehjt ` tfncfr.

‑Ufstrjgtfc prkgfcurfs‚ (jn Cutga2 ‑njft kpfne`rf ``nefstfcjno‚) hf`ns taksf

prkgfcurfs jn wajga `ny fgknkhjg kpfr`tkr h`y rfqufst tk p`rtjgjp`tf `nc

wafrfey knmy taksf fgknkhjg kpfr`tkrs jnvjtfc ey taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty

h`y suehjt ` tfncfr.

‑Gkhpftjtjvf cj`mkouf‚ (jn Cutga2 ‑gkngurfntjfofrjgatf cj`mkko‚) js ` prkgf-

curf jn wajga `ny fgknkhjg kpfr`tkr h`y rfqufst tk p`rtjgjp`tf nc wafrfey

taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty gkncugts ` cj`mkouf wjta taf g`ncjc`tfs `chjttfc

tk ta`t prkgfcurf, wjta taf `jh kd cfvfmkpjno knf kr hkrf sujtèmf `mtfrn`-tjvfs g`pèmf kd hfftjno jts rfqujrfhfnts, `nc kn taf e`sjs kd wajga taf g`n-

cjc`tfs gaksfn `rf jnvjtfc tk tfncfr.

‑Nfoktj`tfc prkgfcurfs‚ (jn Cutga2 ‑ounnjno vj` kncfra`ncfmjno hft kd

zkncfr ``nikncjojno‚) hf`ns taksf prkgfcurfs wafrfey taf gkntr`gtjno ù-

takrjtjfs gknsumt taf fgknkhjg kpfr`tkrs kd tafjr gakjgf `nc nfoktj`tf taf

tfrhs kd gkntr`gt wjta knf kr hkrf kd tafsf.

‑Cfsjon gkntfsts‚ (jn pr`gtjgf kdtfn rfdfrrfc tk `s cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn9 jn

Cutga2 ‑prjbsvr`ò‚ kd ‑kntwfrpwfcstrjbc‚) hf`ns taksf prkgfcurfs ta`t fnèmf

taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty, h`jnmy jn taf djfmcs kd tkwn `nc gkuntry pm`nnjno,`rgajtfgturf `nc fnojnffrjno kr c`t` prkgfssjno, tk `gqujrf ` pm`n kr cfsjon

sfmfgtfc ey ` bury `dtfr efjno `nnkungfc `s gkhpftjtjkn wjta kr wjtakut taf

`w`rc kd prjzfs.

Ga`ptfr 4 kd taf Cjrfgtjvf cfsgrjefs rumfs dkr taf puemjg`tjkn kd taf nktjgfs dkr

tfncfr, tjhf mjhjts, jndkrhjno g`ncjc`tfs `nc tfncfrfrs, gkhhunjg`tjkn `nc rf-

pkrts kd cfgjsjkns. af gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty js rfqujrfc tk pm`gf ` nktjgf jn taf

Kddjgj`m Bkurn`m kd taf Furkpf`n Vnjkn. af wfesjtf attp2//tfc.furkpf.fu `gts `s

` cjojt`m suppmfhfnt tk tajs bkurn`m, www.``nefstfcjnosi`mfncfr.nm prkvjcfs tajs

dungtjkn dkr taf Nftafrm`ncs. af jnvjt`tjkn tk suehjt ` tfncfr hust gknt`jn `tmf`st `n jnvjt`tjkn tk p`rtjgjp`tf, ` rfdfrfngf tk taf gkntr`gt nktjgf puemjsafc, taf

`.

e.

g.

c.

f.



11

cf`cmjnf dkr taf rfgfjpt kd taf tfncfrs, taf `ccrfss tk wajga taf tfncfrs hust ef

sfnt, taf m`nouòf kr m`nouòfs jn wajga taf tfncfrs hust ef cr`wn up, ` rfdfr-

fngf tk `ny pkssjemf `cbkjnjno ckguhfnts tk ef suehjttfc, taf rfm`tjvf wfjoat-

jno kd grjtfrj` dkr taf `w`rc kd taf gkntr`gt kr, wafrf `pprkprj`tf, taf krcfr kd

jhpkrt`ngf dkr suga grjtfrj`, `nc, jd tafy `rf nkt ojvfn jn taf gkntr`gt nktjgf, taf

spfgjdjg`tjkns kr taf cfsgrjptjvf (fxpm`n`tkry) ckguhfnt.Jn Ga`ptfr ? kd taf Cjrfgtjvf taf gkncugt kd taf prkgfcurf js cfsgrjefc. @

rfstrjgtfc prkgfcurf gknsjsts kd twk pa`sfs2 ` sfmfgtjkn pa`sf `nc `n `w`rc pa`sf

(sff Djourf 3.0). Jn eftwffn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf `nc taf `w`rc pa`sf tfncfrfrs a`vf

tk prfp`rf tafjr tfncfrs. ajs js skhftjhfs g`mmfc taf tfncfr pa`sf (@rgajtfgtuur

Mki``m, 5<<:`). Jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf `mm suppmjfrs g`n suehjt tafjr rfqufst tk ef

jnvjtfc dkr ` tfncfr. Jn taf gkntr`gt nktjgf, taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjtjfs sa`mm jncj-

g`tf taf kebfgtjvf `nc nkn-cjsgrjhjn`tkry grjtfrj` kr rumfs tafy jntfnc tk `ppmy,

taf hjnjhuh nuhefr kd g`ncjc`tfs tafy jntfnc tk jnvjtf `nc, wafrf `pprkprj-

`tf, taf h`xjhuh nuhefr. Jn taf rfstrjgtfc prkgfcurf taf hjnjhuh `hkunt kd

g`ncjc`tfs tk ef jnvjtfc dkr taf `w`rc pa`sf sa`mm ef djvf. Curjno taf sfmfgtjknpa`sf utakrjtjfs djrst a`vf tk vfrjdy taf sujtèjmjty kd p`rtjgjp`nts. afn tafy a`vf

tk sfmfgt taf g`ncjc`tfs qu`mjt`tjvfmy e`sfc kn sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj`. afsf grjtfrj` g`n

rfm`tf tk taf2

\frskn`m sjtu`tjkn kd taf g`ncjc`tf kr tfncfrfr.

Wujtèjmjty tk pursuf taf prkdfssjkn`m `gtjvjty.

Fgknkhjg `nc djn`ngj`m st`ncjno.

fganjg`m `nc/kr prkdfssjkn`m èjmjty.

Pu`mjty ssur`ngf st`nc`rcs.

Fnvjrknhfnt`m h`nòfhfnt st`nc`rcs.

@ccjtjkn`m ckguhfnt`tjkn `nc jndkrh`tjkn.

Curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty sfmfgts ` wjnnfr `hkno taf

g`ncjc`tfs ta`t wfrf gknsjcfrfc sujtèmf tk `w`rc taf gkntr`gt tk. afsf g`ncj-

c`tfs `rf g`mmfc tfncfrfrs. Jn `n kpfn prkgfcurf taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf `rf

gkhejnfc. ajs hf`ns ta`t taf suehjttfc tfncfrs `rf fv`mu`tfc kn tafjr sujtèjm-

jty `nc tafjr qu`mjty jn taf s`hf cfmjefr`tjkn.

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

G`mm dkr

p`rtjgjp`tjkn

WFMFGSJKN \A@WF SFNCFU \A@WF @_@UC \A@WF

G`mm dkr

Bucofhfnt kd

prkpks`ms

Ufgfjpt kd

jnvjt`tjkn rfqufsts

kd g`ncjc`tfs

Wfmfgtjkn kd

tfncfrs

Ufgfjpt kd

prkpks`ms kd

tfncfrfrs

Hktjv`tjkn kd

cfgjsjkn ekut

wjnnfr

hjnjhuh 6

g`ncjc`tfs @mmkg`tjkn kd

gkntr`gt

Djourf 3.0 \a`sfs `nc `gtjvjtjfs kd ` rfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf



1:

af gkntr`gt g`n ef `w`rcfc e`sfc kn 0) taf hkst fgknkhjg`mmy cv`ntòfkus

tfncfr (HF@) drkh taf pkjnt kd vjfw kd taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty, `nc v`rj-

kus grjtfrj` mjnifc tk taf suebfgt-h`ttfr kd taf puemjg gkntr`gt jn qufstjkn, dkr

fx`hpmf, qu`mjty, prjgf, tfganjg`m hfrjt, `fstaftjg `nc dungtjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs,

fnvjrknhfnt`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, kr (5) taf mkwfst prjgf knmy (`rtjgmf 67). af gkn-

tr`gtjno utakrjty a`s tk spfgjdy taf rfm`tjvf wfjoatjno wajga jt ojvfs tk f`ga kd tafgrjtfrj` gaksfn tk cftfrhjnf taf hkst fgknkhjg`mmy `cv`ntòfkus tfncfr. aksf

wfjoatjnos g`n ef fxprfssfc ey prkvjcjno dkr ` r`nof wjta `n `pprkprj`tf h`xj-

huh sprf`c. _afrf jn taf kpjnjkn kd taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty, wfjoatjno js nkt

pkssjemf dkr cfhknstrèmf rf`skns, taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty sa`mm jncjg`tf jn taf

gkntr`gt nktjgf kr gkntr`gt ckguhfnts kr, jn taf g`sf kd gkhpftjtjvf cj`mkouf, jn

taf cfsgrjptjvf ckguhfnt, taf grjtfrj` jn cfsgfncjno krcfr kd jhpkrt`ngf.

Dkr ` cfsjon gkntfst sjhjm`r rumfs `ppmy dkr gkhhunjg`tjkn, nktjgfs `nc tr`ns-

p`rfngy `s dkr taf ktafr prkgfcurfs. Cfsjon gkntfsts g`n ef kro`njsfc `s p`rt kd

` prkgfcurf mf`cjno tk taf `w`rc kd ` puemjg sfrvjgf gkntr`gt, kr `s gkntfsts wjta

prjzfs nc/kr p`yhfnts tk p`rtjgjp`nts (`rtjgmf 4?). af gkntr`gtjno utakrjty mska`s tk m`y ckwn gmf`r `nc nkn-cjsgrjhjn`tkry sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj` jd p`rtjgjp`tjkn js

rfstrjgtfc tk ` mjhjtfc nuhefr kd p`rtjgjp`nts. Jn `ny fvfnt, taf nuhefr kd g`n-

cjc`tfs jnvjtfc tk p`rtjgjp`tf sa`mm ef suddjgjfnt tk fnsurf ofnujnf gkhpftjtjkn

(`rtjgmf ?5). af bury a`s tk ef gkhpksfc fxgmusjvfmy kd n`tur`m pfrskns wak `rf

jncfpfncfnt kd p`rtjgjp`nts jn taf gkntfst (`rtjgmf ?7). _afrf ` p`rtjgum`r prkdfs-

sjkn`m qu`mjdjg`tjkn js rfqujrfc drkh p`rtjgjp`nts jn ` gkntfst, `t mf`st ` tajrc kd

taf hfhefrs kd taf bury sa`mm a`vf ta`t kr `n fqujv`mfnt qu`mjdjg`tjkn. @rtjgmf ?3

cfsgrjefs taf cfgjsjkns kd taf bury2

af bury sa`mm ef ùtknkhkus jn jts cfgjsjkns kr kpjnjkns.

Jt sa`mm fx`hjnf taf pm`ns `nc prkbfgts suehjttfc ey taf g`ncjc`tfs `nkny-

hkusmy `nc skmfmy kn taf e`sjs kd taf grjtfrj` jncjg`tfc jn taf gkntfst nktjgf.

Jt sa`mm rfgkrc jts r`nijno kd prkbfgts jn rfpkrt, sjonfc ey jts hfhefrs, h`cf

`ggkrcjno tk taf hfrjts kd f`ga prkbfgt, tkoftafr wjta jts rfh`ris `nc `ny

pkjnts wajga h`y nffc gm`rjdjg`tjkn.

@nknyhjty hust ef kesfrvfc untjm taf bury a`s rf`gafc jts kpjnjkn kr

cfgjsjkn.

G`ncjc`tfs h`y ef jnvjtfc, jd nffc ef, tk nswfr qufstjkns wajga taf bury a`s

rfgkrcfc jn taf hjnutfs tk gm`rjdy `ny `spfgts kd taf prkbfgts.

Gkhpmftf hjnutfs sa`mm ef cr`wn up kd taf cj`mkouf eftwffn bury hfhefrs

`nc g`ncjc`tfs.

af h`jn cjddfrfngfs eftwffn ` cfsjon gkntfst `nc `n kpfn kr rfstrjgtfc prk-

gfcurf `rf taf `nknyhkus fx`hjn`tjkn kd pm`ns `nc taf ùtknkhy kd taf bury

p`nfm. Kro`njzjno ` cfsjon gkntfst g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s gkndfrrjno ` d`vkur upkn

taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf (Afynfn, 5<<0). af pm`ns `rf fx`hjnfc ey `ginkwm-

fcofc fxpfrts eut efgùsf kd `nknyhjty tafrf js nk rf`m cj`mkouf wjta taf bury.

af kpfn `nc rfstrjgtfc prkgfcurfs sffh tk rfqujrf mfss dkrh`mjty ta`n taf cfsjon

gkntfst. Jn sjtu`tjkns wjta mfss fxpfgtfc kppksjtjkn, taf kpfn prkgfcurf js suddj-gjfnt efgùsf tafrf `rf nkt sk h`ny suppmjfrs `v`jmèmf `nc taf tjhf sp`n js rfm`-

0.

5.

7.

3.

6.

4.



:0

ajs cjstjngtjkn js e`sfc kn fxpfrjfngfs drkh pr`gtjgf, kptjkns jn prkgurfhfnt

m`w `nc taf puemjg`tjkn kd Afynfn (5<<0).

3.3.5 Saf Cutga jntfrprft`tjkn kd prkgurfhfnt m`w

af Nftafrm`ncs a`s ` mkno ajstkry jn taf djfmc kd rumfs tk jnvjtf h`rift p`rtjfs

tk gkhpftf. Ga`k-Cujvjs (5<<:, p. 50) cfsgrjefs ta`t `mrf`cy jn 07?4 ` tfn-cfr w`s usfc tk ”sfmfgt ` g`rpfntfr dkr ` efmm gòf jn Ofnt‘, ` dkrhfr p`rt kd taf

Nftafrm`ncs. Drkh taf sfgknc a`md kd taf 01ta gfntury knw`rcs gkhpftjtjkns wfrf

usfc tk stjhum`tf sgjfngfs (Fvfrs, 0::6). Jn 0106 taf djrst prkgurfhfnt rfoum`-

tjkn w`s `nnkungfc dkr taf rf`mh okvfrnhfnt `t Uky`m Cfgrff (v`n Ukheuroa,

5<<6). af `jh kd tafsf rumfs w`s, bust `s tafy `rf nkw, `n fddjgjfnt h`nòfhfnt

kd rfskurgfs `nc djoatjno gkrruptjkn kd gjvjm sfrv`nts. af djrst Furkpf`n rumfs

dkr jnvjt`tjkns tk tfncfr `rksf jn taf efojnnjno kd taf sfvfntjfs wjta taf `jh kd

rf`gajno drff, aknfst gkhpftjtjkn wjtajn taf Furkpf`n Fgknkhjg Gkhhunjty.

af _krmc r`cf Kro`njs`tjkn w`s mùngafc jn 0::6 tk kddjgj`mmy mjefr`mjsf tr`cf,

nfoktj`tf tr`cf orffhfnts nc sfttmf tr`cf cjsputfs, eut taf tr`cf systfh js èkuta`md ` gfntury kmcfr (_krmc r`cf Kro`njz`tjkn, 5<<:).

Jn taf Nftafrm`ncs taf hjxturf kd rumfs `nc rfoum`tjkns krjojn`tjno drkh taf

0:1<s `nc 0::<s wfrf jn 0::7 erkuoat tkoftafr jn ` n`tjkn`m mfojsm`tjvf dr`hf-

wkri. @s ` rfsumt kd taf p`rmj`hfnt`ry fnqujry jn taf gknstrugtjkn jncustry jn

5<<0, taf Cutga okvfrnhfnt cfgjcfc tk cfvfmkp ` gkhhkn tfncfrjno rfoum`-

tjkn g`mmfc ‑aft @`nefstfcjnorfomfhfnt _frifn‚ (@U_ 5<<3, m`tfr rfpm`gfc

ey @U_ 5<<6). Jn rf`gtjkn tk taf jntrkcugtjkn kd taf twk rfnfwfc Furkpf`n

tfncfr cjrfgtjvfs 5<<3/0?/FG `nc 5<<3/01/FG kd 07 H`rga 5<<3 taf Cutga

cjrfgtjvfs wfrf kn 04 Bumy 5<<6 durtafr sjhpmjdjfc tk taf knf cjrfgtjvf dkr taf

suppmy kd prkcugt, sfrvjgfs `nc wkris2 taf E@K (‑Efsmujt @`nefstfcjnosrfofms

* ssuhfs nknyhkus fx`hjn`tjkn kd taf pm`ns

# `ssuhfs ùtknkhy kd taf bury p`nfm

K p f n

p r k g f c u r f

U f s t r j g t f c p r k g f c u r f w j t a

p r f s f n t ` t j k n k d v j s j k n

U f s t r j g t f c p r k g f c u r f w j t a

c f s j o n

p r k p k s ` m

K p f n

c f s j o n g k n t f s t * #

U f s t r j g t f c c f s j o n g k n t f s t #

J c f ` s g k h p f t j t j k n * #

Fxfhpm`ry dungtjkn wjta stìfakmcfr jntfr`gtjkn + + + +

Wtjhum`tjkn ykuno t`mfnt + + +

Gkhpmfx nc/kr jhpkrt`nt mkg`tjkn + +

Fxpmkr`tjkn kd gkngfpts nc pkssjejmjtjfs + + +

Wpfgjffg prkbfgt rfqujrfhfnts nffcfc + + +

Wpfgjfffc prkbfgt cfffnjtjkn v`jmèmf + +

Jntfr`gtjkn wjta p`rtjgjp`nts cfsjrfc + + +

Mjhjtfc tjhf nc hknfy v`jmèmf + +

Sèmf 3.5 Kvfrvjfw kd prkbfgt `hejtjkns `nc ga`r`gtfrjstjgs jn rfm`tjkn tk pks-

sjemf tfncfr prkgfcurfs dkr ofnfr`m prkbfgts



:5

vkkr Kvfrafjcskpcr`gatfn‚). af Vtjmjtjfs sfgtkr a`s jts kwn cjrfgtjvf, taf E@WW

(‑Efsmujt @`nefstfcjnofn Wpfgj`mf Wfgtkrfn‚). af EK@ `nc E@WW `rf stjmm mf`cjno

dkr prkgurfhfnt jn taf Nftafrm`ncs. Jn taf Nftafrm`ncs ` nffc fxjsts dkr ` gmf`r

`nc unjdkrh dr`hf dkr Cutga gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjtjfs jn taf puemjg sfgtkr jn krcfr

tk stjhum`tf jnnkv`tjkn, jntforjty, kpfn ggfss dkr sh`mm nc hfcjuh sjzfc gkhp`-

njfs, nc sust`jnèjmjty nc rfcugf kvfraf`c. af ejmm ta`t wkumc prkvjcf tajs nfwunjdkrh dr`hf (jn Cutga ‑@`nefstfcjnoswft‚) w`s rfbfgtfc ey taf Cutga Vppfr

Ga`hefr jn Bumy 5<<1, h`jnmy cuf tk taf strjgt dr`hf `nc mkw mfvfm kd taf prkvj-

sjkns jn taf prkpksfc ejmm. Jn @prjm 5<<: ` nfw gkngfpt kd taf m`w w`s prfsfntfc

dkr gknsumt`tjkn tk ` nuhefr kd p`rtjfs `nc `n `cvjskry gkungjm. af gurrfnt prk-

pks`m kd taf ‑@`nefstfcjnoswft‚ a`s effn `pprkvfc ey taf Gèjnft jn Nkvfhefr

5<<: `nc js nkw (hjcst 5<0<) tk ef `pprkvfc ey taf Gkungjm kd Wt`tf.

af rfm`tjvfmy sg`rf nuhefr kd g`sf m`w kn tfncfr rfoum`tjkns okt ` ‑ekkst‚

wafn taf FV g`hf jntk efjno. Dkr taf uncfrst`ncjno kd prkgurfhfnt m`w gkurt

cfgjsjkns rf tafrfdkrf vfry jnstrugtjvf, nkt tk s`y fssfntj`m. af cfgjsjkns kd buco-

fs sa`pf taf jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf kddjgj`m rfoum`tjkns nc prkvjcf jnput dkr cfe`tf.E`sfc kn ` rfgfnt g`sf èkut ` mjer`ry Fvfrs (5<0<) dkr fx`hpmf qufstjkns jn taf

gkntfxt kd rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns taf pksjtjkn `nc cfgjsjkn t`si kd ` prkdfssjkn`m bury

p`nfm `nc taf `gtu`m hf`njno kd ` vjsjkn gkhp`rfc tk ` siftga cfsjon. Gkmmjns

(0:?0) mjnis `rgajtfgtur`m bucofhfnts tk mfo`m bucofhfnts efgùsf taf prjngjpmfs

kd rgajtfgturf rf s hf`njnodum `nc ofnujnf s taf prjngjpmfs kd m`w. Af (Gkmmjns,

0:?0, p.31) st`tfs ta`t ”jn m`w nc `rgajtfgturf ny v`mjc cfgjsjkn hust cfpfnc kn

wjcfr gkntfxts2 taf gkntfxt kd ajstkry (wajga prkvjcfs prfgfcfnts), taf gkntfxt kd

skgjfty (wajga prkvjcfs s`dfou`rcs dkr taf puemjg wjta rfo`rc tk taf pkssjemf fddfgt

kd `ny cfgjsjkn kn taksf nkt jhhfcj`tfmy jnvkmvfc), `nc taf gkntfxt kd taf paysj-

g`m fnvjrknhfnt (wajga prkvjcfs ekta ` sfnsf kd pm`gf `nc taf bucjgj`m oujcfmjnfskd gustkh`ry m`w)‘. afrfdkrf ajstkry, skgjfty nc taf paysjg`m fnvjrknhfnt hust

ef jnvkmvfc jn taf prkgfss kd rf`sknjno `nc fv`mu`tjkn èkut `rgajtfgturf. ”@nc

wafn `n `rgajtfgt g`n fnungj`tf ajs rf`sknjno wjta taf s`hf gm`rjty `nc prfgjsjkn

`s ` Ajoa Gkurt bucof, af h`y dffm `ssurfc ta`t ajs bucofhfnt js prkdfssjkn`m jn

taf nkemfst `nc hkst `pt sfnsf kd taf tfrh.‘ (Gkmmjns, 0:?0, p. 31). Af durtafr

st`tfs ta`t m`wyfrs `s wfmm `s `rgajtfgts `rf jngrf`sjnomy jndmufngfc ey taf orkwta

kd pkmjtjg`m sgjfngfs `s `n `g`cfhjg cjsgjpmjnf. ”Ey taf stucy kd mfojsm`tjvf prkg-

fssfs taf m`wyfrs try tk gkntrkm pkmjtjgs‘ (Gkmmjns, 0:?0, p. 43). Gkmmjns suoofsts

ta`t jn `rgajtfgturf taf gkngfpt kd cfe`tf gkumc pfrdkrh tajs rkmf kd gkntrkmmjno

pkmjtjgs `nc pkmjgy.Vntjm ` dfw yf`rs òk Cutga `rgajtfgts cjc nkt, `s gkntr`gtkrs cjc ck, ok tk

gkurt wafn cfgjsjkns curjno taf tfncfrjno pa`sf wfrf nkt `ggfptèmf. ajs pr`g-

tjgf a`s ga`nofc `nc hkrf `nc hkrf g`sf m`w cfvfmkps kn tfncfr prkgfcurfs jn

wajga `rgajtfgts `rf taf sujno p`rty (v`n _jbno``rcfn & Ga`k-Cujvjs, 5<0<`).

@p`rt drkh tajs nfw ekcy kd g`sf m`w tafrf `rf `msk g`sfs jn ktafr djfmcs ta`t `rf

kd usf dkr tfncfrs gkngfrnjno `rgajtfgtur`m sfrvjgfs. afsf g`sfs sakw ta`t jn ofn-

fr`m bucofs `rf wjmmjno tk tìf taf spfgjdjg n`turf kd taf wkri kd taf `rgajtfgt jntk

gknsjcfr`tjkn. af st`rtjno pkjnt js ta`t jn usjno taf HF@ `w`rc grjtfrjkn (taf

hkst rfmfv`nt grjtfrjkn wjta tafsf gkntr`gts) gkntr`gtjno ofngjfs a`vf skhf rkkh

dkr cjsgrftjkn`ry cfgjsjkns. Bucofs tfnc tk f`sjmy `ggfpt tafsf cfgjsjkns. k ojvf



:7

taf rf`cfr `n jhprfssjkn kd taf sjtu`tjkn jn taf Nftafrm`ncs sfvfr`m hkrf kr mfss

rfprfsfnt`tjvf g`sfs wjmm ef cfsgrjefc.

af Cjstrjgt Gkurt kd ‑s Afrtkofneksga st`tfc kn 1 Dferu`ry 5<<1 (04131?/

IO R@ <?-155, MBN2 EG7:64) ta`t jn g`sfs kd jntfmmfgtu`m qu`mjtjfs g`ncjc`tfs

`nc tfncfrfrs sakumc `ggfpt ` gknsjcfrèmf `hkunt kd suebfgtjvjty, prkvjcfc ta`t

ga`ngfs dkr `mm g`ncjc`tfs rfh`jn fqu`m. Kn 5 @prjm 5<<: taf Cjstrjgt Gkurt kdA``rmfh (0637:3 / IO R@ <:-?:, MNB2 EA:3:?) `ginkwmfcofc ta`t `w`rcjno

` gkntr`gt kd t`xj sfrvjgfs e`sfc skmfmy kn taf grjtfrjkn kd qu`mjty js nkt f`sy tk

rfgkngjmf wjta taf e`sjg prjngjpmfs kd kebfgtjvjty, tr`nsp`rfngy `nc fqu`m trf`t-

hfnt, efgùsf kd taf suebfgtjvf bucofhfnt rfqujrfc. afrfdkrf taf `ssfsshfnt

systfh sakumc ef `s kebfgtjvf `s pkssjemf. af gkntr`gtjno òfngy js nkt rfqujrfc

tk cfsgrjef jn dumm cft`jm akw af fxpfgts taf tfncfrfrs tk sakw akw tafy prkvf ta`t

tafy hfft taf rfqujrfc st`nc`rcs. af systfh sakumc mf`vf rkkh dkr tfncfrfrs tk

fnsurf skhf mfvfm kd gkhpftjtjkn `nc jnnkv`tjkn. af tfncfrfr a`s tk sakw nkt

knmy ta`t, eut `msk akw ` h`xjhuh sgkrf wjmm ef rf`gafc. @ggkrcjno tk taf bucof

taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty sfgurfc taf e`sjg prjngjpmfs kd prkgurfhfnt m`w ey tafusf kd `n jncfpfncfnt gkhhjttff kd fxpfrts jn taf `w`rc pa`sf. ajs gkhhjttff

djrst bucofc taf prkpks`ms jncjvjcu`mmy `nc tafn cjsgussfc taf rfsumts jn krcfr tk

cftfrhjnf taf djn`m sgkrf.

af Cjstrjgt Gkurt kd ‑s Or`vfnaòf (775?43/ IO R@ <:-774, MBN2 EJ1?4?)

`roufc kn 5: H`y 5<<: ta`t fvfn jd taf hktjv`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn js nkt dummy gmf`r,

taf usf kd taf `w`rc p`nfm, gknsjstjno kd njnf pfkpmf bucojno jncfpfncfntmy drkh

`nktafr, jhpmjfc ` g`rfdum bucofhfnt. Ey suppmyjno taf sgkrfs kn taf `w`rc grj-

tfrj` `nc durtafr fxpm`n`tjkn èkut taf `rouhfnt`tjkns taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty

prkvjcfs fnkuoa jnsjoat jn taf w`y taf `ssfsshfnt w`s cknf curjno taf `w`rc

pa`sf. @t 04 Dferu`ry 5<0< taf Cjstrjgt Gkurt kd Ukttfrc`h (736415/ IO R@<:-0743, MBN2 EM3<70) prknkungfc ` gm`jh dkr durtafr fxpm`n`tjkn jn `n `w`rc

h`trjx fvfn nkt `chjssjemf efgùsf taf bury a`c rfpkrtfc tafjr hktjv`tjkn jn `

bury rfpkrt `nc a`c `gtfc `ggkrcjno tk taf g`mm dkr prkpks`ms. af fmfhfnt kd jn-

cfpfncfnt hfhefrs kd taf bury js gknsjcfrfc `n jhpkrt`nt knf ey Cutga bucofs,

sff f.o. taf @ppfmm`tf Gkurt kd af Aòuf, 1 Dferu`ry 5<<?, <4/0350 IO fn

<4/037< IO, MBN @R14?<. Jn tajs g`sf taf bury gknsjstfc kd sfvfr`m cjsgjpmjnfs

`nc taf prkpks`ms wfrf `nknyhkus2 tafsf twk `spfgts dkrhfc ` suddjgjfnt ou`r`n-

tff ta`t taf bury wkumc `gt jn ` nkn cjsgrjhjn`tkry h`nnfr. af Cjstrjgt Gkurt

kd Hjccfmeuro (07 dferu`ry 5<<:, 46:5</ IO R@ <1-533, MBN2 EB07?7) gkn-

djrhs ta`t `nnkungjno taf wfjoat kd taf sue `w`rc grjtfrj` js fnkuoa. @ durtafrerfìckwn kd taf grjtfrj` usfc js nkt rfqujrfc ey taf Cutga prkgurfhfnt rfoum`-

tjkn. Jn taf s`hf g`sf taf usf kd ` prfsfnt`tjkn `s knf kd taf `w`rc grjtfrj` w`s

cffhfc tk ef `mmkwfc. @ prfsfnt`tjkn kddfrs taf kppkrtunjty tk bucof taf mfvfm kd

pfrdkrh`ngf jn rfm`tjknsajp tk taf rfqujrfhfnts dkr taf `ssjonhfnt ta`t js efjno

tfncfrfc.

Jt js fssfntj`m ta`t gkntr`gtjno òfngjfs stjgi tk taf w`y tafy `nnkungfc tafy

wkumc bucof taf kddfrs. @ hjstìf js f`sjmy h`cf afrf, `s js sakwn ey taf g`sf

bucofc ey taf Cjstrjgt Gkurt kd Vtrfgat, 0 @uoust 5<<4, nr 5034<: (tk ef inkwn

drkh v`n _jbno``rcfn & Ga`k-Cujvjs, 5<0<`). Jn tajs g`sf taf gkntr`gtjno ofn-

gy a`c nnkungfc ta`t pkjnts wkumc ef w`rcfc dkr spfgjdjg qu`mjtjfs jn taf `w`rc



:3

pa`sf. af gtu`m w`rcjno kd taf pkjnts akwfvfr w`s e`sfc kn taf rfm`tjknsajp kd

taf prfsfnt`tjkns drkh taf cjddfrfnt tfncfrfrs `nc nkt kn taf qu`mjtjfs jtsfmd. ajs

hf`nt ` dkrejccfn ga`nof kd `w`rc grjtfrj`. @nktafr hjstìf wajga gkumc a`vfn

effn `vkjcfc pm`yfc jn taf dkmmkwjno g`sf, cfgjcfc ey taf @ppfmm`tf Gkurt kd

@hstfrc`h, 5<<.<54.51<, 3 @uoust 5<<:, MBN2 EI1671. Jn tajs g`sf taf hfh-

efrs kd taf bury a`c bucofc taf tfncfrfrs kn taf e`sjs kd fmfvfn pkjnts wjta fjtafr‑pksjtjvf‚ kr ‑nfo`tjvf‚ dkmmkwfc ey ` hktjv`tjkn. @n fhpmkyff kd taf gkntr`gt-

jno òfngy w`s suppksfc tk tr`nsm`tf tafsf bucofhfnts jntk nuhefrs `dtfr wajga

taf bury wkumc gafgi tajs. ajs m`st gafgi a`c nkt tìfn pm`gf. af gkntr`gtjno

òfngy tafrfdkrf w`s nkt `mmkwfc tk `w`rc taf gkntr`gt tk taf wjnnjno p`rty, eut

w`s krcfrfc tk mft taf bury djnjsa jts wkri. Jn tajs s`hf bucofhfnt taf Gkurt `m-

mkwfc taf gkntr`gtjno òfngy tk usf wjsafs kn taf knf a`nc `nc rfqujrfhfnts

kn taf ktafr a`nc. Nkt mjvjno up tk taf wjsafs ckfs nkt ùtkh`tjg`mmy hf`n ta`t

taf tfncfrfr js fxgmucfc drkh durtafr p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn taf prkgfcurf. af Gkurt

bucofc tajs tk ef `ggfptèmf jn taf `w`rc pa`sf. Akwfvfr, tajs bucofhfnt a`s `msk

effn grjtjgjsfc.Drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd cfgjsjkn hìjno skhf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd mfo`m bucof-

hfnts g`n ef rf`c eftwffn taf mjnfs. Jn f`ga kd taf èkvf g`sfs taf bucofs `roufc

ta`t taf v`muf kd taf prkpks`ms g`n ef sffn jn gkhp`rjskn tk taf ktafr prkpks`ms.

Jt `msk suoofsts ta`t ` prkpks`m gkumc ef fv`mu`tfc ò`jnst ktafr prkbfgts kr taf

gurrfnt gkntfxt kn ` akmjstjg mfvfm jd taf `jhs `nc gkntfxt kd tafsf prkbfgts sup-

pkrt f`ga ktafr jn taf jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd taf prkbfgt. Hkst g`sfs `ginkwmfcof

ta`t suebfgtjvjty fxjsts, fspfgj`mmy jn taf `w`rc pa`sf wafn taf fgknkhjg`m hkst

`cv`ntòfkus tfncfr jngmucfs bucofhfnts èkut qu`mjty. af prjngjpmf kd tr`ns-

p`rfngy rfqujrfs `n kebfgtjvf `ssfsshfnt systfh ta`t g`n ef gafgifc `dtfrw`rcs

tk fnsurf kebfgtjvjty, nkt `n kebfgtjvf tkpjg kd `ssfsshfnt (\J@NKk-vìorkfp @`nefstfcjnosrfgat, 5<<:). af gkhhjthfnt kd `n jncfpfncfnt gkhhjttff kd

prkdfssjkn`m st`dd hfhefrs kr fxtfrn`m fxpfrts wjmm suppkrt taf tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf

`ssfsshfnt prkgfss, fspfgj`mmy jd taf hfhefrs djrst fv`mu`tf taf prkpks`ms jncjvjcu-

`mmy `nc tafn cjsguss èkut taf `vfròf kutgkhf. T`n _jbno``rcfn `nc Ga`k-

Cujvjs (5<0<`, 5<0<e) suoofst ` cjstjngtjkn eftwffn ` gknsfnsus hkcfm `nc jn-

cjvjcu`m jncfpfncfnt burkrs jn sjtu`tjkns jn wajga ` bury p`nfm cfgjcfs èkut taf

wjnnjno tfncfrfr. Bustjdjg`tjkn kd suga ` cfgjsjkn g`n ef cknf ey ojvjno jnsjoat jn

taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss `nc taf sgkrfs kd taf prkpks`m jn qufstjkn. @ h`trjx safft

wjta òorfo`tfc sgkrfs kn taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` js nkt rfqujrfc. Durtafr fxpm`n`tjkn

kd taf sue grjtfrj` `nc sgkrfs kd taf ktafr prkpks`ms js `ggkrcjno tk g`sf m`w nktnfgfss`ry `s mkno `s tafy g`n prkvf ta`t tafy hfft taf rfqujrfc st`nc`rcs.

3.6 Saf fgknkhjg`m gkntfxt

Drkh ` mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf, taf prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn js gknsjcfrfc `s taf

purga`sf kd ` sfrvjgf dkr wajga prkgurfhfnt m`w `ppmjfs. Wk d`r tafrf a`s effn

nk systfh`tjg rfsf`rga jn taf djfmc kd cfsjon tfncfrs jn taf Nftafrm`ncs. Jt js

tafrfdkrf cjddjgumt tk cr`w ` gkhprfafnsjvf pjgturf kd taf fgknkhjg`m gkntfxt kd

`rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns wajga gkumc jncjg`tf taf `hkunt `nc ijnc kd tfncfrs dkr taf

sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts. @ nuhefr kd ckguhfnts puemjsafc ey cjddfrfnt ùtakrjtjfs



:6

`nc gknsumt`ngy djrhs sakw cjvfrofnt d`gts nc djourfs ekut prkgurfhfnt jn ofn-

fr`m. _jtakut taf djn`ngj`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon djrhs, jt js a`rc

tk cr`w ` pjgturf èkut taf rfm`tjkn kd taf kro`njs`tjkn`m strugturf `nc taf w`y

tafjr eusjnfss js `ddfgtfc ey taf tfncfr jncustry. Jn tajs sfgtjkn sfvfr`m skurgfs `rf

gkhp`rfc jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns tk prkvjcf ` pjgturf kd taf Cutga

fgknkhjg sjtu`tjkn kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns.

3.6.0 Cutga h`rift pktfntj`m

@ggkrcjno tk taf m`tfst fstjh`tfs taf tkt`m purga`sjno vkmuhf kd taf Cutga

Okvfrnhfnt w`s ₭ 6?.3 ejmmjkn jn 5<<?, kd wajga ₭ 71 ejmmjkn w`s spfnt kn sup-

pmjfs `nc sfrvjgfs (_fjbnfn & Efrckwsij, 5<<:). @ vkmuhf kd ₭ 0<.7 ejmmjkn kd

sfrvjgfs a`c tk ef puemjgmy tfncfrfc efgùsf jt fxgffcfc taf hknft`ry tarfsakmcs

kd ₭ 5.: ejmmjkn ey gfntr`m okvfrnhfnt`m ùtakrjtjfs `nc ₭ ?.3 ejmmjkn ey mkg`m

ùtakrjtjfs. ajs hf`ns ta`t hkrf ta`n ?<% kd sfrvjgf rfm`tfc tfncfrs `rf kro`n-

jsfc ey mkg`m gkntr`gtjno utakrjtjfs, suga s taf prkvjngfs, hunjgjp`mjtjfs, cjstrjgt

w`tfr ek`rcs, kr ùtakrjtjfs ktafr ta`n taf st`tf. @ggkrcjno tk Crfsgamfr (5<<:)

taf tkt`m turnkvfr kd `rgajtfgts `nc fnojnffrjno djrhs w`s ₭ 6.3 ejmmjkn jn 5<<6.

@ekut ₭ 5.< ejmmjkn w`s spfnt kn rfsjcfntj`m `nc gkhhfrgj`m eujmcjno prkbfgts,

suga `s puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn kddjgfs (6.5%), fcug`tjkn (:.:%) `nc af`mta `nc

wfmd`rf wkri (05.3%), wajmf ₭ <.16 ejmmjkn w`s spfnt kn sfrvjgfs dkr tkwn `nc

tr`ddjg pm`nnjno. af Uky`m Jnstjtutf kd Cutga @rgajtfgts fstjh`tfc ` tkt`m nft

turnkvfr kd taf `rgajtfgturf er`nga kd ₭ 0.7 ejmmjkn jn 5<<4 (Tkofms, Hkkjerkfi,

& cf Trjfs, 5<<1).

@ rfpkrt ey taf gknsumt`ngy djrh Efrfnsgakt uncfr taf ùtakrjty kd taf

Hjnjstry kd Fgknkhjg @dd`jrs sakws ta`t tafrf wfrf èkut 4,<<< n`tjkn`m `nc

Furkpf`n tfncfrs jn taf Nftafrm`ncs eftwffn Bunf 5<<1 `nc Bunf 5<<: (Uujtfr,

ft `m., 5<<:). @ekut a`md kd tafsf tfncfrs wfrf èkvf taf tarfsakmcs `nc knf tajrc

jngmucfc ` tfncfr dkr sfrvjgfs. Jn tafjr s`hpmf kd ?<7 n`tjkn`m `nc Furkpf`n tfn-

cfrs, 05.0% usfc taf rfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf9 5?% kd taf s`hpmf w`s tfncfrfc

ey m`rof hunjgjp`mjtjfs (kvfr 0<<,<<< jnaèjt`nts), 01% ey sh`mm hunjgjp`mjtjfs,

55% ey gfntr`m okvfrnhfnts `nc 06% ey prkvjngj`m okvfrnhfnts. @ggkrcjno tk

Fssfrs (5<<:) taf gfntr`m okvfrnhfnt gkhpmjfs wjta prkgurfhfnt m`w efttfr ta`n

taf hunjgjp`mjtjfs, `nc m`rof hunjgjp`mjtjfs gkhpmy efttfr ta`n sh`mmfr knfs. Af

`msk hfntjkns ta`t taf `mmkg`tjkn kd gkntr`gts dkr wkris `nc suppmjfs gkhpmjfs

hkrf wjta prkgurfhfnt m`w ta`t taf `mmkg`tjkn kd sfrvjgf gkntr`gts.fncfrs dkr eujmcjno prkbfgts sakw efttfr rfsumts ta`n tfncfrs dkr jndr`strug-

tur`m wkris efgùsf gkntr`gts `rf hkst kdtfn `w`rcfc e`sfc kn taf fgknkhjg`mmy

hkst `cv`ntòfkus kddfr `nc ` rfstrjgtfc prkgfcurf. Gmjfnts jn suga tfncfrs prf-

p`rf tafhsfmvfs efttfr, `nc wjta hkrf tr`nsp`rfnt rfqujrfhfnts dfwfr m`wsujts `rf

nffcfc (Ikfnfn, 5<<:). afrf js ` nktjgfèmf nffc dkr gmf`r prkgurfhfnt pkmjgjfs

`nc oujcfmjnfs dkr jhpmfhfnt`tjkn jn taf Nftafrm`ncs. H`ny hjstìfs `rf h`cf

`nc Cutga gmjfnts kdtfn ck nkt dumdjm tafjr mfo`m kemjo`tjkns. @ekut 64% kd taf

gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjtjfs cjc nkt puemjsa tafjr sakrt mjstjno systfh jn ` rfstrjgtfc

tfncfr `nc èkut 31% cjc nkt `nnkungf taf wfjoat kd taf grjtfrj` (Uujtfr, ft `m.,

5<<:). af s`hf rfpkrt ojvfs `n jncjg`tjkn kd taf rfqujrfhfnts ta`t gmjfnts `sikd taf tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs `nc taf rfm`tjkn tk taf djn`m `w`rc cfgjsjkn. Jt sakws dkr



:4

fx`hpmf ta`t jn 1:% kd taf sfrvjgf tfncfrs kn `vfròf 5.6 rfdfrfngf prkbfgts `rf

`sifc tk sfmfgt tfncfrfrs. af djn`m cfgjsjkn dkr sfmfgtjkn ppf`rs tk ef cftfrhjnfc

dkr 41% ey taf `ssfsshfnt kd tafsf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts. Ktafr jhpkrt`nt rfqujrf-

hfnts wfrf rfm`tfc tk qu`mjty hf`surfhfnt (00%), pfrsknnfm (1%) `nc tfganjg`m

g`pèjmjtjfs (?%).

3.6.5 Sfncfrs dkr `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn jn taf Nftafrm`ncs

Hkst Cutga gmjfnts rfqujrf g`ncjc`tfs dkr ` tfncfr jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon tk ef `

rfojstfrfc `rgajtfgt. Gkhp`rfc tk ckgtkrs `nc m`wyfrs wak cfvfmkpfc tafjr prk-

dfssjkn jn taf m`tf Hjccmf @ofs, `rgajtfgts a`vf ` rfm`tjvfmy rfgfntmy fstèmjsafc

prkdfssjkn (Hjfo, 5<<4). @ orkwjno ekcy kd èstr`gt inkwmfcof, ` bustjdjèmf rfd-

frfngf tk ` skgj`m gkrf v`muf, dkrh`m `g`cfhjg tr`jnjno `nc ` n`tjkn`m prkdfs-

sjkn`m `sskgj`tjkn `rf pafnkhfn` ta`t `rf gknnfgtfc tk prkdfssjkn`mjz`tjkn. Jn

taf Nftafrm`ncs taf tjtmf kd @rgajtfgt js prktfgtfc. Jn 5<<:, pprkxjh`tfmy 07,<<<

pfkpmf wfrf rfojstfrfc s rgajtfgts, ure`n pm`nnfrs, jntfrjkr cfsjonfrs kr m`ncsg`pf

`rgajtfgts jn taf Cutga @rgajtfgt Ufojstfr WE@, eut nkt `mm tafsf pfkpmf pr`g-

tjgf tafjr prkdfssjkn (Wtjgatjno Eurfù @rgajtfgtfnrfojstfr, 5<<:). @pprkxjh`tfmy

0<,<<< kd tafh `rf `rgajtfgts. af EN@ js taf prkdfssjkn`m kro`njs`tjkn kd `rgaj-

tfgts jn af Nftafrm`ncs nc a`s ekut 7,<<< jncjvjcu`m hfhefrs `nc 0,6<< djrh

hfhefrs. afrf js `n jngrf`sf kd taf nuhefr kd `rgajtfgts jn taf Nftafrm`ncs2

jn 5<<? èkut 16< nfw pfrskns rfojstfrfc jn taf rfojstfr wajmf `rkunc 7<< a`c

tafjr n`hfs rfhkvfc (Wtjgatjno Eurfù @rgajtfgtfnrfojstfr, 5<<?). Jn 5<<? èkut

5,16< `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs wfrf rfojstfrfc wjta taf Cutga Ga`hefr kd Gkhhfrgf

(Tkofms, ft `m., 5<<1). @ekut 0,6<< kd tafsf djrhs wfrf knf-h`n eusjnfssfs. @ rf-

pkrt kd Wfntfr Nkvfh sakws ta`t jn taf Nftafrm`ncs èkut 4< `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs

a`vf 6< fhpmkyffs kr hkrf (Wfntfr Nkvfh, 5<<:). @ggkrcjno tk taf s`hf rfpkrt

wkrmcwjcf tafrf `rf knmy 0<< `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon djrhs ta`t a`vf hkrf ta`n 0<<

fhpmkyffs, kd wajga 6 `rf Cutga.

af Uky`m Jnstjtutf kd Cutga @rgajtfgts `nnu`mmy survfys Cutga `rgajtfgtur`m

djrhs kn tafjr kro`njs`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs. @ekut 0?< Cutga `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs

p`rtjgjp`tfc jn ` pfrjkcjg`m gkhp`rjskn èkut taf yf`r kd 5<<? (v`n cfn Auri,

5<<1), 337 p`rtjgjp`tfc jn taf s`hf ijnc kd rfsf`rga èkut 5<<1 (EN@, 5<<:).

ajs js knmy ` sh`mm pkrtjkn kd taf tkt`m nuhefr kd tafjr djrh hfhefrs eut nkt

fvfry djrh js wjmmjno tk p`rtjgjp`tf jn tafsf ijncs kd rfsf`rga. Ufsumts sakw `n

`vfròf yf`rmy nft turnkvfr kd ₭ 605.30? jn 5<<? wjta ` nft prkdjt kd :.5% `nc₭ 40<.<<< jn 5<<1 wjta ` nft prkdjt kd 03.?% pfr djrh. Knmy 4?% kd `mm Cutga

`rgajtfgtur`m djrhs js prkdjtèmf. Fspfgj`mmy m`rof djrhs (kvfr 3< DF, `vfròf nft

turnkvfr ₭ ?.3 hjmmjkn) `nc taf vfry sh`mm djrhs (<-5 DF, `vfròf nft turnkvfr

₭ 6:.<<<) wfrf prkdjtèmf jn 5<<1. af `vfròf r`tf pfr akur jn 5<<? w`s ₭ ?5

dkr cfsjon wkri `nc taf `vfròf nft turnkvfr pfr DF w`s ₭ 10.035, wajga sffhs

tk jngrf`sf wjta taf sjzf kd taf djrh. Jn ofnfr`m taf nuhefr kd fhpmkyffs kd `n

`rgajtfgtur`m djrh jngrf`sfc drkh `n `vfròf kd 3,6 DF jn 5<<3 tk 4,4 DF jn

5<<? `nc ?,0 DF jn 5<<1. ajs hf`ns ta`t taf sjzf kd taf `vfròf `rgajtfgtur m

djrh jngrf`sfc kvfr taf p`st yf`rs eut nkt fvfry fhpmkyff kd `n `rgajtfgtur`m cf-

sjon djrh js `n rgajtfgt. af gmjfnts kd rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon djrhs h`jnmy gknsjst kdprjv`tf pfrskns, prkbfgt cfvfmkpfrs, eusjnfss rfm`tjkns `nc akusjno gkrpkr`tjkns.



:1

@rgajtfgtuurkpcr`gatfn fn Kntwfrpwfcstrjbcfn‚, èerfvj`tfc `s taf ‑Wtfunpunt‚

ta`t suppkrts puemjg gmjfnts jn kro`njzjno tfncfrs `nc gkhpftjtjkns jn taf sfg-

tkr kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. @ggkrcjno tk Irkfsf ft `m. (5<<1) 5<3 tfncfrs `nc ?

cfsjon gkntfsts wfrf `nnkungfc dkr `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon gkntr`gts jn taf pfrjkc

kd B`nu`ry 5<<4 tjmm Kgtkefr 5<<1. @ekut 6<% wfrf drkh hunjgjp`mjtjfs, 5<%

drkh fcug`tjkn`m jnstjtutjkns `nc 0% drkh taf hjnjstrjfs. Hkst kd taf tfncfrsgknt`jnfc fcug`tjkn`m eujmcjnos `nc okvfrnhfnt`m kddjgfs. 41% kd taf tfncfrs

wfrf oujcfc ey gknsumt`nts. Knmy 000 nktjdjg`tjkns wfrf h`cf kn taf `w`rc cf-

gjsjkns. af gkntr`gts wfrf `w`rcfc tk ?3 cjddfrfnt `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs kd wajga

40 wjta hkrf ta`n 0< fhpmkyffs `nc `n `vfròf kd 7: fhpmkyffs (Irkfsf, ft `m.,

5<<1). fncfrs `rf taus `w`rcfc ey gkhpftjtjkn tk ` mjhjtfc sa`rf kd taf h`rift

(h`xjhuh 6%).

af Wtfunpunt `n`mysfc taf puemjg`tjkn kd `mm Cutga tfncfrs wjta ` cfsjon

gkhpknfnt jn taf pfrjkc kd 04 Bumy 5<<6 tjmm 0 Nkvfhefr 5<<: (Offrtsf, ft `m.,

5<<:). Jn tkt`m tafrf wfrf 711 tfncfrs dkr `rgajtfgtur`m sfrvjgfs `nc 017 dkr cf-

vfmkphfnt gkhpftjtjkns nnkungfc jn tajs pfrjkc. 1:% kd tafsf tfncfrs wfrf FVrfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurfs (sff èmf 3.7). af nuhefrs kd rfstrjgtfc tfncfrs

gkntjnuf tk jngrf`sf9 untjm 0 Nkvfhefr 5<<: tafrf wfrf `mrf`cy 001, gkhp`rfc

tk 1< jn 5<<4. af m`tfst jnsjoat dkr 5<<: sakw ` tkt`m `hkunt kd 03< tfncfrs

dkr `rgajtfgtur`m sfrvjgfs (11% rfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf) `nc 31 dkr jntfor`tfc

gkntr`gts `nc cfvfmkphfnt gkhpftjtjkns wajga jngmucf cfsjon (46% rfstrjgtfc

tfncfr prkgfcurf) (Offrtsf, 5<0<).

@ mkg`m okvfrnhfnt `gtfc `s gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty dkr èkut a`md kd taf tfn-

cfrs, taf gfntr`m okvfrnhfnt dkr `n `vfròf kd ?% (Offrtsf, ft `m., 5<<:). 66% kd

`mm gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjtjfs wfrf hunjgjp`mjtjfs, 4% gfntr`m okvfrnhfnts, 7% prk-

vjngj`m okvfrnhfnt, 06% fcug`tjkn`m jnstjtutjkns, 3% akusjno gkrpkr`tjkns. afcjstrjeutjkn kd prkbfgts kvfr taf cjddfrfnt eujmcjno sfohfnts js d`jrmy gknsjstfnt.

Hkst kd taf prkbfgts (`vfròf 46%) gkngfrnfc skgj`m rf`m fst`tf (sgakkm eujmcjnos,

spkrts d`gjmjtjfs). Gjty a`mms efmkno tk taf g`tfokry kd okvfrnhfnt`m kddjgfs (05%).

Djourf 3.5 sakws taf tfncfrs dkr `rgajtfgts pfr eujmcjno sfgtkr dkr 5<<:.

M`rof gkhhjssjkns `rf jhpkrt`nt dkr djrhs efgùsf tafy gkntrjeutf tk taf

stèjmjty kd taf djrh. M`rofr prkbfgts jn `rgajtfgturf, fspfgj`mmy eujmcjnos ta`t `rf

usfc ey mkt kd pfkpmf kr sjtu`tfc t gfntr`m mkg`tjkn, cc jhpkrt`nt v`muf tk taf

pkrtdkmjk nc rfput`tjkn kd djrh. @mtakuoa prkbfgt cfvfmkpfrs, akusjno gkrpkr`-

tjkns nc prjv`tf eusjnfss `msk gkhhjssjkn tafsf ijncs kd eujmcjnos, okvfrnhfnt`m

ùtakrjtjfs rfprfsfnt `n jhpkrt`nt orkup kd gmjfnts. ìjno jntk `ggkunt ta`t hkst

5<<6 5<<4 5<<? 5<<1 5<<: @vfròf %

Ufstrjgtfc FV prkgfcurf 0: ?7 4< 16 0<3 1:%

Kpfn FV prkgfcurf 0 3 5 : 7 6%

Ufstrjgtfc NM prkgfcurf < 5 7 0 0 5%

Kpfn NM prkgfcurf < 0 1 5 0< 3%

Skt`m 5< 1< ?7 :? 001 711

Sèmf 3.7 Nuhefrs kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon sfrvjgfs tfncfrs drkh 04-<?-5<<6tjmm <0-00-5<<:



::

kd taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjtjfs dkr tafsf prkbfgts `rf mkg`m, taf hknft`ry tarfsakmc

dkr ` tfncfr w`s untjm Cfgfhefr 5<<: ₭ 504.<<<. ajs js èkut a`md kd taf `nnu`m

turnkvfr kd `n `vfròf `rgajtfgtur`m djrh `nc fxgmucfs èkut ?<% kd taf djrhs.

\`rtjgjp`tjno jn taf `w`rc pa`sf kd ` tfncfr prkgfcurf gksts `n `rgajtfgtur`m djrh

èkut 6 tk 0<% kd tafjr nnu`m nft turnkvfr. Dkr m`rof djrhs tajs js knmy <.<0% kn

tafjr nft turnkvfr. afsf nuhefrs cfhknstr`tf ta`t tfncfrs `rf prfsuhèmy hkrf

df`sjemf dkr m`rof djrhs ta`n dkr taf `vfròf rgajtfgtur m djrh. Efgùsf t mf`st djvf

djrhs p`rtjgjp`tf jn ` rfstrjgtfc tfncfr taf tkt`m gksts (kd gmjfnts `nc `rgajtfgts)

prkeèmy `rf eftwffn ₭ 0<<.<<< `nc ₭ 56<.<<< pfr dumm tfncfr. Ufgfnt nuhefrs

sakw `rkunc 0:< rfstrjgtfc tfncfrs ` yf`r dkr eujmcjnos `nc `rf` cfvfmkphfnts

(Offrtsf, 5<0<), wajga jhpmjfs ` tkt`m kd ₭ 01 tk 36 hjmmjkn pfr yf`r spfnt jn

Cutga skgjfty kn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn tfncfrs.

Jn 5<<: èkut 4<% kd taf tfncfrs wfrf kro`njsfc wjta suppkrt kd gknsumt`nts

wak `gtfc `s gknt`gt pfrskns. Jn tkt`m 0<7 cjddfrfnt gknsumt`ngy djrhs wfrf `gtjvf

jn taf djfmc kd tfncfrs tk sfmfgt `rgajtfgts (Offrtsf, ft `m., 5<<:). wk djrhs wfrf

jcfntjdjfc `s h`rift mf`cfrs wjta 53 `nc 70 tfncfrs f`ga kvfr ` pfrjkc kd 3 yf`rs,tfn kd tafh kro`njsfc `t mf`st 7 tfncfrs ` yf`r. 5?6 kd ` tkt`m kd 711 `nnkungfc

taf wjnnjno djrh kd taf gkntr`gt. Jn tkt`m 01< `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs wfrf `w`rcfc

` gkntr`gt tarkuoa ` tfncfr jn taf p`st djvf yf`rs. ajs js èkut 4% kd taf tkt`m

pkpum`tjkn kd èkut 7,<<< djrhs `s rfojstfrfc `t taf Ga`hefr kd Gkhhfrgf. Jn

taf p`st 6 yf`rs 0< `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs okt `w`rcfc 4 kr hkrf tfncfrs. afsf 0<

djrhs wkn èkut knf djdta kd `mm tfncfrs jn taf p`st 6 yf`rs.

af `vfròf rfqujrfhfnt dkr nft turnkvfr kd taf djrhs tk p`rtjgjp`tf jn taf rf-

strjgtfc tfncfrs w`s ₭ 145.6<< dkr taf pfrjkc kd 5<<4 tk 5<<1. ajs js èkut 0.6

tjhfs s huga taf vfròf nft turnkvfr kd mm `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs jn taf Nftafrm`ncs

jn tajs pfrjkc. ajs g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s rfm`tjvfmy ajoa gkhp`rfc tk taf `nnu`mturnkvfr kd `n `vfròf `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon djrh `nc fxgmucfs èkut 16% kd taf

Gumtur`m d`gjmjtjfs9 4%

Okvfrnhfnt m kddjgfs9

05%

Jndr`strugturf9 6%

Wkgj`m rf`m fst`tf9

46%

Vtjmjty eujmcjnos9 0<%Akusjno9 0%

Djourf 3.5 Cjstrjeutjkn kd puemjg tfncfrs dkr `rgajtfgts jn

cjfrfnt eujmcjno sfgtkrs jn 5<<: (e`sfc kn Offrtsf, 5<0<)



0<<

h`rift. af mkwfst rfqujrfhfnt w`s zfrk, taf ajoafst ₭ 5 hjmmjkn. af rfqujrf-

hfnts `ppf`r tk rfm`tf tk taf sjzf kd taf prkbfgt jn orkss squ`rf hftfrs. Jn èkut

?<% kd taf tfncfrs rfqujrfc rfdfrfngf prkbfgts ta`t wfrf rf`mjsfc hkrf ta`n tarff

yf`rs ok wajmf taf Cjrfgtjvf t`mis ekut h`xjhuh kd tarff yf`rs ok. Knmy 56%

`mmkwfc prkbfgts ta`t a`vf nkt yft effn eujmt. @pprkxjh`tfmy ?<% kd taf tfncfrs

rfqujrfc 7 kr dfwfr rfdfrfngf prkbfgts.af c`t` kd taf Wtfunpunt `rf e`sfc kn puemjgmy `v`jmèmf jndkrh`tjkn. ajs

hf`ns ta`t nkt `mm kd taf 711 tfncfrs ta`t wfrf jcfntjdjfc ey taf Wtfunpunt wfrf

jngmucfc jn taf `n`mysjs efgùsf kd ` m`gi kd jndkrh`tjkn. Ktafr `n`mysfs, suga

taf r`tjk eftwffn dff `nc nft turnkvfr, taf nuhefr kd p`rtjgjp`nts pfr tfncfr, taf

ijnc kd djrhs ta`t wfrf sfmfgtfc dkr taf `w`rc pa`sf kr taf `w`rc grjtfrj`, wfrf nkt

pkssjemf fjtafr efgùsf kd hjssjno c`t`. @t taf hkhfnt jt js tafrfdkrf nkt pkssjemf

dkr `ny jnstjtutf kr okvfrnhfnt m òfngy tk prkvjcf fvjcfngf e`sfc rfgkhhfnc`-

tjkns dkr taf mfvfm kd rfqujrfhfnts kd ktafr ijncs kd st`nc`rcs ta`t nffc suddjgjfnt

efngah`rijno.

3.4 Gurrfnt pr`gtjgf jn taf Nftafrm`ncs

af prfvjkus sfgtjkns cfsgrjefc taf `chjnjstr`tjvf, gumtur`m, mfo`m, `nc fgknkhj-

g`m gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. af gurrfnt pr`gtjgf cjspm`ys ` sg`ttfrfc `nc

cjss`tjsdyjno jhòf kd akw `rgajtfgts `rf gurrfntmy sfmfgtfc jn taf Nftafrm`ncs.

afrf js gmf`rmy ` suest`ntj`m nffc dkr ga`nof. af cjddfrfnt pm`yfrs jn taf djfmc `mm

a`vf tafjr kwn jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf dunc`hfnt`m wfìnfssfs kd taf tfncfr sys-

tfh nc taf jhpmfhfnt`tjkn g`p`gjtjfs kd puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcjfs. Wkmutjkns

`rf skuoat jn cjddfrfnt cjrfgtjkns eut nk rf`m `gtjkn a`s effn uncfrtìfn. Jn tajs

sfgtjkn taf pfrgfptjkns `nc fxpfgt`tjkns kd taf pm`yfrs jn taf djfmc `rf `ccrfssfc`nc fxjstjno suppkrtjno tkkms `rf erjfdmy `n`mysfc tk grf`tf `n kvfrvjfw kd gurrfnt

pr`gtjgf.

3.4.0 \frgfptjkns `nc fxpfgt`tjkns

Cfspjtf taf djn`ngj`m prkemfhs `t taf hkhfnt jn taf rf`m fst`tf h`rift rfgfnt

nuhefrs sakw `n jngrf`sf jn taf nuhefr kd tfncfrs dkr `rgajtfgtur`m sfrvjgfs jn

taf Nftafrm`ncs (Offrtsf, 5<0<9 Offrtsf, ft `m., 5<<:). ajs jngrf`sf g`nnkt ef

fxpm`jnfc knmy jn tfrhs kd jngrf`sfc purga`sjno vkmuhf kd okvfrnhfnt`m ùtakrj-

tjfs, eut msk sakws taf jhp`gt kd taf jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd taf nfw rfoum`tjkns st`rt-

jno sjngf taf jntrkcugtjkn jn 5<<6. Jngrf`sjnomy taf hjsusf kd tfncfr rfoum`tjkns w`s fxpksfc jn taf hfcj`. Efgùsf `rgajtfgts a`c prfvjkusmy nkt dfmt taf nffc tk

ok tk gkurt, mjttmf g`sf m`w w`s `v`jmèmf dkr taf jntfrprft`tjkn kd FV prkgurf-

hfnt m`w jn spfgjdjg g`sfs kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. Jn Cfgfhefr 5<<1 ` djrst hfft-

jno èkut tfncfrjno prkgfssfs w`s kro`njsfc jn taf Nftafrm`ncs ey @rgajtfgtuur

Mki``m jn gkmmèkr`tjkn wjta taf Hjnjstry kd Akusjno, Wp`tj`m \m`nnjno `nc taf

Fnvjrknhfnt (TUKH), taf Uky`m Jnstjtutf kd Cutga @rgajtfgts (EN@), taf

@sskgj`tjkn kd Cutga \rkbfgt cfvfmkpfrs (NF\UKH), `nc taf @sskgj`tjkn kd

Cutga Hunjgjp`mjtjfs (TNO) tk cjsguss taf prkemfhs `rkunc `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn

jn taf gkntfxt kd prkgurfhfnt. afy sf`rgafc dkr skmutjkns eut cjc nkt dummy orff

èkut taf prkemfh kr skmutjkn sp`gf yft.



0<0

@t taf dkmmkw-up hfftjno jn Cfgfhefr 5<<:, taf cjrfgtkr kd @rgajtfgtuur

Mki``m Gjmmy B`nsfn cfsgrjefc taf fssfngf kd taf prkemfh `s ”` gkndrknt`tjkn ef-

twffn taf nffc dkr gfrt`jnty `nc taf cfsjrf dkr grf`tjvjty‘ (v`n cfr \km, ft `m.,

5<<:, p. 0<). ajs gfrt`jnty vfrsus jnnkv`tjkn cjmfhh` w`s `msk st`tfc ey Uônn

(5<<1) dkr cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn taf Furkpf`n Nkrcjg gkuntrjfs. Jn taf f`rmy c`ys

gmjfnts sfmfgtfc ` djrh ta`t tafy gkumc trust. Jn prkgurfhfnt sjtu`tjkns tafy cknkt inkw wa`t `nc wak tafy g`n fxpfgt tk rf`gt kn tafjr rfqufst dkr jnvjt`tjkns.

Jn krcfr tk rfcugf taf nuhefr kd pktfntj`m p`rtjgjp`nts `nc cfgrf`sf ungfrt`jnty

tafy jssuf ajoafr djn`ngj`m `nc tfganjg`m rfqujrfhfnts. Akwfvfr taf sfmfgtjkn kd

`n `rgajtfgt js e`sfc kn bucofhfnts èkut jntfmmfgtu`m g`p`gjtjfs `nc grf`tjvjty,

wajga js nkt f`sjmy `ssfssfc ey djn`ngj`m `nc mfo`m grjtfrj`.

af djn`ngj`m tarfsakmcs dkr prkbfgts tk ef puemjgmy tfncfrfc `rf rfm`tjvfmy mkw

sk `mhkst `mm kd taf jntfrfstjno prkbfgts dkr taf sfgtkr rfqujrf kddjgj`m tfncfrjno.

Knf kd taf ify prkemfhs wjta taf FV prkgfcurfs js taf gkst `nc wkri jnvkmvfc jn

`chjnjstfrjno taf jnvjt`tjkn (Wtrkno, 0::4). Ufspknsf r`tfs g`n ef ajoa. @ gmjfnt

kro`njs`tjkn h`y ef rfqujrfc tk sfnc kut ` dfw auncrfc sfmfgtjkn h`nu`ms fvfn wafn jt jntfncs tk sfmfgt knmy ` dfw sfrvjgf prkvjcfrs tk tfncfr. Fvfn wafn tajs

prkgfss kd jnvjt`tjkn `nc ckguhfnt`tjkn js cjojtjsfc, taf `hkunt kd `chjnjstr`-

tjvf wkri js ajoa. af g`ncjc`tfs nffc tk suehjt suest`ntj`m p`pfrwkri tk sakw

tafjr g`pèjmjtjfs. Jd tafy `rf `sifc tk suehjt ` cfsjon prkpks`m jn taf `w`rc pa`sf

tajs hf`ns fvfn hkrf wkrimk`c `nc jnvfsthfnt (sff sfgtjkn 3.6.5 dkr `n fstjh`-

tjkn kd taf gksts jnvkmvfc jn tfncfrjno). @n kvfrvjfw kd taf hkst prfssjno jssufs

js ojvfn jn èmf 3.3, wajga js e`sfc kn sfvfr`m puemjg`tjkns (@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m,

Wfmfgtjkn pa`sf

•

Buhemf kd oujcfmjnfs• Vngmf`r sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj`

• Skk ajoa qu`mjffg`tjkn rfqujrfhfnts

• Skk h ny sujtèjmjty rfqujrfhfnts

• Cfsjon `gtjvjtjfs curjno sfmfgtjkn

• Skk h ny g`ncjc`tfs `rf sfmfgtfc dkr taf `w`rc pa sf

• G`rfmfss rfqufsts tk p`rtjgjp`tf drkh taf g`ncjc`tfs

Sfncfr pa`sf

• Hjssjno, tkk `hejoukus, kr tkk strjgt erjfds `nc `hejtjkn ckguhfnts

• Mjttmf kr nk ffn`ngj`m gkhpfns`tjkn dkr cfsjon `gtjvjtjfs

• Vnrf`mjstjg eujmcjno eucofts drkh gmjfnts

• Mjttmf kr nk jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn tfncfrfr `nc gmjfnt

• M`gi kd prkdfssjkn`mjsh curjno jntfr`gtjkn wjta ktafr tfncfrfrs

• Cfm`y curjno taf prkgfcurf

@w`rc pa`sf

• Vngmf`r kr nkt wfmm-gknsjcfrfc w`rc grjtfrj`

• Jncjstjngt usfr `nc gjtjzfn p`rtjgjp`tjkn

• M`gi kd pkmjtjg`m suppkrt

• Gkncjtjkn`m kfrs

• Skk huga kr tkk mjttmf wkri cknf ey taf tfncfrfrs

• Jngkhpmftf gkst g`mgum`tjkns

• Hjxturf kd pkmjtjgs `nc prkgurfhfnt

• @hejoukus kr jngkhpmftf hktjv`tjkn kd taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn

• Nk kgj`m `nnkungfhfnt kd taf wjnnfr

• Nfoktj`tjkns `dtfr `nnkungfhfnt kd taf wjnnfr

Sèmf 3.3 Kvfrvjfw kd hkst prfssjno jssufs curjno tfncfrs jn `rgajtfgturf



0<5

5<<:`9 @tfmjfr Ifhpf ajmm, 5<<19 Irkfsf, ft `m., 5<<19 \kstfm, 5<<09 v`n cfr \km,

ft `m., 5<<:).

af sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts vj` ` tfncfr prkgfcurf stjmm pksfs cjddjgumtjfs dkr

gkntr`gtjno òfngjfs `nc hkrf g`sf m`w g`n ef fxpfgtfc. E`sfc kn suga g`sf m`w

(sff `msk sfgtjkn 3.3.5) gkntr`gtjno òfngjfs sakumc ef èmf tk mjhjt taf rjsi kd `

cjsputf ey2 0) usjno jncfpfncfnt bury hfhefrs `nc bury hfhefrs wak `rf prkp-frmy qu`mjdjfc, 5) dkmmkwjno taf prkgfcurf taf w`y jt w`s `nnkungfc, 7) usjno un-

`hejoukus m`nouòf, `nc 3) hktjv`tjno tafjr bucofhfnts. Gurrfnt fxpfrjfngfs jn

pr`gtjgf `s wfmm `s bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno tafkry suoofst ta`t jn `mm dkur

pkssjejmjtjfs tk mjhjt taf rjsi kd pktfntj`m gkndmjgts `rjsf jn taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn

fxpfgt`tjkns drkh ` mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf `nc ` efa`vjkur`m pfrspfgtjvf. Jt js, dkr fx-

`hpmf, vfry a`rc tk djnc jncfpfncfnt bury hfhefrs jn ` rfm`tjvfmy sh`mm prkdfs-

sjkn`m gkhhunjty suga `s `rgajtfgturf. af gkngfpt kd sfnsfhìjno suoofsts ta`t

cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs ck nkt `mw`ys ok `s knf fxpfgts `nc ta`t prjkrjtjfs h`y sajdt

curjno taf prkgfss. af suebfgtjvf `nc jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd `rgajtfgtur`m

qu`mjty hìf taf sfrvjgfs kd `rgajtfgts `hejoukus ey n`turf wjta humtjpmf pfr-spfgtjvfs `nc jntfrprft`tjkns, `nc hktjv`tjno cfgjsjkns js usu`mmy cjddjgumt wafn

jntujtjkn js usfc jn hìjno bucofhfnts èkut taf qu`mjty mfvfm kd cfsjons.

af uncfrmyjno cjddjgumty kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns `ppf`rs tk ef taf `hejou-

jty jn taf `gtu`m `jh2 Js jt taf sfmfgtjkn kd ` prkcugt (` cfsjon), taf sfmfgtjkn kd `

sfrvjgf (cfsjon `gtjvjtjfs) kr taf sfmfgtjkn kd ` p`rtnfr (` cfsjonfr kr ` djrh); af

ungknsgjkus hjxturf kd tafsf cjddfrfnt `jhs gùsfs jngknsjstfngjfs jn taf cfsjon

`nc fxfgutjkn ` tfncfr, `s `msk `ccrfssfc ey Fvfrs (5<0<). Gurrfnt cjsgussjkn jn

`rgajtfgtur`m pr`gtjgf h`jnmy dkgusfs kn taf mfvfm kd rfqujrfhfnts dkr sfmfgtjkn nc

bucofhfnt èkut taf qu`mjdjg`tjkn kd tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs. @n `pprkprj`tf `nswfr tk

taf qufstjkn kd sujtèjmjty kd prkdfssjkn`ms a`s nkt effn dkunc. Wkhf suoofst usjnoktafr prkgfcurfs hkrf kdtfn, suga `s taf cfsjon gkntfst kr gkhpftjtjvf cj`mkouf.

Ktafrs t`mi èkut mkwfrjno kr e`m`ngjno taf djn`ngj`m rfqujrfhfnts, kr `cbustjno

taf w`y rfdfrfngf prkbfgts `rf usfc (@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m, 5<<:`9 v`n cfr \km, ft

`m., 5<<:). af h`bkrjty kd tfncfrs `si dkr rfdfrfngf prkbfgts, wajga sakws taf

fhpa`sjs kn fxpfrjfngf. Akwfvfr, kdtfn tafsf prkbfgts nffc tk ef rf`mjsfc jn taf

m`st tarff tk djvf yf`rs. Efgùsf `n `rgajtfgt knmy cfmjvfrs taf cfsjon `nc nkt taf

gknstrugtjkn, ` o`p fxjsts eftwffn taf c`tf taf cfsjon sfrvjgf w`s cfmjvfrfc `nc

taf eujmcjno w`s fstèmjsafc. Nfxt tk ta`t, cfsjons `rf skhftjhfs nkt rf`mjsfc kr

cfm`yfc dkr fxtfrn`m rf`skns, fspfgj`mmy jd `rgajtfgts p`rtjgjp`tf jn `n jcf`s kr cf-

sjon gkhpftjtjkn. @nktafr jhpkrt`nt jssuf curjno sfmfgtjkn `ppf`rs tk ef taf kro`njs`tjkn`m

strugturf `nc sjzf kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon djrhs. Jn gurrfnt pr`gtjgf gmjfnts `ppf`r

tk pfrgfjvf ta`t taf sujtèjmjty kd tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs jngrf`sfs wjta taf strugturf

`nc sjzf kd djrh. @n rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon djrh g`n ef gknsjcfrfc s prkdfssjkn`m

sfrvjgf djrh. @rgajtfgtur`m djrhs kdtfn gakksf tk rfh`jn ` sh`mm kr hfcjuh sjzfc

fntfrprjsf tk prfsfrvf grf`tjvjty. ajs hf`ns ta`t taf ga`r`gtfr `nc strugturf kd `

prkdfssjkn`m sfrvjgf djrh ck nkt h`tga taf fgknkhjg prjngjpmfs kd sjzf `nc m`rof

turnkvfrs tk `ssurf taf rfmjèjmjty kd ` tfncfr g`ncjc`tf. af stymf kd `n `rgajtfgt

tfncs tk ef cfrjvfc drkh taf mfvfm `nc ijnc kd cfsjon qu`mjty fstèmjsafc jn prfvj-

kusmy cfmjvfrfc eujmcjnos (v`n Fmckni, 5<<1). Kn taf knf a`nc, m`rof djrhs wjta



0<7

fstèmjsafc cfsjonfrs a`vf typjg`mmy `gqujrfc ` orf`t `hkunt kd fxpfrjfngf `nc

tafrfdkrf sujtèjmjty tk cf`m wjta ny `ggkhhkc`tjkn prkemfh jn puemjg gkntfxt.

Fxpfrjfngf kn taf ktafr a`nc js nkt taf s`hf `s taf èjmjty tk cfsjon `nc kddfrjno

kd taf rfqujrfc fxpfrtjsf tk cf`m wjta spfgjdjg gkhpmfxjtjfs jn cfsjon. @rgajtfgts

`rf prkuc kd tafjr g`pèjmjtjfs tk `n`mysf gkhpmfxjtjfs kn `n èstr`gt mfvfm jn krcfr

tk djnc skmutjkns efyknc taf kevjkus. afy cfmjvfr jntfmmfgtu`m sfrvjgfs. Jn tajssfnsf fxpfrtjsf h`ttfrs. Akwfvfr, jt sffhs ta`t fxpfrtjsf g`n ef eujmt ey fxpfrj-

fngf eut js nkt ou`r`ntffc ey jt. Cfsjon fxgfmmfngf `nc jnnkv`tjkn js tafrfdkrf

nkt `mw`ys cjrfgtmy rfm`tfc tk fxpfrjfngf. Wkhf `rgajtfgts hjoat fvfn suoofst taf

kppksjtf. af sujtèjmjty kd g`ncjc`tfs sakumc tafrfdkrf nkt `mw`ys ef rfm`tfc tk

fxpfrjfngf kr sjzf kd taf gkhp`ny. Jn krcfr tk ga`nof taf gurrfnt pr`gtjgf knf kd

taf suoofstjkns dkr gmjfnts js tk hìf ` cjstjngtjkn eftwffn jnnkv`tjvf prkbfgts

ta`t rfqujrf ‑n`ëvf‚ fntrfprfnfursajp `nc drfsa grf`tjvjty, `nc gm`ssjg`m prkbfgts

ta`t nffc gfrt`jnty jn krcfr tk cjstjngt taf ijnc kd sujtèjmjty ` cfsjon prkbfgt rf-

qujrfs (v`n cfr \km, ft `m., 5<<:).(v`n cfr \km, ft `m., 5<<:).

af rfpkrt ey Irkfsf ft m. (5<<1) `nc rfpkrt kd taf tfncfr hfftjno jn Cfgfhefr(5<<1) nc rfpkrt kd taf tfncfr hfftjno jn Cfgfhefr5<<1 (@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m, 5<<:`) sakw cjddfrfnt skmutjkns nc pfrgfptjkns kd taf

prkemfhs ta`t rf gurrfntmy fxpfrjfngfc. af rgajtfgts, gmjfnts nc gknsumt`nts ck

nkt sffh tk trust f`ga ktafr `nc kdtfn rfprk`ga f`ga ktafr dkr taf gurrfnt gkursf

kd fvfnts. (Dkrhfr) Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgts h`jnmy em`hf taf gknsumt`nts

dkr jngrf`sjno taf gkhpmfxjty kd taf prkgfcurfs. Gknsumt`nts pkjnt tafjr djnofrs

tkw`rcs taf gmjfnts nc t`mi ekut gumtur`m cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf cjsgjpmjnfs nc

taf m`gi kd spjrjt `nc jnnkv`tjkn kd taf gmjfnts tafy rfprfsfnt. @ggkrcjno tk taf

gknsumt`nts `nc `rgajtfgts gmjfnts sakumc prfp`rf tafhsfmvfs efttfr, ekta jn rfm`-

tjkn tk tafjr `hejtjkns nc wjta rfspfgt tk tafjr prkgfcurfs (@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m,

5<<:`9 Ajbcr`, 5<<?). af usf kd ` ofnfr`mmy ginkwmfcofc hkcfm tk strugturf taftfncfr prkgfcurf hjoat fvfn ef rfqujrfc. af ofnfr`m qu`mjty kd taf sfmfgtjkn nc

`w`rcs gkhhjttffs a`s effn grjtjgjsfc `nc `rgajtfgts `rf `msk gkhpm`jnjno èkut

taf d`gt ta`t a`rcmy `ny dffce`gi js ojvfn tk taf tfncfrfrs èkut tafjr cfgjsjkns.

Ajoa mfvfms kd rfqujrfhfnts jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf hjoat cfgrf`sf rjsi dkr taf gmj-

fnt eut prfvfnt nfw p`rtjfs drkh fntfrjno taf h`rift. Jn taf fnc tajs gkumc mf`c

tk ` pkkr `rgajtfgtur`m gumturf. Gmjfnts suoofst ta`t p`rtjgjp`nts gkntrjeutf tk taf

m`gi kd trust tafhsfmvfs ey gkhhunjg`tjno èkut tafjr cjspmf`surf tarkuoa taf

gkurt jnstf`c kd wjta taf ùtakrjtjfs tafhsfmvfs (@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m, 5<<:`).

Gmjfnts suoofst ta`t `rgajtfgts gkumc `msk ofnfr`tf jcf`s dkr sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurfs

ta`t wkumc mjoatfn taf eurcfn jn runnjno tfncfr prkbfgts jnstf`c kd em`hjno tafhdkr `vkjcjno rjsis (v`n cfr \km, ft `m., 5<<:). @mm `gtkrs `jh `t sjhpmjdjfc prkgf-

curfs wjta hutu`m trust `nc rkkh tk rf`mjsf sa`rfc crf`hs. Okkc pr`gtjgfs sakumc

sakw taf pktfntj`m kd tfncfrs jnstf`c kd taf nfo`tjvf gknsfqufngfs `nc pjtd`mms.

af gurrfnt prkgurfhfnt rfoum`tjkns prkvjcf fnkuoa rkkh tk fnèmf gmjfnts tk

dumdjm taf jhs kd tafjr prkbfgts (Irkfsf, ft m., 5<<1). @ hkrf qu`mjt`tjvf prkgfcurf

js surfmy mfo`mmy pkssjemf, bust `s jntfr`gtjkn tk grf`tf efttfr uncfrst`ncjno eftwffn

taf gtkrs (Ga`k-Cujvjs, 5<<1). @n cv`ntòf kd taf d`gt ta`t gmjfnts a`vf tk gkh-

pmy wjta prkgurfhfnt m`w js taf jngrf`sfc tr`nsp`rfngy kd cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc

taf cfgrf`sf jn jhpkrt`ngf kd taf kmc-ekys nftwkri, wajga sakumc grf`tf ga`ngfs

dkr nfw djrhs `nc fnsurf d`jr mfvfm kd pm`yjno djfmc. Wfvfr`m suoofstjkns a`vf effn



0<3

h`cf tk jhprkvf gurrfnt pr`gtjgf jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd taf tfncfr, suga s knmy

`sijno dkr prkpkrtjkn`m nc rf`sknèmf rfqujrfhfnts, mmkwjno unrf`mjsfc prkbfgts

kr prkbfgts kd ` cjddfrfnt sfgtkr `s rfdfrfngf prkbfgts, ` c`tè`ni wjta rfdfrfngfs

`nc fxajejts, hjnjhjzjno taf nuhefr kd rfqujrfc ckguhfnts, `nc taf usf kd pfr-

skn`m st`tfhfnts (‑fjofn vfrim`rjnofn‚) èkut taf djn`ngj`m `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m rf-

qujrfhfnts (@tfmjfr Ifhpf ajmm, 5<<19 Irkfsf, ft `m., 5<<1). Ktafr suoofstjknsrfm`tf tk taf jngmusjkn kd fxpfrts jn taf bury p`nfm kr `w`rc gkhhjttff, taf rkmf kd

gjtjzfns nc usfrs jn taf tfncfr pa`sf, taf usf kd cjojt`m hf`ns dkr gkhhunjg`tjkn

`nc fv`mu`tjkn kd taf rfqufsts dkr jnvjt`tjkn `nc tfncfr prkpks`ms, `nc wjmc g`rcs

dkr ‑ykuno‚ djrhs (@tfmjfr Ifhpf ajmm, 5<<19 v`n cfr \km, ft `m., 5<<:).

Wfvfr`m utakrs suoofst fstèmjsajno n jncfpfncfnt tfncfr ùtakrjty tk ga`nof

taf gurrfnt pr`gtjgf. af Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt gkumc pm`y `n jhpkrt`nt

rkmf jn tajs ùtakrjty efgùsf (s)af `nc taf st`dd kd taf @tfmjfr Ujbisekuwhffstfr

`mrf`cy suppkrt ` nuhefr kd gfntr`m okvfrnhfnt`m ekcjfs jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns.

af Wtfunpunt kd @rgajtfgtuur Mki``m js `msk kdtfn hfntjknfc `s g`ncjc`tf dkr `

n`tjkn`m fxpfrtjsf gfntrf. Fx`hpmfs `rf tìfn drkh nfjoaekurjno gkuntrjfs suga`s Efmojuh, Ofrh`ny `nc Dr`ngf. Curjno 5<<: sfvfr`m gkhpm`jnts `nc sfrvjgf

cfsis wfrf (rf)fstèmjsafc ey taf Cutga prkdfssjkn`m kro`njs`tjkns, suga taf EN@,

@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m `nc NF\UKH. afsf jnjtj`tjvfs `rf jn `ccjtjkn tk taf fxjst-

jno Cutga \uemjg \rkgurfhfnt Fxpfrtjsf Gfntfr \J@NKk `nc taf \rkgurfhfnt

Jnstjtutf dkr Gknstrugtjkn `nc Jndr`strugturf g`mmfc ‑Aft @`nefstfcjnosjnstjtuut‚,

wajga h`jnmy dkgus kn tfncfrs dkr wkris, suppmjfs `nc ktafr sfrvjgfs r`tafr ta`n

`rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. Jn Cfgfhefr 5<<: taf @tfmjfr Ujbisekuwhffstfr, EN@,

NF\UKH `nc TNO `nnkungfc tafjr suppkrt dkr taf usf kd ` nfw tfncfr hkcfm

dkr `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns, taf ‑Ikhp`s Mjoat‚ (@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m, 5<<:e), wajga

wkumc rfpm`gf `mm taf prfvjkus oujcfmjnfs. afjr `jh js tk stjhum`tf `mm ktafr ijncskd jnstjtutjkns, gknsumt`nts `nc puemjg gmjfnts tk usf taf s`hf hkcfm `nc eujmc `

nfw st`nc`rc.

3.4.5 Hkcfms `nc oujcfmjnfs

Jn n ttfhpt tk suppkrt puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnts sfvfr`m hkcfms, oujcfmjnfs,

rfoum`tjkns `nc prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt oujcfs a`vf effn cfvfmkpfc. èmf 3.6 prk-

vjcfs `n kvfrvjfw kd taf stfps ta`t nffc tk ef tìfn jn taf prkgfss kd taf prfp`r`-

tjkn `nc rf`mjz`tjkn kd ` rfstrjgtfc tfncfr (f.o. @rrkwshjta, 5<<69 Ga`k-Cujvjs,

ft `m., 5<<?9 Fssfrs, 5<<:9 Afynfn, 5<<09 \jbn`gifr Akrcjbi, v`n cfr Efnc, & v`nNkuauys, 5<<:9 Wprfjrfofn, 0:?:9 Wtrkno, 0:?4).

Durtafr `n`mysjs kd taf puemjg`tjkns èkut tfncfrs jn taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf

sakws ta`t taf puemjg`tjkns g`n ef cjvjcfc jntk djvf g`tfokrjfs2

\rkgurfhfnt hftakcs `nc hkcfms.

Gkhpftjtjkn hkcfms `nc oujcfmjnfs.

Cfgjsjkn suppkrt `nc n`vjo`tjkn systfhs.

\rkbfgt h`nòfhfnt tkkms `nc hftakcs.

jps & rfgkhhfnc`tjkns (kdtfn jn gkhejn`tjkn wjta ktafr g`tfokrjfs).

0.

5.

7.

3.

6.



0<6

afsf g`tfokrjfs kd suppkrt tkkms dkr taf kro`njs`tjkn kd ` tfncfr jn `rgaj-tfgtur`m cfsjon sakw taf humtj-d`gftfc n`turf kd ` tfncfr prkbfgt. G`tfokrjfs `rf

kdtfn gkhejnfc jn taf puemjg`tjkns, dkr fx`hpmf taf hkcfms wjta taf tjps `nc rfg-

khhfnc`tjkns, kr taf gkhpftjtjkn hkcfms wjta taf prkgurfhfnt hkcfms.

af puemjg`tjkns kn prkgurfhfnt hftakcs `nc hkcfms `rf wrjttfn drkh ` mf-

o`m pfrspfgtjvf. afy cfsgrjef taf pkssjejmjtjfs `s wfmm `s taf jhpkssjejmjtjfs ta`t

prkgurfhfnt m`w kddfrs `nc skhftjhfs `msk skhf tjps `nc trjgis. Hkst kd tafsf

hkcfms `rjsf drkh taf puemjg`tjkn kd taf FV Cjrfgtjvf jn 0::39 skhf wfrf h`cf

fspfgj`mmy dkr rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. af hkst jhpkrt`nt Cutga fx`hpmfs t taf hk-

hfnt `rf taf ‑Mfjcr``c @`nefstfcfn‚ (B`nsfn, 5<<:) dkr tfncfrs jn gknstrugtjkn,

`nc ‑Ikhp`s Mjoat‚ (@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m, 5<<:e). af Ikhp`s Mjoat js `n `p-prkprj`tf fx`hpmf kd ` gkhejn`tjkn kd ` tfncfr hkcfm wjta ` gkhpftjtjkn hkcfm

dkr `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn.

af gkhpftjtjkn hkcfms `rf kdtfn wrjttfn ey `rgajtfgts kr ktafr prkdfssjkn-

`ms jn taf djfmc kd cfsjon `nc cfvfmkpfc ey okvfrnhfnt m ekcjfs. afsf oujcfmjnfs

`nc hkcfms kdtfn cfrjvf drkh gkhpftjtjkn rfoum`tjkns jn 0:ta `nc 5<ta gfntury

`nc jngmucf rfgkhhfnc`tjkns tk suppkrt ` cfgjsjkn. Jntfrn`tjkn`m fx`hpmfs `rf

‑\`rtjgjp`tjno jn @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkn (Wtrkno, 0:?4), ‑Cfsjon Gkhpftjtjkns‚

(Wprfjrfofn, 0:?:), ‑Hkcfm dkr Uunnjno Cfsjon Gkhpftjtjkns‚ (N`s`r, 0:::),

‑Pu`mjdjg`tjkns‗E`sfc Wfmfgtjkn‚ (Knt`rjk @sskgj`tjkn kd @rgajtfgts, 5<<1) `nc

‑Kvfrafjcskpcr`gatfn `rgajtfgtuur‚ (Afynfn, 5<<0). Fx`hpmfs dkr taf Cutga

\rfp`r`tjkn

`. Dkrh prkbfgt tf`h

e. Fxpmkrf taf h`rift

g. Cftfrhjnf jd prkgurfhfnt m`w `ppmjfs

c. Cfgjcf èkut taf tfncfr prkgfcurf nc pm`nnjno

f. Dkrhum`tf tfncfr jntfntjkn `nnkungfhfnt

d. Cfgjcf taf kebfgt kd taf tfncfr `nc gkntr`gto. Cftfrhjnf taf `hejtjkn `nc erjfd

a. Cftfrhjnf taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs

j. Cfgjcf taf grjtfrj` `nc hftakc dkr taf sfmfgtjkn

b. Cfgjcf taf grjtfrj` `nc hftakc dkr `w`rcjno taf gkntr`gt

i. Cfgjcf taf rumfs kd taf tfncfr

Uf`mjs`tjkn

j. @nnkungf taf tfncfr

jj. Wfnc kut g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn

jjj. Ufgfjvf nc prkgfss g`ncjc`tfs‚ grfcfntj`ms

jv. @ssfss `nc sfmfgt taf g`ncjc`tfs

v. Jssuf taf g`mm dkr tfncfrs

vj. Ufgfjvf nc strugturf taf tfncfr prkpks`ms

vjj. Wtrugturf `nc ssfss taf prkpks`ms

vjjj. Bucof taf prkpks`ms

jx. @mmkg`tf taf gkntr`gt prfmjhjn`ry

x. Bustjdy taf cfgjsjkn

xj. Djn`m mmkg`tjkn kd taf gkntr`gt

xjj. \uemjsa taf gkntr`gt `mmkg`tjkn

xjjj. Dkmmkw up `nc qu`mjty gkntrkm

Sèmf 3.6 Kvfrvjfw kd stfps tk tìf curjno ` rfstrjgtfc tfncfr jn `rgajtfgturf



0<4

gkntfxt `rf taf ‑Ikhp`s‚ dkr cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns (v`n G`hpfn & Afncrjisf,

0::?), `nc ‑Ufjswjbzfr Ofejfcskntwjiifmjno 5<<:‚ dkr cfvfmkphfnt gkhpftj-

tjkns (Ifrstfn, _kmtjno, tfr Efiif, & Erfoh`n, 5<<:). af ‚0< tjps kd taf Gajfd

Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt‚ (\`tjbn, 5<<<) sakws ` pròh`tjg `pprk`ga tk stjhum`tf

prkdfssjkn`ms jn taf djfmc.

Hkst kd taf cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfhs dkgus kn sfmfgtjkn kd gkntr`gtkrs kr prk-gurfhfnt hftakcs dkr jntfor`tfc gknstrugtjkn prkbfgts. Cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfhs

`rf cyn`hjg systfhs wajga jngmucf dungtjkns tk gkhp`rf prkgurfhfnt hftakcs

kr cfvfmkp tfncfr ckguhfnts, suga `s taf MF@ CWW (GUK_ & E`m`ngf `nc

Ufsumts, 5<<:) kr systfhs suga `s taksf cfsgrjefc ey Mkvf ft m (5<<1). af Cutga

MF@ CWW systfh js e`sfc kn taf ‚Mfjcr``c @`nefstfcfn‚ (B`nsfn, 5<<:) uncfr

taf ùtakrjty kd Ufojfr``c Ekuw (Cutga Gkungjm dkr Jnnkv`tjkn jn Eujmcjno `nc

Gknstrugtjkn). Ktafr Cutga systfhs suppkrt spfgjdjg fmfhfnts kd taf tfncfr prkg-

fss, suga `s p`st pfrdkrh`ngf kd gkntr`gtkrs (Ikkmwjbi, Ofr`fcts, & Ga`k-Cujvjs,

5<<6) kr `n`mysjno `nc gkhp`rjno cfsjon `mtfrn`tjvfs (Ejttfrh`nn, 5<<:9 v`n

Mkkn, ft `m., 5<<1). af @rgajsfmfgt systfh kddfrs ` cjojt`m pkrt`m tk gkhhunjg`tf wjta tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs `nc tfncfrfrs `nc gkmmfgt taf rfqufsts dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn

`nc prkpks`ms (JGK\, 5<<4). Jntfrn`tjkn`mmy sfvfr`m ktafr cfgjsjkn suppkrt sys-

tfhs `rf cfsgrjefc ey rfsf`rgafrs dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts (Gafuno, ft `m.,

5<<5) kr taf fv`mu`tjkn kd tfncfrs wjta humtjpmf cfgjsjkn hìfrs (\knopfno &

Mjstkn, 5<<7). Wtjmm hkrf rfsf`rga js nffcfc tk v`mjc`tf taf grjtfrj` ta`t dkrh taf

e`sjs kd tafsf gkhp`rjskn systfhs. Eut knf hust e`rf jn hjnc ta`t `mtakuoa `

pmftakr` kd tkkms nc tfganjqufs rf v`jmèmf, ”nk spfgjdjg tfganjqufs a`vf o`jnfc

wjcfsprf`c `ggfpt`ngf, p`rtjgum`rmy ey taf puemjg sfgtkr‘ (Mkvf, ft `m., 5<<1, p.

??7). afrfdkrf ` dr`hfwkri kr prkgfss n`vjo`tkr js prfdfrrfc kvfr ` prfsgrjptjvf

skmutjkn.af Kddjgf kd Okvfrnhfnt Gkhhfrgf (KOG) jn taf VI kddfrs sfvfr`m prkgurf-

hfnt ckguhfnts ta`t prkvjcf ` prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt gkntfxt dkr taf kro`njs`tjkn

kd tfncfrs jn gknstrugtjkn. Fx`hpmfs `rf \UJNGF5, taf Efst \r`gtjgf Oujc`ngf

`nc Gkmmèkr`tjvf \rkgurfhfnt. Jn taf Nftafrm`ncs tajs ijnc kd suppkrt ckfs

nkt sffh tk ef kddfrfc ey gkhp`rèmf jnstjtutfs suga `s \J@NKk. Wfvfr`m inkwm-

fcof gfntrfs, suga `s WEU (Inkwmfcof \m`tdkrh dkr Gknstrugtjkn) `nc GUK_

(N`tjkn`m Jndkrh`tjkn `nc fgankmkoy \m`tdkrh dkr r`nspkrt, Jndr`strugturf `

nc \uemjg sp`gf) ck prkvjcf suppkrt `nc inkwmfcof kn tajs h`ttfr. Cutga gkn-

sumt`ngy djrhs sffh tk djmm tajs o`p jn prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt. af Ufojfr``c Ekuw

puemjsafc sfvfr`m rfpkrts èkut jnnkv`tjkn, gkmmèkr`tjkn, trust `nc jntforjty jntaf gknstrugtjkn sfgtkr (Ekucfwjbn & Erkfiaujzfn, 5<<?, 5<<:9 Omuni & Kmjf,

5<<1).

E`sfc kn taf prfvjkus sfgtjkns sfvfr`m jssufs g`n ef cjstjnoujsafc ta`t sffh kd

spfgjdjg jntfrfst dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt2

Wijmms `nc hf`ns rfqujrfc tk kro`njsf ` tfncfr.

Dkrhum`tjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd.

Gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury.

fganjqufs `nc hftakcs tk prfsfnt taf prkpks`ms.

@ssfsshfnt, fv`mu`tjkn `nc bucofhfnt kd taf prkpks`ms.

\`rtjgjp`tjkn kd usfrs, vjsjtkrs `nc gjtjzfns.

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0<?

afsf jssufs `rf `mm p`rt kd taf `n`mysjs dr`hfwkri ta`t w`s usfc jn taf fhpjrj-

g`m g`sfs kd tajs tafsjs ta`t mfc tk ` g`tfokrjs`tjkn kd `gtkr jcfntjdjg`tjkn, `n`mysjs

kd taf prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, `hejtjkn & erjfd, tfncfr prkgfcurf, stìfakmcfr

jnvkmvfhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn prkgfss (sff Ga`ptfr 4). @ gkhp`rjskn kd taf puemjg`-

tjkn g`tfokrjfs tk tafsf jssufs sakws ta`t nknf kd taf puemjg`tjkns gknnfgts taf

rfqujrfc `gtjvjtjfs kd prfp`r`tjkn `nc rf`mjz`tjkn tk taf kutput kd sfmfgtjno `n `r-gajtfgt (sff èmf 3.4).

@mtakuoa hkst kd taf puemjg`tjkns hfntjkn `spfgts kd taf jssufs, taf dkgus

rfh`jns sg`ttfrfc. Wkhf puemjg`tjkns dkgus kn gknstrugtjkn jn ofnfr`m wajmf kta-

frs `rf spfgjdjg dkr taf sjtu`tjkn kd sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt. af hkcfms dkgus kn taf

tfncfr ckguhfnts s rfsumt kd taf prkbfgt, wajmf prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt tkkms dkgus

kn taf prkgfss kd prfp`r`tjkn `nc rf`mjz`tjkn. ajs jhpmjfs ta`t jn krcfr tk hìf

` tfncfr jn `rgajtfgturf suggfssdum, sfvfr`m ijncs kd puemjg`tjkns `rf nffcfc. af

fxjstjno puemjg`tjkns `mm sakw kptjkns `nc uncfrmyjno gknsjcfr`tjkns, kdtfn e`sfc

kn jhpmjgjt inkwmfcof, eut ck nkt tfmm fxfhpm`ry stkrjfs ta`t jmmustr`tf wa`t `gtu-

`mmy a`ppfns jn taf gkhpmfxjty kd kro`njzjno ` wakmf tfncfr prkgfss. af hkcfmsck nkt prkvjcf gakjgf kutsjcf taf kptjkns prkvjcfc jn taf rfoum`tjkns nc fxjstjno

hkcfms nc ck nkt trjoofr gtjkn. afy ck nkt gknsjcfr taf humtj-cjsgjpmjn`ry nc

pktfntj`mmy gkndmjgtjno n`turf kd taf prkemfh kd `ssurjno qu`mjty curjno taf sfmfg-

tjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt. Jn hy kpjnjkn tajs js cuf tk taf d`gt ta`t tafy `mm try tk skmvf

taf prkemfh drkh wjtajn tafjr kwn r`tjkn`mjty `nc nkt dkgus kn taf uncfrmyjno

prjngjpmfs kd auh`n efa`vjkur.

3.? Gkngmusjkn

Jn tajs ga`ptfr J `ccrfssfc taf pkmjtjg`m, gumtur`m, mfo`m `nc fgknkhjg`m gkntfxt kd`rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn, `nc sakwfc skhf gurrfnt suoofstjkns dkr jhprkvfhfnt. Zft

tafsf suoofstjkns ck nkt `ppf`r tk skmvf taf gkhpmftf sft kd prkemfhs kggurrjno

jn gurrfnt Cutga pr`gtjgf tkc`y. af nffc tk jhpmfhfnt fxjstjno oujcfmjnfs kr `

sjnomf hkcfm sffhs hkrf urofnt ta`n taf cfvfmkphfnt kd nfw hkcfms `nc oujcf-

mjnfs. Hkst kd taf gkhhktjkn ekut Furkpf`n tfncfrs jn rgajtfgturf js gùsfc ey

`rgajtfgts. \uemjg gmjfnts `rf rfh`rièmy èsfnt jn taf cjsgussjkn, bust `s `g`cfh-

jgs. Wystfh`tjg c`t` gkmmfgtjkn js hjssjno. _jtakut efngah`ri c`t` nk rfgkhhfn-

c`tjkns g`n ef h`cf kn taf mfvfm kd rfqujrfhfnt, taf ga`ngfs kd wjnnjno kr taf

sjzf kd djn`ngj`m gkhpfns`tjkn jn taf `w`rc pa`sf, nc nfjtafr g`n wf eujmc pkmjgy

ta`t js e`sfc kn d`gts `nc inkwmfcof. H`ny qufstjkns rfh`jn un`nswfrfc. _aydkr fx`hpmf ck gmjfnts prfdfr taf rfstrjgtfc prkgfcurf kvfr ktafr prkgfcurfs, suga

`s ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn; _a`t `rf taf truf gksts kd tfncfrs, `nc `rf tafsf gksts jn

e`m`ngf wjta taf efnfdjts; @nc way ck `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs stjmm p`rtjgjp`tf jn sk

h`ny tfncfrs, fvfn takuoa tafjr ga`ngfs ck nkt `ppf`r rf`mjstjg; Akw sakumc `

tfncfr prkgfcurf ef cfsjonfc cjddfrfntmy;

@rgajtfgts kdtfn sffh tk dkroft ta`t efdkrf taf jntrkcugtjkn kd taf prkgurf-

hfnt rfoum`tjkns, taf p`trknòf systfh cjc nkt hìf jt f`sy dkr ykuno t`mfnt

kr dkr mfss nktfc djrhs tk fntfr taf h`rift fjtafr. Furkpf`n tfncfrs `rf ` stfp jn

taf rjoat cjrfgtjkn tk kpfn up taf puemjg h`rift `nc jn sfmfgtjno `rgajtfgts jn

taf d`jrfst pkssjemf h`nnfr. @mtakuoa taf gkhhjssjkns kd puemjg gmjfnts `rf kdtfnga`mmfnojno prkbfgts, taf rfgfnt orkwta kd puemjg-prjv`tf jnjtj`tjvfs grf`tfs nfw



0<1

pkssjejmjtjfs dkr `rgajtfgts `s p`rt kd gknskrtj` `s wfmm. ajs rfqujrfs ` cjddfrfnt

w`y kd kro`njzjno ` cfsjon prkbfgt (Ufnjfr & Tkmifr, 5<<1). Wtjmm, èkut :6% kd

prkbfgts `rf gkhhjssjknfc wjtakut ` puemjg tfncfr efgùsf tafy gkngfrn gkn-

tr`gts efnf`ta taf hknft`ry tarfsakmcs kr `rf dkr prjv`tf gmjfnts. @mtakuoa hkst

gkhpm`jnts èkut `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn gkngfrn puemjg gmjfnts, jt js nkt gmf`r ta`t taf

gkhhjssjknjno systfh kd prjv`tf gmjfnts js `ny efttfr. _a`t fx`gtmy `rf taf cjddfr-

fngfs eftwffn taf systfh(s) ta`t prjv`tf gmjfnts usf tk sfmfgt n `rgajtfgt nc taksf

usfc ey puemjg gmjfnts; @nc way ck `rgajtfgts nkt gkhpm`jn èkut tafh `s huga;

_jmm taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt fvfr s`tjsdy ekta sjcfs kd taf h`rift; @dtfr `mm,

` gkhpftjtjkn pfr cfdjnjtjkn grf`tfs hkrf mksfrs ta`n wjnnfrs. J dffm ta`t wjtakut

` ga`nof jn gumturf `nc jn taf mfvfm kd prkdfssjkn`mjsh taf gurrfnt prkemfhs wjmm

gkntjnuf. @ efttfr sprf`c kd inkwmfcof `nc pkmjgy hìjno gkumc gkntrjeutf tk

tajs ga`nof eut jt rfqujrfs `msk ` ga`nof kd `ttjtucfs `nc efa`vjkur kd taf `gtkrs

tafhsfmvfs tk rf`mjsf jt.

@ gmjfnt dumdjms ` vfry jhpkrt`nt rkmf jn ` eujmcjno prkbfgt, fspfgj`mmy curjno

taf prfp`r`tjkns kd ` tfncfr gkhpftjtjkn. af gakjgfs h`cf curjno taf prfp`r`-

tjkn pa`sf cftfrhjnf tk ` gknsjcfrèmf fxtfnt taf rfsumts `nc `pprkprj`tfnfss kd

taf tfncfr, `s wfmm `s taf stymf kd taf `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. Fxjstjno inkwmfcof rf-

h`jns sg`ttfrfc `nc js nkt usfc `cfqu`tfmy ey taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjtjfs. Knmy

taf prkgurfhfnt hkcfms a`vf n kemjo`tkry n`turf nc gkumc gtu`mmy ef fndkrgfc.

Akwfvfr, jt `ppf`rs ta`t jt js taf pfrgfptjkn kd tafsf mfo`m kemjo`tjkns r`tafr ta`n

taf `gtu`m prkgurfhfnt m`w ta`t prfvfnt ` sfmfgtjkn prkgfss e`sfc kn kpfn cj`-mkouf eftwffn taf gmjfnt `nc taf `rgajtfgts èkut cfsjon qu`mjty. afrf `rf nk

kpfn cjsgussjkns èkut taf cjddjgumtjfs fxpfrjfngfc ey gmjfnts `s wfmm `s `rgajtfgts.

\rkdfssjkns tfnc tk sf`rga dkr skmutjkns wjtajn tafjr kwn ckh`jns wajmf `n `rgaj-

tfgt sfmfgtjkn js jn d`gt ` humtj-cjsgjpmjn`ry pafnkhfnkn ey n`turf. @ o`p fxjsts

eftwffn taf fxjstjno strugturfs prkvjcfc tk suppkrt cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc `gtu`m

cfgjsjkn hìjno kd puemjg gmjfnts. Gmjfnts ck nkt sffh èmf tk hìf fnkuoa sfnsf

kut kd taf fxjstjno strugturfs. ajs rfsf`rga `jhs `t gkntrjeutjno tk erjcof tajs

o`p drkh ` psygakmkojg`m pfrspfgtjvf ey cfsgrjejno `nc fxpm`jnjno akw sfmfgtjkn

cfgjsjkns wfrf tìfn jn taf p`st `nc akw tafy gkumc ef `ddfgtfc jn taf duturf. af

`jh kd tajs rfsf`rga js tafrfdkrf tk fxpksf uncfrmyjno efa`vjkur`m pafnkhfn` kdgmjfnts sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt dkr ` eujmcjno jn taf puemjg ckh`jn.

\ r k g u r f h f n t

h k c f m s

G k h p f t j t j k n

h k c f m s

C f g j s j k n s u p -

p k r t s y s t f h s

\ r k b f g t h ` n ` o f -

h f n t t k k m s

@gtkr jcfntjffg`tjkn x x

\rkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs x x

@hejtjkn nc Erjfd x x

\rkgfcurf x x

Wtìfakmcfrs x x

Cfgjsjkn prkgfss x

Sèmf 3.4 Dkgus kd puemjg`tjkns èkut `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns



000

Ga`ptfr 6

S AFKUFSJG@M DU@HF_KUI

6.0 Jntrkcugtjkn

af rfsf`rga qufstjkns jn tajs stucy `rf2





_a`t `rf taf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd prkgfcurfs dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd`rgajtfgts;

af prfvjkus ga`ptfrs jntrkcugfc ` nuhefr kd tafkrftjg`m `nc pr`gtjg`m jnsjoats

èkut taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt jn taf gkntfxt kd FV tfncfrjno rfo-

um`tjkns. FV prkgurfhfnt m`w sfts taf rfqujrfhfnts dkr taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss.

Akwfvfr, puemjg gmjfnts `rf djncjno jt cjddjgumt tk gkhpmy wjta tafsf rumfs `nc

rfoum`tjkns. af prfvjkus ga`ptfrs jncjg`tf ta`t tfncfrjno jnvkmvfs ` prkgfss kd

gknsgjkus `nc ungknsgjkus cfgjsjkn hìjno jn wajga gkndmjgts g`n kggur eftwffn

mfo`m kemjo`tjkns, okvfrn`ngf rfspknsjejmjtjfs nc gkhhunjty rfm`tfc fxpfgt`tjkns.

J prkpksf ta`t cfgjsjkn hìjno jn suga ` spfgjdjg, fmusjvf `nc cyn`hjg gkntfxtrfqujrfs fxpfrtjsf jn cjddfrfnt ckh`jns tk ef èmf tk jntfrprft `nc hìf sfnsf kd

taf cfgjsjkn t`si. @ gknsfqufngf kd sffjno `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn `s suga ` cyn`hjg

prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno js ta`t jt js nkt rf`mjstjg tk fxpfgt gmjfnts tk `ppmy prf-`n-

nkungfc cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` `nc efa`vf `ggkrcjno tk ` prf-cfsjonfc prkgfcurf. Jn

tajs ga`ptfr taf hkst jhpkrt`nt jnsjoats kd taf prfvjkus ga`ptfrs rf jntfor`tfc jn

krcfr tk cfdjnf pkssjemf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkg-

fss jn taf gkntfxt kd Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w. afsf jhpmjg`tjkns tìf dkrh kd

` sfrjfs kd prkpksfc suggfss d`gtkrs.

af dr`hfwkri prkvjcfc jn tajs ga`ptfr g`n ef gknsjcfrfc ` erjcof eftwffn

taf tafkrftjg`m `nc taf fhpjrjg`m p`rt kd taf rfsf`rga efgùsf jt jcfntjdjfs tafga`r`gtfrjstjgs dkunc jn taf tafkrjfs èkut v`muf bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hì-

jno jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon ta`t a`vf tk ef gknsjcfrfc jn ` tfncfr

cfsjon. afsf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs mf`c tk djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs kd wajga J `ssuhf

tk pm`y ` rkmf jn taf cfgjsjkn hìjno prkgfssfs kd puemjg gmjfnts dkr taf sfmfgtjkn

kd `n `rgajtfgt. Jn taf dkmmkwjno sfgtjkn kd tajs ga`ptfr J `rouf wa`t ijnc kd prkg-

fssfs g`n ef fxpfgtfc jn taf cfgjsjkn efa`vjkur kd puemjg gmjfnts curjno ` tfncfr

`nc prkpksf uncfrmyjno suggfss d`gtkrs dkr ta`t spfgjdjg sfnsfhìjno prkgfss. af

ga`ptfr fncs wjta taf fxpm`n`tjkn kd taf rfsf`rga cfsjon `nc hftakckmkoy dkr

fhpjrjg`mmy v`mjc`tjno taf prkpksfc prkgfssfs `nc suggfss d`gtkrs. E`sfc kn taf

fhpjrjg`m rfsf`rga jn Ga`ptfrs 4 `nc ?, gkngmusjkns wjmm ef cr`wn jn Ga`ptfr 1

0.

5.

7.



005

kn tafsf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs `nc taf prkpksfc suggfss d`gtkrs,dkr taf cfsjon kd

duturf tfncfrs.

6.5 \rkpksfc suggfss d`gtkrs dkr ` tfncfr cfsjon

ajs sfgtjkn fxpmkrfs taf djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs J jcfntjdjfc drkh taf mjtfr`-

turf ta`t ga`r`gtfrjsf taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd puemjg gmjfnts curjno `rgajtfgt sfmfg-

tjkns2 0) rf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si, 5) sf`rgajno dkr ` h`tga, 7) wrjtjno taf cfgj-

sjkn prkgfss, 3) òorfo`tjno v`muf bucofhfnts, `nc 6) bustjdyjno taf cfgjsjkn. Dkr

f`ga sfnsfhìjno prkgfss taf tafkrftjg`m gkngfpts `nc djncjnos kd taf prfvjkus

ga`ptfrs mf`c tk sfvfr`m pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkrs dkr taf cfsjon kd `n `rgajtfgt drkh

` gmjfnts‚ pfrspfgtjvf. Jn tkt`m J prkpksf djdtffn suggfss d`gtkrs ta`t rfm`tf tk djvf

sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs. afsf prkgfssfs `nc d`gtkrs `rf knmy skhfwa`t garknk-

mkojg`m `nc jntfrrfm`tf. af cjvfrsf rkkts `nc gkngfptjkns kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn

`ppf`r tk gùsf ` gknsjcfrèmf `hkunt kd `hejoujty jn taf fxpfgt`tjkns èkut taf

sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt. Jn hy kpjnjkn gmjfnts tafrfdkrf a`vf tk jcfntjdytafjr `hejtjkns `nc `jhs djrst efdkrf tafy st`rt cfsjonjno ` tfncfr. Akwfvfr, taf

`jhs `nc `hejtjkn `rf suebfgt tk taf jntfr`gtjkn ta`t tìfs pm`gf curjno ` tfncfr

eftwffn taf suppmy `nc cfh`nc sjcfs kd taf h`rift. af cfgjsjkn prkgfss curjno

taf jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd taf tfncfr js e`sfc kn taf `ssfsshfnt kd taf prkpks`ms jn

krcfr tk bucof cfsjon qu`mjty. Jn tajs prkgfss taf cjddfrfnt ijncs kd v`muf bucof-

hfnts h`cf kd taf prkpks`ms a`vf tk ef òorfo`tfc. Fxpfrtjsf pm`ys `n jhpkrt`nt

rkmf jn cfdjnjno `nc sa`pjno taf strugturf kd taf prkgfcurf ta`t sakumc mf`c tk `

cfgjsjkn èkut taf wjnnfr kd ` tfncfr prkbfgt. @t taf fnc kd ` cfgjsjkn prkgfss taf

cfgjsjkn nffcs tk ef bustjdjfc tk taf stìfakmcfrs.

6.5.0 Uf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si

af djrst sfnsfhìjno prkgfss J jcfntjdjfc `s p`rt kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd pue-

mjg gmjfnts js e`sfc kn taf sfnsfrf`cjno gkngfpt `s cfsgrjefc ey E`mkoun, \yf `nc

Akcoijnskn (5<<1). Curjno taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss gmjfnts a`vf tk jntfrprft taf

gjrguhst`ngfs jn wajga tafy a`vf tk hìf tafjr cfgjsjkn `nc sa`pf taf hf`njno

kd ` suebfgt. Wa`pjno hf`njno `nc bucojno jts ga`r`gtfr `nc sjonjdjg`ngf js p`rt

kd ` dr`hjno prkgfss ta`t js rfqujrfc tk hìf cfgjsjkns (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<69

vfrsiy & Iànfh`n, 0:10). af rf`cjno kd taf cfgjsjkn t`si js `msk fvjcfnt jn

taf d`gt ta`t ` puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt `gts `s ` gmjfnt jnstf`c kd ` gustkhfr,

`nc a`s tk try tk `n`mysf cjstjngtjvf cjhfnsjkns kd `rgajtfgtur`m m`nouòf `ncgkhpftjtjkn tk inkw wa`t tk fxpfgt (Bknfs & Mjvnf-`r`nc`ga, 5<<19 Wtrkno,

0::4).

af pfrspfgtjvfs kn cfsjon qu`mjty `s cjsgussfc jn Ga`ptfr 5 - taf `rgajtfgtur-

`m cfsjon `pprk`ga (5.5), taf gkonjtjvf `pprk`ga (5.7), taf jntfr`gtjkn `pprk`ga

(5.3), nc taf prkgfss pprk`ga (5.6) - mfc tk cfdjnjtjkn ta`t cfdjnfs cfsjon qu`m-

jty `s ` v`muf bucofhfnt ta`t rfsumts drkh taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn `n jncjvjcu`m

`nc ` cfsjon kebfgt. Efgùsf kd tajs bucofhfnts èkut cfsjon qu`mjty `rf `mw`ys

h`cf jn rfm`tjkn tk taf fxjstjno v`mufs, strugturfs, hejtjkns nc nffcs kd n jncj-

vjcu`m stìfakmcfr `nc tafjr pktfntj`m dkr taf duturf. af cfgjsjkn t`si kd ` gmjfnt

curjno taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt rfqujrfs sfvfr m bucofhfnts èkut taf



007

pktfntj`m cfsjon qu`mjty. Jn krcfr tk hìf ` bucofhfnt, taf hf`njno kd ` suebfgt

a`s tk ef dr`hfc. @dtfr durtafr n`mysjs kd taf pfrspfgtjvfs kn cfsjon qu`mjty J prk-

pksf ta`t taf cjddjgumtjfs èkut bucojno cfsjon qu`mjty rfm`tf tk2 0) taf pfrspfgtjvf

ey wajga taf `ssfsshfnt js h`cf (sff Djourf 6.0), `nc 5) taf gkndjour`tjkn kd taf`ssfsshfnt (sff Djourf 6.5).

af `ssfsshfnt pfrspfgtjvf cfpfncs kn taf jntfrfsts `nc v`mufs kd taf pfrskn

wak bucofs taf qu`mjty kd taf cfsjon. @ggkrcjno tk Euggj`rfmmj (5<<7, p. ::) ”taf

kebfgt g`n hf`n, g`n ef, cjddfrfnt tajnos tk cjddfrfnt pfkpmf‘. Jn taf s`hf mjnf kd

tajnijno J suppksf ta`t cjddfrfnt p`rtjgjp`nts jn cfsjon sff taf kebfgt kd cfsjon

cjddfrfntmy cfpfncjno upkn tafjr gkhpftfngjfs, rfspknsjejmjtjfs `nc tafjr tfganj-

g`m jntfrfsts. Efgùsf kd tajs humtjd`gftfc ga`r`gtfr kd taf kebfgt, ` cfsjon js knf

kebfgt wjta humtjpmf kebfgt-wkrmcs. Durtafr n`mysjs kd taf mjtfr`turf mfc tk mjst kd

pktfntj`mmy gkndmjgtjno pfrspfgtjvfs nc jntfrfsts ta`t gkumc kggur curjno prkgfss

kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn, fjtafr drkh wjtajn taf pfrspfgtjvfs tafhsfmvfs kr eftwffntaf jntfrfsts `nc v`mufs ta`t gùsfc taf v`muf bucofhfnt (sff Djourf 6.0). Dkr fx-

`hpmf, n rgajtfgt hjoat ef hkrf gkngfrnfc wjta taf rf`gtjkns kd taf rgajtfgtur-

`m gkhhunjty ta`n ta`t kd taf pktfntj`m usfrs kd ` eujmcjno, usfrs hjoat ef hkrf

jntfrfstfc jn taf dungtjkn`mjty `nc `fstaftjgs ta`n jn gknstrugtjkn kr curèjmjty,

`nc ` prkbfgt mf`cfr hjoat dkgus hkrf kn taf prkgfss fddjgjfngy `nc fddfgtjvfnfss

ta`n kn taf prkcugt qu`mjty. Eut `s ` usfr, ` prkbfgt mf`cfr kr `n `rgajtfgt hjoat

`msk ef jntfrfstfc jn taf dungtjkn`mjty `nc `fstaftjgs, `nc ` prkbfgt mf`cfr hjoat

`msk ef gkngfrnfc èkut taf rf`gtjkns kd taf `rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty. afsf pfr-

spfgtjvfs `nc v`mufs nffc tk ef e`m`ngfc wjtajn `n jncjvjcu`m `nc wjtajn ` orkup

kd jncjvjcu`ms jn krcfr tk rf`ga ` djn`m bucofhfnt èkut cfsjon qu`mjty.af kebfgt kd hf`surfhfnt `nc taf n`turf kd taf hf`surfhfnt `rf `msk vfry

rfmfv`nt jn gkhp`rjno taf mfvfms kd cfsjon qu`mjty. @s cjspm`yfc jn Djourf 6.5,

hf`surfhfnt mfvfms gkumc dkr fx`hpmf cjddfr eftwffn taf kebfgt `nc taf gkntfxt,

taf jncjvjcu`m vfrsus ` orkup, kr `spfgts vfrsus taf tkt`mjty. Jn Ga`ptfr 5.5 J dkunc

ta`t mjtfr`turf jn rgajtfgturf usu`mmy ckfs nkt cjddfrfntj`tf g`rfdummy eftwffn hf`s-

urfhfnt mfvfms, eut ckfs cjstjnoujsa cjddfrfnt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf cfsjon. af

n`turf kd taf hf`surfhfnts cftfrhjnfs taf strugturf kd ` hf`surfhfnt. Cfsjon

kebfgts g`n a`vf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t g`n ef cyn`hjg, st`tjg, t`nojemf, jnt`nojemf,

pfrgfjvfc, sfnsfc ftg. (sff Djourf 6.5). afsf cjvfrsf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs jndmufngf taf

èjmjty tk qu`ntjdy kr qu`mjdy taf `ssfsshfnt kd taf cfsjon qu`mjtjfs. @ eujmcjno

\FUW\FGSJTF/ JNSFUFWSW

`rtjstjg fxprfssjkn vs. prkdfssjkn`m jntfrfst vs. usfr sfrvjgf

fxpfrts vs. m`yhfn

.

gksts vs. qu`mjty

`fstaftjgs vs. dungtjkn`mjty vs. gknstrugtjkn vs. curèjmjty

purga`sf vs. h`jntfn`ngf

ok`ms vs. hf`ns.

`gtjvf burkr vs. p`ssjvf pfrgfjvfr

cfe`tf vs. cfgjsjkn hìjno

Djourf 6.0 Kvfrvjfw kd pfrspfgtjvfs jn `ssfssjno qu`mjty `nc v`muf jn cfsjon



003

g`n ef sffn `s gknsjstjno kd df`turfs kr p`rts ta`t g`n ef hf`surfc `nc sfnsfc

paysjg`mmy, suga `s jts jnckkr gmjh`tf kr afjoat. Jt `msk gknt`jns h`ny `spfgts ta`t

prkvjcf hf`njno, suga `s taf jhp`gt kn taf fnvjrknhfnt `nc taf sfnsf kd akhf.

afsf cjddfrfngfs rfm`tf tk taf t`nojejmjty kd ` df`turf. Cfsjon qu`mjty rfm`tfs tk taf

suh kd tafsf cjddfrfnt qu`mjtjfs. Jn taf sjtu`tjkns kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn jt sffhs

mjifmy ta`t bucofhfnts wjmm `mw`ys prkcugf gkndmjgts èkut taf pktfntj`m cfsjon

qu`mjty ta`t taf g`ncjc`tfs kddfr. @n `ssfsshfnt èkut cfsjon qu`mjty js vfry gkh-

pmfx nc cjvfrsf nc g`nnkt ef cfdjnfc jn st`tjg h`nnfr. Wkhf hf`ns kd rrjvjno

`t `nc puemjsajno taf bucofhfnts wjmm jndm`hf gkndmjgts, wajmf ktafrs h`y `mm`y

tafh. af `ssfsshfnt systfh kd cfsjon qu`mjty sakumc `ccrfss ekta t`nojemf `nc

jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs eut msk ga`nnfm cfgjsjkn. Efgùsf kd tajs gkhpmfxjty J

prfsuhf ta`t cfsjon qu`mjty js fvfntu`mmy pfrgfjvfc kn ` akmjstjg mfvfm curjno cfgj-

sjkn hìjno. Jn krcfr tk suggfssdummy rf`c taf cfgjsjkn t`si J `ssuhf ta`t2

af hyrj`c kd tafkrftjg`m nc pr`gtjg`m jnsjoats jn taf prfvjkus ga`ptfrs ekut

v`muf bucofhfnts `nc cfgjsjkns sakwfc ta`t cfgjsjkn hìjno wjta taf `jh kd sf-

mfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt `ccrfssfs ` mkt kd pktfntj`mmy gkndmjgtjno ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`tkrjojn`tf drkh taf cjvfrsf rkkts kd taf pafnkhfnkn2 taf tfncfrjno dkr wkris

HKHFNS KD HF@WVUFHFNS

rfprfsfnt`tjkns kd duturf kebfgts vs. fxjstjno paysjg`m kebfgts

prf-purga`sf vs. pkst-purga`sf

. .

KEBFGS KD HF@WVUFHFNS

.

jncjvjcu`m vs. kro`njs`tjkn vs. skgjfty mfvfm

kvfr`mm v`muf vs. gksts/qu`mjty e`m`ngf

orkups vs. jncjvjcu`ms

`spfgts vs. tkt`mjty

.

t`nojemf spfgts vs. jnt`nojemf spfgts

s`tjsd`gtjkn vs. cjss`tjsd`gtjkn

qu`mjdjg`tjkn vs. qu`ntjdjg`tjkn

v`mufs vs. v`muf systfh

kebfgt `s suga vs. kebfgt `s pfrgfjvfc

sjhum tjkn vs. rf m mjdf.st`tjg vs. cyn`hjg

hf`surfhfnt vs. hf`njno

Djourf 6.5 Kvfrvjfw kd gknour`tjkn kptjkns dkr gkhp`rjno qu`mjty `nc v`muf jn cfsjon

D`gtkr 0

@ tfncfr wjmm prkcugf dfwfr gknjgts `nc wjmm ef hkrf suggfssdum jd taftfncfr cfsjon mmkws dkr ` akmjstjg bucofhfnt ta`t jngkrpkr`tfs pktfntj`mmygknjgtjno bucofhfnts wjtajn jtsfmd.



006

`nc sfrvjgfs, taf sf`rga dkr ` p`rtnfr, `nc taf cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn (Wtrkno, 0::4).

Curjno `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns `ssuhptjkns `rf h`cf èkut duturf dungtjknjno kd `

eujmcjno `nc gfrt`jn `mtfrn`tjvfs nffc tk ef gkhp`rfc. @t tajs stòf jn taf cfsjon

prkbfgt ` v`mjc `nc rfmjèmf fstjh`tjkn kd taf gknstrugtjkn gkst jn rfm`tjkn tk taf

pktfntj`m qu`mjty js huga hkrf gkhpmjg`tfc ta`n taf rfm`tjknsajp eftwffn prjgf

`nc qu`mjty `t taf st`rt kd ` gknstrugtjkn prkbfgt. ajs `ppf`rs tk ef rfdmfgtfc jntaf nuhefr kd tfncfrs w`rcfc kn taf mkwfst prjgf (prfdfrrfc jn gknstrugtjkn) nc

taf hkst fgknkhjg`mmy `cv`ntòfkus tfncfr (prfdfrrfc jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns). Zft

` suppksfcmy jrrfgkngjmèmf pafnkhfnkn tìfs pm`gf curjno `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns.

ajs a`s tk ck wjta taf d`gt ta`t taf djn`m `jh kd taf gmjfnt js tk euy ` wkri (` nfw

eujmcjno), eut taf gmjfnt hust djrst sfmfgt `n `rgajtfgt e`sfc kn ` rfprfsfnt`tjkn

kd taf pktfntj`m wkri. af prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn knmy `mmkws `n jncjrfgt

mjni wjta taf djn`m `jh kd taf gmjfnt2 ` nfw eujmcjno. af prkcugts kd taf `rgajtfgt

`nc kd taf gkntr`gtkr rf kdtfn sfp`r`tfc curjno taf sfmfgtjkns prkgfssfs eut t taf

s`hf tjhf `msk tafy `rf gknnfgtfc ey jn taf hjncs kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. af

hjxturf kd `jhs `nc hf`ns gùsfs ta`t taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt js `gkhpmjg`tfc prkgfss wjta ` skhfwa`t ungmf`r `jh `t taf efojnnjno.

Djourf 6.7 prfsfnts taf tfnsjkns ta`t `ppf`r kdtfn drkh taf cjddfrfnt jntfrfsts

`t pm`y jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. af mfdt sjcf kd taf djourf sakws taf `rgajtfgtur`m

gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn, wajga js e`sfc kn taf gmjfnt‚s jntfntjkn tk `gqujrf ` cfsjon

prkcugt `s ` p`trkn. ajs tr`cjtjkn `ginkwmfcofs taf `rtjstjg ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd `n

`rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. _afn gmjfnts mkki dkr `n `rgajtfgt dkr taf cfsjon kd ` puemjg

eujmcjno, `rgajtfgts `rf kdtfn `sifc tk sakw tafjr gkhpftfngfs tk taf puemjg `nc

tk taf gmjfnt `nknyhkusmy. ajs puemjg cfe`tf js p`rt kd taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cj-

tjkn. Curjno gkhpftjtjkn taf dkgus mjfs kn taf cfsjon kd, kr vjsjkn dkr, taf duturf

eujmcjno. af rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty js rfprfsfntfc jn ` bury gkhhjttff ta`t a`staf ùtakrjty tk `ppkjnt ` wjnnfr e`sfc kn `nknyhkus fv`mu`tjkn kd taf cfsjon

prkpks`ms. ajs tr`cjtjkn js e`sfc kn taf ssuhptjkn ta`t ` p`rtnfr jn `rgajtfgtur`m

cfsjon g`n ef gaksfn ey bucojno taf gkhpftfngfs kd ` pfrskn ey (`nknyhkusmy)

fv`mu`tjno ajs kr afr paysjg`m wkri kr ` prfvjfw kd tajs prkcugt.

GKH\FSJSJKN SU@CJSJKN

\rkcugt

\UKGVUFHFNS \UJNGJ\MFW

\`rtnfr

k ` kg` kn @rtjst

Kebfgt dkgus

Gknsumt`tjkn

frv gf ` kg` knFntrfprfnfur

\rkgfss dkgus

@gqujsjtjkn

fs on gkngfpt

Gkst-qu`mjty r`tjk

Gkhpftjtjkn rfoum`tjkns

Bury utakrjty

rk fgt v s kn

T`muf h`xjhjs`tjkn

Sfncfr prkgfcurfs

Gmjfnt utakrjty

nknyh y n fr`g kn

Djourf 6.7 Sfnsjkns krjojn`tjno drkh taf gkhpftjno gkngfptjkns kd taf `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn

prkgfss



004

af rjoat sjcf kd taf djourf sakws taf prkgurfhfnt prjngjpmfs `nc tafjr h`n-

òfrj`m prkgfssfs ta`t `ppmy tk taf sjtu`tjkn kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn. Jn taf prk-

gurfhfnt `pprk`ga `rgajtfgts `rf gknsjcfrfc `s fntrfprfnfurj`m sfrvjgf prkvjcfrs

gkhpftjno dkr gkntr`gt. Vncfrmyjno taf FV prkgfcurfs js taf jcf` kd sfmfgtjno `

p`rtnfr dkr ` eujmcjno prkbfgt wak js g`pèmf kd cfsjonjno taf duturf eujmcjno.

Wuga ` prkgfss dkgusfs kn h`xjhuh v`muf dkr taf gmjfnt `nc tafrfdkrf taf gmjfnta`s taf djn`m cfgjsjkn ùtakrjty ‗ ‑af wak p`ys taf pjpfr g`mms taf tunf‚. Jn krcfr

tk inkw wjta wakh taf gmjfnt wjmm ef ckjno eusjnfss wjta, jntfr`gtjkn js `n jh-

pkrt`nt fmfhfnt jn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss.

Ekta `pprk`gafs jn Djourf 6.7 cjspm`y ` vjfw kd taf sf`rga dkr ` p`rtnfr jn

cfsjon jn mjnf wjta tafjr kwn r`tjkn`mjty `nc tr`cjtjkns. Jn hy kpjnjkn ekta `p-

prk`gafs `rf `pprkprj`tf. Akwfvfr, taf fx`gt emfnc jn `ny p`rtjgum`r sfmfgtjkn prk-

gfcurf hust rfdmfgt `s mkno `s tafy djt taf `jhs kd taf gmjfnt. Ekta taf gkhpftjtjkn

`nc taf tfncfr tr`cjtjkn rfqujrf jntujtjvf bucofhfnts `s wfmm `s r`tjkn`m `n`mytjg`m

tajnijno tk bucof taf gkhpftfngfs kd taf tfncfrfr nc taf qu`mjty kd taf prkpks`m.

Eut wa`t fx`gtmy js taf sfrvjgf ta`t ` cfsjon djrh cfmjvfrs `nc akw g`n jt ef `s-sfssfc; @ gmjfnt tafrfdkrf a`s tk `n`mysf tafjr `jhs kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss djrst

`nc tafn st`rt tk cfvfmkp `n `ssfsshfnt prkgfss dkr sfmfgtjkn. C`y `nc E`risc`mf

(0::5) nc Gafuno, Iufn nc Wijthkrf (5<<5) dkunc ta`t `rgajtfgts rf ssfssfc

kn tafjr pfrgfjvfc fxpfrtjsf, fxpfrjfngf `nc gkhpftfngfs, taf e`giorkunc kd taf

djrh, tafjr uncfrst`ncjno `nc rfm`tjknsajp wjta taf gmjfnts, `nc taf mjifmjakkc

ta`t tafy wjmm gkndkrh tk taf gkntr`gtu`m `nc `chjnjstr`tjvf rfqujrfhfnts. afsf

rf`skns rfdmfgt taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf n`turf kd taf sfrvjgf `nc taf pr`gtjgf kd

`ssfsshfnt jn cfsjon. @rgajtfgtur`m sfrvjgfs `ccrfss unjquf gjrguhst`ngfs `nc taf

rfsumts `rf nkt f`sjmy dkrfsffn ‗ knf g`nnkt fxpfgt `n `rgajtfgt‚s nfxt eujmcjno tk

mkki mjif ajs/afr m`st ‗ sk ta`t taf bucofhfnt hust ef h`cf nkt knmy kn prfvjkuscfsjons, eut msk jn p`rt kn taf ga`r`gtfr n sijmms taf rgajtfgt g`n cfhknstr`tf kr

cfsgrjef jn ajs/afr prkpks`m. J tafrfdkrf gkngmucf ta`t taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n rgajtfgt

rfm`tfs tk taf gkhejn`tjkn kd taf `rgajtfgt `s ` pfrskn wjta gfrt`jn gkhpftfngfs,

taf qu`mjty kd taf pktfntj`m prkcugt, nc taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf djrh tafy rfprf-

sfnt. ajs ‑p`giòf‚ g`nnkt ef tìfn `p`rt curjno cfgjsjkn hìjno. af prjkrjtjfs

`nc jhs kd gmjfnt cftfrhjnf taf rfm`tjvf e`m`ngf eftwffn taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cj-

tjkn nc prkgurfhfnt prjngjpmfs. J tafrfdkrf prfsuhf ta`t pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkr

jn rf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si wjmm ef tk `ginkwmfcof ta`t2

D`gtkr 5

@ tfncfr cfsjon wjmm knmy ef suggfssdum jd jt `ccrfssfs taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kdtaf `rgajtfgt `s ` pfrskn, taf prkpksfc cfsjon, `s wfmm `s taf rh ta`t tafyrfprfsfnt.



00?

6.5.5 Wf`rgajno dkr ` h`tga eftwffn `jhs, `hejtjkns, nffcs, `nckppkrtunjtjfs

af sfgknc prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno J cjstjnoujsa jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns js e`sfc kn

taf jntfr`gtjkn prjngjpmf kd h`rift p`rtjfs uncfrmyjno prkgurfhfnt m`w jn gkh-

ejn`tjkn kd taf jhòf tafkry kd Ef`ga (0::<) `nc taf h`tgajno prjngjpmfs kd taf

`c`ptjvf tkkmijt wjta afurjstjgs (Ojofrfnzfr & Wfmtfn, 5<<09 Ojofrfnzfr, ft `m.,

0:::). Jn taf `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss taf okvfrn`ngf strugturf kd taf gmjfnt

nffcs tk ef tìfn jntk ggkunt nc gknnfgtfc tk taf fgknkhjg`m nc mfo`m gkntfxt

kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. @ggkrcjno tk jhòf tafkry cfgjsjkn hìfrs h`tga tafjr

kwn v`mufs `nc efmjfds wjta spfgjdjg ok`ms `nc kpfr`tjkn`m pm`ns. af djrst prkgfss

kd rf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si js `n jhpkrt`nt stfp jn cfdjnjno taf ok`ms. ajs prkgfss

strknomy rfm`tfs tk taf kpfr`tjkn`m pm`ns. Jn `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss gmjfnts

a`vf tk djnc w`y tk h`tga tafjr hejtjkns nc nffcs wjta taf kppkrtunjtjfs ta`t

`rf kddfrfc ey taf `rgajtfgts ta`t bkjn ` tfncfr, ` prkgfss gkhp`rèmf tk taf djnc-

jnos kd Fmse`ga `nc Ir`hfr (5<<7).

Jn eskmutf nuhefrs taf nuhefr kd tfncfrs jn wajga rgajtfgts rf sfmfgtfc dkr

` eujmcjno prkbfgt jn taf puemjg sfgtkr js mjhjtfc9 rfgfnt nuhefrs sakw dkr 5<<:

èkut 03< rfstrjgtfc tfncfrs jn taf Nftafrm`ncs (Offrtsf, 5<0<). Akwfvfr jt rf-

o`rcs sjonjdjg`nt pkrtjkn kd mm eujmcjnos wjta puemjg ga`r`gtfr eujmt jn `ny ojv-

fn yf`r. af jhpmjg`tjkns, `nc tafrfdkrf `msk taf gkhpmfxjty kd taf `ssjonhfnt kd

taksf prkbfgts ta`t a`vf tk ef tfncfrfc, a`vf ` ajoa jhp`gt kn skgjfty. Jn cfvfmkp-

jno eujmcjnos puemjg gmjfnts hìf cfgjsjkns ta`t gkumc a`vf ` trfhfnckus jhp`gt

kn taf wfmmefjno kd h`ny pfkpmf kr orkups kd pfkpmf. Dkr rgajtfgts tafsf ijncs kd

prkbfgts rf kd h`bkr jntfrfst efgùsf kd taf kppkrtunjty tk eujmc up taf pkrtdkmjk,

taf puemjgjty ta`t gkhfs wjta taf prkbfgt, `nc `ttr`gtjvfnfss kd taf `ssjonhfnt tk

cfsjon ` puemjg eujmcjno. Kngf taf `rgajtfgt js gaksfn, (s)af wjmm efgkhf `n jh-

pkrt`nt hfhefr kd taf prkbfgt tf`h `s taf eujmcjno wjmm orf`tmy cfpfnc kn ajs kr

afr g`pèjmjtjfs tk vjsu`mjsf `nc eujmc taf ‑crf`h‚ kd taf gmjfnt.

Dkr puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnts taf prkpks`ms kd taf g`ncjc`tfs jn taf sfmfg-

tjkn pa`sf `nc tfncfrfrs jn taf `w`rc pa`sf `rf fssfntj`m jnput dkr cfgjsjkn hì-

jno. Cfgjsjkn hìfrs fxpfrjfngf mm ijncs kd cjmfhh`s ekut taf jhs, gtjkns nc

`gtkrs kd ` cfgjsjkn (Ftzjknj, 0:11). @ cfgjsjkn èkut taf wjnnfr kd taf tfncfr

a`s tk ef suppkrtfc ey taf kro`njs`tjkn kd taf gkhhjssjknjno ekcy, taf h`rift

p`rtjfs jn qufstjkn `s wfmm `s taf gkhhunjty jn ofnfr`m (Dfmch`n, 5<<7). @ tfn-

cfr wjmm tafrfdkrf prkeèmy nkt knmy gknsjst kd ` tfncfr erjfd `nc ` prkgfcurf tkhìf taf djn`m cfgjsjkn, eut `msk jngmucf ` prkgfcur`m prkgfss jn krcfr tk gkmmfgt

taf prkpks`ms drkh taf h`rift `nc ` gkngfpt tk jnvkmvf stìfakmcfrs jn cfgjsjkn

hìjno.

J suoofst `ppmyjno taf tfrh ‑cfsjon‚ `nc taf `gtjvjty kd cfsjonjno kn cfgjsjkns

ta`t `rf h`cf tk sa`pf taf tfncfr prkgfcurf9 ` gmjfnt a`s tk cfsjon ` tfncfr jn

krcfr tk sfmfgt `n `rgajtfgt. af cfsjon kd taf tfncfr prkgfcurf sakumc spfgjdy taf

dkrh`t kd taf jndkrh`tjkn usfc curjno taf `ssfsshfnt `nc bucofhfnt kd taf prk-

pks`ms `nc cftfrhjnf taf `gtkrs jn cfgjsjkn hìjno. E`sfc kn taf `jhs kd taf gmj-

fnt, ` pfrspfgtjvf a`s tk ef gaksfn tk cfsjon taf tfncfr rfoum`tjkns ta`t sft taf cj-

rfgtjkn kd taf tfncfr (sff Djourf 6.7). af cjrfgtjkn `nc `jh kd taf tfncfr sakumcef rfdmfgtfc jn taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` `nc taf prkgfcurf ta`t `rf usfc. Jn tfrhs kd



001

tajs rfsf`rga tajs hf`ns ta`t taf tfrh ‑cfsjon‚ skhftjhfs rfdfrs tk taf sfrvjgfs `nc

prkcugts kddfrs ey taf rgajtfgts (taf suppmy sjcf kd taf h`rift) nc skhftjhfs ey

taf gkhhjssjknjno puemjg gmjfnts (taf cfh`nc kr purga`sjno sjcf kd taf h`rift.

J `ssuhf ta`t jt js taf pktfntj`m djt eftwffn taf cfsjon kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss `nc

taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf tfncfr prkbfgt ta`t fvfntu`mmy cftfrhjnfs taf qu`mjty kd

taf h`tga eftwffn taf gmjfnt `nc taf `rgajtfgt. ajs mf`cs tk taf dkmmkwjno pktfn-tj`m suggfss d`gtkr jn sf`rgajno dkr h`tga eftwffn taf `jhs, nffcs, hejtjkns nc

kppkrtunjtjfs kd `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss2

Gjtjzfns, pkmjtjgj`ns, `nc taf `rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty a`vf orf`t jntfrfst jn

tafsf ijncs kd tfncfr prkbfgts. Jt usu`mmy cfpfncs kn taf jhp`gt kd taf duturf

eujmcjno jd puemjg gmjfnts jnvkmvf taf gjtjzfns, fxpfrts jn rgajtfgturf nc gjty pm`n-

njno kr ktafr stìfakmcfrs jn taf prkgfss (v`n cfr \km, ft `m., 5<<:). Wkhf kd taf

prkemfhs jn gurrfnt pr`gtjgf jncjg`tf ta`t taf nkjsf ta`t js grf`tfc `rkunc `rgaj-

tfgt sfmfgtjkns p`rtmy rfm`tfs tk taf jnvkmvfhfnt kd stìfakmcfrs, fspfgj`mmy gjtjzfns,

`nc tafjr pktfntj`m jndmufngf kn taf djn`m rfsumts. ajs gkumc ef gùsfc ey taf m`gi

kd ` gmf`r cjstjngtjkn eftwffn p`rtjgjp`tjkn `jhs `nc mkeeyjno purpksfs kd gmjfnts

(Grksey, ft `m., 0:14). Dkr taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt J jcfntjdjfc djvf `g-

tkr orkups ta`t gkumc ef jnvkmvfc jn cfgjsjkn hìjno2 stìfakmcfrs ta`t krjojn`tfdrkh taf okvfrn`ngf strugturf (f.o. gjtjzfns `nc prkdfssjkn`ms), stìfakmcfrs ta`t

`rf p`rt kd taf gmjfnt kro`njs`tjkn (f.o. fhpmkyffs, pkmjtjg`m p`rtjfs), st`dd hfhefrs

ta`t `rf p`rt kd taf prkbfgt tf`h, hfhefrs kd taf bury p`nfm `gtjno `s ` sfmfgtjkn

`nc/kr `w`rc gkhhjttff, `nc taf stffrjno gkhhjttff kd taf puemjg gkhhjssjkn-

jno gmjfnt. af stìfakmcfrs `mm a`vf ` cjddfrfnt rkmf `nc jntfrfst jn taf eujmcjno

prkbfgt nc taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd taf rgajtfgt. Dkr mm gtkr orkups taf cvjskry

kr cfgjsjvf rjoats nffcs tk ef prkpfrmy `ccrfssfc (sff dkr fx`hpmf Fcfmfneks &

Imjbn, 5<<69 Trkkh & Bòk, 0:11).

èmf 6.0 sakws dkur str`tfojfs J cjstjnoujsafc jn p`rtjgjp`tjkn rkmfs kd `g-

tkrs curjno gkhpftjtjkns `nc tfncfrs2 taf tr`cjtjkn gkhpftjtjkn, taf p`rtjgjp`-tkry gkhpftjtjkn, taf gkhp`gt tfncfr, `nc taf p`rtjgjp`tkry tfncfr. af hkcfm kd

Trkkh `nc Zfttkn (0:11) kddfrs 3 typfs kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn

hìjno, wajga gkumc ef `ppmjfc kn tfncfr sjtu`tjkns2 ùtkgr`tjg (@), gknsumt`tjvf

(G), orkup (O) `nc cfmfo`tjkn (C) (sff Ga`ptfr 3.5.5). @ppmyjno tafsf nktjkns tk

tfncfr sjtu`tjkns sffhs prkhjsjno efgùsf jt cjstjnoujsafs cjddfrfnt ‑cfsjon‚ typfs

kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs `nc cjddfrfntj`tfs taf `gtu`m `gtkrs jn taf

sfmfgtjkn prkgfss drkh taf ktafr stìfakmcfrs. @ssfsshfnt ey st`dd `s p`rt kd taf

prkbfgt `nc `n`mysjs tf`h g`n ef p`rt kd taf gknsumt`tjkn, bury prkgfssfs g`n ef

gknsjcfrfc s orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno prkgfssfs nc stffrjno gkhhjttff ppkjnt-

jno ` bury p`nfm tk sfmfgt taf wjnnfrs sffhs tk ef ` okkc fx`hpmf kd cfmfo`tjkn

D`gtkr 7

Saf t eftwffn taf `jhs `nc taf cfsjon kd taf tfncfr wjmm gkntrjeutf tk tafsuggfss kd taf tfncfr prkbfgt.



00:

jn taf gkntfxt kd taf tfncfr. Jn hy kpjnjkn ` gmjfnt a`s tk cfsjon ` p`rtjgjp`tjkn

prkgfss ta`t djts taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd taf stìfakmcfrs. Jn Ga`ptfr 3.5.5 twkhftakcs kd stìfakmcfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn wfrf jntrkcugfc ta`t `rf sujtèmf dkr gjtjzfns

jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. Jn g`sf kd ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn kr rfstrjgtfc

tfncfr wjta cfsjon prkpks`ms, taf prkpks`ms g`n ef fv`mu`tfc kn tafjr prfdfrfngfs

jn taf tr`cjtjkn kd fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy (N`s`r, 0:::). ajs rfqujrfs ` rf-

sf`rga `pprk`ga wjta ` Mjifrt-sg`mf kn gfrt`jn v`rjèmf `nc st`tjstjg`m `n`mysjs `nc

` prkpfr r`nckhjsfc s`hpmf `nc nkt ` supfrdjgj`m ‑efùty gkntfst‚ `s gurrfntmy

usfc jn pr`gtjgf. af ktafr kptjkn wkumc ef tk `ssjon ` gjtjzfn p`nfm ey kn taf

jcf`s kd Grksey, Ifmmfy `nc Wga`fdfr (0:14) ta`t js fcug`tfc kn taf tafhf `nc

suppkrtfc jn wrjtjno ` rfpkrt èkut tafjr rfgkhhfnc`tjkns.

af h`jn cjddfrfngf eftwffn ` gkhpftjtjkn `nc ` tfncfr jn gurrfnt pr`gtjgf`ppf`rs tk ef taf rkmf kd taf bury p`nfm. @rf tafy gknsumt`nts dkr taf stffrjno gkh-

hjttff, kr ck tafy a`vf rfspknsjejmjty dkr taf kutgkhf kd taf cfgjsjkn hìjno;

Wakumc taf `w`rc gkhhjttff gknsjst kd okvfrnhfnt rfprfsfnt`tjvfs, kr sakumc jt

gknsjst kd fxpfrts jn taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf `nc ure`n pm`nnjno; _a`t sakumc ef

taf rfm`tjknsajp eftwffn taf stffrjno gkhhjttff nc taf w`rc gkhhjttff; afsf

gknsjcfr`tjkns `msk krjojn`tf drkh taf hjxfc krjojns kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgf-

curfs `s cfsgrjefc ey Wtrkno (0::4). Kn taf kro`njs`tjkn`m mfvfm ` gkndmjgt gkumc

kggur eftwffn taf prkbfgt strugturf kd taf tfncfr kr gkhpftjtjkn `nc taf kro`nj-

s`tjkn`m strugturf kd taf gkhhjssjknjno ekcy. Ufspknsjejmjtjfs `rf cfmfo`tfc tk

`gtkrs ta`t rf nkt p`rt kd taf kro`njs`tjkn`m strugturf nc tafrfdkrf a`vf cjddfrfntrfspknsjejmjtjfs. ajs mf`cs tk taf dkmmkwjno pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkr dkr p`rtjgjp`-

tjkn kd stìfakmcfrs jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns2

@ 8 ùtkgr`tjg, G 8 gknsumt`tjvf, O 8

orkup, nc C 8 cfmfo`tjkn

Sr`cjtjkn`m

gkhpftjtjkn

\`rtjgjp`tkry

gkhpftjtjkn

Gkhp`gt

tfncfr

\`rtjgjp`tkry

tfncfr

Wtìfakmcfrs krjojn`tjno drkh taf

okvfrn`ngf strugturf (vjsjtkrs, gjtjzfns,

prkdfssjkn`m fffmc)

G G

Wtìfakmcfrs `s p`rt kd taf gmjfnt kro`nj-

s`tjkn (fhpmkyffs, pkmjtjg`m p`rtjfs)G G

Wt` hfhefrs - \rkbfgt tf`h (G) G (G) G

Wfmfgtjkn & @w`rc gkhhjttff - Bury

p`nfmO O G G

Gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt ekcy - Wtffrjno

gkhhjttffC C @ kr O @ kr O

Sèmf 6.0 Sypkmkoy kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn kptjkns jn cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt

sfmfgtjkns

D`gtkr 3

Saf t eftwffn taf pksjtjkn `nc typf kd taf stìfakmcfrs `nc tafjr rkmfjn taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss wjmm gkntrjeutf tk taf suggfss kd taf p`rtjgjp`tjknstr`tfoy kd taf tfncfr cfsjon.



05<

6.5.7 _rjtjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss

af tajrc sfnsfhìjno prkgfss ta`t fvkmvfc drkh taf prfvjkus ga`ptfrs js taf

prkgfss kd wrjtjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. ajs sfnsfhìjno prkgfss js e`sfc kn taf

gkngfpt kd ‑sfnsfwrjoatjno‚ nc ‑sfnsfojvjno‚ kd E`mkoun ft m. (5<<1) jn wajga taf

cfgjsjkn t`si js jnafrjtfc `nc taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno js jndmufngfc ey taf

cfgjsjkn hìfrs. J gkhejnf tajs sfnsfhìjno prkgfss wjta taf gkngfpt kd sa`rjnodr`hfs `hkno cfgjsjkn hìfrs (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). Jn hy kpjnjkn tajs

prkgfss g`n ef gkhp`rfc tk taf `gtjvjty kd ‑wrjtjno‚ ` prkgfss efgùsf ` cfgjsjkn

prkgfss js sa`pfc nc taus wrjttfn curjno taf cur`tjkn kd taf prfp`r`tjkns nc taf

jhpmfhfnt`tjkns kd taf tfncfr prkbfgt.

af mjtfr`turf rfvjfw jn Ga`ptfr 7 sakwfc ta`t cfgjsjkn hìjno js ` prkgfss

kd ok`m sfttjno, pfrgfptjkn, jndkrh`tjkn prkgfssjno, dr`hjno, gkhp`rjskn, fv`mu`-

tjkn, cfgjcjno kn `gtjkn `nc djncjno cfgjsjkn suppkrt wajga kggurs `t jncjvjcu`m

`s wfmm `s kn taf mfvfm kd taf tf`h (Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<69 Akcoijnskn &

Wt`reugi, 5<<1e). afrfdkrf ok`m sfttjno sakumc ef taf djrst stfp jn ` tfncfr prkg-

fss. ajs rfm`tfs gmksfmy tk rf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si (sfgtjkn 6.5.0). J gknsjcfr taf

prfp`r`tjkns kd ` g`mm dkr prkpks`ms `s ` prkgfss kd eujmcjno dr`hfs `ggkrcjno tk

wajga taf prkpks`ms kd taf `rgajtfgts wjmm ef bucofc. k fnsurf ta`t taf dr`hf kd

ok`m sfttjno js sjhjm`r tk taf dr`hf kd fv`mu`tjkn `nc `gtjkn cfgjsjkn, prfp`r`tjkns

sakumc ef gkncugtfc jn gkmmèkr`tjkn wjta taf burkrs. @mjonjno ` cfgjsjkn dr`hf

js nkt taf s`hf `s gkpyjno ` dr`hf sk taf `gtkrs `rf stjmm èmf tk pursuf tafjr kwn

ok`ms. Jn g`sf gmjfnt cfgjcfs tk ajrf gknsumt`nts dkr taf h`nòfhfnt nc mfo`m jh-

pmjg`tjkns kd taf tfncfr nc jnvjtf fxtfrn`m fxpfrts s hfhefrs kd tafjr bury p`nfm,

tafy a`vf tk ef `w`rf kd taf cjddfrfngfs jn ok`ms `nc grjtfrj` dkr suggfss (Ijfsfr

& _fmmstfjn, 5<<1). Efgùsf kd taf spfgjdjg ga`r`gtfr kd `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn `n

jndkrh`tjkn syhhftry nc gkhhunjg`tjkn djmtfrs rf fxpfgtfc eftwffn taf gkn-

sumt`nts, bury hfhefrs `nc taf gmjfnt rfprfsfnt`tjvfs.

Nuhfrkus cfgjsjkns èkut taf prkgfcurf, erjfd `nc stìfakmcfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn

a`vf tk ef tìfn efdkrf taf fv`mu`tjvf wkri kd taf bury prkgfss st`rts. @ dfw fx-

`hpmfs kd suga cfgjsjkns `rf taf sjzf, typf `nc gkntfnt kd taf gkntr`gt, taf ijnc

kd tfncfrjno prkgfcurf, taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` kr taf dkrh`t kd taf prkpks`ms. Ey

grf`tjno hjxfc tf`hs wjta st`dd `nc fxtfrn`m `cvjskrs, jndkrh`tjkn èkut tafsf js-

sufs g`n ef fxga`nofc `nc grjtjg`mmy `ssfssfc ey ` cjvfrsf orkup kd pfkpmf jn taf

prfp`r`tjkn `nc taf rf`mjs`tjkn pa`sf (Ofkrof & Ga`ttkp`cay`y, 5<<1). Jd tafsf

`gtkrs wkumc sa`rf tafjr cfgjsjkn dr`hfs, kdtfn krjojn`tjno drkh cjddfrfnt djfmcskd fxpfrtjsf `nc `ddjmj`tjkns, tajs wkumc jngrf`sf taf prkgfssfs kd sfnsfhìjno ef-

twffn taf cfgjsjkn `gtkrs. J tafrfdkrf suoofst taf dkmmkwjno suggfss d`gtkr jn wrjt-

jno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss2

D`gtkr 6

@mm `gtkrs jn taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss nffc tk `mjon tafjr dr hf kd rfdfrfngfs cu-rjno prfp`r`tjkn kd taf tfncfr prkgfss jn krcfr tk rf`ga cfgjsjkn t taf fnckd taf prkgfss ta`t ts taf `hejtjkns `nc `jhs kd taf gmjfnt kro`njs`tjkn.



050

@ erjfd js `n jmm-strugturfc prkemfh wjta nk ‑rjoat‚ skmutjkn. af bucofhfnt kd

taf qu`mjty kd ` cfsjon prkpks`m g`n tafrfdkrf ef ga`r`gtfrjsfc `s ` bucofhfnt`m

t`si èkut sfvfr`m t`nojemf `nc jnt`nojemf qu`mjty `spfgts. ajs rfqujrfs ckh`jn

spfgjdjg inkwmfcof. af gkhejn`tjkn kd cjddfrfnt ijncs kd bucofhfnt`m t`sis jh-

pmjfs ta`t twk sfp`r`tf prkgfssfs kd r`tjkn`m n`mysjs nc fxpfrjfntj`m jntujtjkn (taf

cu`m-prkgfss tafkry, sff dkr fx`hpmf Ga`jifn & rkpf, 0:::9 Iànfh`n, 5<<7)`rf jnvkmvfc jn hìjno cfgjsjkns èkut taf efst `rgajtfgt. af v`muf bucofhfnts

`si dkr ekta gknsgjkus, `n`mytjg`m `ssfsshfnt prkgfssfs `s wfmm `s jntujtjvf, ungkn-

sgjkus `ssfsshfnt prkgfssfs. Curjno tafsf prkgfssfs pfkpmf usf afurjstjgs tk s`vf

tjhf `nc fnfroy, eut ey ckjno sk systfh`tjg frrkrs `rf h`cf (\mkus, 0::79 Wjhkn,

0::?). afrfdkrf hf`surfhfnts sakumc ef tìfn tk prfvfnt ej`sfs.

af prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno ekut cfsjon qu`mjty curjno ` rfstrjgtfc tfncfr

kddjgj`mmy rfqujrfs twk pa`sfs. Jn taf djrst pa`sf ` sfmfgtjkn js h`cf eftwffn taf

`rgajtfgts ta`t sakwfc jntfrfst jn taf gkntr`gt, taf tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs. @ggkrcjno

tk prkgurfhfnt m`w tajs cfgjsjkn sakumc rfm`tf tk taf tfganjg`m, djn`ngj`m `nc kr-

o`njs`tjkn`m qu`mjtjfs kd taf djrhs. Jn taf sfgknc pa`sf ` cfgjsjkn js h`cf wajgarfsumts jn `w`rcjno taf gkntr`gt tk knf kd taf tfncfrfrs. Mfo`mmy tajs cfgjsjkn

sakumc rfm`tf tk taf kddfrs kr prkpks`ms h`cf ey taf gkhpftjno djrhs. af gafgi

kn djn`ngj`m kr mfo`m rfqujrfhfnts kd taf djrhs jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf g`n ef gkn-

sjcfrfc `s ` wfmm-strugturfc t`si wjta kebfgtjvf grjtfrj` dkr suggfss. Fjtafr ` djrh

dumdjms taf rfqujrfhfnts kr jt ckfs nkt, wajga suoofsts ` nkhjn`m hf`surfhfnt

sg`mf. J prfsuhf ta`t suga ` t`si g`n ef cknf wjta mjhjtfc ckh`jn spfgjdjg fxpfr-

tjsf. af kutgkhfs gkumc ef v`mjc jnput dkr ` cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfh tk grf`tf

`n kvfrvjfw kd taf jndkrh`tjkn kd taf g`ncjc`tfs. af fv`mu`tjkn kd ` rfdfrfngf

prkbfgt kr Gurrjgumuh Tjt`f tk bucof taf gkhpftfngfs kd n rgajtfgt akwfvfr a`s

` mfss t`nojemf ga`r`gtfr. Jn hy kpjnjkn tajs g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` bucofhfnt`mt`si kn `n krcjn`m sg`mf ta`t g`n knmy ef gkhpmftfc ey skhfknf wjta ckh`jn spf-

gjdjg inkwmfcof. Curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf taf `rgajtfgts usu`mmy a`vf tk prfsfnt `

cfsjon prkpks`m kr vjsjkn kn taf eujmcjno prkbfgt. ajs rfqujrfs ` m`rof `hkunt kd

ckh`jn spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf `nc sakumc taus ef pfrdkrhfc ey ckh`jn spfgjdjg fx-

pfrts. ajs mf`cs tk taf dkmmkwjno `ssuhfc suggfss d`gtkr dkr taf prkgfss kd wrjtjno

` cfgjsjkn prkgfss jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns2

af d`gt ta`t mfvfms kd cfsjon qu`mjty g`n ef cjstjnoujsafc (sff Ga`ptfr 5.4)

jhpmjfs `n ungknsgjkus kr gknsgjkus gkhp`rjskn kd taf pfrgfptjkn kd taf cfsjon

kebfgt wjta fxpfgt`tjkns `nc pfrgfjvfc v`mufs drkh ` gfrt`jn `ngakr pkjnt dkr `s-

sfsshfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty. ajs `ngakr pkjnt prkvjcfs ` pkjnt kd rfdfrfngf ta`t

gkumc ef e`sfc kn prfvjkus sjhjm`r fxpfrjfngfs eut gkumc `msk ef cftfrhjnfc ey

D`gtkr 4

Saf typf kd fxpfrtjsf nffcfc dkr taf v`rjkus cfgjsjkn t`sis curjno taf sfmfg-tjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt nffcs tk ef `mjonfc wjta taf n`turf `nc gkntfntkd taf cfgjsjkn t`si.



055

taf usf kd afurjstjgs ta`t gkhp`rf tajs sjtu`tjkn tk ` prfvjkus knf wjta ` cjddfrfnt

n`turf (\mkus, 0::7). af gkntfxt `nc prkbfgt cfdjnjtjkn `rf ekta st`rtjno pkjnt

`nc fnc, jnjtj`tjvf `nc tkugastknf, kd taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss (Afynfn, 5<<0).

Efgùsf fxpfrts `rf èmf tk rfgkonjsf p`ttfrns, tafy usf cjddfrfnt rfdfrfngf pkjnts

ta`n m`y pfkpmf wajga prkvjcf ` st`nc`rc dkr gkhp`rjskn (cf Orkkt, 0:34). ajs

`mmkws tafh tk ef jndkrhfc ey rjgafr jndkrh`tjkn ta`n nkvjgfs wajga cfgrf`sfstaf ungfrt`jnty kd taf cfgjsjkn t`si (Hjfo, 5<<0). Jn `rgajtfgturf tajs hf`ns ta`t

fxpfrts `rf èmf tk usf inkwmfcof èkut prfvjkus cfsjons tk `ssfss taf qu`mjty kd

`n `rgajtfgt dkr ` p`rtjgum`r prkbfgt. afy inkw taf h`rift `nc pm`yfrs jn taf

djfmc. afy g`n cjstjnoujsa cfsjon stymfs, wkrijno hftakcs, gkst-qu`mjty r`tjks,

spfgj`mjtjfs `nc hkrf `spfgts ta`t cftfrhjnf jd taf cfsjonfr wkumc sujt ` prkbfgt

kr nkt. M`yhfn ck nkt sa`rf tajs inkwmfcof `nc g`n tafrfdkrf knmy usf tafjr kwn

fxpfrjfngfs. Jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns tajs hf`ns ta`t m`yhfn prkeèmy

a`vf tk eujmc tafjr dr`hfs kd rfdfrfngf drkh tafjr gurrfnt `nc mjhjtfc fxpfrjfngf

kd ` sjnomf g`sf, wajmf fxpfrts g`n usf tafjr rfm`tjvfmy erk`c fxpfrjfngf tk eujmc `

gkhprfafnsjvf dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf dkr taf tfncfr. Efgùsf kd taf sa`rfc dr`hf kdrfdfrfngfs, bucofhfnts kd fxpfrts `nc hfhefrs kd taf s`hf gumturf kr prkdfssjkn

`rf usu`mmy hkrf gknsjstfnt ta`n bucofhfnts kd m`y pfkpmf kr jncjvjcu`ms.

Gknnfgtfc tk taf cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs kd jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnts `rf taf js-

sufs kd gkhhunjg`tjno prfdfrfngfs `nc kpjnjkns. Vsfrs, cfsjonfrs, gmjfnts `nc

ktafr stìfakmcfrs spfì cjddfrfnt m`nouòfs (Euggj`rfmmj, 5<<7). Efgùsf taf eujmt

fnvjrknhfnt js surrkuncjno us `mm, fvfryekcy a`s skhf fxpfrjfngf jn hìjno

bucofhfnts èkut paysjg`m eujmcjno. @msk jn `rgajtfgtur`m tfncfrjno prkgfssfs taf

qu`mjty kd `n `nswfr cfpfncs kn taf qu`mjty kd taf jnqujry (Afynfn, 5<<0). Drkh

hy pfrspfgtjvf tafrf `rf tarff pa`sfs jn `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss jn wajga `

hfssòf kd knf stìfakmcfr orkup js gkhhunjg`tfc tk `nc jntfrprftfc ey `nktafrorkup2 0) drkh jcf`s kd gmjfnt jntk tfncfr erjfd, 5) drkh tfncfr erjfd kd taf gmj-

fnt jntk ` cfsjon prkpks`m kd taf tfncfrfr, `nc 7) drkh ` cfsjon prkpks`m kd ` tfn-

cfrfr jntk taf jntfrprft`tjkn kd jcf`s ey ` bury p`nfm. @mm tafsf hkhfnts kd tr`ns-

dfrfngf jngmucf knf kr hkrf gkhhunjg`tjkn djmtfrs. Jt rfqujrfs fxpfrtjsf tk hìf

tafsf tr`nsm`tjkns `s dmufntmy `s pkssjemf. @mtakuoa Bknfs `nc Mfvjnf-`r`nc`ga

(5<<1) suoofst ta`t `rgajtfgts `ccrfss `mm tafsf stìfakmcfrs ey usjno humtjv`mfnt

ifywkrcs, hy ssuhptjkn js ta`t rgajtfgts kdtfn fxpfgt ktafrs, jngmucjno m`y pfr-

skns, tk uncfrst`nc `nc usf tafjr `rgajtfgtur`m m`nouòf.

@ qufstjkn ta`t rfh`jns un`nswfrfc js taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf nffcfc tk hìf

v`mjc bucofhfnts drkh ` gmjfnt‚s pfrspfgtjvf. Fxpfrts `rf usu`mmy hkrf fxpfrjfngfcjn rf`cjno cfsjons ta`t rfprfsfnt (duturf) eujmcjnos `nc tafy `rf èmf tk jngkrpk-

r`tf fxpfrjfngfs èkut eujmcjno df`turfs jn `mm pa`sfs kd taf mjdf gygmf kd ` eujmc-

jno (jnjtj`mjz`tjkn, cfsjon, gknstrugtjkn `nc usf) (e`sfc kn Gkafn, ft `m., 0::4).

Fxpfrts `rf efttfr `t sffjno sjonjdjg`ngf kd jndkrh`tjkn, jcfntjdyjno jhpkrt`nt

gufs dkr rjsis, `nc fstjh`tjno gknsfqufngfs (Auttkn & Imfjn, 0:::). afy g`n

bucof ùtknkhkusmy `nc dffm taf nffc tk cjsguss `nc a`rhknjsf wjta taf prkdfs-

sjkn`m djfmc. Fxpfrts `rf ofnfr`mmy efttfr `t fxprfssjno tafjr nffcs `nc sa`rf taf

s`hf m`nouòf `nc prkdfssjkn jn wajga bucofhfnts `nc inkwmfcof `rf gkhhunj-

g`tfc (Erfnnfr, ft `m., 0::49 Hjfo, 5<<4). Akwfvfr, taf pfrspfgtjvf `nc mfvfm kd

taf fxpfrt `ppf`rs tk jndmufngf taf v`muf kd jts bucofhfnt. af djncjnos kd Erkwn



057

`nc Ojddkrc (5<<0) fvfn suoofst ta`t mfss fxpfrjfngfc `rgajtfgts `rf efttfr `t prf-

cjgtjno taf prfdfrfngfs kd taf ofnfr`m puemjg ta`n taf fxpfrts. Jn tajs pfrspfgtjvf

Tkmm``rc (5<<:`) suoofsts gkursf dkr prkdfssjkn`m rgajtfgts wak w`nt tk p`rtjgj-

p`tf jn ` bury p`nfm efgùsf ` gmjfnt‚s pfrspfgtjvf rfqujrfs cjddfrfnt sijmms ta`n ef-

jno `n `rgajtfgt. Dkr taf ` suggfssdum wrjtjno prkgfss J suoofst tìjno taf pktfntj`m

cjddfrfngfs `nc mjhjt`tjkns kd cjddfrfnt mfvfms `nc ijncs kd fxpfrtjsf jntk `ggkunt wafn sfmfgtjno cfgjsjkn hìfrs dkr taf bucofhfnt`m prkgfssfs èkut cfsjon qu`m-

jty. ajs gkumc hf`n ta`t pfkpmf wkumc a`vf tk ef tr`jnfc jn `ssfssjno cfsjon qu`m-

jty kr tìf ‑m`nouòf gkursf‚ jn krcfr tk p`rtjgjp`tf jn rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. Jn tajs

mjnf kd rf`sknjno taf dkmmkwjno pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkr g`n ef par`sfc2

af usf kd jntujtjkn sffhs tk jngrf`sf taf pfrdkrh`ngf kd bucofhfnt`m t`sis

(C`nf & \r`tt, 5<<?). Akwfvfr, jntujtjkn nc ungknsgjkus cfgjsjkn hìjno g`n-

nkt ef dkrgfc. Jt gkumc akwfvfr ef stjhum`tfc ey ` m`rof `hkunt kd ckh`jn spf-

gjdjg inkwmfcof, fxpfrjfngf jn cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc hkrf tjhf curjno cfgjsjkn

hìjno. I`zfhj`n & Uônn (5<<:) cfsgrjef akw Djnnjsa burjfs `mw`ys hfft sfv-

fr`m tjhfs jnstf`c kd knf mkno sfssjkn. Jn tajs w`y tafy grf`tf rkkh dkr jntujtjkn

`nc rfdmfgtjkn jn tafjr prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn ungfrt`jn `nc `hejoukussjtu`tjkns gkumc gùsf fhktjkns ta`t ck nkt rfm`tf tk taf sjtu`tjkn jndmufngf taf

prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. Df`r `nc `nxjfty gkumc mf`c tk hkrf systfh`tjg `nc

gkhprfafnsjvf jndkrh`tjkn prkgfssjno, eut gkumc msk jndmufngf taf qu`mjty kd cf-

gjsjkn hìjno nfo`tjvfmy ey prkcugjno ` em`hf gumturf kr sfmd-prktfgtjkn (Hksjfr

& Djsgafr, 5<<:). \ksjtjvf `ddfgt g`n stjhum`tf grf`tjvf takuoat `nc `n kpfn `t-

hkspafrf, eut gkumc `msk mf`c tk hkrf supfrdjgj`m `nc mfss takrkuoa jndkrh`tjkn

str`tfojfs. Fvfn dkr fxpfrts jt js a`rc nkt tk ef jndmufngfc ey pfrskn`m jntfrfsts

`nc prfdfrfngfs. af cfdjnjtjkns kd jntujtjkn suoofst ta`t `ddfgt `nc fhktjkn `rf

`n jntfor`m gkhpknfnt kd jntujtjvf bucofhfnts. Jn hy kpjnjkn taf mjtfr`turf js jn-

gkngmusjvf èkut taf rfm`tjkn eftwffn prkcugt fhktjkn, jntujtjkn, jntfor`m `ddfgt,`nc tafjr pktfntj`m jndmufngf kn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. Jt `msk rfh`jns tk ef sffn jd

fhktjkn`m rfspknsfs drkh gmjfnts g`n ef stffrfc ey gknsgjkus cfsjon kd taf rgaj-

tfgts. @ggkrcjno tk Irfjnfr (5<<?e, 5<<1) taf ga`ngfs kd wjnnjno ` gkhpftjtjkn

g`nnkt ef jndmufngfc ey taf p`rtjgjp`tjno rgajtfgts efgùsf taf fv`mu`tjkn grjtfrj`

`rf cfvfmkpfc ey taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Ajs djncjnos

suoofst ta`t `n `rgajtfgtur`m djrh g`n stffr tafjr pkrtdkmjk ey str`tfojg`mmy suehjt-

tjno knmy prkpks`ms wjta ` ‑tarjmm‚ d`gtkr.

Wfvfr`m sgakm`rs (f.o. D`wgftt, ft `m., 5<<19 Ojddkrc, 5<<5) a`vf sakwn ta`t

prkdfssjkn`ms nc c`jmy usfrs gmf`rmy cjddfr jn tafjr prfdfrfngfs ekut eujmcjnos, eut

nkt `s fxtrfhfmy `s prkdfssjkn`ms jn `rgajtfgturf skhftjhfs suspfgt. J `ssuhf ta`t

D`gtkr ?

Fcug`tjno cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn rf`cjno `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjons drkh ` gmjfnt pfrspfgtjvf wjmm ef efnfgj`m dkr taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno`rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns.



053

tajs gkumc ef fxpm`jnfc ey taf ejkmkojg`m krjojn kd `fstaftjg pmf`surf wajga rfm`tfs

tk ` auh`n nffc dkr strugturf. Gkntr`ry tk taf ktafr fmfhfnts kd prkcugt fxpfrj-

fngf, taf `ttrjeutjkn kd hf`njno `nc taf fhktjkn`m rfspknsf (sff Ga`ptfr 5.3),

`fstaftjg pmf`surf `ppf`rs tk rfm`tf tk gkonjtjvf pfrgfptjkn `nc nkt spfgjdjg`mmy tk

fxpfrtjsf (f.o. Ojddkrc, ft `m., 5<<5). Fxpfrtjsf g`n jndmufngf taf `ttrjeutjkn kd

hf`njno efgùsf jt js jndmufngfs ey gumtur`m `nc pfrskn`m fxpfrjfngfs. Ekta tafpfrgfjvfc s wfmm s taf pktfntj`m qu`mjtjfs kd ` prkpks`m (Afynfn, 5<<09 I`zfhj`n

& Uônn, 5<<:) `ppf`r tk ef p`rt kd taf `ttrjeutjkn kd hf`njno jn ` prkgfss kd

rfgkonjtjkn, jntfrprft`tjkn, sskgj`tjkn nc ssjonhfnt. Fvfry prkcugt fxpfrjfngf

jngmucfs `n fhktjkn`m rfspknsf ta`t ojvfs taf pfrskn `n jncjg`tjkn èkut taf pk-

tfntj`m a`rh kr efnfdjts dkr tafjr prkcugt gkngfrns (Cfshft, 5<<59 Wgajddfrstfjn

& Afiifrt, 5<<1). af mfvfm kd cfsjon fxgfmmfngf kdtfn jngmucfs ` wkw-fxpfrjfngf

kr `ddjrh`tjvf surprjsf, wajga `ppf`rs tk ef gkhp`rèmf tk taf ‑tarjmm‚ d`gtkr kd

Irfjnfr (5<<?e). ajs fhktjkn`m rfspknsf js h`jnmy pksjtjvf `nc sffhs tk dkgus

kn taf hkhfnt kd purga`sf. J ssuhf ta`t fxpfrts rf efttfr t cf`mjno wjta (prkc-

ugt) fhktjkns `nc jntujtjkn efgùsf tafjr dr`hfs kd rfdfrfngf `rf hkrf stèmf `nctafy rf efttfr emf tk djmtfr nkn-rfmfv`nt kr cjsturejno jndkrh`tjkn. ajs ckfs nkt

hf`n taf fhktjkns ck nkt pm`y ` rkmf jn fxpfrt cfgjsjkn hìjno `t `mm, eut tk `

mfssfr fxtfnt ta`n wjta nkvjgfs. afrfdkrf J gknsjcfr taf jnvkmvfhfnt kd fxpfrts `s

` pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkr jn wrjtjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns2

Jn ekta taf gkhpftjtjkn `nc taf prkgurfhfnt tr`cjtjkn (sff sfgtjkn 6.5.0) `

cj`mkouf eftwffn taf gmjfnt `nc taf `rgajtfgt js skuoat tk o`jn jndkrh`tjkn èkut

` pktfntj`m p`rtnfr. af hkrf `rgajtfgts sakw jntfrfst jn ` tfncfr `nc taf hkrf

fxtfnsjvf (cfsjon) prkpks`ms `rf rfqufstfc, taf hkrf jndkrh`tjkn js o`tafrfc. @mm

tajs jndkrh`tjkn nffcs tk ef `ssfssfc `nc fv`mu`tfc jn krcfr tk hìf sfnsf kut kd

taf c`t`. afrfdkrf taf tfncfr dkrh`t sakumc prkvjcf ` gmf`r jndkrh`tjkn strug-turf wjtakut surpmus rfqujrfhfnts. @t taf s`hf tjhf ungfrt`jnty js rfcugfc ey

jndkrh`tjkn. af mjtfr`turf ekut cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns suoofst ta`t gmjfnts d`gf taf

cjmfhh`s kd sfgurjty vfrsus jnnkv`tjkn, prfgjsjkn vfrsus m`tjtucf, prfsfnt vfrsus

duturf, `nc rfqujrfhfnts vfrsus dffce`gi curjno cfgjsjkn hìjno (Uônn, 5<<1).

afsf cjmfhh`s gkntrjeutf tk taf cforff kd ungfrt`jnty ta`t `ggkhp`njfs ` sfmfg-

tjkn prkgfss. afrf `rf cjddfrfnt dkrhs kd ungfrt`jnty2 jn`cfqu`tf uncfrst`ncjno,

m`gi kd jndkrh`tjkn `nc gkndmjgtjno `mtfrn`tjvfs (Mjpsajtz, ft `m., 5<<0). Fhktjkns

a`vf ` pksjtjvf `s wfmm `s ` nfo`tjvf cjhfnsjkn `nc ungfrt`jnty g`n taus rfsumt jn

df`r eut `msk jn fxgjtfhfnt (Eftsga, 5<<69 Hksjfr & Djsgafr, 5<<:). Mjnijno e`gi

tk taf mjtfr`turf kn prkcugt fhktjkn (Ga`ptfr 5.3), gmjfnts wjmm prkeèmy fxpfgt

D`gtkr 1

Saf jnvkmvfhfnt kd (fxtfrn`m) fxpfrts wjmm ef efnfgj`m dkr taf prkgfss kdcfgjsjkn hìjno èkut cfsjon qu`mjty efgùsf tafy a`vf ckh`jn spfgjgfxpfrtjsf `nc `rf efttfr `t gkntrkmmjno prkcugt fhktjkns `nc usjno jntuj-tjkn ta`n nkvjgfs.



056

tk ef surprjsfc ey taf prkpks`ms kd taf `rgajtfgts. @t taf s`hf tjhf tafy `msk df`r

taf pkssjemf gknsfqufngfs kd taf cfgjsjkn kutgkhf. Jndkrh`tjkn kvfrmk`c gkumc

kggur, fspfgj`mmy jn sjtu`tjkns jn wajga ` cfgjsjkn js e`sfc kn jndkrh`tjkn wajga

js mkw jn v`muf, qu`mjty `nc rfmfv`ngf, kr ajoamy `hejoukus (Wutgmjddf & _fjgi,

5<<1). N`rr`tjvfs nc e`giorkunc jndkrh`tjkn g`n suppkrt sfnsfhìjno nc afmp

tk grf`tf `n kvfrvjfw kd taf jndkrh`tjkn (f.o. I`rh`nkv, 5<<:9 Mf C`ntfg & Z-Mufn Ck, 5<<:). ajs jhpmjfs ta`t ` pfrskn`m fxpm`n`tjkn kd taf `rgajtfgt js

efnfdjgj`m dkr taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. ajs mf`cs tk taf dkmmkwjno pkssjemf

suggfss d`gtkr dkr wrjtjno `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss2

Wvfnsskn (5<<1) dkunc ta`t ` gknsfnsus `hkno bury hfhefrs js nkt taf s`hf

`s `n `vfròf kd tafjr kpjnjkns, eut r`tafr taf rfsumt kd ` nfoktj`tjkn prkgfss. Bury

hfhefrs usu`mmy rf`ga ` gknsfnsus tarkuoa sfvfr`m rkuncs kd cjsgussjkn kr vkt-

jno. Curjno tafsf rkuncs `cbusthfnts `rf h`cf tk bucofhfnts cuf tk fxtfrn`m

jndmufngfs, suga `s kpjnjkns kd ktafr hfhefrs kd ` orkup, ga`nofs jn taf gkntfxt,

kr jntfrn`m pfrskn`m d`gtkrs, suga `s hkkcs kr ktafr ijnc kd fhktjkns. af djnc-

jnos kd Irfjnfr (5<<4), Wvfnsskn (5<<1) nc I`zfh`jn & Uônn (5<<:) sakw ta`t

cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` `rf cfvfmkpfc curjno taf fv`mu`tjkn prkgfss jn ` cfsjon gkh-

pftjtjkn. afrfdkrf J prfsuhf ta`t cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgtsfmfgtjkns g`n ef gkngfptu`mjsfc `s `n jngrfhfnt`m `nc gygmjg prkgfss e`sfc kn `

cyn`hjg jntfrpm`y kd bucofhfnts. Jn tajs jntfrpm`y, cjsgussjkn èkut jhpkrt`nt

jssufs js prkeèmy fvfn hkrf jhpkrt`nt dkr sfnsfhìjno ta`n taf `gtu`m gakjgf.

ìjno `mm gkntfxtu`m `nc ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns jntk `ggkunt, J

gknsjcfr nfoktj`tjkn `s `n fssfntj`m fmfhfnt dkr suppkrt kd taf cfgjsjkn `nc taf

prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno. ajs mf`cs tk taf djn`m pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkr jn wrjtjno

taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss2

6.5.3 @oorfo`tjno cjddfrfnt ijncs kd v`muf bucofhfnts

af dkurta prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno rfm`tfs tk taf pktfntj`m gm`sa eftwffn taf mf-

o`m prkgurfhfnt r`tjkn`mjty `nc jts uncfrmyjno r`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hkcfm, `nc taf

gkhpmfx ga`r`gtfr kd hìjno bucofhfnts èkut cfsjon qu`mjty wafn gakksjno `n

D`gtkr :

@ pfrskn`m fxpm`n`tjkn ey taf `rgajtfgt wjmm jhprkvf taf gmjfnts‚ uncfrst`n-cjno kd taf prkpks`m.

D`gtkr 0<

Cjsgussjkn `nc nfoktj`tjkn `hkno taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs wjmm pksjtjvfmyjnufngf taf cfgjsjkn hìjno prkgfss kd sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt.



054

`rgajtfgt. @s sakwn jn Ga`ptfr 5.4 `nc sfgtjkn 6.5.0 ` bucofhfnt èkut cfsjon

qu`mjty a`vf humtjpmf m`yfrs `nc pfrspfgtjvfs. Wjhkn (0::?), Ftzjknj (0:11) `nc

Wnfmmfn (0:1?) cfsgrjef taf cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs jn wajga cfgjsjkns `rf h`cf.

Fspfgj`mmy curjno taf oorfo`tjkn kd taf cjddfrfnt ijncs kd v`muf bucofhfnts prke-

mfhs gkumc kggur ta`t fnc`nofr taf rfsumt kd ` tfncfr prkbfgt.

\rkgurfhfnt m`w ckfs nkt cjstjnoujsa eftwffn ` n`tur`m pfrskn `nc ` mfo`mfntjty. Jt `msk ckfs nkt spfgjdy wak `nc akw h`ny pfrskns sakumc tìf cfgjsjkns

kr akw h`ny ga`r`gtfrjstjgs sakumc ef bucofc. Jn hy kpjnjkn cjstjngtjkn sakumc

ef h`cf eftwffn n jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnt, bucofhfnt kd ` orkup, nc cfgjsjkn

èkut cfsjon qu`mjty. Vnmjif v`muf bucofhfnts, cfgjsjkns `rf jntfntjkns dkr `gtjkn

ta`t jngmucf `n fmfhfnt kd gakjgf (Akcoijnskn & Wt`reugi, 5<<1`). J gknsjcfr

cfgjsjkns èkut cfsjon qu`mjty `s taf djn`m rfsumt kd ` bucofhfnt`m prkgfss. Jn taf

gkntfxt kd rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns knf dumm prkpks`m js gaksfn s wjnnfr kd taf tfncfr

gkhpftjtjkn. ajs js jn mjnf wjta taf `ssuhptjkn jn sfgtjkn 6.5.0 èkut rf`cjno

taf cfgjsjkn t`si ta`t ` cfgjsjkn èkut cfsjon qu`mjty js `mw`ys tìfn `t ` akmjstjg

mfvfm (D`gtkr 0). Ekta bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkns g`n jngmucf gkhp`rjskns kd `mtfr-n`tjvfs `t akmjstjg kr òorfo`tfc mfvfms. Jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnts hust ef òorfo`tfc

tk dkrh orkup bucofhfnts `nc tk `rrjvf drkh dròhfntfc cfsjon qu`mjtjfs tk ak-

mjstjg cfsjon qu`mjty.

Djourf 6.3 sakws dkur pkjnts kd cfp`rturf dkr `n ssfsshfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty2

sjnomf bucofhfnt èkut sfp`r`tf qu`mjtjfs, ` sjnomf bucofhfnt èkut akmjstjg qu`m-

jty, humtjpmf bucofhfnts èkut cfsjon qu`mjtjfs, `nc humtjpmf bucofhfnts èkut

akmjstjg qu`mjty. Mjnijno tafsf pfrspfgtjvfs prkvjcfs sjx rfm`tjkns eftwffn taf dkur

cjddfrfnt `ssfsshfnt strugturfs. Cfpfncjno kn taf `jh `nc st`rtjno pkjnt kd `n

`ssfsshfnt, knf kr hkrf stfps `rf nffcfc tk hìf `n `ssfsshfnt. af mfo`m strug-

turf kd n rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn rfqujrfs taf cjstjngtjkn kd grjtfrj` dkr sfvfr`m sfp`r`tfcfsjon qu`mjtjfs, eut knf tfncfrfr tk wjn taf tfncfr. af rfoum`tjkns dkr ` cfsjon

gkntfst suoofst ta`t ` orkup kd bury hfhefrs fv`mu`tf taf prkpks`ms kn cjddfrfnt

`spfgts `nc tafn rf`ga ` cfgjsjkn èkut taf wjnnfr, wajga g`n ef pksjtjknfc jn

taf mkwfr sfohfnt kd taf sgafhf. Dkr taf ktafr prkgfcurfs taf nuhefr kd cfgj-

sjkn hìfrs js nkt hfntjknfc, wajga hf`ns ta`t tafkrftjg`mmy rfm`tjkn 0 gkumc ef

`ppmjgèmf2 drkh sjnomf bucofhfnt kd sfp`r`tf qu`mjtjfs tk sjnomf akmjstjg bucof-

hfnt. Jn tajs `pprk`ga taf `spfgt kd nfoktj`tjkn `nc cjsgussjkn js hjssjno, wajga

js gkndmjgtjno wjta prkpksfc suggfss d`gtkr 0< kd taf prfvjkus sfgtjkn èkut wrjt-

jno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss.

Jd ` bucofhfnt èkut cfsjon qu`mjty js h`cf ey hkrf ta`n knf jncjvjcu`m,tafrf `rf cjddfrfnt w`ys tk gkhf tk ` gkhhkn bucofhfnt dkr taf orkup. af djrst

`pprk`ga js tk òorfo`tf taf jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnts wjtakut jntfr`gtjkn jn ` sys-

tfh `nc `vfròf taf sgkrfs (rfm`tjkn 5 `nc rfm`tjkn 4). ajs hftakc sakws wfì-

nfssfs jn taf hf`surfhfnt sg`mfs kd taf jnt`nojemfs (sff Ga`ptfr 5.5) eut sauts kut

skgj`m jndmufngfs. Jt g`n tafrfdkrf ef pfrgfjvfc ey taf kutsjcf wkrmc `s hkrf `ggu-

r`tf. Cjs`cv`ntòfs kd tajs hftakc `rf ta`t jnsjoats kd ktafr cfgjsjkn hìfrs `rf

nkt sa`rfc `nc cfgjsjkns `rf mfss f`sjmy `ggfptfc (f.o. Ofkrof & Ga`ttkp`cay`y,

5<<1). Jn taf mfo`m systfh tajs js rfdfrrfc tk `s taf jncfpfncfnt fxpfrt hkcfm

(sff Ga`ptfr 3.3.5). Fx`hpmfs kd hftakcs ta`t `rf e`sfc kn tajs prjngjpmf `rf taf

Cfmpaj hftakc, wajga js e`sfc kn ` r`nijno kd jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnts kd sfvfr`m



05?

cfsjon qu`mjtjfs wjtakut skgj`m jntfr`gtjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn burkrs (rfm`tjkn 4) kr

taf Wkno dfstjv`m hftakc (gkuntrjfs jncfpfncfntmy fxprfss tafjr or`cfs) js e`sfc

kn akmjstjg jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnts èkut cfsjon qu`mjty (rfm`tjkn 3). af Kmyhpjg

sgkrjno systfh dkr spkrts suga `s oyhn`stjgs kr djourf-si`tjno js e`sfc kn jncj-

vjcu`m bucofhfnts ekut cfsjon qu`mjtjfs (rfm`tjkn 5) ta`t rf fxprfssfc jn akmjstjg

bucofhfnts `nc rfm`tfc tk ktafr bury hfhefrs (rfm`tjkn 7) tk prfsfnt ` r`nijno

ta`t sakws taf djn`m wjnnfr (rfm`tjkn 3).

@nktafr `pprk`ga js tk cjsguss taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf jncjvjcu`m bucof-

hfnts kn ` akmjstjg mfvfm `nc cfdjnf knf bucofhfnt dkr taf orkup (rfm`tjkn 3),

cjsguss taf sfp`r`tf qu`mjtjfs wjta taf ktafr orkup hfhefrs `nc tafn rf`ga `

cfgjsjkn (rfm`tjkn 4), kr `msk cjsguss taf prkpks`ms kn ` akmjstjg mfvfm jn eftwffn

(rfm`tjkn 7). af hkrf cjddfrfngfs jn pfrspfgtjvfs, taf hkrf cjddjgumt jt js tk cjs-guss jssufs eut jn fvfry sjtu`tjkn ` gknsfnsus hust ef rf`gafc. af gknsfnsus

hkcfm js `msk `ginkwmfcofc jn g`sf m`w. @s cjsgussfc f`rmjfr taf n`turf kd taf

kebfgt `ddfgts taf f`sf kd taf cjsgussjkn efgùsf jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs fmjgjt

hkrf cjvfrsf bucofhfnts ta`n t`nojemfs. Efgùsf kd taf gknsjstfngy kd taf bucof-

hfnt, jn pr`gtjgf t`nojemf spfgts rf hkrf kdtfn sffn `s skmjc e`sf dkr cjsgussjkn

(H`ghjmm`n, 5<<6). Zft, mf`vjno kut kr qu`ntjdyjno taf jnt`nojemf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

ckfs nkt efnfdjt taf v`mjcjty kd taf bucofhfnt. af d`gt ta`t curjno cjsgussjkn

hkrf jndkrh`tjkn g`n ef put kn taf tèmf `nc cjsgussjkns gkntrjeutf tk cfgjsjkn

`ggfpt`ngf g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` efnfdjt. @t taf s`hf tjhf tafrf js hkrf prfssurf

tk gkndkrh, pkssjemf ckhjn`tjkn kd knf kr twk hfhefrs `nc ga`ngfs kd orkup-

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Djourf 6.3 Dkur pkjnts kd cfp`rturf `nc jntfrrfm`tjkns dkr qu`mjty `ssfsshfnt



051

tajni `nc orkupsajdt `s fxpm`jnfc jn Ga`ptfr 7.6. af rfsumts kd ekta `pprk`gafs

g`n ef rfo`rcfc `s jntfr-suebfgtjvf `nc ` gknsfnsus ta`t js e`sfc kn trust jn taf

ktafr orkup hfhefrs. @ cfgjsjkn ekut cfsjon qu`mjty g`n tafrfdkrf ef gknsjcfrfc

`s `n jntfr-suebfgtjvf gknsfnsus `hkno taf hfhefrs kd ` orkup kd cfgjsjkn hì-

frs (I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:).

G`sf m`w sakws ta`t taf gkurt `ginkwmfcofs taf suebfgtjvf ga`r`gtfr kd sfrv-jgfs (sff Ga`ptfr 3.3.5). E`sfc kn taf g`sf m`w `nc tafkrjfs kd v`muf bucofhfnts

J gkngmucf ta`t kebfgtjvjty sakumc ef skuoat jn taf `ssfsshfnt systfh, nkt jn taf

`ssfsshfnt jtsfmd. Fvfry bucofhfnt gknt`jns `n `ssfsshfnt kd ` cfsjon kebfgt ta`t

cfpfncs kn taf `gtkrs, taf hf`ns `nc taf gkntfxt. Efgùsf kd taf gkhpmfxjty kd

`n eujmcjno (cfsjon), taf qufstjkn sakumc nkt ef jd taf `ssfsshfnt js kebfgtjvf kr

suebfgtjvf, eut jd jt js v`mjc ‗ jd jt gtu`mmy hf`surfs wa`t jt sakumc ef hf`surjno, jd

taf bucofhfnt js nkt ej`sfc kr jngknsjstfnt. ajs hf`ns ta`t ` ‑bucofhfnt e`sfc

`pprk`ga‚ sakumc nkt ef pfrgfjvfc ey cfdjnjtjkn `s hkrf suebfgtjvf ta`n taf ‑h`n-

òf `nc hf`surf `pprk`ga‚ (O`nn & _aytf, 5<<7). Jn sfgtjkn 6.5.0 J cfsgrjefc

taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf cfgjsjkn t`si jn rfm`tjkn tk `ssfsshfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty.af n`turf kd taf hf`surfhfnt `nc taf pfrspfgtjvf kd taf stìfakmcfr g`nnkt ef

ga`nofc, eut taf kebfgt `nc hkhfnt kd hf`surfhfnt g`n ef strugturfc jn krcfr

tk jhprkvf taf gkhp`rèjmjty kd taf `mtfrn`tjvfs (sff Djourf 6.0 & 6.5). Euggj`rfmmj

(5<<7, p. 3<) st`tfs ta`t wf sakumc inkw efttfr ta`n ”tk tajni jn twk wkrmcs2

taf skgj`m - wafrf suebfgtjvjty, kpjnjkn `nc v`mufs h`ttfr, `nc mjdf cfpfncs kn

nffcs, cfsjrfs `nc jntfrfsts kd pfkpmf - `nc taf tfganjg`m/sgjfntjdjg ktafr - wafrf

kebfgtjvjty, unjdkrhjty, sgjfntjdjg m`w `nc gkmc v`muf-drff jnstruhfnt`m rf`sknjno

h`ttfr, wafrf m jdf efgkhfs e`n`m, hunc`nf, ùtknkhkus, purfmy jnstruhfnt`m‘.

ìjno taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd cfsjon qu`mjty jntk `ggkunt, J suoofst ta`t strugtur-

jno taf `ssfsshfnts `nc hìjno taf òorfo`tjkn systfh fxpmjgjt g`n gkntrjeutf tk` suggfssdum òorfo`tjkn systfh kd v`muf bucofhfnts `nc v`mjc gkhp`rjskn kd taf

`mtfrn`tjvfs ta`t `rf kddfrfc ey taf `rgajtfgts. ajs mf`cs tk taf dkmmkwjno pkssjemf

suggfss d`gtkr dkr òorfo`tjno taf cjddfrfnt v`muf bucofhfnts ta`t `rf h`cf jn `r-

gajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs2

Ekta taf mjtfr`turf èkut cfsjon qu`mjty `ssfsshfnt `nc ta`t èkut cfgjsjkn

hìjno prkvjcf mjttmf jnsjoat kn taf òorfo`tjkn prjngjpmfs kd taf v`muf bucof-

hfnts. E`sfc kn taf rfvjfw jn Ga`ptfr 5 J dkunc dkur e`sjg mfvfms kd cfsjon qu`m-

jty2 uncfr-pfrdkrh`ngf, e`sjg pfrdkrh`ngf, `ccfc v`muf, `nc cfsjon fxgfmmfngf.

afsf dkur mfvfms dkrh `n krcjn`m sg`mf drkh uncfr-pfrdkrh`ngf tk fxgfmmfngf.

@mtakuoa tajs js kdtfn jonkrfc jn gurrfnt pr`gtjgf, `n krcjn`m sg`mf g`n nkt ef usfc

`s ` r`tjk sg`mf efgùsf tafrf js nk n`tur`m `nc djxfc zfrk-pkjnt `nc taf jntfrv`ms

D`gtkr 00

Hìjno taf `ssfsshfnt strugturf `nc òorfo`tjkn systfh kd v`muf bucof-

hfnts fxpmjgjt jn taf prfp`r`tjkn prkgfss wjmm gkntrjeutf tk taf v`mjcjty kdtaf gkhp`rjskn kd `mtfrn`tjvfs jn taf `gtu`m tfncfr prkgfss.



05:

eftwffn taf mfvfms rf nkt fqu`m. ajs hf`ns ta`t sgkrfs sakumc nkt ef ccfc, sue-

tr`gtfc kr vfròfc nc knmy nkn-p`r`hftrjg n`mytjg`m st`tjstjgs g`n ef pfrdkrhfc

kn tafsf c`t` (cf Ifyzfr, 0::1). Knmy taf hfcj`n sakumc ef usfc `s n jncjg`tjkn

kd `vfròf prfdfrfngfs. Jn pr`gtjgf h`ny fx`hpmfs g`n ef dkunc jn wajga krcjn`m

sg`mfs rf hjsusfc dkr g`mgum`tjkns. W`tjsd`gtjkn js dkr fx`hpmf kdtfn hf`surfc kn

6-pkjnt sg`mf kr ey or`cjno kn sg`mf drkh 0 tk 0<. afsf sgkrfs rf tafn suhhfcup pfr g`tfokry kr jtfh `nc `vfròfc tk hìf ` st`tfhfnt suga `s ‑af `vfròf js

7,: kn sg`mf drkh 0 tk 6, wajga jhpmjfs s`tjsdjfc pkpum`tjkn‚. ajs w`y kd cf`mjno

wjta krcjn`m c`t` js vfry `ppf`mjno efgùsf jt kddfrs ` suddjgjfnt systfh tk gkhp`rf

jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnts. Wtjmm wjtakut taf gkntfxt `nc taf krjojn`m dkrhum`tjkn kd

taf sg`mfs jn wajga taf hf`surfhfnts wfrf tìfn, `n `vfròf nuhefr js hftakck-

mkojg`mmy jnv`mjc. Jn ccjtjkn jtfhs nc jncjvjcu`ms rf trf`tfc s fqu`m, fvfn jd tajs

js nkt taf g`sf.

Wkhf nkn-p`r`hftrjg st`tjstjg`m `n`mysjs tfganjqufs tìf tajs jn`cfqu`gy

jntk `ggkunt eut g`nnkt ‑gurf‚ taf prkemfh. Afynfn (5<<0) hfntjkns taf @rous

hftakc tk ef usfc jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns, wajga js `n èerfvj`tjkn dkr ‑@gajfvjnoUfspfgt dkr Or`cfs ey Vsjno Krcjn`m Wg`mfs knmy‚. @nktafr `pprk`ga tk jhprkvf

taf pkwfr kd taf kutgkhf js tk jngmucf taf wfjoat kd taf jtfhs jn taf `vfròf.

ajs js taf hftakc `s usfc jn ` humtj-grjtfrj` `n`mysjs (HG@) kr jn prkspfgt taf-

kry (Iànfh`n & vfrsiy, 0:?:), knf kd taf djrst ofnfr`tjkn cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs.

Wtjmm, jd ` hf`surfhfnt kn `n krcjn`m sg`mf js tìfn `s e`sjs dkr taf g`mgum`tjkns,

taf kutgkhf a`s mjhjtfc pkwfr. Zft g`mgum`tjvf systfhs wjta grjtfrj` `nc wfjoatfc

jntfrfsts rf kdtfn ppmjfc ey gmjfnts curjno rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns tk grf`tf r`nijno

`hkno taf tfncfrfrs. ajs hf`ns ta`t grjtfrj` wjta cjddfrfnt hf`surfhfnt sg`mfs

`rf trf`tfc `s fqu`m jnput dkr taf r`nijno. Jn gurrfnt gknstrugtjkn taf jssuf kd

hknftjzjno v`muf js gknsjcfrfc tk kpfn up taf cjddjgumtjfs kd hf`surjno ga`r`gtfr-jstjgs jn cfsjon (sff dkr fx`hpmf Crfsgamfr, 5<<:). \rkgurfhfnt m`w fvfn suoofsts

taf usf kd ` systfh ta`t js e`sfc kn tafsf prjngjpmfs tk s`dfou`rc tr`nsp`rfngy. Jn

hy kpjnjkn gmjfnts sakumc ef `w`rf ta`t `mtakuoa tajs humtj-grjtfrj` systfh g`n

suppkrt taf `n`mysjs kd taf c`t`, taf sgjfntjdjg v`muf js mjhjtfc wjtakut `w`rfnfss

kd taf jn`cfqu`gjfs.

af òorfo`tjkn kd bucofhfnts r`jsfs `nktafr jssuf ta`t sakumc ef h`cf hkrf

fxpmjgjt, n`hfmy taf gkhpfns`tjno kr kvfrm`ppjno ga`r`gtfr kd cfsjon qu`mjtjfs.

af dr`hfwkri kd taf Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr (sff Ga`ptfr 5.5) suoofsts ta`t

qu`mjtjfs g`n kvfrm`p, eut ckfs nkt jngmucf tajs pktfntj`m kvfrm`p jn taf `ssfss-

hfnt systfh. @t taf s`hf tjhf sfvfr`m ùtakrs (f.o. Ofrrjtsf, 5<<1) `ssfrt ta`tjn `rgajtfgturf taf v`muf kd taf wakmf fxgffcs taf suh kd taf p`rts. af tafk-

rjfs `nc dr`hfwkris cjsgussfc jn Ga`ptfr 7 ck nkt fxpmjgjtmy `ccrfss taf gkh-

pfns`tjno `nc gkndmjgtjno ga`r`gtfr jn rfm`tjkn tk v`muf bucofhfnt. \rkgurfhfnt

m`w `ssuhfs ta`t sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc grjtfrj` `rf hutu`mmy fxgmusjvf wjta gmf`r

ekunc`rjfs `nc ta`t tafy tkoftafr dummy gkvfr taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn. Drkh tajs pfr-

gfptjvf nfjtafr ` pktfntj`m kvfrm`p nkr `ccjtjkn`m grjtfrj` `rf tìfn jntk `ggkunt

fjtafr. Ako`rta (0:11) nc Hjfo (5<<0) r`jsf taf jssuf kd taf dunc`hfnt`m cjddfr-

fngf eftwffn gkhpfns`tjno `nc nkn-gkhpfns`tjno bucofhfnts jn cfgjsjkn hì-

jno. @ gkhpfns`tkry str`tfoy `vkjcs gkndmjgt, wajmf ` nkn-gkhpfns`tkry str`tfoy

gkndrknts gkndmjgts. af gkngfpt kd taf ‑wkw‚- d`gtkr (Cfshft, ft `m., 5<<?), taf



07<

‑surprjsfs‚ jn taf hkcfm kd I`nk (0:13) `nc taf ‑tarjmm‚ d`gtkr kd Irfjnfr (5<<?e)

suoofsts ta`t `n `ddfgtjvf rfspknsf g`n gkhpfns`tf cfdjgjfngjfs `nc f`sf gakjgf.

Dkr taf v`mjcjty kd taf v`muf bucofhfnt, `n `ssfsshfnt systfh dkr cfsjon qu`mjty

sakumc tafrfdkrf `msk tìf pkssjemf gkhpfns`tjkn, jngrf`sjno jnsjoats, `nc pkssj-

emf kvfrm`ppjno qu`mjtjfs jntk `ggkunt. ajs mf`cs tk taf `ssuhptjkn ta`t `mmkwjno

gkhpfns`tjkn jn taf òorfo`tjkn systfh kd v`muf bucofhfnts wkumc gkntrjeutf tktaf suggfss kd `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. ajs mf`cs tk taf dkmmkwjno prkpksfc

suggfss d`gtkr2

6.5.6 Bustjdyjno ò`jnst cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs

af djn`m prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno J jcfntjdjfc `s p`rt kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd `

puemjg gmjfnt sfmfgtjno n `rgajtfgt cf`ms wjta taf bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf djn`m cfgjsjkn

èkut taf wjnnfr kd taf tfncfr. ajs prkgfss krjojn`tfs drkh taf pktfntj`m gkndmjgt

eftwffn taf mfo`m, pkmjtjg`m, fgknkhjg`m `nc taf skgj`m r`tjkn`mjty `s cfsgrjefc ey

Wnfmmfn (0:1?) `nc taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno `s cf-

sgrjefc ey sfvfr`m ùtakrs jn taf ekki èkut kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno kd

Akcoijnskn nc Wt`reugi (5<<1e).

Jn bustjdyjno ` cfgjsjkn, gmjfnts a`vf tk fv`mu`tf tafjr jntfntjkns jn rfm`tjkntk tafjr rfspknsjejmjtjfs. \uemjg gmjfnts rfprfsfnt tafjr gjtjzfns `nc fhpmkyffs `nc

g`n ef afmc hkr`mmy, pfrskn`mmy, gkmmfgtjvfmy kr ajfr`rgajg`mmy `ggkuntèmf dkr tafjr

cfgjsjkns (Ekvfns, 0::<). Jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns tafrf js ` mkt kd

ungfrt`jnty. @ccjtjkn`mmy taf jndkrh`tjkn prkvjcfc jn taf prkpks`ms js nkt `mw`ys

gkhp`rèmf `nc gkumc m`gi jndkrh`tjkn kn grugj`m pkjnts. @s st`tfc èkvf, cfsjon

prkemfhs rf jmm-cfdjnfc wjta nk ‑rjoat‚ skmutjkn nc `mtfrn`tjvfs gkumc ef gkndmjgt-

jno. ajs grf`tfs rfspknsjejmjtjfs ta`t `rf humtjd`gftfc `nc gkndmjgtjvf ey n`turf

`nc hìfs ` v`mjc gkhp`rjskn kd `mtfrn`tjvfs `nc ` rjsi jhpmjg`tjkn vfry cjddjgumt

`nc suebfgt tk frrkr. af f`rmy cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs `ccrfss taf pfrgfptjkn kd rjsis

`nc kutgkhf v`muf hkrf fxpmjgjtmy ta`n taf sfgknc ofnfr`tjkn tafkrjfs (Ef`ga &Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). af `rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty pfrgfjvfs Cutga puemjg gmjfnts `s

rjsi `vkjcjno cfgjsjkn hìfrs (v`n cfr \km, ft `m., 5<<:). @p`rt drkh taf d`gt ta`t

rjsi `vkjc`ngf ckfs nkt a`vf tk ef nfo`tjvf jn ` puemjg dungtjkn, tajs `vfrsjkn tk

rjsi gkumc ef fxpm`jnfc ey ` m`gi kd fxpfrtjsf `hkno puemjg gmjfnts èkut `rgajtfg-

turf. Fxpfrtjsf gkumc suppkrt prkpfr rjsi fstjh`tjkn, gkntrkm kvfr taf prkgfss `nc

tafrfdkrf rfcugf taf df`r kd d`jmurf (Hksjfr & Djsgafr, 5<<:). Df`r gkumc `msk ef

rfcugfc ey trust jn ktafr hfhefrs kd taf orkup ta`t h`y kr h`y nkt a`vf ckh`jn

spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf (W`m`s, ft `m., 5<<4). @ggkrcjno tk Euggj`rfmmj (5<<7) trust js `

skgj`m h`ttfr ta`t ejncs efmjfds `nc pfkpmf tkoftafr. Inkwmfcof prfsuhfs efmjfd

`nc efmjfd rfsts upkn trust. Jd puemjg gmjfnts jnvkmvf nuhfrkus p`rtjfs, gknsumt`nts

D`gtkr 05

@mmkwjno dkr gkhpfns`tjkn jn òorfo`tjno v`muf bucofhfnts èkut cfsjonqu`mjty wjmm jngrf`sf taf v`mjcjty kd taf ssfsshfnt.



070

`nc stìfakmcfrs, jt gkumc ef a`rc tk fstèmjsa trust (Ijfsfr & _fmmstfjn, 5<<1).

ajnijno ekut nc cfdjnjno rkmfs, rfspknsjejmjtjfs nc utakrjtjfs kd taf cfgjsjkn

sa`pfrs, cfgjsjkn tìfrs `nc cfgjsjkn `pprkvfrs efdkrfa`nc (sff Ofanfr, 5<<1)

gkumc jhprkvf taf mfvfm kd trust wjtajn taf orkup kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs `nc eftwffn

cfgjsjkn hìfrs `nc stìfakmcfrs kd taf prkbfgt. @ssjonjno cfgjsjkn t`sis tk pfk-

pmf wjta taf rjoat mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf gkumc `msk cfgrf`sf taf mfvfm kd df`r dkr cfgj-sjkns. Jn rfm`tjkn tk tajs `spfgt kd rfspknsjejmjty taf ùtakrjty kd taf bury p`nfm js

knf kd taf jssufs ta`t taf gmjfnts nffcs tk cfgjcf upkn jn tafjr tfncfr prkgfcurf

(sff `msk sfgtjkn 6.5.5). ajs mf`cs tk taf dkmmkwjno `ssuhfc suggfss d`gtkr dkr taf

djn`m bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn2

Jd bury p`nfm gknsjsts kd fxpfrts nc gts s `n fxpfrt tf`h (W`m`s, ft m., 5<<4),

jt g`n ef usfc tk f`sf taf bustjdjg`tjkn prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. Wprfjrfofn

(5<<1) rfpkrtfc jn rfm`tjkn tk taf qu`mjty kd ` bury cfgjsjkn ta`t knmy `n fxpfrt

p`nfm gkumc a`vf sfmfgtfc taf wjnnjno cfsjon dkr taf Tjftn`h Tftfr`ns Hfhkrj`m

jn _`sajnotkn CG efgùsf ` m`y bury wkumc gfrt`jnmy a`vf kvfrmkkifc jt. Bury

hfhefrs a`vf gfrt`jn kemjo`tjkns ta`t jngmucf gkntrkm kvfr taf rfoum`tjkns, jn-

cfpfncfnt `ssfsshfnt kd taf prkpks`ms, hktjv`tjkn dkr taf gakjgf kd wjnnfr, `ncmky`mty tkw`rcs taf rfst kd taf bury p`nfm (I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:). afy a`vf

tk cf`m wjta tjhf prfssurf `nc a`vf rfspknsjejmjtjfs tkw`rcs taf gmjfnt, taf prkdfs-

sjkn, taf p`rtjgjp`nts, tafjr kwn kro`njs`tjkn, `nc skgjfty. Bury hfhefrs sakumc

ef g`pèmf kd dumdjmmjno tafsf kemjo`tjkns `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs. Ckuets kd taf bury

èkut ungfrt`jnty kd tafjr bucofhfnts `rf rfcugfc ey tafjr gkhpftfngf `nc gkn-

sfnsus `hkno tafh (I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:).

Akwfvfr, ` tf`h kd fxpfrts `ppf`rs nkt tk ef taf s`hf `s `n fxpfrt tf`h. @n

fxpfrt tf`h a`s tk eujmc gkhhkn uncfrst`ncjno, dkrhum`tf pm`ns kn taf hkst

fddfgtjvf gkursf kd `gtjkn, pm`n fxfgutjkn ey gkkrcjn`tfc tf`h pfrdkrh`ngf `nc

mf`rn ey fv`mu`tjkn (W`m`s, ft m., 5<<4). af usf kd tf`h g`n msk grf`tf gkhhjt-hfnt tk f`ga ktafr `nc taf orkups tafy rfprfsfnt. Jn grf`tjno `n fxpfrt tf`h, `t-

tfntjkn sakumc ef ojvfn tk taf gkhpksjtjkn, taf gkntfxt, taf wkri cfsjon, nc taf

orkup prkgfssfs. Ufsf`rga suoofsts ta`t fqu`mmy sjzfc sueorkups jn tf`hs wkumc

efnfdjt cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc tkk h`ny ajoa prkdjmf hfhefrs gkumc jngrf`sf taf

ga`ngf kd orkuptajni (Ofkrof & Ga`ttkp`cay`y, 5<<1). Jn g`sf stìfakmcfrs `rf

rfprfsfntfc jn taf bury p`nfm ta`t ck nkt a`vf spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf jn `rgajtfgtur`m

cfsjon, tafy a`vf tk ef suppkrtfc ey taf ktafr hfhefrs kd taf p`nfm jn rf`cjno

cfsjon jndkrh`tjkn. ajs ckfs nkt jhpmy ta`t tafjr bucofhfnts rf kd mfssfr qu`mjty

eut tafy hjoat a`vf cjddjgumty jn grf`tjno `n kvfrvjfw kd taf jndkrh`tjkn `nc fx-

prfssjno tafjr prfdfrfngfs. @mm bury hfhefrs prkvjcf jnput dkr taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss

D`gtkr 07

G`rfdummy `ccrfssjno taf rkmfs `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrsjn taf cfsjon kd taf tfncfr wjmm gkntrjeutf tk taf trust eftwffn taf cfgjsjknhìfrs `nc jngrf`sf suppkrt dkr taf cfgjsjkn `hkno taf stìfakmcfrs.



075

drkh tafjr kwn fxpfrtjsf. Dkr taf bury tk gt s `n fxpfrt tf`h taf ga`jr kd taf bury

p`nfm a`s tk skmjgjt jcf`s `nc kesfrv`tjkns kd tf`h hfhefrs, stjhum`tf `nc fnèmf

`mm ijnc kd dffce`gi `nc ojvf sjtu`tjkn`m upc`tfs (W`m`s, ft `m., 5<<3).

af rfsf`rga kn fxpfrt tf`hs dkgusfs kn cjvfrsf orkups ta`t `gt `s gkafrfnt

`nc rfpf`tèmf tf`hs. Jt suoofsts ta`t tf`hs `rf èmf tk jhprkvf pfrdkrh`ngf kn

rfpftjtjvf t`sis (Uksfn, ft m., 5<<1). @ bury kr gmjfnt p`nfm s kdtfn ppmjfc jn tfn-cfrs nkw`c`ys ckfs nkt gkndkrh tk tajs cfdjnjtjkn kd fxpfrt tf`h efgùsf kd taf

tfhpkr`ry `nc taf jngjcfnt`m ga`r`gtfr kd ` tfncfr. Akwfvfr, jt r`jsfs `n jntfrfst-

jno tr`jnjno jssuf. Jt jhpmjfs ta`t nkt knmy taf mfvfm kd fxpfrjfngf `s `n jncjvjcu`m

cfgjsjkn hìfr, eut `msk fxpfrjfngf `s ` hfhefr kd ` spfgjdjg tf`h hust ef tìfn

jntk `ggkunt. af sfrjfs kd hfftjnos jn Wg`ncjn`vj`n gkuntrjfs jhpmy ` ijnc kd

tf`h cfvfmkphfnt wajga kpfns up taf pkssjejmjty dkr dffce`gi, hknjtkrjno `nc

gkkrcjn`tjkn (I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:). Jn eftwffn tafsf hfftjnos sfvfr`m jndkr-

h`m sfssjkns `rf afmc wafrf taf hfhefrs hfft jn sh`mmfr orkups tk sgrutjnjsf taf

prkpks`ms, `ssfss tafjr qu`mjtjfs `nc gm`rjdy jssufs èkut qu`mjty. @mm tafsf `gtjvj-

tjfs stjhum`tf ` mf`rnjno prkgfss wajga gkumc `msk ef cknf wjta sjhjm`r t`sis `ncprkvjcjno dffce`gi efdkrf taf `gtu`m `ssfsshfnt prkgfss st`rts. ajs hjoat fvfn

fnèmf bury p`nfms tk ef cfpmkyfc `s fxpfrt tf`hs jn cjddfrfnt tfncfrs tk bucof

sjhjm`r cfgjsjkn t`sis. af gkngfpt kd taf fxpfrt tf`h mf`cs tk taf dkmmkwjno pks-

sjemf suggfss d`gtkr dkr ` bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf djn`m cfgjsjkn2

Jn Ga`ptfr 3.4.5 J jcfntjdjfc cjddfrfnt hkcfms `nc tkkms ta`t gurrfntmy fxjst

jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns2 prkgurfhfnt hkcfms, gkhpftjtjkn hkcfms,

cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfhs nc prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt tkkms. Nknf kd tafsf tkkms gkvfr

taf dumm pm`yjno djfmc kd ` sfmfgtjkn prkgfss jn `rgajtfgturf. @n jntfrfstjno jssuf

js taf usf kd cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfhs `nc ktafr hkcfms jn rfm`tjkn tk tr`nsp`r-

fngy kd taf prkgfss. Jn tr`cjtjkn`m cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns jt js `ggfptfc ta`t knmy taf

n`hfs kd taf bury hfhefrs `rf puemjsafc efdkrfa`nc jnstf`c kd fx`gt prkgfcurf

`nc cfdjnjtf grjtfrj` kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn g`sf kd n fxpfrjfngfc nc wfmm-inkwn bury, taf n`hfs `gtu`mmy prkvjcf p`rtjgjp`tjno `rgajtfgts wjta taf jndkrh`tjkn tafy

nffc tk tìf tafjr ga`ngfs jn taf gkhpftjtjkn. af bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf djn`m cfgj-

sjkn w`s gknsjcfrfc tk ef rfdmfgtfc jn ` bury rfpkrt. Wtjmm taf uncfrmyjno rf`sknjno

`nc nfoktj`tjkns rfh`jnfc wjtajn taf orkup, eut p`rtjgjp`nts trustfc taf bury

hfhefrs jn hìjno skunc cfgjsjkns. Efgùsf kd taf jntujtjvf ga`r`gtfr kd bury

cfgjsjkns jt wkumc `msk ef tk bustjdy ` cfgjsjkn ktafrwjsf ta`n ey ` wrjttfn rfpkrt.

@mhkst `mm cfgjsjkn systfhs usfc curjno tfncfrs usf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj`, jn mjnf wjta

taf mfo`m w`y kd tajnijno èkut cfgjsjkn hìjno. Hkst puemjg gmjfnts cfgjcf kn

taf hfhefrs kd tafjr bury p`nfm tafhsfmvfs. Kdtfn tafsf p`nfms jngmucf hfhefrs

kd taf ek`rc kr gjty gkungjm wjtakut prkdfssjkn`m cfsjon fxpfrjfngf. Efgùsf tafsf

D`gtkr 03

@ g`rfdummy gkhpksfc, tr jnfc `nc wfmm-oujcfc bury p`nfm wjmm gkntrjeutf tktaf suggfss kd n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss.



077

pfkpmf `rf mfss fxpfrjfngfc jn bucojno `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty e`sfc kn cr`wjnos,

tafy h`y oft cjstr`gtfc hkrf f`sjmy ey grjtfrj` ta`t `rf mfss rfmfv`nt tk taf `ssjon-

hfnt (Fvfrs, 0::6). ajs jngrf`sfs taf ga`ngf ta`t tfncfrfrs wjmm nkt `ggfpt taf

bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn.

@ prkgurfhfnt prkgfcurf kddfrs strugturf curjno taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss.

@ggkrcjno tk gurrfnt jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf mfo`m rfqujrfhfnts, taf kutput kd `cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfh g`n prkvjcf ` bustjdjg`tjkn kd ` cfgjsjkn efgùsf taf kut-

gkhf kd taf prkgfss g`n ef rftrjfvfc ey taf jtfhjz`tjkn pfr tfncfrfr kr pfr grj-

tfrjkn. _jfrzejgij (0::?) akwfvfr qufstjkns jd taf kutgkhf kd suga ` cfgjsjkn

systfh wkumc ef ggfptfc s taf djn`m cfgjsjkn ey taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs nc suoofsts

usjno ` cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfh knmy `s p`rt kd taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno.

Fx`hpmfs kd taf Vre`n Cfgjsjkn Ukkh (v`n Mkkn, ft `m., 5<<1) kr taf Cfsjon

Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr (O`nn, ft `m., 5<<7) sakw pksjtjvf rfsumts jn jngrf`sjno taf

tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss wafn taf prfdfrfngfs `rf usfc `s jngrfhfnt`m

jnput curjno taf prkgfss. @ cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfh gkumc tafrfdkrf jhprkvf taf

tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss eut ckfs nkt ùtkh`tjg`mmy rfdmfgt taf djn`mcfgjsjkn nkr mf`c tk ` v`mjc cfgjsjkn.

ìjno taf jcf` kd sfnsfhìjno jntk `ggkunt, trust wjmm prkeèmy pm`y `n jh-

pkrt`nt rkmf jn taf `ggfpt`ngf kd ` tfncfr cfgjsjkn. Jd cfgjsjkn hìfrs `rf nkt

`w`rf kd taf hf`njno kd taf kutput kd cfgjsjkn systfh kr wfrf nkt ttfncjno taf

prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn prkgfss, jt js vfry a`rc tk mfojtjhjsf kr trust ` cfgjsjkn. Duturf

rfsf`rga wjmm a`vf tk sakw taf jndmufngf kd cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfhs `nc ktafr

wjcfmy `ginkwmfcofc hftakcs `nc tkkms kn tr`nsp`rfngy, kebfgtjvjty `nc hktjv`-

tjkn kd cfgjsjkn. Dkr nkw J suoofst ta`t taf usf kd taf cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfh kr

gkhp`rèmf strugturf g`n jhprkvf taf tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss tk taf

cfgjsjkn hìfrs, eut ckfs nkt gkntrjeutf tk taf `ggfpt`ngf kd taf cfgjsjkn ey taftfncfrfrs nc taf ktafr stìfakmcfrs. ajs mf`cs tk taf djn`m pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkr

jn taf prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn2

6.7 Ufsf`rga cfsjon

ajs rfsf`rga dkgusfs kn taf gkhpmftf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno drkh taf pfr-

spfgtjvf kd puemjg gmjfnts sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt jn taf gkntfxt kd FV \rkgurfhfnt

m`w. af `jh kd taf rfsf`rga js tk `n`mysf taf gùsfs kd gurrfnt prkemfhs jn taf

cfgjsjkn pr`gtjgf kd puemjg gmjfnts curjno `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn `nc prkvjcf jnput dkr

taf duturf cfsjon kd tfncfr prkgfcurfs jn `rgajtfgturf. Jn taf prfvjkus sfgtjkn taf

tafkrftjg`m dr`hf `nc pktfntj`m d`gtkrs kd jndmufngf kn taf prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sf-

D`gtkr 06

Saf usf kd ` cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfh curjno taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss wjmmjhprkvf taf tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss tk taf cfgjsjkn h`-ifrs eut g`nnkt ef usfc tk bustjdy ` cfgjsjkn tk taf tfncfrfrs `nc ktafrstìfakmcfrs.



073

mfgtjkn a`vf effn cjsgussfc. E`sfc kn tafsf jnsjoats J prkpksfc djdtffn suggfss d`g-

tkrs èkut v`muf bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno ta`t gkumc prkvjcf ` skmjc e`sjs

dkr taf fhpjrjg`m wkri jn ` strugturf kd djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs.

k ggkunt dkr taf d`gt ta`t taf rfsf`rga djfmc kn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns js n`sgfnt

`nc nfjtafr fhpjrjg`m stucjfs nkr tafkrjfs fxjst ta`t `ccrfss prkgfssfs kd cfgjsjkn

hìjno jn tajs gkntfxt J gaksf taf g`sf stucy hftakc tk o`tafr fhpjrjg`m c`t`.Eujmcjno tafkry drkh g`sf stucjfs js ` rfsf`rga str`tfoy ta`t jnvkmvfs usjno knf kr

hkrf g`sfs tk grf`tf tafkrftjg`m gknstrugts, prkpksjtjkns `nc/kr hjcr`nof tafkry

drkh g`sf-e`sfc fhpjrjg`m fvjcfngf (Fjsfna`rct, 0:1:) `nc ta`t typjg`mmy `nswfrs

rfsf`rga qufstjkns ta`t `ccrfss ‑akw‚ `nc ‑way‚ p`rtjgum`rmy wfmm jn unfxpmkrfc

rfsf`rga `rf`s (Fchkncskn & HgH`nus, 5<<?). F`ga g`sf sfrvfs `s ` cjstjngt

fxpfrjhfnt ta`t st`ncs kn jts kwn `s `n`mytjg unjt `nc tafkry js eujmt e`sfc kn

jncugtjkn `nc rfpmjg`tjkn mkojg.

af rfsf`rga cfsjon js e`sfc kn taf rk`ch`p s prkpksfc ey Fjsfna`rct (0:1:),

wajga syntafsjsfs prfvjkus wkri kn qu`mjt`tjvf hftakcs, taf cfsjon kd g`sf stucy

rfsf`rga `nc orkuncfc tafkry eujmcjno. ajs rk`ch`p cfsgrjefs ta`t `dtfr taf sf-mfgtjkn kd g`sfs `nc gr`dtjno kd taf rfsf`rga prktkgkms, humtjpmf sfts kd c`t` nffc

tk ef gkmmfgtfc jn taf djfmc jn ` dmfxjemf `nc kppkrtunjstjg h`nnfr. @ wjtajn-g`sf

`n`mysjs prkvjcfs d`hjmj`rjty wjta taf c`t` `nc dkrgfs taf rfsf`rgafr tk mkki `t taf

c`t` drkh cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs. Aypktafsfs nc tafkry g`n ef eujmt e`sfc kn taf

gknstrugts dkunc jn taf g`sf `n`mysjs jn gkhejn`tjkn wjta ` rfdmfgtjkn kd gkndmjgt-

jno `nc sjhjm`r mjtfr`turf. Jn mjnf wjta taf rk`ch`p taf tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri

`nc taf c`t` gkmmfgtjkn `nc `n`mysjs kd taf g`sfs cfvfmkpfc tarkuoa ` p`r`mmfm eut

jntfr`gtjvf prkgfss. af strugturf kd taf suggfss d`gtkrs `nc taf gknstrugts usfc

curjno `n`mysjs kd taf c`t` `rf gkhejnfc jn taf djn`m ga`ptfr jn krcfr tk cr`w

gkngmusjkns.af hftakc kd stucyjno g`sfs hìfs jt pkssjemf tk stucy cfgjsjkn hìjno jn `

rf`m mjdf gkntfxt kn cjddfrfnt mfvfms kd jncjvjcu`m, orkup `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgj-

sjkn hìjno (A`gih`n, 5<<79 Zjn, 5<<:). @ggkrcjno tk Fjsfna`rct nc Or`fenfr

(5<<?, p. 56) ”tafkry eujmcjno drkh humtjpmf g`sfs js fhfrofnt jn taf sfnsf ta`t

jt js sjtu`tfc jn `nc cfvfmkpfc ey rfgkonjzjno p`ttfrns kd rfm`tjknsajps `nc tafjr

uncfrmyjno mkojg`m `rouhfnts `hkno gknstrugts wjtajn `nc `grkss g`sfs‘. Jn tajs

rfsf`rga J usfc g`sf stucjfs `s ` rjga fhpjrjg`m cfsgrjptjkn kd p`rtjgum`r jnst`ngfs

kd pafnkhfnkn ta`t `rf typjg`mmy e`sfc kn v`rjfty kd c`t` skurgfs (Zjn, 5<<:).

F`ga g`sf g`n ef cfsgrjefc `s `n jnstruhfnt`m g`sf stucy jn taf sfnsf ta`t jt js `n

jntfnsjvf stucy kd ` sjnomf unjt dkr taf purpksf kd uncfrst`ncjno ` m`rofr gm`ss kd(sjhjm`r) unjts (Dmyvebfro, 5<<3). @ v`rjfty kd cjddfrfnt dkrhs kd c`t` w`s gkmmfgtfc

dkr f`ga g`sf tk `mmkw dkr trj`noum`tjkn eftwffn sfmd-rfpkrt, kesfrvfc efa`vjkur

`nc kddjgj`m bustjdjg`tjkns.

Efgùsf taf rfsf`rga jhs t cfvfmkpjno tafkry jnstf`c kd tfstjno jt, tafkrftjg`m

s`hpmjno js `pprkprj`tf. Jn tajs sjtu`tjkn g`sfs wfrf sfmfgtfc efgùsf kd kppkrtu-

njtjfs dkr unusu`m rfsf`rga `ggfss `nc rfvfm`tkry sjtu`tjkns (Zjn, 5<<:). @mtakuoa

tr`nsp`rfngy kd puemjg okvfrn`ngf sffhs tk jhpmy ktafrwjsf, o`jnjno `ggfss tk

tfncfr sjtu`tjkns prkvfc tk ef vfry cjddjgumt. J fxpfrjfngfc ta`t tfncfr sjtu`tjkns

kdtfn a`vf ` vfry sfnsjtjvf `nc cfmjg`tf n`turf. Nfxt tk ta`t jt `ppf`rfc a`rc tk



076

tr`gf gmjfnts prfp`rjno ` tfncfr efdkrf taf kddjgj`m `nnkungfhfnt js h`cf tk tr`gf

tafjr hktjvfs. _jtajn tafsf mjhjt`tjkns `nc taf `v`jmèmf tjhf, J gkncugtfc tarff

jnstruhfnt`m g`sfs (Wtìf, 0::6) jn taf gkntfxt kd ` rfstrjgtfc tfncfrjno prkgfcurfjn taf Nftafrm`ncs2 ` Wgakkm, ` Gjty A`mm, `nc ` \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf.

af g`sfs cjddfrfc jn taf sgkpf kd taf erjfd, taf typf kd tfncfr `nc taf ga`r`gtfr-

jstjgs kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. @ccjtjkn`mmy J gkncugtfc knf g`sf èkut `n jcf`s

gkhpftjtjkn dkr ` nfw D`gumty Eujmcjno kd ` Cutga unjvfrsjty. èmf 6.5 prkvjcfs

`n kvfrvjfw kd taf g`sfs `nc tafjr h`jn ga`r`gtfrjstjgs.

af g`sfs sakw taf prkgfss kd rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn drkh psygakmkojg`m pfrspfg-

tjvf jn tafjr dumm gkhpmfxjty jngmucjno taf jntfrrfm`tjkns kd taf pa`sfs, `gtkrs `nc

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs. k fxpmkrf taf cjddfrfnt rfsf`rga hftakcs `nc cfvfmkp rfsf`rga

prktkgkms skhf pjmkt stucjfs wfrf gkncugtfc (Tkmifr & cf Bknof, 5<<?9 Tkmifr

& Afjntz, 5<<?). Ga`ptfr 4 cfsgrjefs taf rfsf`rga hftakckmkoy `nc rfsumts kd `grkss-g`sf `n`mysjs dkr p`ttfrns `grkss taf tarff tfncfr g`sfs. af g`sfs wfrf `n`-

mysfc `s sfp`r`tf jcfntjtjfs djrst (Tkmifr & Ga`k-Cujvjs, 5<0<9 Tkmifr & Mùgaf,

5<<19 Tkmifr, Mùgaf, Afjntz, & cf Bknof, 5<<1) `nc tafn systfh`tjg`mmy gkh-

p`rfc kn `ppf`rjno gknstrugts. af djncjnos `rf cfsgrjefc dkr f`ga kd taf gfntr`m

gknstrugts kd `n kvfr`mm dr`hfwkri kd taf prkgfss kd tfncfrjno dkr `n `rgajtfgt.

af dr`hfwkri jcfntjdjfc tarff gtkr orkups (` stffrjno gkhhjttff, prkbfgt tf`h

`nc ` bury p`nfm), dkur fmfhfnts kd taf prkbfgt (prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, gmjfnt okv-

frn`ngf, stìfakmcfrs `nc prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt), `nc dkur dunc`hfnt`ms kd ` tfn-

cfr cfsjon (tfncfr erjfd, prkgfss prkgfcurf, stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt nc cfgjsjkn

prkgfss). afsf s`hf gknstrugts wfrf usfc jn taf `n`mysjs kd ` dkurta g`sf èkut`n jntfrn`tjkn`m kpfn jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn. af rfsumts nc rfsf`rga hftakckmkoy kd

tajs g`sf `rf rfpkrtfc jn Ga`ptfr ?.

af ga`r`gtfrjstjgs nc prkgfssfs s cjstjnoujsafc jn taf tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri

`nc taf fhpjrjg`m g`sfs wfrf v`mjc`tfc jn wkrisakp wjta tfn prkdfssjkn`m gmjfnts,

mfo`m prkdfssjkn`ms, `nc `rgajtfgts. af v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp gknsjstfc kd twk v`mj-

c`tjkn stfps2 rfdmfgtjkn kn taf djncjnos `nc ` hkcfmmjno fxfrgjsf. @ cfsgrjptjkn kd

taf wkrisakp `nc taf rfsumts `rf jntfor`tfc jn Ga`ptfr ?.

G`sf Sypf kd gmjfnt Sypf kd prkgfcurf Ufsf`rga hftakcs

@ Wgakkm wjta Wpkrts

d`gjmjty

Wgakkm ek`rc wjta hunj-

gjp`m rfprfsfnt`tjvfs

Ufstrjgtfc tfncfr

dkr tr`cjtjkn`m

cfsjon gkntr`gt

Nkn p`rtjgjp`tkry kesfrv`tjkns

Jntfrvjfws

Ckguhfnt n`mysjs

@ Gjty A`mm wjta

Mjer`ry

Gjty gkungjm wjta mjer`ry

rfprfsfnt`tjvfs

Ufstrjgtfc tfncfr

dkr tr`cjtjkn`m

cfsjon gkntr`gt

Jntfrvjfws

Ckguhfnt n`mysjs

Nkn p`rtjgjp`tkry kesfrv`tjkns

@ \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kgf

\rkvjngj m Fxfgutjvfs Ufstrjgtfc tfncfr

dkr Cfsjon Eujmc

gkntr`gt

\`ssjvf p`rtjgjp`tkry kesfrv`tjkns

Jndkrh`m gknvfrs`tjkns

Ckguhfnt n`mysjs

@ D gumty Eujmcjno Cf n s rfprfsfnt tjvf

kd taf Fxfgutjvf Ek`rc

kd taf Vnjvfrsjty

Kpfn jcf`s

gkhpftjtjkn wjta

prjzf hknfy

@gtjvf p`rtjgjp`tkry kesfrv`tjkns

Ckguhfnts n`mysjs

Jntfrvjfws

Sèmf 6.5 Kvfrvjfw kd fhpjrjg`m c`t`



074

Jn Ga`ptfr 1 taf fhfrofnt dr`hfwkri drkh Ga`ptfrs 4 `nc ? js gkhp`rfc

wjta taf fvjcfngf drkh f`ga g`sf `nc taf sfnsfh`ijno prkgfssfs `nc suggfss d`g-

tkrs prkpksfc jn tajs ga`ptfr. afn gkngmusjkns `rf cr`wn `ekut taf cfgjsjkn

prkgfss kd puemjg gmjfnts curjno `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns `nc taf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf

cfsjon kd `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurf jn taf gkntfxt kd Furkpf`n tfncfrjno

rfoum`tjkns `rf cfsgrjefc. Ga`ptfr 1 gkngmucfs wjta ` rfdmfgtjkn kn taf rfsf`rga`pprk`ga `nc suoofstjkns dkr duturf rfsf`rga.



07: ‗

Ga`ptfr 4

S AUFF FH\JUJG@M SFNCFU G@WFW ‗ GUKWW G@WF @N@MZWJW

4.0 Jntrkcugtjkn `nc rfsf`rga qufstjkns

H`nòfrj`m cfgjsjkn hìjno js ` gkhpmfx pafnkhfnkn ta`t g`n efst ef uncfr-

stkkc jn taf spfgjdjg gkntfxts jn wajga jt tìfs pm`gf. @ spfgjdjg gkntfxt, mjif

taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt kr taf fv`mu`tjkn kd ` cfsjon prkpks`m, js vfry cjddj-

gumt tk sjhum`tf kr tr`gf. afrfdkrf g`sf stucjfs `rf taf hkst `pprkprj`tf rfsf`rga

hftakc dkr fxpmkrjno taf gkhpmfx rfm`tjknsajps nc sskgj`tfc gùs`m hfga`njshs

(Ofrrjno, 5<<3) eftwffn cfgjsjkn hìjno jn cfsjon `nc taf pfrgfptjkn kd cfsjon

qu`mjty. @s hfntjknfc jn taf djrst ga`ptfr vfry mjttmf fhpjrjg`m rfsf`rga a`s effncknf jn taf spfgjdjg gkntfxt kd gmjfnt cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno Furkpf`n tfncfrs kr

cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns (Wtrkno, 0::4). Bust rfgfntmy skhf p`pfrs a`vf effn puemjsafc

èkut taf prfp`r`tjkns `nc cfgjsjkn prkgfss dkr ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn (I`zfhj`n

& Uônn, 5<<:9 Irfjnfr, 5<<?e, 5<<19 Wvfnsskn, 5<<1) eut tfncfr prkgfcurfs `rf

nkt fxpmjgjtmy p`rt kd tafsf puemjg`tjkns. @ggkrcjno tk `rgajtfgts `nc gknsumt`nts

jn pr`gtjgf, taf m`gi kd prkdfssjkn`mjsh kd puemjg gmjfnts js taf h`jn rf`skn dkr

taf jngrf`sjno cjss`tjsd`gtjkn èkut taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts jn taf gkntfxt kd

FV prkgurfhfnt m`w (v`n cfr \km, ft `m., 5<<:). Gmjfnts `ginkwmfcof taf gurrfnt

prkemfhs wjta `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns eut `msk pkjnt tk hkrf systfh`tjg cjddjgumtjfs.

Wk d`r tfncfr sjtu`tjkns a`vf nkt effn `n`mysfc kn taf uncfrmyjno cjddjgumtjfs ta`tgmjfnts fxpfrjfngf. af `jh kd tajs ga`ptfr js tk afmp rfhfcy tajs sjtu`tjkn ey fx-

pmkrjno tarff gkngfptu`mmy cjddfrfnt tfncfr g`sfs jn taf Nftafrm`ncs.

af ga`ptfr dkgusfs kn taf dkmmkwjno rfsf`rga qufstjkns2




puemjg gmjfnts jn tajs gkntfxt;

4.5 Ufsf`rga hftakckmkoy

af g`sf stucy hftakc w`s gaksfn jn mjoat kd taf d`gt ta`t taf rfsf`rga djfmc js n`s-

gfnt, m`gijno ekta fhpjrjg`m stucjfs nc tafkrjfs ta`t `ccrfss prkgfssfs kd cfgjsjkn

hìjno jn tajs gkntfxt. @n jnstruhfnt`m g`sf stucy g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` rjga

fhpjrjg`m cfsgrjptjkn kd p`rtjgum`r jnst`ngfs kd ` pafnkhfnkn ta`t `rf typjg`mmy

e`sfc kn ` v`rjfty kd c`t` skurgfs (Zjn, 5<<:) wjta taf purpksf kd uncfrst`ncjno

` m`rofr gm`ss kd (sjhjm`r) unjts (Dmyvebfro, 5<<3). af rfsf`rga cfsjon djts taf jcf`

kd taf rk`ch`p s prkpksfc ey Fjsfna`rct (0:1:) wajga syntafsjsfs taf prjngjpmfs

kd qu`mjt`tjvf hftakcs, g`sf stucy rfsf`rga nc orkuncfc tafkry. ajs ga`ptfr cf-

sgrjefs taf rfsumts kd ` grkss g`sf sf`rga dkr p`ttfrns `grkss tarff g`sfs. af g`sfs

•

•



03<

wfrf `n`mysfc `s sfp`r`tf jcfntjtjfs djrst `nc tafn systfh`tjg`mmy gkhp`rfc kn taf

e`sjs kd gknstrugts `s tafy `ppf`rfc jn taf g`sfs. af djncjnos `rf cfsgrjefc dkr

f`ga kd taf gfntr`m gknstrugts kd `n kvfr`mm dr`hfwkri kd taf prkgfss kd tfncfrjno

dkr `n `rgajtfgt (sff sfgtjkn 4.7). af s`hf gknstrugts `rf usfc jn taf `n`mysjs kd

` dkurta g`sf gkngfrnjno ` D`gumty Eujmcjno jn Ga`ptfr ?. Jn f`ga sfgtjkn gkn-

gmusjkns `rf cr`wn ta`t gkntrjeutf tk taf eujmcjno emkgis kd ` tfncfr cfsjon. afrfdmfgtjkn prkvjcfs ` sakrt suhh`ry kd taf djncjnos kd tafsf tarff g`sfs.

@ v`rjfty kd cjddfrfnt dkrhs kd c`t` w`s gkmmfgtfc dkr f`ga g`sf tk `mmkw dkr

trj`noum`tjkn eftwffn sfmd-rfpkrt, kesfrvfc efa`vjkur `nc kddjgj`m bustjdjg`tjkns

(sff èmf 4.0). Jn taf Wgakkm `nc \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf taf ke-

sfrv`tjkns `nc ekta dkrh`m `nc jndkrh`tjkn jntfrvjfws wfrf taf h`jn skurgf kd

jndkrh`tjkn, wajmf jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf ckguhfnts `nc jntfrvjfws wfrf hkst

jhpkrt`nt. Vndkrtun`tfmy taf kddjgj`m nktfs kd taf kesfrv`tjkns kd taf Wgakkm g`sf

wfrf cfstrkyfc jn taf djrf `t kur d`gumty eujmcjno jn H`y 5<<1. Eut efgùsf hkst

kd taf `n`mysjs a`c `mrf`cy effn cknf `nc taf ktafr c`t`, jngmucjno pjgturfs `nc

pfrskn`m nktfs, wfrf stjmm `v`jmèmf, taf Wgakkm g`sf gkumc stjmm pm`y `n jhpkrt`ntrkmf jn taf rfsf`rga. af g`sfs wfrf sft up `ggkrcjno tk taf prjngjpmfs kd Zjn

(5<<:) `nc Wtìf (0::6) jn krcfr tk `ccrfss taf pktfntj`m sakrtgkhjnos kd usjno

` g`sf stucy hftakc jn tfrhs kd mjhjtfc ofnfr`mjsèjmjty, v`mjcjty `nc rfmjèjmjty.

af sfhj-strugturfc jntfrvjfws wfrf rfgkrcfc `nc tr`nsgrjefc. af gkcjno `nc

`n`mysjs kd mm ckguhfnts w`s cknf ey taf utakr jn @tm`s.tj, skdtw`rf p`giòf tk

suppkrt qu`mjt`tjvf gkcjno, `nc v`mjc`tfc ey taf supfrvjskry tf`h kd taf rfsf`rga

prkbfgt. Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf, taf dr`hfwkri kd taf Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr

`nc jts rfskurgf fnvfmkpf (O`nn, ft `m., 5<<79 _aytf & O`nn, 5<<7) w`s usfc

tk `n`mysf taf `rouhfnts dkr sfmfgtjno taf efst cfsjon. Jn tkt`m 711 par`sfs wfrf

`n`mysfc `nc gkcfc tk knf kd taf dkurtffn cfsjon `spfgts jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf. @ hkrf cft`jmfc cfsgrjptjkn kd tajs `n`mysjs g`n ef dkunc jn Tkmifr, Mùgaf, Cf

Bknof `nc Afjntz (5<<1). @mm c`t` wfrf gkmmfgtfc jn Cutga. afrfdkrf `mm gjt`tjkns

usfc jn tajs ga`ptfr `rf tr`nsm`tjkns ey taf ùtakr.

Wgakkm nc spkrts d`gjmjty Gjty A`mm wjta mjer`ry \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kgf

Kesfrv`tjkns 5 hfftjnos (03 akurs

jn tkt`m)

4 prfsfnt`tjkns

7 hfftjnos (? akurs jn tkt`m)

0< prfsfnt`tjkns

0: hfftjnos (67 akurs ofnfr`m

rfpkrt)

0 hfftjno (5 akurs cft`jmfc

rfpkrt)

Ckguhfnts 1 ckguhfnts (gkhpftj-

tjkn rumfs, h`trjx, kgj`m

gkrrfspkncfngf)

4 ckguhfnts (gkhpftj-

tjkn rumfs, hfhks, kgj`m

gkrrfspkncfngf)

06 ckguhfnts (wkrijno ckgu-

hfnts, gkhpftjtjkn rumfs)

Jntfrvjfws 1 jntfrvjfws wjta prkbfgt

tf`h hfhefrs nc

rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf

stìfakmcfrs

: jntfrvjfws wjta prkbfgt

tf`h hfhefrs, rfprfsfnt`-

tjvfs kd taf gmjfnt ekcy `nc

p`rtjgjp`tjno `rgajtfgts

jndkrh`m gknvfrs`tjkns wjta

prkbfgt tf`h hfhefrs nc

hfhefrs kd taf gmjfnt ekcy

Cforff kd

jnvkmvfhfnt

Jnvkmvfc s kesfrvfr

drkh kgj`m nnkungf-

hfnt untjm ffn`m w`rc

cfgjsjkn

Jnvkmvfc s kesfrvfr dtfr

ffrst rkunc kd sfmfgtjkn untjm

ffn`m w`rc cfgjsjkn

Jnvkmvfc s p`rtjgjp`nt kesfrvfr

drkh efdkrf kgj`m nnkungf-

hfnt untjm taf prkgfss w`s

g`ngfmmfc dtfr sfmfgtjkn pa`sf

Sèmf 4.0 Kvfrvjfw kd rfsf`rga hftakcs `nc c`t` pfr g`sf



030 ‗

4.7 Dr`hfwkri dkr c`t` `n`mysjs

Jn tajs ga`ptfr taf rfsumts kd `mm tarff g`sfs `rf jntfor`tfc tk v`mjc`tf taf prkpksj-

tjkns `s dkrhum`tfc jn taf tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri dkr gmjfnt cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf

gkntfxt kd FV prkgurfhfnt m`w. af jntfrvjfw c`t`, kesfrv`tjkns nc ckguhfnts

kd `mm g`sfs `rf gkhejnfc `nc v`mjc`tfc ey trj`noum`tjkn `s huga `s pkssjemf ey `

prkgfss kd jntfrprft`tjkn, rfdmfgtjkn `nc fv`mu`tjkn kd taf djncjnos. af wjtajn-g`sf `n`mysjs mf`c tk taf strugturf kd tarff tafhfs2 taf `gtkrs, taf prkbfgt `nc

taf tfncfr cfsjon (sff Djourf 4.0). af dr`hfwkri sakws rfsfhem`ngf wjta taf

tarff gkngfpts ta`t B`nsfn, Oôssmjno, Hfris `nc Ofurts (5<<6) usfc dkr ` gkn-

tfnt `n`mysjs stucy kd taf rfm`tjkn eftwffn cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc cfgjsjkn qu`mjty2

cfgjsjkn prkgfss ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf cfgjsjkn rfsumts `nc gkntfxt

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs.

af prjngjpmfs efajnc Djourf 4.0 g`n ef fxpm`jnfc `s dkmmkws. af gmjfnt‚s

stffrjno gkhhjttff, taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc taf bury p`nfm (sfmfgtjkn `nc/kr `w`rc

gkhhjttff) `rf taf ify `gtkrs kd taf tfncfr prkbfgt. af jnput kd taf ktafr stìf-

akmcfrs, jngmucjno taf prkpks`ms kd taf `rgajtfgts, js p`rt kd taf jndkrh`tjkn ta`t

cfgjsjkn hìfrs usf curjno taf prkgfss. @rgajtfgts rf tafrfdkrf gknsjcfrfc s sup-

pmjfrs kd jndkrh`tjkn jn taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss.

@ tfncfr prkbfgt gknsjsts kd gfrt`jn ga`r`gtfrjstjgs wjtajn ` gkntfxt kd gmjfnt

okvfrn`ngf, skgj`m stìfakmcfrs `nc prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt. Curjno taf wakmf tfn-

cfr prkgfss ga`nofs jn taf fnvjrknhfnt gùsf ` gknst`nt jntfrpm`y eftwffn taf

`gtkrs `nc taf prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs. af `gtkrs `nc taf prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

prkvjcf taf jnput dkr taf cfsjon kd taf tfncfr, wajga gknsjsts kd taf tfncfr erjfd,

taf prkgfss kd taf prkgfcurf, taf strugturf dkr taf jnvkmvfhfnt kd stìfakmcfrs

`nc taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. af djrst tarff fmfhfnts (tfncfr erjfd, prkgfss prkgfcurf

Djourf 4.0 Safhf strugturf kd grkss g`sf `n`mysjs

\UKBFGS@GSKUW

\rkbfgt

tf`h

\rkbfgt

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

• Okvfrn`ngf

• Wtìfakmcfrs

• \rkbfgt

h`nòfhfnt

gkhhjttff p`nfm

SFNCFU CFWJON

Sfncfr erjfd

\rkgfss prkgfcurf

Wtìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt

Cfgjsjkn prkgfss



035

`nc stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt) prkvjcf taf strugturf jn wajga taf cfgjsjkn prkg-

fss tìfs pm`gf. afy tafrfdkrf nffc tk ef cfsjonfc efdkrf taf tfncfr g`n ef `n-

nkungfc. afsf cfsjon `gtjvjtjfs `rf hkstmy cknf ey taf prkbfgt tf`h. afrfdkrf

hkst kd taf `n`mysjs kd taf c`t` js cknf drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd taf prkbfgt tf`h.

af stffrjno gkhhjttff js gknsjcfrfc tk ef kd hkst jndmufngf kn taf jnvkmvfhfnt

kd stìfakmcfrs, jn gkmmèkr`tjkn wjta taf prkbfgt tf`h. af bury p`nfm gkncugtshkst kd taf cfgjsjkns jn taf `gtu`m sfmfgtjkn prkgfss.

4.3 G`sf cfsgrjptjkns

Jn tkt`m tarff g`sf stucjfs wfrf pfrdkrhfc jn ` rf`m mjdf gkntfxt jn wajga taf rf-

strjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf w`s `ppmjfc. èmf 4.5 prkvjcfs `n kvfrvjfw kd taf ga`r-

`gtfrjstjgs kd taf tarff g`sfs. af Wgakkm `nc Gjty A`mm g`sfs wfrf suggfssdum tfn-

cfrs, wajga mfc tk ` gkntr`gt eftwffn taf gmjfnt `nc taf `rgajtfgt. af tfncfr kd

taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf w`s g`ngfmmfc `dtfr taf djrst rkunc kd sfmfgtjkn.

\ròh`tjsh, taf `jh dkr okkc gkmmèkr`tjkn, `nc ` crjvf dkr kebfgtjvjty turnfckut tk ef jhpkrt`nt tafhfs jn taf Wgakkm g`sf. Jn taf g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm knf

kd taf h`jn `jhs w`s tk `ppmy cfhkgr`tjg prjngjpmfs jn gakksjno ` eujmcjno ta`t

wajga wkumc `cc v`muf tk taf gjty. af \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf g`n

ef ga`r`gtfrjsfc `s ` pkmjtjg`m prkgfss jn wajga skhf kd taf `gtkrs strkvf tk o`jn

gkntrkm kvfr taf prkgfss `nc skuoat suppkrt wjtajn `nc kutsjcf taf kro`njs`tjkn.

af dkmmkwjno sfgtjkns cfsgrjef taf g`sfs jn hkrf cft`jm.

4.3.0 @ pròh`tjg prkgfss2 @ Wgakkm wjta Wpkrts d`gjmjty

af djrst g`sf js èkut taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt dkr ` m`rof fmfhfnt`ry sgakkm,

g`mmfc ‑cf w``mdrujtfr‚ jn ` tkwn jn taf hjccmf kd taf Nftafrm`ncs g`mmfc Tmfutfn.af tfncfr tkki pm`gf jn taf pfrjkc drkh @uoust tjmm Nkvfhefr 5<<?. Tmfutfn

d`mms uncfr taf burjscjgtjkn kd taf Gjty kd Vtrfgat. af prkbfgt `msk jngmucfs `

spkrts d`gjmjty wjta twk a`mms `nc `ccjtjkn`m d`gjmjtjfs. af Wgakkm Ek`rc (kd taf

Dkunc`tjkn kd taf Ukh`n G`takmjg Fmfhfnt`ry Wgakkms kd taf pm`gfs Tmfutfn,

Cf Hffrn, A``rzujmfns) `nc taf Cfp`rthfnt kd Wpkrts kd taf Gjty kd Vtrfgat

`rf taf kddjgj`m `w`rcjno ùtakrjtjfs. af h`jn sa`rfakmcfrs jn tajs g`sf `rf taf

Wgakkm wjta Wpkrts

d`gjmjty

Gjty A`mm wjta Mjer`ry \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kgf

Gkntr`gt Sr`cjtjkn`m Sr`cjtjkn`m Cfsjon & Eujmc

Skt`m eujmcjno gksts (fxgm T@S) ₭ 6.? hjmmjkn ₭ 70.1 hjmmjkn ₭ 7: hjmmjkn

Orkss stkkr rf` 6,?<< h5 01,7<< h5 04,<<< h5

Wfmfgtjkn cfgjsjkn h`jnmy

e`sfc kn2

\krtdkmjk, rfdfrfngf prk-

bfgts, GT mf`c `rgajtfgt

Ufdfrfngf prkbfgts,

prkffmf kd mf`c rgajtfgt

Ufdfrfngf prkbfgts

@w`rc cfgjsjkn h`jnmy e`sfc

kn2

\rfsfnt`tjkn kd cfsjon

vjsjkn

Wiftga cfsjon, sg`mf

hkcfm nc prfsfnt`tjkn

Gkngfpt cfsjon

`nc prfsfnt`tjkn

Sfncfrjno pa`sfs `n`mysfc Wfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rcjno

pa`sf

@w`rc pa`sf Wfmfgtjkn pa`sf

Djn`ngj`m gkhpfns`tjkn dkr

tfncfrfrs w`rc pa`sf

₭ < ₭ 06.<<< ₭ 06<.<<<

Sèmf 4.5 Kvfrvjfw kd rfstrjgtfc tfncfr g`sfs



037 ‗

Wgakkm Ek`rc, twk cfp`rthfnts kd taf Gjty kd Vtrfgat (Cfp`rthfnt kd Wpkrts

`nc Cfp`rthfnt kd Fcug`tjkn) `nc rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd ` akmcjno gkhp`ny cf-

vfmkpjno taf nfjoaekurakkc g`mmfc taf OFH Tmfutfrwfjcf (Cutga èerfvj`tjkn

dkr Gkhhkn Fxpmkjt`tjkn Gkhp`ny Tmfutfrwfjcf). ajs g`sf js cknf drkh taf

pfrspfgtjvf kd taf Wgakkm Ek`rc efgùsf tafy tkki taf mf`c jn taf prkbfgt. afy

gaksf tk usf taf rfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf tk sfmfgt tafjr `rgajtfgt. @ gknsumt`nt w`s ajrfc tk `gt `s kddjgj`m `w`rcjno ùtakrjty jn tfrhs kd kro`njsjno taf tfncfr,

prkvjcjno ` erjfd, `nc h`nòjno taf kvfr`mm prkbfgt. af gknsumt`nt dungtjknfc `s

taf gknt`gt pfrskn dkr tajs tfncfr.

Jn taf djrst rkunc kd taf Tmfutfn g`sf, taf sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj` dkr cfgjsjkn hìjno

st`tfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs wfrf2

Mfo`m rfqujrfhfnts - tk ef dumdjmmfc ey sjonjno ` cfgm`r`tjkn dkrh.

Fgknkhjg `nc djn`ngj`m rfqujrfhfnts - tk ef dumdjmmfc ey sjonjno ` cfgm`r`-

tjkn tkoftafr wjta ` sjonfc st`tfhfnt kd taf `nnu`m turnkvfr kd taf m`st tarff

yf`rs.\rkdfssjkn`m rfqujrfhfnts - tk ef dumdjmmfc ey ` pkrtdkmjk wjta tarff gkhp`r`-

emf prkbfgts cfsjonfc ey taf prkpksfc mf`c `rgajtfgt, ` st`tfhfnt kd wjmmjno-

nfss tk tìf kn taf bke e`sfc kn tkt`m fnojnffrjno (`w`rcjno taf gkntr`gt kd

`mm cfsjon `gtjvjtjfs (dungtjkn`m, tfganjg`m ftg.) tk knf p`rty `gtjno `s gknt`gt

pfrskn `nc gkkrcjn`tkr), tarff mfttfrs kd rfdfrfngf sjonfc ey taf gmjfnt jn

qufstjkn, `nc sakrt cfsgrjptjkns kd taf djrh‚s kro`njs`tjkn`m strugturf, taf

nuhefr kd fhpmkyffs, taf djrh‚s qu`mjty h`nòfhfnt systfh `nc taf fxpfrj-

fngf kd taf mf`c `rgajtfgt prkpksfc dkr tajs bke.

af sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff gknsjstfc kd taf dkur gmjfnt p`rtjfs wjta sjhjm`r vktjnorjoats. afy `mm `ssfssfc taf pkrtdkmjk, taf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts `nc taf GTs kd f`ga

g`ncjc`tf curjno knf-c`y hfftjno. af ktafr ckguhfnts nc rfqujrfhfnts wfrf

gafgifc efdkrfa`nc ey taf gknsumt`nt. Cjddfrfnt wfjoats wfrf `ssjonfc tk taf cf-

gjsjkn grjtfrj` dkr taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf (\krtdkmjk2 7, GT2 5, `nc Ufdfrfngf prkbfgts2

0). af wfjoatjno d`gtkrs kd taf grjtfrj` wfrf nkt hfntjknfc jn taf kddjgj`m gkhpf-

tjtjkn rumfs eut cfgjcfc kn jn n f`rmjfr hfftjno nc ppmjfc jn h`trjx (sfmfgtjkn

grjtfrj` kn taf akrjzknt`m `xjs, p`rtjgjp`nts kn taf vfrtjg`m `xjs) curjno cfgjsjkn

hìjno. Wfmfgtjkn `s wfmm `s `w`rcjno wkumc ef ‑e`sfc kn un`njhjty‚.

Jn tkt`m 76 djrhs `ppmjfc dkr tajs tfncfr, kd wajga tarff wfrf fxgmucfc drkh

sfmfgtjkn efgùsf tafy cjc nkt gkhpmy wjta taf hjnjhuh rfqujrfhfnts nc fxgmu-sjkn orkuncs. af gmjfnt cfgjcfc tk sfmfgt sjx tfncfrfrs dkr taf `w`rc pa`sf. af

g`ncjc`tfs rfgfjvfc ` mfttfr cfsgrjejno taf sfmfgtjkn cfgjsjkn, `ggkhp`njfc ey taf

kddjgj`m hjnutfs `nc `n `ppfncjx wjta taf h`trjx dkrh djmmfc wjta taf `ssfsshfnt

sgkrfs kd `mm g`ncjc`tfs.

af `w`rc gkhhjttff gknsjstfc kd taf Wgakkm Ek`rc `nc taf Cfp`rthfnt kd

Wpkrts, cvjsfc ey taf OFH Tmfutfrwfjcf nc taf Cfp`rthfnt kd Fcug`tjkn. af

gkntr`gt wkumc ef `w`rcfc e`sfc kn taf hkst fgknkhjg`mmy `cv`ntòfkus tfncfr.

af kddjgj`m jnstrugtjkns tk taf tfncfrfrs dkr taf fmfhfnt`ry sgakkm `nc gkhpmf-

hfnt`ry spkrts d`gjmjtjfs rf`c `s dkmmkws (tr`nsm`tfc drkh Cutga ey taf ùtakr)2

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033

”\mf`sf prkvjcf ` vjsjkn dkr taf prfsfnt gknstrugtjkn t`si. Dffm drff tkfmèkr`tf kn taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf vjsjkn kn `mm tafsf jssufs. Saf `w`rcgkhhjttff fxpfgts vjsu`ms tk fnèmf `ssfssjno kd taf vjsjkn èkut taf prk-

bfgt. \mf`sf ok jntk taf sp`tj`m-dungtjkn`m erjfd (taf gkngfpt kd taf sgakkm`nc taf rfm`tjkn wjta taf spkrts d`gjmjtjfs), `hejtjkn dkr ` sust`jnèmf `nccurèmf eujmcjno (suoofstjkns dkr ` af`mtay jntfrjkr gmjh`tf `nc taf prk-

gfss tk rf`mjsf tajs `hejtjkn), `nc taf ure`n gkntfxt (gkntrjeutjkn tk taf`rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty kd taf `rf` `nc rfm`tjknsajp wjta taf nfjoaekurjnoakusfs `nc d`gjmjtjfs).‘

af h`jn rfqujrfhfnts kd taf erjfd wfrf (sff `msk Djourf 4.5)2

Jntfor`tjkn kd taf sgakkm eujmcjno `nc taf spkrts d`gjmjty, jntk ` sjnomf

cfsjon.

af prfsfnt`tjkn kd mfo`m `spfgts nfgfss`ry tk pfrhjt taf gkhhjssjkn tk ef

`w`rcfc `s ` ‑tkt`m fnojnffrjno‚ prkbfgt.

@ eujmcjno vkmuhf kd 3,04< hµ orkss dmkkr `rf` dkr taf sgakkm `nc :0< hµ

orkss dmkkr `rf` dkr taf spkrts d`gjmjtjfs. @ sjtf pm`n js rfqujrfc dkr taf `rf` kd

taf sgakkm eujmcjno, spkrt d`gjmjtjfs `nc kutsjcf sp`gf kd èkut 6,7?< hµ wjta

` dkktprjnt kd èkut 5,5<< hµ.

@ eucoft dkr taf sgakkm eujmcjno kd èkut ₭ 6.7 hjmmjkn jngmucjno T@, `nc `

eucoft dkr taf spkrt d`gjmjtjfs kd ₭ 0.6 hjmmjkn jngmucjno T@.

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Djourf 4.5 Cft`jmfc h`p kd mkg`tjkn `nc ure`n fnvjrknhfnt wjta h`jn `ggfss rkutfs. (skurgf2erjfd jn gkhpftjtjkn rumfs, cr`wjno ey Fnnk Rujcfh` Wtfcfekuw)



036 ‗

af kddjgj`m `w`rc grjtfrj` `s st`tfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs wfrf2

Tjsjkn dkr taf prkbfgt (taf erjfd, `hejtjkn dkr sust`jnèjmjty `nc taf ure`n

pm`nnjno gkntfxt) ‗ tk ef `ssfssfc e`sfc kn jndkrh`tjkn prkvjcfc ey taf p`r-

tjgjp`nt jn ` dkrh`t kd tafjr gakjgf.

\rkdfssjkn`m gkhpftfngjfs kd taf cfsjonfr `nc taf djrh ‗ tk ef `ssfssfc e`sfckn taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd tafjr pkrtdkmjk `nc kd ` prfsfnt`tjkn kd tafjr vjsjkn dkr

taf prkbfgt.

Gkhhunjg`tjvf sijmms ‗ tk ef `ssfssfc e`sfc kn tafjr èjmjty tk uncfrst`nc

`nc tr`nsm`tf taf rfqujrfhfnts kd taf gmjfnt, tafjr fhp`tay, `nc èjmjty tk

gkhhunjg`tf jn Cutga.

Tjsjkn (kr prkpks`m) dkr taf rf`mjs`tjkn kd taf prkbfgt `nc taf fstjh`tfc dff kd

taf p`rtjgjp`nt ‗ tk ef ssfssfc e`sfc kn ` sfp`r`tf wrjttfn ckguhfnt a`ncfc

jn `t taf tjhf kd prfsfnt`tjkn.

Jn taf h`trjx safft ta`t w`s usfc curjno cfgjsjkn hìjno tafsf grjtfrj` `p-pf`rfc tk a`vf cjddfrfnt wfjoatjno d`gtkrs eut tafsf wfjoats wfrf nkt hfntjknfc

jn taf kddjgj`m gkhpftjtjkn rumfs.

af gmjfnt rfqufstfc ta`t taf rgajtfgt wak wkumc ef rfspknsjemf dkr taf prkbfgt

jn g`sf kd wjnnjno taf gkntr`gt wkumc pfrdkrh taf prfsfnt`tjkn tk taf bury p`nfm.

afy cjc nkt rfqujrf taf fntr`nts tk a`nc jn tafjr prfsfnt`tjkns efdkrfa`nc. af

Wgakkm Ek`rc `nc taf Cfp`rthfnt kd Wpkrts cfgjcfc tk `w`rc taf gkntr`gt tk

@rgajtfgtfn- fn Jnofnjfurseurfù Irjstjnsskn. af p`rtjgjp`nts rfgfjvfc ` mfttfr

`nnkungjno taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn, `ggkhp`njfc ey taf kddjgj`m hjnutfs `nc ` h`-

trjx safft djmmfc wjta taf `ssfsshfnt sgkrfs kd `mm sjx p`rtjgjp`nts. @s js gkhhkn jn

taf djfmc kd sgakkm cfsjon, taf p`rtjgjp`nts rfgfjvfc nk djn`ngj`m gkhpfns`tjkn dkrtafjr suehjssjkns. Jn Dferu`ry 5<0< taf `rgajtfgt w`s stjmm wkrijno kn taf cft`jmfc

cfsjon. af prkbfgt cfmjvfry js pm`nnfc dkr Wfptfhefr 5<00.

4.3.5 @ cfhkgr`tjg prkgfss2 @ Gjty A`mm wjta Mjer`ry

af Gjty A`mm g`sf stucy gkngfrns ` rfstrjgtfc Furkpf`n tfncfrjno prkgfcurf tk

sfmfgt `n `rgajtfgt dkr taf cfsjon kd taf nfw tkwn a`mm `nc mjer`ry dkr taf ajstkrj-

g`m gjty gfntrf kd Cfvfntfr. af tfncfr tkki pm`gf jn taf pfrjkc drkh Dferu`ry

tjmm Bunf 5<<4. Cfvfntfr js ` gjty kd 0<<,<<< jnaèjt`nts jn taf f`stfrn p`rt kd taf

Nftafrm`ncs. af cfsjon erjfd g`mmfc dkr 01,7<< hµ orkss dmkkr `rf` `nc w`s ga`m-mfnojno efgùsf kd taf gfntr`m mkg`tjkn `nc n`rrkw strffts kd `n ajstkrjg`m ga`r`g-

tfr, taf p`rijno rfqujrfhfnts, nc taf prfsfngf kd n kddjgf eujmcjno nc kd ` taf`-

trf gknsjcfrfc tk ef kd `rgajtfgtur`m `nc ajstkrjg`m v`muf. af Gjty kd Cfvfntfr

w`ntfc tk utjmjsf taf prkdfssjkn`m jnsjoat kd taf gkhpftjno `rgajtfgts tk cftfrhjnf

taf d`tf kd taf twk eujmcjnos, `nc tafrfdkrf o`vf taf `rgajtfgts `s huga drffckh

`s pkssjemf jn prkvjcjno ` cfsjon skmutjkn.

af gmjfnt gknsjstfc kd taf Gjty Gkungjm `nc taf Ek`rc kd taf H`ykr `nc

@mcfrhfn. af ek`rc kd taf Cfvfntfr mjer`ry w`s jnvkmvfc `s knf kd taf duturf

usfrs kd taf eujmcjno. af Gjty Gkungjm `gtfc `s taf gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt. @

prkbfgt tf`h `nc stffrjno gkhhjttff wfrf `ssjonfc tk taf tfncfr prkbfgt. af

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034

prkbfgt tf`h gknsjstfc kd `n jntfrjh h`nòfr `nc sfvfr`m st`dd hfhefrs kd taf

hunjgjp`mjty. afy ajrfc sfvfr`m gknsumt`nts tk `ssjst tafh kn mfo`m `nc djn`ngj`m

h`ttfrs. af stffrjno gkhhjttff jngmucfc hfhefrs kd taf fxfgutjvf ek`rc kd taf

hunjgjp`mjty, taf ga`jr kd taf Cfvfntfr mjer`ry ek`rc, taf af`c kd taf rf`m fst`tf

cfp`rthfnt kd taf hunjgjp`mjty `nc taf prkbfgt h`nòfr.

af kddjgj`m tfncfr erjfd drkh taf Gjty kd Cfvfntfr rf`c `s dkmmkws (tr`nsm`tfcdrkh Cutga ey taf ùtakr)2

”Cfmjvfr ` siftga cfsjon kd h`xjhuh 06 @3 pòfs, gm`rjg`tjkn, ` pm`n kd`gtjkn `nc sg`mf hkcfm dkr taf nfw Gjty A`mm, taf mjer`ry, `nc `n uncfr -

orkunc p`rijno o`ròf kn taf mkg`tjkn kd taf dkrhfr taf`trf jn taf OrktfIfriakd squ`rf, rfsumtjno jn taf g`p`gjty kd 01,7<< h5 jn tkt`m.‘

af h`jn rfqujrfhfnts jn taf erjfd wfrf cfsgrjefc `s (sff `msk Djourf 4.7)2

af gknstrugtjkn eucoft w`s sft `t ₭ 70.1 hjmmjkn fxgmucjno T@ (tkt`m

prkbfgt gksts ₭ 66.: hjmmjkn) ‗ jngmucjno h`gajnfry (gmjh`tf gkntrkm, mjdtsftg) `nc ` p`rijno o`ròf.

af gkungjm a`mm w`s tk ef rfstkrfc `nc taf cfsjon sakumc djt jntk taf fxjst-

jno ure`n cfvfmkphfnt pm`n. Nk cfgjsjkn wkumc ef h`cf efdkrfa`nc wafta-

fr taf d`g`cfs kd taf gurrfnt eujmcjnos `t taf mkg`tjkn sakumc rfh`jn kr ef

cfhkmjsafc.

af h`jn fntr`ngf w`s tk ef mkg`tfc `t taf squ`rf `nc taf rfgfptjkn `nc taf

puemjg dungtjkns `t taf orkunc dmkkr.

@ nfw gkngfpt kd kddjgf kro`njs`tjkn wkumc ef `ppmjfc, sk ` v`rjfty kd wkri-

pm`gfs a`c tk ef kddfrfc `nc taf eujmcjno sakumc kddfr ` ajoa cforff kd dmfx-jejmjty jn jtsfmd.

af cfsjon gkngfrnfc taf ure`n djt `nc gkntkurs kd taf eujmcjno, `s wfmm `s

taf vjsjkn nc tr`nsm`tjkn kd taf kro`njs`tjkn`m prkgfssfs jntk taf cfsjon, suga

`s taf synfroy eftwffn taf mjer`ry `nc taf gjty, taf wfmgkhjno kd gmjfnts `nc

taf paysjg`m tr`nsm`tjkn kd taf wkripm`gfs.

af gkntr`gt w`s tk ef `w`rcfc e`sfc kn taf hkst fgknkhjg`mmy cv`ntòfkus

ejc ta`t dumdjmmfc taf `fstaftjg `nc dungtjkn`m `spfgts kd taf cfsjon. @ggkrcjno

tk taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs, `mm tarff grjtfrj` wfjoafc fqu`mmy. af grjtfrj` wfrf cf-

sgrjefc `s2

af cforff kd dmfxjejmjty kd taf prkor`hhf gkngfrnjno taf synfroy eftwffn

mjer`ry `nc Gjty A`mm, jntfor`tjkn kd drknt `nc e`gi kddjgf, `nc tfganjg`m `nc

fnvjrknhfnt`m curèjmjty.

af jntfmmjofngf `nc grf`tjvjty kd taf skmutjkn jn jts ajstkrjg`m gkntfxt.

af gkntrjeutjkn tk taf cjvfrsjty `nc rfstkr`tjkn kd spmjt ure`n ga`r`gtfr kd

kmc `nc nfw.

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03? ‗

Jn tkt`m 55 djrhs sakwfc jntfrfst dkr tajs tfncfr ey suehjttjno taf ckguhfnts

`sifc dkr jn taf g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn. @ sfmfgtjkn w`s h`cf ey taf sfmfgtjkn gkh-

hjttff e`sfc kn taf sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj` kd taf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts (h`xjhuh kd 4<

pkjnts) `nc taf prkpksfc mf`c `rgajtfgts (h`xjhuh 3< pkjnts). af sfmfgtjkn

gkhhjttff gknsjstfc kd rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf Ek`rc kd taf H`ykr `nc @mcfrhfn,

taf hunjgjp`mjty, taf Cfvfntfr mjer`ry `nc taf prkbfgt tf`h kd taf tfncfr. af

sfmfgtjkn prkgfss fxjstfc kd ` hfftjno kd taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff wjta cjsgussjkn

`nc vktjno. Efgùsf taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd taf tfncfr a`c `mrf`cy tìfn pm`gf

wafn taf g`sf stucy st`rtfc, tafrf wfrf knmy mjhjtfc c`t` `v`jmèmf èkut tajspa`sf (h`jnmy jntfrvjfws).

Djourf 4.7 Gurrfnt sjtu`tjkn `nc ajstkrjg`m h`p kd taf mkg`tjkn (skurgf2 `ppfncjgfs kd gkhpf-

tjtjkn rumfs)

Gaurga

squ`rf Gknstrugtjknsjtf



031

Djvf djrhs drkh taf 55 wfrf jnvjtfc tk bkjn taf `w`rc pa`sf kd taf tfncfr.

Djourf 4.3 rfprfsfnt jmmustr`tjkns kd taf sg`mf hkcfms kd taf cfsjons ta`t wfrf prf-

sfntfc curjno taf tfncfr. af `rgajtfgts, fxgfpt dkr taf wjnnfr, f`ga rfgfjvfc ₭06.<<< gkhpfns`tjkn dkr tafjr `gtjvjtjfs jn taf `w`rc pa`sf. af `w`rc gkhhjt-

tff, wak a`c tk cftfrhjnf taf wjnnfr kd taf tfncfr, gknsjstfc kd rfprfsfnt`tjvfs

kd taf pkmjtjg`m p`rtjfs kd taf Gjty Gkungjm. af `w`rc gkhhjttff gknsjcfrfc taf

`cvjgf kd sfvfr`m stìfakmcfrs (mjer`ry, usfr orkup kd taf gjty `nc taf gjtjzfns) `s

wfmm `s taf `cvjgf kd `n fxpfrt gkhhjttff curjno ` vktjno prkgfss. @n `cvjskry

rfpkrt ey taf prkbfgt tf`h prkvjcfc tafh wjta `n `ssfsshfnt kd taf prkpks`ms jn

mjoat kd taf st`tfc prkbfgt rfqujrfhfnts.

Djourf 4.3 Saf prkpksfc cfsjons jn taf `w`rc

pa`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm g`sf (pjgturfs tìfn kd

taf krjojn`m sg`mf hkcfms kd taf tfncfrfrs ey

v`n cfr _krp dktkor`f uncfr taf ùtakrjty

kd taf Gjty kd Cfvfntfr).

Cfsjon 5 @rgajtfgtuurstucjk AA & _jttfvffn+Eks

Cfsjon 6 Nfutfmjnos Ujfcjbi @rgajtfgtfn

Cfsjon 3 Ir``jbv`nofr¿Vrejs

Cfsjon 0 @rgajtfgtfn Gjf

Cfsjon 7 Jeks Tjt`rt



03: ‗

af cfsjon prkpks`ms g`n ef cfsgrjefc `s2

Cfsjon 0 (@rgajtfgtfn Gjf.) gknsjstfc kd tarff sfp`r`tf eut gknnfgtfc eujmc-

jnos. Jt pm`gfc taf mjer`ry `t taf drknt `nc taf gjty kddjgfs `t taf e`gi `nc cf-

hkmjsafc `mm taf fxjstjno eujmcjnos `t taf sjtf.

Cfsjon 5 (@rgajtfgtuurstucjk AA jn gkhejn`tjkn wjta _jttfvffn+Eks) usfc` systfh kd m`yfrs tk djt jntk taf surrkuncjnos `nc pm`gfc taf mjer`ry `t taf

e`gi kd taf eujmcjno, grf`tjno ` m`rof jntfrn`m squ`rf. Wfvfr`m fxjstjno eujmc-

jnos wfrf jngmucfc jn taf cfsjon.

Cfsjon 7 (Jeks Tjt`rt) gkumc ef cfsgrjefc s mkno om`ss rjeekn. af fntr`ngf

kd taf mjer`ry w`s sjtu`tfc `t taf drknt. @mm fxjstjno eujmcjnos `t taf sjtf wfrf

tk ef cfhkmjsafc.

Cfsjon 3 (Ir``jbv`nofr¿Vrejs) kro`njg`mmy djmmfc taf `v`jmèmf sp`gf `nc rfnk-

v`tfc hkst kd taf kmc kddjgf eujmcjno. af fntr`ngf kd taf mjer`ry w`s sjtu`tfc

`t taf drknt.Cfsjon 6 (Nfutfmjnos Ujfcjbi @rgajtfgts) w`s sa`pfc `s `n fmmjpsf `nc prk-

vjcfc ` m`rof wjntfr o`rcfn `t taf tkp. @mhkst `mm fxjstjno eujmcjnos wfrf

rfnkv`tfc `nc taf mjer`ry fntr`ngf w`s pm`gfc `t taf drknt.

af djrh kd Nfutfmjnos Ujfcjbi (cfsjon 6) w`s gaksfn `s taf wjnnfr kd tajs

tfncfr.

Jn 5<<: sfvfr`m hfhefrs kd taf gurrfnt fxfgutjvf Ek`rc kd H`ykr nc @mcfrhfn

rfsjonfc kvfr tajs prkbfgt efgùsf taf gkungjm cjc nkt `pprkvf taf cft`jmfc cfsjon

kd Nfutfmjnos Ujfcjbi. af h`jn rf`skns wfrf taf d`gt ta`t taf cfsjon cjc nkt hfft

jhpkrt`nt mkg`m pm`nnjno rfqujrfhfnts, f.o. ta`t taf afjoat kd taf eujmcjno sakumcnkt fxgffc taf afjoat kd nf`rey gaurga. af prkbfgt msk d`jmfc tk prkvjcf gkn-

vjngjno `nc suppkrtfc g`mgum`tjkn kd gknstrugtjkns gksts ta`t w`s wjtajn eucoft,

fvfn `dtfr ` sfgknc kpjnjkn ey `n jncfpfncfnt fnojnffrjno djrh. afsf gkndmjgts

wjta taf rfqujrfhfnts wfrf inkwn curjno taf tfncfr sfmfgtjkn prkgfss eut wfrf

jonkrfc jn taf cfgjsjkn hìjno prkgfss. af hkst rfgfnt jndkrh`tjkn rfo`rcjno

taf Gjty A`mm g`sf suoofsts ta`t taf prkbfgt a`s effn jncfdjnjtfmy pkstpknfc.

4.3.7 @ pkmjtjg`m prkgfss2 @ \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf

af tajrc g`sf gkngfrns taf sfmfgtjkn kd ` Cfsjon-`nc-Eujmc gknskrtjuh dkr nfw

p`rt kd taf okvfrnhfnt`m kddjgfs kd taf \rkvjngf kd Vtrfgat. ajs g`sf jnvkmvfctaf pfrjkc drkh Bumy 5<<? tjmm B`nu`ry 5<<1. af gurrfnt kddjgfs kd taf \rkvjngf

gknsjst kd ` tkwfr, eujmt jn taf :<s, `nc ` mkwfr emkgi g`mmfc ‑af Wt`rs‚, eujmt jn

taf ?<s. ajs g`sf rfo`rcs taf tfncfrjno prkgfcurf dkr ` nfw eujmcjno rfpm`gjno

‑af Wt`rs‚.

af \rkvjngj`m Gkungjm (\W) js pkmjtjg`mmy taf rfprfsfnt`tjvf ekcy kd taf prkv-

jngf `nc tafrfdkrf taf gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt jn tajs g`sf. \rkvjngj`m Fxfgutjvfs

(OW) `rf ga`rofc wjta taf c`y-tk-c`y h`nòfhfnt kd taf \rkvjngf. Wfvfr`m kd taf

fxfgutjvfs wfrf p`rt kd taf stffrjno gkhhjttff kd taf tfncfr prkbfgt, ggkhp`njfc

ey taf af`cs kd taf prkvjngj`m kro`njs`tjkns tk ef akusfc jn taf nfw eujmcjno.

af prkbfgt tf`h gknsjstfc kd twk p`rt-tjhf prkbfgt mf`cfrs, ` sfgrft`ry, twk st`dd

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06<

hfhefrs kd taf purga`sjno cfp`rthfnt, `nc sfvfr`m gknsumt`nts. af gmjfnt gaksf

tk tfncfr tafjr gkntr`gt s Cfsjon-`nc-Eujmc gkntr`gt nc tk usf ` rfstrjgtfc tfn-

cfrjno prkgfcurf. Vndkrtun`tfmy taf tfncfrjno prkgfcurf w`s g`ngfmmfc bust `dtfr

taf qu`mjt`tjvf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf cuf tk rfgknsjcfr`tjkn kd taf krjojn`m pksjtjkns kd

taf cfgjsjkn tk rfpm`gf taf mkwfr p`rt kd taf eujmcjno.

k `ppmy dkr taf tfncfr jntfrfstfc p`rtjfs wfrf `sifc tk dkrh ` gknskrtjuh, wajga sakumc jngmucf `t mf`st `n `rgajtfgt, ` gkntr`gtkr `nc ` prkbfgt h`nòfr.

af gknskrtjuh wkumc ef rfspknsjemf dkr cfmjvfrjno taf nfw eujmcjno (cfsjon `s

wfmm `s gknstrugtjkn) dkr ` djxfc prjgf kd ₭ 7: hjmmjkn fxgmucjno T@.

af erjfd dkr taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf rf`cs `s dkmmkws (tr`nsm`tfc

drkh Cutga ey taf ùtakr)2

”Saf nfw eujmcjno a`s tk dkrh ` nfw kgf gkngfpt wjta fxjemf wkripm`gfs`nc gkntfhpkr`ry d`gjmjtjfs. Saf eujmcjno sakumc ef hkrf fgjfnt (tfganj-g`mmy `nc dungtjkn`mmy) ta`n taf gurrfnt eujmcjno `nc rfqujrfs ` nfw gfn-tr`m fntr`ngf. Saf eujmcjno a`s tk kfr èkut 0<,5<< h 5 usèmf kkr `rf`

(èkut 04,<<<h 5 orkss kkr `rf`) `nc sp`gf dkr èkut 6<< wkripm`gfs. @spfgj`m pkjnt kd `ttfntjkn js taf gknnfgtjkn / rfm`tjkn tk taf tkwfr.‘

Fjoat gknskrtj` `ppmjfc dkr tajs tfncfr. af hjnjhuh rfqujrfhfnts `nc sf-

mfgtjkn grjtfrj` wfrf e`sfc kn strjgt kro`njs`tjkn`m `nc djn`ngj`m rfqujrfhfnts kd

taf gknskrtjuh eut taf cfgjcjno d`gtkr w`s sujtèjmjty kd taf `rgajtfgt, tk ef `s-

sfssfc e`sfc kn tarff rfdfrfngf prkbfgts ta`t wfrf cfsjonfc ey taf prkpksfc mf`c

`rgajtfgt. arff gknskrtj` wfrf fxgmucfc dkr d`jmjno tk hfft taf hjnjhuh rfqujrf-

hfnts, rfsumtjno jn djvf g`ncjc`tfs. af sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff, gknsjstjno kd hfh-

efrs kd taf fxfgutjvf ek`rc kd taf \rkvjngf `nc `n jncfpfncfnt ga`jr, cftfrhjnfc

taf cforff jn wajga taf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts dumdjmmfc taf grjtfrj` kd ` ‑puemjg, tjhf-mfss, eusjnfss-mjif ga`r`gtfr wjta auh`n sg`mf‚ jn sjnomf hfftjno kd tarff akurs.

afy wfrf `ssjstfc ey `n `rgajtfgtur`m fxpfrt. @mm gknskrtj` p`rtjgjp`tjno jn taf

`w`rc pa`sf wkumc rfgfjvf djn`ngj`m gkhpfns`tjkn kd ₭ 06<.<<<.

af sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj` wfrf2

Djn`ngj`m rfqujrfhfnts ‗ tk ef ckguhfntfc ey `n ùcjt gfrtjdjg`tf wjta taf

`nnu`m turnkvfr `nc mjqujcjty kd taf m`st tarff yf`rs kd `t mf`st knf kd taf gkn-

skrtjuh hfhefrs.

\rkdfssjkn`m rfqujrfhfnts kd taf gkntr`gtkr ‗ tk ef ckguhfntfc ey ` gfrtjdj-

g`tf kd ` prkdfssjkn`m rfojstfr, ` gfrtjdjg`tf kd taf qu`mjty h`nòfhfnt systfh`nc ` gfrtjdjg`tf dkr taf TG@ (W`dfty, Af`mta `nc Fnvjrknhfnt dkr gkntr`g-

tkrs) kd `t mf`st knf kd taf gknskrtjuh hfhefrs, `nc tarff rfdfrfngf prkbfgts

wjta spfgjdjg hjnjhuh rfqujrfhfnts èkut taf dungtjkn (hjnjhuh 6<% kd-

djgf), sg`mf (hjnjhuh kd 0<,<<<hµ) `nc eucoft (₭ 03 hjmmjkn gknstrugtjkn

gksts), ta`t a`c tk ef cfmjvfrfc jn taf p`st djvf yf`rs, jngmucjno ` st`tfhfnt

kd s`tjsd`gtjkn kd taf gmjfnt, `t mf`st knf kd taf prkbfgt nffcs tk ef sust`jnèmf

`nc `t mf`st knf kd taf prkbfgt nffcs tk ef ` utjmjty eujmcjno rf`mjsfc ey `n

jntfor`tfc gkntr`gt.

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060 ‗

\rkdfssjkn`m rfqujrfhfnts kd taf rgajtfgts jnvkmvfc jn taf gknskrtjuh ‗ tk ef

`ssfssfc ey rfdfrfngf prkbfgts kd tarff nfw utjmjty eujmcjnos ta`t wfrf cfsjonfc

ey taf prkpksfc mf`c `rgajtfgt `nc cfmjvfrfc jn taf p`st djvf yf`rs, vjsu`mjsfc

kn `n @< pkstfr wjtakut `ny rfdfrfngf tk taf n`hf kd taf `rgajtfgt nkr taf

gknskrtjuh.

Jd taf tfncfr a`c nkt effn g`ngfmmfc taf p`rtjgjp`tjno gknskrtj` wkumc a`vfeffn bucofc kn ` cft`jmfc cfsjon jn taf `w`rc pa`sf. @w`rc grjtfrj` dkr taf fgk-

nkhjg`mmy hkst `cv`ntòfkus tfncfr wkumc hkst mjifmy a`vf effn2 ‑`rgajtfgtur-

`m qu`mjty‚, ‑dungtjkn`m qu`mjty‚, ‑curèjmjty‚, ‑h`jntfn`ngf‚, ‑prjgf‚, `nc ‑pm`n kd

`gtjkn‚.

4.6 Djncjnos èkut `gtkrs

af rfsumts kd taf g`sfs jn rfm`tjkn tk taf gtkrs sakw ta`t tfncfr js gknsjcfrfc ey

gmjfnts `s ` prkbfgt `nc trf`tfc sjhjm`rmy tk ktafr prkbfgts. Cuf tk taf okvfrn`ngf

strugturf kd puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnts, cfgjsjkns wfrf usu`mmy tìfn jn orkups`nc nkt ey jncjvjcu`ms. H`ny pfkpmf `rf jnvkmvfc jn taf cfgjsjkns h`cf jn ` tfn-

cfr prkbfgt. emf 4.7 sakws `n kvfrvjfw kd taf `gtkrs jn taf g`sfs `nc tafjr pksj-

tjkns. Jn skhf g`sfs taf stffrjno gkhhjttff gknsjstfc kd vjrtu`mmy taf s`hf pfkpmf

`s taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc gkhhjttff

wfrf sjhjm`r eut cjddfrfnt jn ùtakrjty, wajmf jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf hfhefr-

sajp kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff w`s gkhpmftfmy cjddfrfnt drkh ta`t kd taf sfmfgtjkn

gkhhjttff. af ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf gkhhjttff nc tf`h hfhefrs jndmufngf taf

jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd taf tfncfr orf`tmy. af nfxt sfgtjkns cfsgrjef taf ga`r`gtfrjs-

tjgs kd taf `gtkrs jn ` tfncfr prkbfgt hkrf takrkuoamy.

•

Sèmf 4.7 Kvfrvjfw kd `gtkrs jn taf g`sfs

Wgakkm wjta Wpkrts d`gjmjty Gjty A`mm wjta Mjer`ry \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kgf

Wtffrjno

gkhhjttff

Hfhefrs kd taf Wgakkm ek`rc, af`c

kd taf hunjgjp`m cfp`rthfnt kd

Wpkrts, prkbfgt h`nòfr

Hfhefrs kd taf fxfgutjvf

ek`rc, ga`jr kd taf mjer`ry

ek`rc, cfp`rthfnt af`cs kd taf

hunjgjp`mjty, prkbfgt h`nòfr


ek`rc, af`c kd taf cfp`rthfnts

kd prkvjngj`m kro`njs`tjkn

Wfmfgtjkn

gkhhjttff

Hfhefrs kd taf Wgakkm ek`rc, fh-

pmkyffs kd taf hunjgjp`m cfp`rthfnt

kd Wpkrts, fhpmkyffs kd taf hunjgjp`m

cfp`rthfnt kd Fcug`tjkn, rfprfsfnt`-

tjvfs kd taf OFH Tmfutfrwfjcf


ek`rc, ga`jr kd taf mjer`ry ek`rc,

cfp`rthfnts af`cs kd taf

hunjgjp`mjty

W`hf `s stffrjno gkhhjttff2

hfhefrs kd taf fxfgutjvf

ek`rc, cfp`rthfnt af`cs kd

\rkvjngj`m kro`njs`tjkn, wjta

fxtfrn`m cvjskr

@w`rc gkhhjttff Hfhefrs kd taf Wgakkm ek`rc, fh-

pmkyffs kd taf hunjgjp`m cfp`rthfnt

kd Wpkrts

Ufprfsfnt`tjvfs kd mm pkmjtjg`m

p`rtjfs, `cvjsfc ey gjtjzfns,

fxpfrts `nc usfr orkups

\rkeèmy s`hf s sfmfgtjkn

gkhhjttff eut nkt gknstjtutfc.

\rkbfgt tf`h Swk h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nts,

cjrfgtkr kd taf Wgakkm

Jntfrjh prkbfgt h`nòfr,

hfhefrs kd fxfgutjvf ek`rc,

af`c kd st` cfp`rthfnts,

pfrh`nfnt st` hfhefrs, nc

h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nts

Jntfrn`m prkbfgt h`nòfrs,

pfrh`nfnt st` hfhefrs,

`nc sfvfr`m h`nòfhfnt

gknsumt`nts

Ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd

taf tfncfr prkgfss

\ròh`tjg prkgfss, crjvf dkr kebfgtj-

vjty nc gkmmèkr`tjkn

Cfhkgr`tjg prkgfss, hejtjkn tk

hìf ` st`tfhfnt suppkrtfc ey

gkhhunjty

\kmjtjg`m prkgfss, df`r tk mkksf

gkntrkm nc sf`rga dkr jntfrn`m

suppkrt



065

4.6.0 Wtffrjno gkhhjttff

@ puemjg gmjfnt js fhefccfc jn ` okvfrn`ngf strugturf wajga g`nnkt ef rfcugfc

tk knf sjnomf cfgjsjkn hìfr. Wtjmm cfgjsjkn hìfrs `rf afmc `ggkuntèmf dkr taf

puemjg hknfy tafy spfnc. Knf kd taf p`rtjgjp`tjno rgajtfgts jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf

qujtf jrknjg`mmy st`tfc jn `n jntfrvjfw ta`t2

”@ puemjg gmjfnt js jn d`gt nkt ` sjnomf gmjfnt eut ` hknstfr wjta h`ny af`cs,` gknomkhfr`tjkn kd gmjfnts wak ckfs nkt inkw wa`t saf w`nts `nc `mw`ystrjfs tk nc ` skmutjkn jn taf hjccmf.‘

Jn krcfr tk rf`mjsf taf eujmcjno prkbfgt jn `mm g`sfs ` prkbfgt strugturf w`s grf-

`tfc wjta ` stffrjno gkhhjttff tk hìf taf hkst jhpkrt`nt ofnfr`m cfgjsjkns `nc

` prkbfgt tf`h tk kro`njsf taf prkbfgt `nc prfp`rf taf cfgjsjkns kd taf stffrjno

gkhhjttff. af tfncfr w`s usu`mmy ` p`rt kd taf tkt`m eujmcjno prkbfgt wjta taf

s`hf stffrjno gkhhjttff eut ` sfp`r`tf prkbfgt tf`h. Jn `mm g`sfs taf djn`m cfgj-

sjkn èkut taf wjnnfr kd taf gkntr`gt w`s tk ef `pprkvfc ey taf kddjgj`m gkhhjs-

sjknjno ekcy2 taf Wgakkm Ek`rc, taf Gjty Gkungjm jngmucjno taf @mcfrhfn kr taf

\rkvjngj`m Gkungjm. af stffrjno gkhhjttff hkstmy gknsjstfc kd dfw hfhefrs kd

taf puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt ekcy, gkhpmfhfntfc wjta hfhefrs kd taf pfr-

h`nfnt h`nòfrj`m st`dd wjta d`gjmjtjfs kr djn`ngfs jn tafjr pkrtdkmjk. wk kd taf

Wgakkm Ek`rc hfhefrs wfrf rf`m fst`tf prkdfssjkn`ms jn c`jmy mjdf, eut jn taf ktafr

g`sfs nknf kd taf stffrjno gkhhjttff hfhefrs wfrf prkdfssjkn`ms jn `rgajtfgturf

kr rfm`tfc djfmcs. Jn d`gt, nknf kd taf gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnts wfrf prkdfssjkn`m

gmjfnts wajga hf`nt ta`t ` eujmcjno prkbfgt w`s ` r`rf fvfnt dkr hkst cfgjsjkn

hìfrs. ajs g`n ef fxpm`jnfc ey taf d`gt ta`t ` puemjg gmjfnt js p`rt kd taf puemjg

`chjnjstr`tjkn `nc js tafrfdkrf run ey pkmjtjgj`ns jnstf`c kd prkdfssjkn`ms jn gkn-

strugtjkn kr `rgajtfgturf. Jn taf g`sfs jn wajga (knf kd) taf prkbfgt ga`hpjkn(s)

w`s p`rt kd taf gkhhjssjknjno ekcy, taf Wgakkm `nc taf Gjty A`mm, taf cfgjsjkn

prkgfssfs sffhfc tk ef hkrf dmufnt ta`t wafn taf prkbfgt ga`hpjkns wfrf knmy

p`rt kd taf prkbfgt tf`h.

af eujmcjno prkbfgt w`s pfrgfjvfc ey skhf hfhefrs kd taf stffrjno gkhhjt-

tff s pksjtjvf ga`mmfnof, wajmf dkr ktafrs suga ` prkbfgt ppf`rfc tk ef taf jhpf-

tus kd ungfrt`jnty nc df`r. ajs pfrgfptjkn w`s p`rtmy jndmufngfc ey taf pfrskn`m-

jty, gkhpftfngfs, fxpfrjfngf, hejtjkn nc fxpfrtjsf kd taf pfrskn rfspknsjemf dkr

taf prkbfgt. Knf kd taf h`nòfrs kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf cfsgrjefc

tajs pafnkhfnkn curjno ` hfftjno kd taf prkbfgt tf`h2”Kevjkusmy tafrf js taf df`r kd ` pkmjtjg`m _`tfrmkk. Vngfrt`jnty èkut tafgkntr`gt ckhjn`tfs taf prkgfss. .…. Df`r js `mw`ys ` e`c `cvjskr.‘

af d`gt ta`t `n `rgajtfgt a`s tk ef jnvkmvfc jn ` prkbfgt `msk sffhs tk ef pfr-

gfjvfc `s ` rjsi ey gfrt`jn gmjfnts. @rgajtfgts a`vf f`rnfc ` rfput`tjkn dkr spfnc-

jno tkk huga hknfy `nc efjno tkk ckhjn`nt jn tìjno cfsjon cfgjsjkns. Wkhf

gmjfnts ck nkt sffh tk ef ektafrfc ey tajs rfput`tjkn `nc `ginkwmfcof ta`t tafy

nffc `n `rgajtfgt tk tr`nsdkrh tafjr `hejtjkns `nc rfqujrfhfnts jntk ` paysjg`m

sa`pf. af Wgakkm Ek`rc, dkr fx`hpmf, w`s rf`mmy mkkijno dkrw`rc tk wkrijno

wjta taf `rgajtfgt9 tafy `gtu`mmy pfrgfjvfc taf `rgajtfgt `s ` p`rtnfr jn tajs prkbfgt.afrfdkrf tafy gaksf tk kro`njsf taf tfncfr `t ` pa`sf jn tafjr prkbfgt jn wajga



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taf erjfd w`s nkt yft dummy spfgjdjfc. Knf kd taf e`sjg jcf`s dkr taf Gjty A`mm w`s

tk usf taf grf`tjvjty kd taf `rgajtfgt jn sa`pjno tafjr jcf`s kd ‑ nfw akhf dkr taf

gjty‚. afy gaksf tk `si dkr ` siftga cfsjon jn taf `w`rc pa`sf tk sff akw tajs

tr`nsdkrh`tjkn wkumc wkri kut jn tafjr sjtu`tjkn. Curjno taf prfp`r`tjkns kd taf

\rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf taf m`gi kd cft`jm kn gfrt`jn `spfgts kd taf erjfd

`gtu`mmy jngrf`sfc taf `nxjfty èkut taf pkssjemf ckhjn`ngf kd `rgajtfgts jn tafprkbfgt. ajs dffmjno w`s jngrf`sfc ey taf d`gt ta`t tafy wkumc `w`rc n jntfor`tfc

Cfsjon-Eujmc gkntr`gt jn wajga taf gmjfnt g`nnkt hìf h`ny ga`nofs tk taf cf-

sjon efdkrf gknstrugtjkn. af sf`rga dkr gkntrkm kvfr taf prkbfgt w`s sakwn wjta

` gkhhfnt cr`wn drkh taf kesfrv`tjkns2

”_f nffc tk nc fnkuoa sp`gf eftwffn taf prfmjhjn`ry `w`rc cfgjsjkn`nc `mmkg`tjkn kd taf gkntr`gt…. Fvfrytajno sffhs tk ef cjsputèmf. Afwak p`ys taf pjpfr sakumc g`mm taf tunf.‘

4.6.5 \rkbfgt tf`hEfgùsf kd m`gi kd inkwmfcof, fxpfrtjsf nc g`p`gjty ekut tfncfrjno nc eujmc-

jno prkbfgts, h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nts wfrf ajrfc jn kn ` prkbfgt e`sjs jn `mm g`sfs.

@mm tfncfr prkbfgt tf`hs gknsjstfc kd ` hjxturf kd st`dd hfhefrs `nc fxtfrn`m

`cvjskrs. Knmy jn taf g`sf kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf wfrf taf prkbfgt

h`nòfrs pfrh`nfnt st`dd hfhefrs. afy wfrf suppkrtfc ey ` mfo`m `cvjskr, `

h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nt `nc skhf gkmmfòufs drkh taf purga`sjno cfp`rthfnt.

af Wgakkm Ek`rc (h`cf up kd p`rt-tjhf vkmuntffrs) ajrfc ` h`nòfhfnt gkn-

sumt`nt tk run taf wakmf eujmcjno prkbfgt, jngmucjno taf tfncfr. Jn taf g`sf kd

taf Gjty A`mm `n jntfrjh prkgfss h`nòfr tkki taf mf`c, wajmf efjno `cvjsfc ey

` mfo`m gknsumt`ngy djrh `nc sfvfr`m fhpmkyffs kd taf hunjgjp`mjty. Jn hkst g`sfs

taf prkbfgt h`nòfr kd taf (duturf) eujmcjno prkbfgt w`s nkt `gtjvfmy jnvkmvfc jn

taf tfncfr. ajs hf`nt ta`t taf (duturf) prkbfgt h`nòfr wkumc nkt a`vf ` s`y jn

taf cfgjsjkn èkut taf pfrskn (s)af wjmm ef wkrijno wjta. af prkbfgt h`nòfr kd

taf Gjty A`mm g`sf fxpm`jnfc curjno `n jntfrvjfw ta`t jn ajs g`sf tajs w`s cknf kn

purpksf tk hìf ` gmf`n st`rt kd taf nfxt pa`sf2

”J a`vf effn tafrf dkr twk yf`rs `nc ta`t js ` mkno tjhf dkr `n jntfrjh h`-nòfr. J pm`yfc skhf cjrty trjgis tk rf`mjsf tajs tfncfr. Safn taf e`c ouynffcs tk ef rfpm`gfc ey taf okkc ouy. Jn taf nfxt pa`sf skhfknf nffcs tk

eujmc ` trustdum rfm`tjknsajp eftwffn taf `rgajtfgt `nc taf gmjfnt.‘

Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf fxtfrn`m prkbfgt h`nòfr w`s dkunc tk a`vf taf

`cv`ntòf kd efjno èmf tk hìf cfgjsjkns ùtknkhkusmy jn krcfr tk iffp taf

prkgfss runnjno. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf taf gknsumt`nt `gtfc `s `n jncfpfncfnt hf-

cj`tkr eftwffn p`rtjfs. afn ò`jn, taf djncjnos kd ekta g`sfs jncjg`tf ta`t fxtfr-

n`m hfhefrs kd taf prkbfgt tf`h `rf nkt `mw`ys `w`rf kd taf sfnsjtjvjtjfs kd taf

prkbfgt gkhp`rfc tk pfrh`nfnt st`dd hfhefrs. afrfdkrf tafy hjoat ef mfss èmf

tk tr`nsm`tf taf `hejtjkns kd taf gmjfnt jntk taf cfsjon kd taf tfncfr `nc tìf cfmj-

g`tf jssufs jntk `ggkunt. Jn taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf ` wfmm rfputfc

mfo`m `cvjskr efg`hf jnvkmvfc jn taf djn`m stòf kd taf prkbfgt. af mfo`m `cvjskrrfwrktf taf g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn `s tìfn ckwn ey taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc tarf`t-



063

fnfc tk wjtacr`w tafjr mfo`m rfspknsjejmjty jd taf p`ròr`pa ekut taf rgajtfgtur`m

`hejtjkn kd taf gmjfnt `nc taf rfm`tfc sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj` w`s nkt h`cf hkrf kp-

fr`tjkn`m ta`n `s wrjttfn ey taf prkbfgt tf`h. Akwfvfr taf suebfgtjvf ga`r`gtfr kd

tajs `spfgt kd `rgajtfgturf h`cf jt `mhkst jhpkssjemf dkr durtafr kebfgtjdjg`tjkn.

Djn`mmy taf jssuf w`s skmvfc tarkuoa taf `cvjgf kd ` mfo`m fxpfrt drkh taf Cutga

Okvfrnhfnt Eujmcjno @ofngy wak rfgfntmy wkrifc kn ` mfo`m oujcfmjnf dkr tfn-cfrs dkr taf gfntr`m okvfrnhfnt. af \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt g`sf sakwfc ta`t tkk

huga jnvkmvfhfnt kd ` mfo`m `cvjskr gkumc mf`c tk ` mfo`mjstjg prkgfcurf jn wajga

gkhpmyjno wjta taf m`w g`hf tk ef hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt.

ajs jngjcfnt `msk sakws taf cfmjg`tf `nc r`tafr uncfvfmkpfc st`tus kd `rgajtfgt

sfmfgtjkns `nc taf m`gi kd fxpfrjfngf wjta jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf rfoum`tjkns.

@hkno taf jssufs dkr taf stffrjno gkhhjttff tk cfgjcf w`s taf gkhpksjtjkn kd

taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc gkhhjttffs, taf pfrdkrh`ngf mfvfms rfqujrfc tk hfft taf

rfqujrfhfnts, taf djn`m pprkv`m kd taf sfmfgtjkn `nc w`rc grjtfrj` nc taf prkbfgt

erjfd. @mm taf ckguhfnts dkr taf stffrjno gkhhjttff wfrf prfp`rfc ey taf prkbfgt

tf`hs. af rfsumts kd taf g`sfs jncjg`tf ta`t taf strfnota kd taf mjni eftwffn tafprkbfgt tf`h `nc taf stffrjno gkhhjttff cftfrhjnfs taf e`sjs dkr taf suggfss kd

cfgjsjkn hìjno nc taf tr`nsm`tjkn kd taf hejtjkns kd taf gmjfnt jntk taf prkgfss

prkgfcurf kd taf tfncfr. ajs g`n ef fnèmfc ey taf prkbfgt h`nòfr wak gknnfgts

taf prkbfgt tf`h, bury p`nfm `nc stffrjno gkhhjttff, `s jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf `nc

taf Wgakkm g`sf, kr ey puttjno hfhefrs kd taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc/kr stffrjno gkh-

hjttff jn taf bury p`nfm. Jn taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf taf mjni eftwffn

taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc taf stffrjno gkhhjttff guh bury p`nfm `ppf`rfc tk ef vfry

wfì `nc prfsuhèmy knf kd taf rf`skns ta`t taf tfncfr w`s g`ngfmmfc.

4.6.7 Bury p`nfm @mm gmjfnts `ppkjntfc ` bury p`nfm (jn tfncfr usu`mmy rfdfrrfc tk `s ` sfmfgtjkn `nc/

kr `w`rc gkhhjttff) tk bucof taf prkpks`ms jn taf sfp`r`tf pa`sfs kd taf tfncfr

prkgfss wajga w`s bust `s taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc taf stffrjno gkhhjttff fspfgj`mmy

gkhpksfc dkr taf prkbfgt. Jn mm g`sfs taf c`t` gkmmfgtjkn st`rtfc dtfr taf gkhpksj-

tjkn kd taf `gtkr tf`hs. Jt js tafrfdkrf a`rc tk rftrjfvf taf fx`gt rf`skns way pfk-

pmf wfrf jnvkmvfc jn taf bury p`nfm kr ktafr gkhhjttffs. af jntfrvjfws jncjg`tfc

ta`t taf p`nfm hfhefrs wfrf h`jnmy sfmfgtfc efgùsf kd tafjr pksjtjkn wjtajn

taf kro`njs`tjkn `nc rfm`tfc djfmc kd fxpfrtjsf, kr tafjr pksjtjkn wjtajn taf hkst

jhpkrt`nt stìfakmcfr kro`njs`tjkns. Nknf kd taf hfhefrs jn taf bury p`nfms kdtaf g`sfs w`s spfgjdjg`mmy `sifc efgùsf kd tafjr fxpfrtjsf èkut `rgajtfgt sfmfg-

tjkns kr `rgajtfgturf jn ofnfr`m. af sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff taf Wgakkm gknsjstfc kd

rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf stffrjno gkhhjttff `nc taf gkrf kro`njs`tjkn kd taf gmjfnt,

gkhpmftfc wjta rfprfsfnt`tjvf kd taf supfrvjskry orkups. af s`hf gkhhjttff

`gtfc `s taf `w`rc gkhhjttff - knmy taf rjoats kd taf supfrvjskry orkups ga`nofc

drkh cfgjsjvf jntk `cvjskry. Jn taf Gjty A`mm ` sjhjm`r gkhhjttff `gtfc `s sfmfgtjkn

gkhhjttff. af `w`rc gkhhjttff akwfvfr gknsjstfc kd rfprfsfnt`tjvf hfhefrs

kd taf pkmjtjg`m p`rtjfs, wak a`c vktjno pkwfr prkpkrtjkn`m tk taf sjzf kd tafjr

p`rty. ajs pkmjtjg`m gkhpksjtjkn kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff rfdmfgts taf ga`r`gtfr kd

taf w`rc pa`sf jn wajga h`ny stìfakmcfr orkups wfrf jnvkmvfc. @mm stìfakmcfrorkups a`c `cvjskry rjoats tk taf hfhefrs kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff. Jt sakumc ef



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nktfc ta`t taf H`ykr nc @mcfrhfn wfrf nkt p`rt kd taf w`rc gkhhjttff9 r`tafr

tafjr pkmjtjg`m p`rtjfs wfrf rfprfsfntfc jn taf w`rc gkhhjttff. afy cjc a`vf taf

djn`m `pprkv`m ùtakrjty kvfr taf cfgjsjkn kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff. Nfjtafr taf

gknsumt`nt nkr `ny ktafr hfhefr kd taf prkbfgt tf`h a`c cfgjsjvf kr gknsumt`tjvf

rjoats jn `ny kd taf g`sfs. Akwfvfr, tafy kdtfn d`gjmjt`tfc `nc/kr ga`jrfc taf gkh-

hjttff hfftjnos. Knmy jn taf g`sf kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf cjc tafstffrjno gkhhjttff `msk `gt `s taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff.

4.4 Djncjnos èkut prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

af djncjnos èkut taf prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `ccrfss taf rfm`tjkns kd taf tfncfr

prkbfgt wjta taf kvfr`mm eujmcjno prkbfgt `nc taf okvfrn`ngf strugturf kd taf gmj-

fnt. Jt sakws ta`t ` tfncfr prkbfgt js fhefccfc jn ` nftwkri kd pktfntj`m gkndmjg-

tjvf stìfakmcfr jntfrfsts `nc fxpfgt`tjkns. @ccjtjkn`mmy taf kebfgt `nc ga`r`gtfr

kd ` prkbfgt ‗ taf grf`tjkn kd ` paysjg`m eujmcjno ‗ grf`tfs jssufs kd cjsgussjkn kn

cjddfrfnt mfvfms `nc pfrspfgtjvfs ta`t a`vf tk ef tìfn jntk `ggkunt curjno tafcfgjsjkn prkgfss. Efgùsf kd taf humtjpmf pfrspfgtjvfs ta`t ga`r`gtfrjsf puemjg `c-

hjnjstr`tjkn, prjv`tf `nc prkdfssjkn`m jntfrfsts kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs kdtfn jntfr`gt.

af dkmmkwjno sfgtjkns cjsguss taf prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `nc cfgjsjkn jssufs ta`t

wfrf dkunc jn taf g`sfs jn hkrf cft`jm.

4.4.0 \rkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

fncfrjno rfoum`tjkns `ppmy wafn puemjg gmjfnts w`nt tk eujmc tafjr kwn kddjgf

eujmcjnos eut `msk dkr ktafr puemjg eujmcjnos, suga `s fcug`tjkn`m eujmcjnos, prjs-

kns, husfuhs `nc skgj`m akusjno. Jn tajs rfsf`rga knf g`sf gkngfrnfc taf gkn-

strugtjkn kd ` prjh`ry sgakkm eujmcjno `nc twk g`sfs gkngfrnfc duturf hunjgjp`m`nc prkvjngj`m kddjgfs `nnfx puemjg jndkrh`tjkn ‑akusfs‚. _jtajn tafsf prkbfgts

twk ijncs kd erjfds wfrf cjstjnoujsafc2 0) taf erjfd dkr taf tfncfr prkgfss, `nc 5)

taf erjfd dkr taf eujmcjno prkbfgt. af eujmcjno erjfd js hf`nt tk ef pkjnt kd rfdfr-

fngf dkr taf cfsjon `nc gknstrugtjkn kd taf nfw eujmcjno `nc jngmucfs paysjg`m,

skgj`m, pm`nnjno `nc djn`ngj`m rfqujrfhfnts. af tfncfr erjfd sakumc fxprfss taf

`hejtjkns kd taf gmjfnt tk suppkrt taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd taf `rgajtfgt `nc prk-

vjcf ` e`sjs dkr taf ejc kd taf tfncfrfrs. afkrftjg`mmy taf tfncfr erjfd gkumc ef

taf s`hf `s taf eujmcjno erjfd eut ` gmf`r cjddfrfngf jn `jhs w`s dkunc. Nfxt tk

ta`t tafrf rf prjv`gy rfm`tfc jssufs ta`t gkumc prfvfnt gmjfnts drkh usjno taf fx`gt

eujmcjno erjfd jn ` tfncfr prkgfcurf.Jn `mm g`sfs taf tfncfr erjfd w`s e`sfc kn taf gfrt`jn spfgjdjg`tjkns jn taf

eujmcjno erjfd `nc taf sjtf `nc eucoft dkr taf prkbfgt wfrf gmf`rmy cfdjnfc. Jn `mm

g`sfs taf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf eujmcjno erjfd w`s akwfvfr nkt gkhpmftfmy djnjsafc

`t taf tjhf taf tfncfr w`s `nnkungfc, wajga jncjg`tfs taf `hejoukus ga`r`gtfr

kd taf rfqujrfhfnt jn tajs f`rmy stòf kd taf eujmcjno prkbfgt. af cjddfrfngfs jn

taf ijncs `nc rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf `w`rc grjtfrj` eftwffn taf Gjty A`mm `nc

taf Wgakkm suoofst ` strkno gknnfgtjkn tk taf ijnc kd tfncfr erjfd `nc taf rf`-

sknjno efajnc taf `w`rc prkgfcurf (siftga cfsjon vfrsus prkbfgt vjsjkn). _afn

`sijno dkr ` siftga cfsjon jn taf tfncfr prkgfcurf taf tfncfr erjfd nffcs tk ef

kn ` cft`jmfc mfvfm, `s jn taf g`sf dkr taf Gjty A`mm. af Wgakkm `tt`gafc ` tfncfr



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erjfd wjta mfss cft`jmfc dungtjkn`m rfqujrfhfnts dkr taf Wgakkm Eujmcjno eut vfry

spfgjdjg rfqujrfhfnt dkr taf Wpkrts d`gjmjtjfs. af rfprfsfnt`tjvf kd taf Wpkrts cf-

p`rthfnt kd taf Gjty kd Vtrfgat fxpm`jnfc curjno ` rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfw ta`t

tafy usfc st`nc`rcjsfc erjfds dkr taf cfvfmkphfnt kd spkrt d`gjmjtjfs, `nc taus `msk

dkr taf usf jn tfncfrs. Kvfr`mm jt hf`nt ta`t taf tfncfrfrs jn taf Wgakkm g`sf cjc

nkt a`vf fnkuoa jndkrh`tjkn tk hìf ` siftga cfsjon, wajga sujtfc taf `jh kdtaf tfncfr.

Efgùsf kd taf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf erjfd `s ` rfdfrfngf pkjnt dkr taf tfncfrfrs jn

prfp`rjno tafjr ejc, tafsf djncjnos jncjg`tf ta`t ` tfncfr erjfd sakumc ef spfgjdj-

g`mmy cfsjonfc dkr ` tfncfr. @p`rt drkh taf hknft`ry tarfsakmcs, taf sjzf kd taf

prkbfgt cjc nkt sffh tk ef jhpkrt`nt dkr taf cfsjon kd ` tfncfr. Eut efgùsf `

tfncfr js `mw`ys e`sfc kn `ssuhptjkns h`cf jn `n f`rmy pa`sf kd taf prkbfgt `nc

taf mkno tjhf sp`n kd ` gknstrugtjkn prkbfgt, tafsf `ssuhptjkns kdtfn a`vf tk ef

`cbustfc `mkno taf w`y. Jn `mm g`sfs taf rfqujrfhfnts `s st`tfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn

rumfs mrf`cy ga`nofc curjno taf pfrjkc taf tfncfr w`s runnjno nc cfgjsjkn hì-

frs a`c tk cf`m wjta jngrf`sjno jnsjoats èkut tafjr prkbfgts.Hkst eujmcjno prkbfgts a`vf spfgjdjg gknstr`jnts ta`t grf`tf spfgjdjg ga`mmfnofs

dkr taf cfsjonfr. Wkhf ga`mmfnofs rfm`tf tk taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd ` eujmcjno sfg-

tkr, ktafrs tk taf mkg`tjkn kr usfrs. Jn taf Nftafrm`ncs, sgakkm eujmcjnos dkr fx-

`hpmf ofnfr`mmy a`vf ` mjhjtfc eucoft cftfrhjnfc ey taf gfntr`m okvfrnhfnt.

r`nsdfrfngf `nc `ggfssjejmjty kd jndkrh`tjkn js vfry jhpkrt`nt dkr ` mjer`ry kr `

Gjty A`mm. @n`mysjs sakwfc ta`t jn skhf g`sfs taf gmjfnt usfc tafsf ga`mmfnofs tk

grf`tf jnput dkr taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. afy cfmjefr`tfmy mfdt skhf ga`mmfnofs kpfn

dkr taf `rgajtfgt tk prkvjcf ` skmutjkn curjno taf tfncfr. Jn taf g`sf kd taf Gjty

A`mm jt w`s stjmm tk ef cftfrhjnfc jd taf kddjgf eujmcjno `nc taf taf`trf wfrf tk ef

cfhkmjsafc. @msk taf tfncfr erjfd jn taf Wgakkm g`sf kpfnfc up sfvfr`m pkssjejmj-tjfs tk jntfor`tf taf spkrt d`gjmjtjfs wjta taf sgakkm eujmcjno.

Jn `mm g`sfs taf kemjo`tjkn tk sft ` okkc fx`hpmf tk ktafrs pm`yfc `n jhpkr-

t`nt rkmf jn taf ga`r`gtfr dkr taf duturf eujmcjno. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc taf

\rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf sust`jnèjmjty jssufs wfrf vfry prkhjnfnt jn taf

eujmcjno erjfd. Dkr taf Wgakkm Ek`rc jt w`s vfry jhpkrt`nt tk prkvjcf ` s`df fnvj-

rknhfnt dkr taf gajmcrfn. af Gjty Gkungjm `nc taf \rkvjngj`m Fxfgutjvf Ek`rc

`jhfc dkr prfstjojkus kddjgfs. @t taf s`hf tjhf, tafy `mm dfmt taf prfssurf tk spfnc

tafjr hknfy `s fddjgjfntmy `s pkssjemf `nc tk ef `ggkuntèmf dkr tafjr `gtjkns. af

c`t` suoofst ta`t taf `hejtjkn mfvfm kd taf gmjfnt cftfrhjnfs taf jhp`gt kd taf fx-

fhpm`ry rkmf kd taf gmjfnt kn gfrt`jn spfgjdjg`tjkns jn taf tfncfr erjfd9 taf orf`tfrtaf `hejtjkn, taf hkrf spfgjdjg wfrf taf rfqujrfhfnts jngkrpkr`tfc jn taf tfncfr

erjfd. ajs rfdmfgts kn taf prkdjmf kd taf rgajtfgt gmjfnts rf akpjno tk djnc tarkuoa

taf tfncfrjno prkgfss.

4.4.5 Gmjfnt okvfrn`ngf

Drkh ` mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf taf h`jn `jh kd ` tfncfr prkgfcurf js tk sfmfgt `n `rgaj-

tfgtur`m cfsjon djrh. af djncjnos kd taf g`sfs sakwfc ta`t ` tfncfrjno prkgfcurf

kdtfn a`s humtjpmf `jhs, `p`rt drkh `w`rcjno taf gkntr`gt tk `n `rgajtfgt. afsf

`jhs rfm`tfc tk taf prkgfss, taf kutgkhf `nc/kr taf prkbfgt kd taf tfncfr. Jd taf`jhs dkr taf prkgfss kd taf tfncfr wfrf jn mjnf wjta taf prjngjpmfs kd FV tfncfrjno,



06? ‗

suga `s efjno tr`nsp`rfnt (Gjty A`mm) kr efjno ` rfspknsjemf gmjfnt (Wgakkm), taf

ga`ngf kd gkndmjgts wjta taf rfoum`tjkns w`s mjhjtfc. Akwfvfr, jn taf g`sf kd taf

\rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf hkst cfgjsjkn hìfrs pfrgfjvfc taf prkgurfhfnt

rfoum`tjkns `s jngknvfnjfntmy rfstrjgtjno tafjr r`nof kd `gtjkn. af rjojc `pprk`ga

jhpmjfc ey taf mfo`m prkgfcurf cjc nkt sujt taf str`tfojg `jhs kd taf cfgjsjkn hì-

frs. Nkr ckfs taf mfo`m prkgfss sffh tk `ggkhhkc`tf usfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn. Jn tafGjty A`mm g`sf `nc taf Wgakkm g`sf taf tfncfr prkbfgt w`s sffn `s `n kppkrtunjty

tk jnvkmvf stìfakmcfrs, tk grf`tf suppkrt wjtajn ` gkhhunjty `nc tk sakw taf

gkhpftfngfs `nc `hejtjkn kd ` gmjfnt. Vsfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn curjno taf tfncfr w`s

tafrfdkrf sffn `s ` pksjtjvf gkntrjeutjkn tk taf eujmcjno prkbfgt. af hfhefrs

kd taf stffrjno gkhhjttff kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf pfrgfjvfc usfr

p`rtjgjp`tjkn `s ` tarf`t tk tafjr cfgjsjkn hìjno m`tjtucf `nc tk tafjr ga`ngfs kd

ket`jnjno ` sfgurf pksjtjkn wjtajn taf kro`njs`tjkn.

@ nfw eujmcjno js kdtfn pfrgfjvfc ey gmjfnts `s `n kppkrtunjty tk ga`nof taf

vjrtu`m `nc skgj`m kro`njs`tjkn `s wfmm. Gmjfnts efmjfvf ta`t `rgajtfgts gkumc gkn-

trjeutf tk tajs ga`nof ey pfrsu`cjno taf stìfakmcfrs tk suppkrt ktafr cfgjsjknsgkngfrnjno taf kro`njz`tjkn h`cf `t taf s`hf tjhf. Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf gmj-

fnt usfc taf eujmcjno prkbfgt tk prkhktf taf gfntr`mjs`tjkn `nc synfroy eftwffn

taf hunjgjp`mjty `nc taf mjer`ry kro`njs`tjkn, `nc taf jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd ` nfw

cjojt`m mjer`ry gkngfpt, `nc cfhknstr`tf taf pktfntj`m tk jngrf`sf taf mjvfmjnfss kd

taf mkg`tjkn. Wjhjm`rmy taf \rkvjngf w`ntfc tk usf taf `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss

tk suppkrt taf jntrkcugtjkn kd ` nfw kddjgf gkngfpt kd nkn-tfrrjtkrj`m wkripm`gfs.

af Wgakkm eujmcjno wkumc ef taf kddjgj`m st`rt kd nfw sgakkm jn rfgfntmy cfvfm-

kpfc ure`n rf` nc taf jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd n jnnkv`tjvf sgakkm gkngfpt. Efgùsf

kd taf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf rgajtfgt jn taf prkgfss kd ` prkbfgt, tafsf gkhpmfhfnt`ry

prkbfgt `jhs `msk cftfrhjnfc taf jntfrfsts kd taf gmjfnt curjno taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n`rgajtfgt.

Ufsumts sakw ta`t jn skhf g`sfs taf tfncfr prkbfgt w`s usfc tk strfnotafn gkm-

mèkr`tjkn wjtajn taf gmjfnt kro`njs`tjkn kr wjta p`rtjfs cjrfgtmy rfm`tfc tk taf

kro`njs`tjkn. af Wgakkm Ek`rc jnvkmvfc taf Gjty kd Vtrfgat dkr h`jnmy str`tfojg

rf`skns. afjr `hejtjkn w`s tk grf`tf ` sust`jnèmf `nc ‑af`mtay‚ eujmcjno, wajga

wkumc rfqujrf `ccjtjkn`m djn`ngfs kn tkp kd taf st`nc`rc duncs prkvjcfc ey taf

hunjgjp`mjty. Jn taf Gjty A`mm prkbfgt, taf H`ykr rf`mjsfc ta`t `ccjno `n `rgaj-

tfgtur`m jgkn tk tajs ajstkrjg`m mkg`tjkn gkumc r`jsf gkndmjgts wjta taf `cvkg`tfs

kd taf ajstkrjg`m gjty gfntrf. af `hejtjkns kd taf `chjnjstr`tkrs kd taf gjty wfrf

tafrfdkrf ckkhfc tk gkndmjgt wjta taf gkngfrns kd taf ktafr stìfakmcfrs. Jn ektag`sfs usfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn w`s usfc `s ` hf`ns tk prkvjcf ` drujtdum dkunc`tjkn dkr

taf prkbfgt `nc mjhjt taf rjsis kd d`jmurf. Jn taf g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm tajs cjc nkt

prfvfnt taf prkbfgt drkh efjno cfm`yfc - ` gkndmjgt èkut taf eucoft `nc taf gjty

siymjnf mfc tk ` h`nòfrj`m grjsjs tarff yf`rs `dtfr taf gkntr`gt w`s `w`rcfc.

@p`rt drkh taf pfrgfptjkn kd taf mfojsm`tjkn `nc usfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn, taf okv-

frn`ngf strugturf jtsfmd `ppf`rfc tk ef kd cjrfgt jhpkrt`ngf dkr taf suggfss kd `

tfncfr. Ekta jn taf g`sf kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf (g`ngfmmfc `dtfr taf

sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd taf tfncfr) `nc taf Gjty A`mm (jn wajga taf prkbfgt w`s put kn

akmc curjno taf cfsjon pa`sf) taf okvfrn`ngf strugturf sffhfc tk gkndmjgt wjta

taf mkno tfrh pfrspfgtjvf kd ` eujmcjno prkbfgt `nc ajncfrfc taf gkntjnu`tjkn kd



061

taf (eujmcjno) prkbfgt. Efgùsf kd taf pfrjkcjg`m ga`nofs jn taf gkungjms, cfgjsjkns

tìfn jn prfvjkus tfrh kd kddjgf nffc tk ef fxfgutfc jn taf dkmmkwjno. Cft`jm nc

bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn js hjssjno efgùsf fhpmkyffs jnvkmvfc jn taf tfncfr

a`vf sajdtfc cfp`rthfnt kr kro`njs`tjkn, `s w`s taf g`sf dkr taf Gjty A`mm `nc

taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf. ajs fddfgt sffhfc tk ef fna`ngfc ey taf pfr-

skn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `nc mf`cfrsajp gkhpftfngfs kd puemjg cfgjsjkn hìfrs `nctaf jhp`gt kd tafsf gkhpftfngfs kn taf jntfrn`m suppkrt kd taf cfgjsjkn h`cf jn

taf tfncfr.

Jn taf g`sf kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf ` orf`tfr cforff kd ungfrt`jnty

w`s dkunc `hkno taf `gtkrs gkhp`rfc tk taf ktafr g`sfs. Jn taf Wgakkm `nc taf

Gjty A`mm taf prkbfgt ga`hpjkns, rfspfgtjvfmy twk hfhefrs kd taf Wgakkm Ek`rc

`nc taf H`ykr, grf`tfc ` strkno dr`hfwkri dkr cfgjsjkn hìjno ey st`tjno tafjr

`hejtjkns gmf`rmy. Wtjmm, wajmf ` sa`rfc dr`hf kd `hejtjkns hjoat gkntrjeutf tk

taf f`sf kd taf cfgjsjkn, jt g`nnkt hìf cjddfrfngfs jn taf jntfrfsts cjs`ppf`r. af

djncjnos jncjg`tf ta`t ` ajoa mfvfm kd ungfrt`jnty g`n ef `ttrjeutfc tk ` m`gi kd

gmf`r prkbfgt `hejtjkns `nc tafrfdkrf `msk ` m`gi kd gknsjstfnt kr sa`rfc jntfrfstskd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Durtafr `n`mysjs sakwfc ta`t jncfpfncfntmy kd taf `hej-

tjkn mfvfm, jn fvfry g`sf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf jntfrfsts kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs gkumc

ef dkunc. Jn taf nfxt sfgtjkn èkut taf skgj`m gkntfxt kd taf stìfakmcfrs tafsf

cjddfrfngfs wjmm ef `ccrfssfc hkrf spfgjdjg`mmy.

4.4.7 Wkgj`m gkntfxt kd stìfakmcfrs

@mm g`sfs jmmustr`tf ta`t taf puemjg ga`r`gtfr kd ` gmjfnt mfc tk kd taf jnvkmvfhfnt

kd ` m`rof nuhefr kd stìfakmcfrs jn cfgjsjkn hìjno (sff èmf 4.3). Efgùsf taf

eujmt fnvjrknhfnt js skhftajno ofnfr`mmy inkwn `nc fxpfrjfngfc ey `mm ijncs

kd pfkpmf, ` pmftakr` kd jcf`s, jntfrfsts, `hejtjkns `nc kpjnjkns gkumc ef dkunc

`hkno taf stìfakmcfrs.

Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs h`jnmy cjddfrfc jn tafjr gkngfrn dkr

usfr nffcs (st`dd vfrsus pkmjtjg`m p`rtjfs), taf jntfor`tjkn jn taf gkntfxt (gjtjzfns

vfrsus pkmjtjgj`ns), taf jhpkrt`ngf kd djn`ngj`m hf`ns (eftwffn cjddfrfnt pkmjtjg`m

p`rtjfs), `nc taf pkmjtjg`m `jhs kd taf prkbfgt (eftwffn Gjty Gkungjm `nc Ek`rc

kd H`ykr `nc @mcfrhfn). Curjno taf Wgakkm g`sf cjddfrfngfs h`jnmy kggurrfc ef-

twffn taf Wgakkm ek`rc nc taf OFH tkoftafr wjta taf Hunjgjp`m sgakkm cfp`rt-

hfnt ta`t rfm`tfc tk taf jntfrfst mfvfm (ure`n mfvfm vfrsus eujmcjno mfvfm), taf usfr

mfvfms (sa`rfakmcfrs vfrsus usfrs), taf jnput kd hf`ns (rf`mjs`tjkn vfrsus h`jntf-n`ngf), taf pfrspfgtjvf jn tjhf (sakrt tfrh vfrsus mkno tfrh usf), jntfrfsts jn taf

prkcugt (qu`mjty vfrsus tjhf `nc hknfy), jntfrfsts jn taf prkgfss (gkntrkm vfrsus

rjsis), ijncs kd rfspknsjejmjtjfs (supfrvjsjkn vfrsus gkhhjssjknjno), `nc nffc dkr

jnnkv`tjkn (pfrskn`m usf vfrsus fxfhpm`ry dungtjkn). Jn taf g`sf kd taf \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf taf pfrgfptjkn kd rjsis, taf cfgjsjkn suppkrtjvf mfvfm, taf rf-

spknsjejmjtjfs, `nc taf mfvfm kd jnvkmvfhfnt jn cfgjsjkn hìjno cjddfrfc eftwffn

taf stìfakmcfrs kd taf prkbfgt, fspfgj`mmy eftwffn taf Fxfgutjvfs `nc taf st`dd

hfhefrs kd taf prkbfgt tf`h. @mm tkoftafr tajs mfc tk taf dkmmkwjno kvfrvjfw kd

p`jrs kd pktfntj`m gkndmjgtjno jntfrfsts ta`t nffc tk ef `ccrfssfc curjno taf sfmfg-

tjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt `s cjspm`yfc jn Djourf 4.6.



06: ‗

Hkst kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs efmknofc tk cjddfrfnt stìfakmcfr orkups. af

hfhefrs kd taf \rkvjngj`m fxfgutjvf ek`rc dkr fx`hpmf, wfrf fhpmkyffs kd taf

prkvjngf, eut `msk taf rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf gmjfnt ekcy. afrfdkrf tafy wfrf

stìfakmcfrs `nc cfgjsjkn hìfrs `t taf s`hf tjhf wjta ekta prkdfssjkn`m `s wfmm

`s pfrskn`m jntfrfsts. af cjrfgtkr kd taf Wgakkm w`s p`rt kd taf bury p`nfm, taf

prkbfgt tf`h `nc duturf rfspknsjemf kddjgfr dkr taf eujmcjno prkbfgt eut taf cjrfg-

tkr `msk rfprfsfntfc taf gajmcrfn, taf p`rfnts `nc taf tf`gafrs curjno taf prkg-fss. af jntfrfsts kd taf stìfakmcfr orkups rfm`tfc strknomy tk taf gmjfnt, prkbfgt,

Wgakkm wjta Wpkrts

d`gjmjty

Gjty A`mm wjta Mjer`ry \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt

Kgf

Gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt

ekcy

Hunjgjp`m cfp`rthfnt

kd Fcug`tjkn

Gjty Gkungjm \rkvjngj`m Gkungjm

Ufprfsfnt`tjvfs kd

taf gmjfnt ekcy

Wgakkm Ek`rc, Hunjgjp`m

cfp`rthfnt kd Wpkrts

Ek rc kd H`ykr nc @mcfrhfn \rkvjngj m Fxfgutjvfs,

Puffn‚s gkhhjssjknfr

Wa`rfakmcfrs nc

supfrvjskrs

Gkhhkn Fxpmkjt`tjkn

Gkhp`ny, Hunjgjp`mjty

\rkvjngf, Cfp`rthfnt

kd Jntfrjkr `nc Ijnockh

Ufm`tjkns

Cfp`rthfnt kd Jntfrjkr

`nc Ijnockh Ufm`tjkns

C`jmy usfrs Sf`gafrs, Gajmcrfn Mkg`m okvfrnhfnt

sfrv`nts `nc kgj`ms, Mjer`ry

fhpmkyffs

\rkvjngj`m fhpmkyffs

Nkn-c jmy usfrs \`rfnts, Nfjoaekurs Gjtjzfns, Mjer ry usfrs,

Skurjsts, Gjty gfntrf sakp

iffpfrs, Nfjoaekurs

\rkvjngj`m jnaèjt`nts,

Tjsjtkrs, Eusjnfss p`ri

gkhp`njfs

Ufprfsfnt`tjvf

orkups kd taf usfrs

Fhpmkyffs unjkn,

\`rfnts‚ gkungjm

Fhpmkyffs gkungjm gt,

Ajstkrjg`m jntfrfst orkups,

\kmjtjg`m p`rtjfs

Fhpmkyffs gkungjm gt,

Ejkmkojg`m kr fnvjrkn-

hfnt`m jntfrfst orkups,\kmjtjg`m p`rtjfs

Sèmf 4.3 Kvfrvjfw kd hkst jhpkrt`nt stìfakmcfrs pfr g`sf

GMJFNS UFM@SFC JWWVFW EVJMCJNO UFM@SFC JWWVFW

Wakrt tfrh

Gfrt`jnty

\kmjtjg`m suppkrt

\frh`nfnt st`dd

Fxfhpm`ry dungtjkn

Mkno tfrh

Jnnkv`tjkn

\kmjgy

\kmjtjg`m p`rtjfs

@ggkuntèjmjty

Vre`n mfvfm

\frskn`m usf

Jnnkv`tjkn

Ajstkry

Gjty afrjtòf

Eujmcjno mfvfm

Ufprfsfnt`tjkn dungtjkn

Dungtjkn`mjty

Duturf

\frskn`m rfhfher`ngf

\frskn`m jntfrfsts \rkdfssjkn`m jntfrfsts

\UKBFGS UFM@SFC JWWVFW \UKGFWW UFM@SFC JWWVFW

Pu`mjty

Gknstrugtjkn

Sjhf `nc hknfy

H`jntfn`ngf

Cfgjsjkn rfspknsjejmjty

Wupfrvjskry dungtjkn

@cvjskry rjoats

Gkhhjssjknjno ekcy

\rjh`ry eucofts Wfgknc`ry eucofts Gkntrkm Ujsis

Djourf 4.6 Kvfrvjfw kd dkur g`tfokrjfs jn p`jrs kd pktfntj`m gknjgtjvf jntfrfsts dkunc jn taf

g`sfs



04<

prkgfss `nc eujmcjno rfm`tfc jssufs ta`t wfrf cjspm`yfc curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkg-

fss. Kn ofnfr`m mfvfm cjstjngtjkns wfrf dkunc eftwffn sa`rfakmcfrs (wjta h`jnmy

djn`ngj`m jnvkmvfhfnt) `nc stìfakmcfrs (wjta pr`gtjg`m usfr jnvkmvfhfnt), ef-

twffn cfgjsjkn hìfrs (jnvkmvfc jn taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss) `nc p`ssjvf stìfakmcfrs

(kdtfn rfprfsfntfc jn taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss), `nc eftwffn pfrskn`m jntfrfsts (wjta

prjv`tf rfspknsjejmjtjfs) `nc prkdfssjkn`m jntfrfsts (wjta kddjgj`m kr wkri rfm`tfcrfspknsjejmjtjfs).

Jn krcfr tk hìf ` djn`m cfgjsjkn sfvfr`m kd tafsf pktfntj`m gkndmjgtjno jssufs

nffcfc tk ef `ccrfssfc wjtajn taf gfrt`jn pfrjkc kd tjhf. Cfm`yjno taf tfncfr js

usu`mmy nk kptjkn efgùsf kd mfo`m kr djn`ngj`m jhpmjg`tjkns `nc g`ngfmmjno wkumc

hf`n mkss kd d`gf dkr taf ek`rc `nc gkungjm hfhefrs. Jn ekta taf Gjty A`mm

`nc taf Wgakkm g`sf taf gmjfnts fxpfgtfc cjddjgumtjfs eftwffn taf jntfrfsts kd taf

stìfakmcfrs9 tafy tafrfdkrf jntfntjkn`mmy strugturfc taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss wfmm `nc

cfdjnfc gmf`r rfspknsjejmjtjfs `nc fxpfgt`tjkns kd taf stìfakmcfrs. af rfsumtjno

suggfssdum prkgfss rfo`jnfc trust jn taf prkdfssjkn`mjsh kd taf hunjgjp`mjty jn taf

Gjty A`mm g`sf `nc grf`tfc okkcwjmm wjta taf supfrvjskry p`rtjfs kd taf Wgakkm.Curjno taf prkgfss `msk cfgjsjkn hìfrs o`jnfc uncfrst`ncjno jn f`ga ktafrs jn-

tfrfsts wajga sffhfc tk ef prkhjsjno st`rt dkr taf eujmcjno prkbfgt. Jn g`sf kd taf

\rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt`m Kddjgf taf prkgfss rfvf`mfc taf m`gi kd gkndjcfngf jn taf

st`rtjno pkjnt kd taf wakmf prkbfgt nc erkuoat tk taf surd`gf taf m`rof cjddfrfngfs

jn taf `jhs `nc `pprk`ga eftwffn taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc taf stffrjno gkhhjttff.

af g`ngfmm`tjkn kd taf tfncfr dtfr taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf js `n unmugiy gknsfqufngf

kd taf uncfrmyjno ungfrt`jntjfs jn taf prkbfgt. ajs gkndjrhs ta`t tfncfr nffcs tk

ef g`rfdummy cfsjonfc jn krcfr tk ef suggfssdum. Jn krcfr tk prfvfnt taf g`ncjc`tfs

drkh w`stjno fnfroy, jt hjoat ef efst tk cfm`y taf `nnkungfhfnt kd taf tfncfr jn

sjtu`tjkns wjta sfvfrf ckuets èkut taf prkbfgt.

4.4.3 \rkbfgt h`nòfhfnt

Jn twk g`sfs, taf Wgakkm `nc taf Gjty A`mm, taf gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt gkmmèkr`tfc

wjta ktafr puemjg kro`njs`tjkns. af djncjnos kd taf g`sfs jhpmy ta`t taf jhpmf-

hfnt`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn hìjno efnfdjts orf`tmy drkh ` tr`nsp`rfnt strugturf dkr

tajs gkmmèkr`tjkn wjta gmf`rmy cfdjnfc rkmfs nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs. af hkst jhpkr-

t`nt rf`skns dkr tajs `rf taf ga`nofs kd ek`rc hfhefrs `t taf fnc kr efojnnjno

kd fmfgtjkn pfrjkcs `nc taf ajoa turnkvfr kd okvfrnhfnt`m st`dd jn rfm`tjkn tk taf

mkno tjhf sp`n kd gknstrugtjkn prkbfgts. Dkr fx`hpmf, prfp`r`tjkns dkr taf GjtyA`mm prkbfgt st`rtfc jn 5<<59 taf cfmjvfry kd taf eujmcjno w`s jnjtj`mmy pm`nnfc dkr

5<07. Nknf kd taf prkbfgt tf`h hfhefrs dkr taf tfncfr jn 5<<4 wfrf stjmm wkrijno

wjta taf hunjgjp`mjty jn 5<<1. Fmfgtjkns `rf afmc fvfry dkur yf`rs. af prjngjpmfs

kd tr`nsp`rfnt okvfrn`ngf hìf cfgjsjkns pkmjtjg`mmy sfnsjtjvf, fspfgj`mmy bust ef-

dkrf kr dtfr n fmfgtjkn pfrjkc. ajs gkumc prkvjcf n ccjtjkn`m stjhumus dkr ojm-

jty nc qujgi cfgjsjkns, kr hjoat gùsf sfrjkus m`gi kd suppkrt kd cfgjsjkn hìjno.

Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf prkbfgt ga`hpjkn, taf H`ykr, w`ntfc tk h`ri ajs tfrh

ey sfmfgtjno n rgajtfgt ta`t wkumc cfsjon eujmcjno ta`t wkumc ‑`cc v`muf tk taf

gjty‚. Jn taf g`sf kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf taf Fxfgutjvf `ssjonfc tk

taf prkbfgt a`c tk fxfgutf ` cfgjsjkn èkut taf typf kd gkntr`gt h`cf ey ajs prfc-



040 ‗

fgfsskr. ajs cfgjsjkn prkvfc tk ef knf kd h`jn rf`skns tk g`ngfm taf tfncfr. ajs

sakws ta`t cfgjsjkn g`nnkt ef tìfn wjtakut gknsjcfrjno taf gkntfxt jn wajga jt

w`s h`cf efgùsf jt knmy hìfs sfnsf jn ta`t spfgjdjg gkntfxt.

af g`sfs sakw cjddfrfnt hktjvfs efajnc taf pm`nnjno kd ` tfncfr prkbfgt. @n

jhpkrt`nt `spfgt kd taf pm`nnjno kd taf tfncfr w`s taf `hkunt kd fxpfrjfngf kd

` cfgjsjkn hìfr jn ajs kr afr pksjtjkn wjtajn taf fmfgtjkn kr okvfrn`ngf pfrjkc.af c`t` suoofst ta`t prjkrjtjfs gkumc a`vf cjddfrfc jd dkr fx`hpmf taf H`ykr kd

taf Gjty A`mm a`c nkt effn ` strfftwjsf pkmjtjgj`n `t taf fnc kd ajs tfrh eut `

ykuno, rfgfntmy fmfgtfc mcfrh`n. af tjhjno kd taf tfncfr msk rfm`tfc tk taf st`-

tus kd taf eujmcjno erjfd `nc taf pkjnt kd vjfw kd taf gmjfnt kn taf jnvkmvfhfnt kd

taf `rgajtfgt. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf tafy w`ntfc tk jnvkmvf taf `rgajtfgt jn taf erjfd-

jno pa`sf kd taf eujmcjno prkbfgt nc tafrfdkrf kro`njsfc tfncfr jn ` r`tafr f`rmy

stòf kd taf gknstrugtjkn prkbfgt wjta knmy ` gkngfpt eujmcjno erjfd `v`jmèmf. af

\rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf w`ntfc tk `w`rc taf Cfsjon Eujmc gkntr`gt tk `

gknskrtjuh e`sfc kn tafjr cfsjon prkpks`m jngmucjno taf eujmcjno spfgjdjg`tjkns.

Efgùsf tafy nffcfc ` cft`jmfc erjfd wjta cft`jmfc gkst fstjh`tjkn, taf tfncfr w`s`nnkungfc `dtfr taf eujmcjno erjfd w`s djn`mjsfc.

Efgùsf taf tfncfr js `n fssfntj`m p`rt kd ` gkhpmftf eujmcjno prkbfgt, taf

tfncfr nffcs tk ef gkkrcjn`tfc wjta taf pm`nnjno kd taf wakmf eujmcjno prkbfgt

`nc wjta taf okvfrn`ngf pkmjgy. Jn taf g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm `nc taf \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt`m Kddjgf tafsf prkgfssfs wfrf nkt `mw`ys jn mjnf. ajs hf`nt ta`t, dkr

fx`hpmf, p`rts kd taf eujmcjno erjfd nffcfc tk ef cr`wn up jn ` rfm`tjvfmy sakrt pf-

rjkc tk ef rf`cy dkr usf jn taf `w`rc pa`sf. Dkr taf Wgakkm jt w`s nk prkemfh ta`t

taf eujmcjno erjfd w`s nkt tkt`mmy djnjsafc efgùsf tafy nffcfc jt kn ` gkngfptu`m

mfvfm knmy curjno taf tfncfr. Jn taf Gjty A`mm prkbfgt, taf prkbfgt h`nòfr rfg`mms

ta`t skhftjhfs af a`c tk `gt vfry erusqufmy tk oft pfrhjssjkn tk pursuf wjta taftfncfr. Kn taf ktafr a`nc, efgùsf tafy w`ntfc tk djnjsa taf tfncfr efdkrf suh-

hfr, tafy a`c ` gmf`r cf`cmjnf. Jn g`sf kd taf Okvfrnhfnt`m Kddjgf jt sffhfc `s

tjhf p`ssfc, hkrf `nc hkrf rf`skns wfrf dkunc nkt tk pursuf taf tfncfr. _afn

taf pm`nnfc cf`cmjnf `pprk`gafc, taf prfssurf kn taf Fxfgutjvf jngrf`sfc `nc af

efg`hf hkrf `nxjkus èkut taf mfo`m jhpmjg`tjkns kd taf tfncfr.

4.? Djncjnos èkut taf tfncfr cfsjon

af djncjnos èkut taf cfsjon kd ` tfncfr `ccrfss taf rkmf kd taf tfncfr erjfd,

taf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf tfncfr prkgfcurf, taf jnvkmvfhfnt kd stìfakmcfr jn taftfncfr prkbfgt `nc taf fv`mu`tjvf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Ufsumts jmmustr`tf ta`t `w`rc

cfgjsjkns `rf e`sfc kn ` gkhejn`tjkn kd prkpks`m, pfrskn `nc prkgfss rfm`tfc js-

sufs. af gmjfnt cftfrhjnfs taf e`m`ngf eftwffn tafsf `spfgts, wajga sakumc ef

rfdmfgtfc jn taf tfncfr prkgfcurf. Efgùsf cfgjsjkn hìjno js h`jnmy e`sfc kn

taf jndkrh`tjkn rfgfjvfc drkh taf tfncfrfrs `nc taf pfrgfptjkn kd stìfakmcfrs,

taf dkrh`t kd taf prkgfcurf js `n jhpkrt`nt p`rt kd taf tfncfr cfsjon. Akwfvfr,

curjno taf prfp`r`tjkns kd taf tfncfr cfsjon taf jhpmjg`tjkns kd gfrt`jn cfgjsjkns

`rf nkt gmf`r yft. Cfgjsjkn hìfrs nffc tjhf tk rf`mjsf taf `jh `nc jhpkrt`ngf kd

taf cfgjsjkns ta`t tafy a`vf tk hìf curjno tfncfr prkgfss. af jhpmfhfnt`tjkn

kd ` tfncfr prkgfcurf tafrfdkrf jngmucfs nuhfrkus jhpmjgjt cfgjsjkns jn jtfr`tjvf



045

cfgjsjkn pa`sfs ta`t cftfrhjnf taf cjrfgtjkn `nc dkrh`t kd taf prkpks`ms ta`t taf

`rgajtfgts suehjt. ajs sfgtjkn sakws akw p`nfm hfhefrs ta`t rfprfsfnt taf gkh-

hjssjknjno gmjfnt ekcy hìf sfnsf kd tafjr `jhs `nc taf jntfntjkns kd taf `rgaj-

tfgts ta`t sakwfc jntfrfst jn cfsjonjno tafjr duturf eujmcjno. ajs prkgfss rfsumtfc

dkr twk gmjfnts jn ` h`tga wjta `n `rgajtfgt `nc dkr knf gmjfnt jntk g`ngfmm`tjkn kd

taf tfncfr prkgfcurf.

4.?.0 Sfncfr erjfd

@n`mysjs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs dkr taf tfncfr prkbfgts sakwfc ta`t jn hkst

g`sfs taf dkmmkwjno `spfgts wfrf `ccrfssfc jn taf g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn `nc g`mm dkr

tfncfrs2

Cfsgrjptjkn kd taf gmjfnt `nc taf gkntfxt.

Eucoft `nc pm`nnjno kd taf prkbfgt.

(Wuhh`rjsfc) prkbfgt erjfd jngmucjno taf duturf mkg`tjkn.Fxpfgt`tjkns èkut taf rkmf kd taf `rgajtfgt jn taf eujmcjno prkbfgt.

Cfsgrjptjkn kd taf tfncfr prkgfcurf jngmucjno taf pm`nnjno, `nc taf gkhpk-

sjtjkn `nc rjoats kd taf bury p`nfms dkr taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf.

Cfsgrjptjkn `nc rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf (jd `ppmjgèmf) kd taf hjnjhuh rfqujrf-

hfnts `nc fxgmusjkn orkuncs, sfmfgtjkn kd taf g`ncjc`tfs, `nc `mmkg`tjkn kd

taf gkntr`gt.

Dkrh`t kd taf ckguhfnts tk ef prkvjcfc `nc taf mfo`m kr dkrh`m cfgm`r`tjkns

jd `ppmjgèmf.

\rkgurfhfnt m`w cjstjnoujsafs tarff ijncs kd rfqujrfhfnts jn taf sfmfgtjkn

pa`sf kd ` tfncfr2 0) orkuncs dkr fxgmusjkn, 5) hjnjhuh rfqujrfhfnts dkr sfmfg-

tjkn, `nc 7) sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj`. Nkt fvfry g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn h`cf ` gmf`r cjs-

tjngtjkn eftwffn tafsf ijncs kd rfqujrfhfnts. af djncjnos kd taf g`sfs suoofst

ta`t jn pr`gtjgf taf h`jn cjddfrfngf eftwffn taf hjnjhuh rfqujrfhfnts `nc taf

orkuncs dkr fxgmusjkn js pfrgfjvfc `s cjddfrfngfs jn taf jhp`gt kd taf fv`mu`tjkn

‗ nkt dumdjmmjno taf fxgmusjkn orkuncs mf`cs tk fxgmusjkn ùtkh`tjg`mmy wajmf taf

hjnjhuh rfqujrfhfnts gkumc mf`c tk mkwfr ga`ngfs kd ofttjno sfmfgtfc. ajs js g-

gkrcjnomy tk prkgurfhfnt m`w. Akwfvfr, taf djncjnos `msk sakw ` pktfntj`m hjx up

eftwffn taf sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj` nc taf hjnjhuh rfqujrfhfnts dkr sfmfgtjkn. afstrjgtnfss kd ssfsshfnt kd taf rfqujrfhfnts w`s dkunc tk rfm`tf tk taf ga`r`gtfr kd

taf jndkrh`tjkn nc tk taf cjvjsjkn kd t`sis eftwffn taf prkbfgt tf`h nc taf bury

p`nfm curjno taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sfs kd taf tfncfr. G`tfokrjg`m jndkrh`-

tjkn (nkhjn`m hf`surfhfnt mfvfm) w`s trf`tfc hkrf strjgtmy ta`t nkn-g`tfokrjg`m

jndkrh`tjkn (krcjn`m, jntfrv`m `nc r`tjk mfvfm), wajga g`n ef rfm`tfc tk taf hf`s-

urfhfnt st`nc`rcs nc gm`rjty kd g`tfokrjfs2 fjtafr yku a`vf n jnsur`ngf pkmjgy kr

nkt. Jn hkst g`sfs taf `ssfsshfnt kd taf g`tfokrjg`m jndkrh`tjkn èkut djn`ngj`m,

tfganjg`m kr h`nòfrj`m w`s `ssjonfc tk taf prkbfgt tf`h efgùsf jt w`s sffhjnomy

f`sjfr tk `ssfss ta`n nkn-g`tfokrjg`m jndkrh`tjkn.

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047 ‗

af h`jn ga`mmfnof jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf w`s dkunc tk ef taf fv`mu`tjkn kd

taf mfvfm kd prkdfssjkn`m `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m èjmjtjfs kd taf g`ncjc`tfs. ajs `s-

sfsshfnt t`si kd nkn-g`tfokrjg`m jndkrh`tjkn w`s usu`mmy taf h`jn t`si kd taf

sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff. Kesfrv`tjkns sakwfc tajs rfqujrfhfnt w`s pfrgfjvfc `s `

hjxturf kd fxpfrtjsf `nc fxpfrjfngf. Dkur jncjg`tkrs kd èjmjty wfrf jcfntjdjfc2 0)

(rfgfnt) gkhp`rèmf prkbfgts, 5) rfgfnt (gkhp`rèmf) cfsjon fxpfrjfngf, 7) spf-gjdjg prkdfssjkn`m gkhpftfngfs, `nc 3) prkdfssjkn`mjsh jn ofnfr`m. afsf `spfgts

wfrf skhftjhfs fmèkr`tfc jn rfm`tjkn tk taf djrh, `nc skhftjhfs jn rfm`tjkn tk

taf jncjvjcu`m `rgajtfgt wak wkumc ef `ssjonfc tk taf bke. Jn `mm g`sfs gmjfnts `p-

pf`rfc tk mkki dkr `rgajtfgts kr djrhs ta`t suehjttfc prkbfgts kd rfdfrfngf sjhjm`r

tk taf suebfgt kd tfncfr.

@dtfr taf g`ncjc`tfs (sjx jn taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc djvf jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf) wfrf

sfmfgtfc tk p`rtjgjp`tf jn taf `w`rc pa`sf, taf g`mm dkr prkpks`ms w`s sfnt tk taf

tfncfrfrs. af tfncfrfrs prfp`rfc ` prkpks`m e`sfc kn taf tfncfr erjfd `nc taf

ktafr jnstrugtjkns jn taf g`mm dkr prkpks`ms. af strugturf kd taf c`t` kd taf Gjty

A`mm g`sf h`cf jt pkssjemf tk systfh`tjg`mmy `n`mysf taf uncfrmyjno jhpkrt`ngf kd`rouhfnts jn taf `w`rc pa`sf. E`sfc kn taf strugturf kd taf CPJ, dkurtffn cf-

sjon `spfgts wfrf jcfntjdjfc jn taf ckguhfnts rfm`tjno tk taf tarff e`sjg Tjtruvj`n

`rf`s kd dungtjkn`mjty, eujmc qu`mjty `nc jhp`gt `nc jts rfskurgf fnvfmkpf kd tjhf,

djn`ngf, `nc n`tur`m `nc auh`n rfskurgfs (O`nn, ft `m., 5<<79 _aytf & O`nn,

5<<7). Hkst par`sfs kd tkt`m 711 fxtr`gtfc drkh taf ckguhfnts ekut taf `ssfss-

hfnt prkgfss jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf gkngfrnfc taf rf`s kd jhp`gt (7:%) nc dung-

tjkn`mjty (74%) kd taf cfsjon. af eujmc qu`mjty w`s knmy hfntjknfc jn 3% kd taf

par`sfs wajmf taf prkbfgt gknstr`jnts `nc taf prkdfssjkn`m èjmjtjfs `nc rfput`tjkn

kd taf `rgajtfgts wfrf rfdfrrfc tk jn 07% `nc 1% kd taf gkhhfnts. af `n`mysjs

rfvf`ms ta`t hkst kd taf `rouhfnts usfc tk orkunc taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn rfm`tfc tktaf kddjgj`m `w`rc grjtfrj`. Akwfvfr, èkut twfnty pfrgfnt kd taf `rouhfnts jn-

gmucfc h`nòfrj`m `nc pfrskn`m `spfgts èkut taf prkbfgt `nc taf fntr`nt kd taf

tfncfr, grjtfrj` ta`t wfrf nkt kddjgj`mmy jngmucfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs.

Dkr fvfry `spfgt kd taf tfncfr erjfd jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf `n kvfrvjfw kd hf`n-

jnos gkumc ef cfrjvfc. Dkr fx`hpmf, wjtajn taf `rf` kd dungtjkn`mjty, usf `spfgt

par`sfs gkngfrnfc taf `mmkg`tjkn kd taf `gtjvjtjfs `nc kddjgf gkngfpts `ggkrcjno tk

taf erjfd, taf qu`mjty kd taf wkripm`gfs, `nc taf wkrisp`gf gmjh`tf (sff èmf 4.6).

af pktfntj`m qu`mjty kd cfvfmkpjno nfw `gtjvjtjfs `nc taf dmfxjejmjty kd taf dmkkr

`rf`s wfrf `msk hfntjknfc. \ar`sfs gkngfrnjno taf dungtjkn`mjty jssufs `ccrfssfc

taf pksjtjknjno kd taf `gtjvjtjfs, fspfgj`mmy taf mkg`tjkn kd taf mjer`ry, taf rfgko-njsèjmjty kd taf cfp`rthfnts, taf rf`cèjmjty `nc krjfnt`tjkn wjtajn taf eujmcjno,

`nc dmfxjejmjty jn taf usf kd sp`gfs. Wkhf `ttfntjkn w`s ojvfn tk sfgurjty `dtfr kd-

djgf akurs, d`gjmjty h`nòfhfnt, taf dungtjkn`mjty kd taf h`tfrj`ms, `nc taf rfgko-

njsèjmjty kd taf fntr`ngf drkh kutsjcf.

Gkhp`r`tjvfmy mjttmf `ttfntjkn w`s ojvfn tk taf eujmc qu`mjty kd taf cfsjons jn

taf Gjty A`mm g`sf (sff èmf 4.4). @mtakuoa taf erjfd sifc dkr n fnvjrknhfnt`mmy

drjfncmy skmutjkn `nc ` gmf`r gakjgf dkr taf cfhkmjtjkn kr rfnkv`tjkn kd taf fxjst-

jno eujmcjnos, knmy njnf par`sfs wfrf jcfntjdjfc ta`t rfm`tfc tk tafsf jssufs curjno

taf `w`rc prkgfss. af fnfroy fddjgjfngy kd taf duturf eujmcjno w`s hfntjknfc

knmy kngf `nc skhf gkngfrns wfrf fxprfssfc èkut mjoatjno `nc af`tjno. af



043

Dunc`hfnt m fmfhfnt Cfsjon spfgt

(N 8 nuhefr kd par`sfs)

Cfsgrjptjkn kd cfsjon qu`mjtjfs

Dungtjkn`mjty

(N tkt`m 8 07:)

Vsf (N 8 47) @mmkg`tjkn kd gtjvjtjfs ggkrcjno tk erjfd

Dmfxjejmjty kd stkkrs

@ppmjg`tjkn kd kgf gkngfpt

Pu`mjty kd wkripm`gfs

\ktfntj`m gtjvjtjfsMjoat `nc cfpta kd stkkr sp`gfs

@ggfss (N 8 3) Wfgurf fntr`ngf dtfr kgf akurs

Ufgkonjsèmf fntrêf

D`gjmjty h`nòfhfnt nc sfgurjty eftwffn rf`s

Wp`gf (N 8 ?5) \ksjtjknjno cjfrfnt stkkrs nc gtjvjtjfs

_`mijno cjst`ngfs

Ufgkonjsèjmjty kd cfp`rthfnts

Dmfxjejmjty `nc pkssjejmjtjfs kd sp`gf usf

Sèmf 4.6 Pu`mjty pfrgfptjkn `spfgts jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf, gkngfrnjno taf fmfhfnt kd

Dungtjkn`mjty




\frdkrh`ngf (N 8 0) Fnfroy sugjfngy

Eujmc qu`mjty

(N tkt`m 8 04)

Fnojnffrjno Wystfhs (N 8 4) Jnnfr gmjh tf systfh

N`tur`m `nc `rtjffgj`m mjoatjno pkssjejmjtjfs

Gknstrugtjkn (N 8 :) @ppmjg tjkn kd fnvjrknhfnt m drjfncmy skmutjkns

Cfhkmjtjkn kr rfnkv`tjkn kptjkns

Sèmf 4.4 Pu`mjty pfrgfptjkn `spfgts kd taf Gjty A`mm, gkngfrnjno taf fmfhfnt kd Eujmc qu`mjty




Dkrh nc H`tfrj ms (N 8 00) H`tfrj mjs`tjkn nc sa`pf jn gkntfxt

\frgfptjkn nc sskgj`tjkns (f.o. om`ss js gkmc)

Jhp`gt

(N tkt`m 8 065)

Jntfrn`m Fnvjrknhfnt (N 8 1) @thkspafrf jn eujmcjno

Ufm`tjkn eftwffn mjoat nc sp`gf

_krijno gmjh`tf t wkripm`gfs

Vre`n nc Wkgj`m Jntfor`tjkn

(N 8 35)

\ksjtjknjno kd taf eujmcjno jn mkg`tjkn

Ufgkonjsèjmjty kd eujmcjno

Ufspfgt dkr ajstkrjg`m gkntfxt `nc usf kd h`tfrj`ms

Jntfr`gtjkn wjta prjv`tf nc puemjg `rf`s

Ufnkv`tjkn gakjgfs

Gknstjgt kd sjzf `nc sa`pf vs. (jn)vjsjejmjty `nc jntfor`tjkn

Ga`r`gtfr nc Jnnkv`tjkn

(N 8 :0)

Jcf` (f.o. krjojn`m, jnnkv`tjvf, grf`tjvf)

Gmfvfrnfss kd skmutjkn

Gknspjgukusnfss nc pfrgfptjkn (f.o. gkmc, kro`njg,

kutc`tfc, tr`nsp`rfnt, surprjsjno, ga`mmfnojno, c`rjno)

Gmf`r vjsjkn nc qu`mjty kd gkngfpt

Akspjt`mjty, ga`rh nc rfprfsfnt`tjvf

@ccjno v`muf nc fyf g`tgafr

@sskgj`tjkns nc njgi n`hfs

Sèmf 4.? Pu`mjty pfrgfptjkn `spfgts jn Gjty A`mm g`sf, gknsjcfrjno taf Jhp`gt fmfhfnt



046 ‗

mjhjtfc nuhefr kd `spfgts ta`t rfm`tfc tk taf duturf eujmc qu`mjty kd taf eujmcjno

g`n ef fxpm`jnfc ey taf f`rmy stòf kd taf eujmcjno prkbfgt jn wajga ` tfncfr tìfs

pm`gf.

af Jhp`gt fmfhfnt kd ` cfsjon gkngfrns taf fddfgt kd taf duturf eujmcjno jn

tfrhs kd jts (vjsu`m) jhp`gt kn jts surrkuncjnos `nc taf fddfgt kn usfrs, vjsjtkrs

`nc taf ofnfr`m puemjg (èmf 4.?). Dkr taf Gjty A`mm taf dkrh `nc h`tfrj`ms kdtaf cfsjon a`c tk djt taf gkntfxt `nc fvkifc rf`gtjkns èkut taf w`rhta kd taf

eujmcjno. Knmy sfvfn par`sfs rfm`tfc tk taf jntfrn`m fnvjrknhfnt kd taf eujmcjno,

gknsjcfrjno taf `thkspafrf jn taf eujmcjno `nc taf h`ttfr kd tr`nsp`rfngy. Vre`n

`nc skgj`m jntfor`tjkn kd taf cfsjon w`s knf kd taf hkst jhpkrt`nt jssufs. af pk-

sjtjknjno, rfgkonjsèjmjty `nc jntfr`gtjkn wjta taf prjv`tf `nc puemjg sp`gfs wfrf

fv`mu`tfc, s w`s taf jhp`gt kd taf sa`pf nc sjzf kd taf eujmcjno kn taf surrkunc-

jnos. Jt w`s dfmt jhpkrt`nt ta`t taf cfsjon sakwfc rfspfgt dkr taf ajstkrjg`m gkntfxt

eut `t taf s`hf tjhf a`c `n jcfntjty kd jts kwn. Hkst `ttfntjkn w`s ojvfn tk taf

ga`r`gtfr `nc mfvfm kd cfsjon jnnkv`tjkn (:0 par`sfs jn tkt`m, 53% kd taf tkt`m).

af bucofhfnts a`c ` mkt tk ck wjta taf rf`gtjkns fvkifc ey taf cfsjon. af `fs-taftjgs kd taf wjnnjno cfsjon wfrf bucofc s efjno ‑strjijno‚, ‑surprjsjno‚, ‑krjojn`m‚

`nc ‑c`rjno‚, wajmf taf ktafr cfsjons wfrf cfsgrjefc `s ‑h`ssjvf‚, ‑unnktjgfèmf‚ kr

‑kmc d`sajknfc‚. @pprfgj`tjkn w`s sakwn dkr gmfvfr, strkno, ga`rhjno `nc krjojn`m

jcf`s. Akwfvfr, dkr taf djn`m `nc hkst èstr`gt fv`mu`tjkn taf cfsjon a`c tk `cc

v`muf tk taf gjty `nc jts jhòf jn suga ` w`y ta`t pfkpmf wkumc t`mi èkut jt, gkjn

njgin`hfs, `nc eujmc crf`hs `rkunc taf nfw Gjty A`mm eujmcjno.

Efyknc taf e`sjg Tjtruvj`n g`tfokrjfs kd taf CPJ hkcfm, twk ktafr `spfgts kd

pktfntj`m qu`mjty kd taf ejcs wfrf jcfntjdjfc jn taf c`t` ta`t rfm`tfc tk jts rfskurgf

fnvfmkpf. afsf gkngfrnfc taf gknsjstfngf wjta taf rfqujrfhfnts sft kut jn taf

erjfd `nc djn`ngj`m gknstr`jnts kn taf knf a`nc, `nc pfrskn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kdtaf `rgajtfgt `nc taf qu`mjty kd cr`wjnos `nc prfsfnt`tjkns kn taf ktafr a`nc.

@hkno taf prkbfgt gknstr`jnts `spfgts suga `s taf fxjstjno zknjno pm`n kr eucoft

gkndkrhjty wfrf cjsgussfc (sff èmf 4.1). Wkhf prkpks`ms dkr taf Gjty A`mm cjc

nkt jngmucf fnkuoa jndkrh`tjkn tk hìf gkst g`mgum`tjkns. afrfdkrf tafy a`c tk

ef p`rtmy e`sfc kn sjhum`tjkn nc g`mgum`tjkns wfrf tafrfdkrf gknsjcfrfc tk ef mfss

rfmjèmf. Akwfvfr, taf jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf `ggur`gy `nc rfmjèjmjty kd taf gkst

g`mgum`tjkns cjc nkt sffh tk h`ttfr curjno djn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno.

Wkhf ckguhfnts gknor`tum`tfc taf `rgajtfgts kn taf ajoa qu`mjty kd tafjr cf-

sjons `nc tafjr jnspjrjno prfsfnt`tjkns. Jn tkt`m 53 par`sfs gkngfrnfc taf gknsjst-

fngy kd taf pm`ns wjta taf erjfd, taf qu`mjty kd taf pm`ns `nc prfsfnt`tjkns `nctaf orf`t gkkpfr`tjkn curjno taf wakmf tfncfrjno prkgfcurf (sff èmf 4.:). af

pfrskn`m fxpfrjfngf `nc pfrskn`mjty kd taf `rgajtfgt cjc nkt sffh tk ef kd huga

jhpkrt`ngf jn taf fv`mu`tjkn kd taf cfsjons eut stjmm djvf par`sfs wfrf cfcjg`tfc tk

taf pfrskn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf cfsjonfrs.

af djn`m prfdfrfngf kd hkst stìfakmcfr orkups `nc taf fxpfrt gkhhjttff

kd taf Gjty A`mm sffhfc tk ef e`sfc upkn `n kvfr`mm bucofhfnt kd `mm pktfntj`m

qu`mjtjfs kd taf cfsjon, jntfor`tfc jntk taf ‑hkst `ppf`mjno prkpks`m‚. Cfgjsjkn

hìfrs mkkifc dkr taf gmfvfrnfss kd taf cfsjon, taf jhp`gt kd taf cfsjon kn taf

puemjg, usfrs `nc ure`n surrkuncjnos, `nc fhktjkn`m rf`gtjkns suga `s ‑mkvf `t

djrst sjoat‚ `nc ‑surprjsjno `nc fxgjtjno gkngfpt‚. Jntfrvjfws gkndjrh ta`t tafsf



044

fhktjkns wfrf dfmt ey taf p`rtjgjp`tjno `rgajtfgts `s wfmm wafn tafy wfrf prfsfnt-

jno `nc mjstfnjno tk taf ktafr tfncfrfrs. Knf kd taf hfhefrs kd taf `w`rc gkh-

hjttff cfsgrjefc taf fhktjkn`m jhp`gt kd taf cfsjon prkpks`m jn taf puemjg cfe`tfprfgfcjno taf hfftjno kd taf `w`rcjno gkhhjttff2

”Jt w`s mkvf `t rst sjoat. Djrst J wkncfrfc wa`t jt w`s9 ` eff ajvf, ` sp`gfsajp, h`yef ` gfntjpfcf. Eut tafn J s`w jt2 Jt js `n @ri. _`cf-èmf. Safaf`rt w`s tkugafc….‘.

af prfss rfmf`sf kd Bumy 03 5<<4 cfsgrjefs taf kddjgj`m `rouhfnt`tjkn kd taf

jntfor`m `w`rc cfgjsjkn (tr`nsm`tjkn drkh Cutga ey taf ùtakr)2

”Saf wjnnjno cfsjon kd Nfutfmjnos Ujfcjbi js dumm kd gkntr`st nc vfry dung-

tjkn`m. @ cfsjon wjta ga`rjsh` ta`t sf`hmfssmy ts jntk taf ajstkrjg sur -rkuncjnos. Saf `w`rc gkhhjttff pr`jsfc taf d`gt ta`t p`rts kd taf kmc taf-`trf nc sgakkm rf ojvfn sfgknc ga`ngf. Saf d`ï`cf kd taf kmc gjty kgfjs rft`jnfc `nc jntfor`tfc jntk taf cfsjon. Y…X @mm jn `mm tajs mf`cs tk ` vfry

okkc jntfor tjkn kd taf nfw cfsjon jn taf fxjtjno gjty dèrjg. Saf vjsjejmjtykd taf cjfrfnt dungtjkn`m gtjvjtjfs (mjer`ry, drknt kgf, e`gi kgf) js s-surfc ey taf prkpksfc gkngfpt. Wjtu`tjno taf mjer`ry kn taf hjnus 0 mfvfm jsvfry surprjsjno. Jntfrwf`vjno taf gurrfnt e`sfhfnt dungtjkns jntk ` nfwgkngfpt js `n jnvfntjkn.‘




\rkbfgt gknstr`jnts (N

tkt`m 8 65)

Mfojsm`tjkn nc rfqujrfhfnts erjfd

(N 8 76)

Gknsjstfnt wjta erjfd

\kssjemf gknstjgts wjta zknjno pm`n

Nuhefr kd squ`rf hftfrs `nc p`rijno pm`gfs

@ggkrcjno tk eucoft

Djn`ngj`m hf`ns (N 8 0?) Eucoft wjtajn mjhjt`tjknsGafgi kn eucoft

Sèmf 4.1 Pu`mjty pfrgfptjkn `spfgts jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf, gkngfrnjno taf fmfhfnt kd \rkbfgt

gknstr`jnts




Pu`mjtjfs kd p`rtnfr

(N tkt`m 8 5:)

\rkdfssjkn`m ejmjtjfs nc rfput`tjkn

kd cfsjonfr (N 8 6)

Fxpfrjfngf wjta kgf nc gjvjg eujmcjnos

Ga`r`gtfr jn gkmmèkr`tjvf prkbfgts

Gkhhjthfnt tk taf prkbfgt

Pu`mjty kd pm`ns nc prfsfnt`tjkns

(N 8 53)

@mmkg`tjkn kd `gtjvjtjfs gknsjstfnt wjta erjfd

Wt`tus kd taf cfsjon (siftga ‗ gkngfpt)

Cfhknstr`tfc gkkpfr`tjvf ttjtucf

\rfsfnt`tjkn qu`mjty

Sèmf 4.: Pu`mjty pfrgfptjkn `spfgts jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf, gkngfrnjno taf fmfhfnt kd Pu`mjtjfs

kd p`rtnfr (prkdfssjkn`m `nc prfsfnt`tjkn`m èjmjtjfs `nc rfput`tjkn kd taf cfsjonfr)



04? ‗

4.?.5 \rkgfss prkgfcurf

k cfsjon ` tfncfr ` prkgfcurf nffcs tk ef cr`wn up kn taf e`sjs kd prkgurfhfnt

m`w. af g`mm dkr prkpks`ms nffcs tk `ccrfss taf `gtu`m `ssfsshfnt prkgfss jngmuc-

jno taf pfkpmf, systfhs `nc hf`ns ta`t wjmm ef usfc jn krcfr tk sfgurf tr`nsp`r-

fngy `nc kebfgtjvjty kd taf prkgfcurf dkr taf tfncfrfrs. af nuhefr kd pa`sfs kd

taf tfncfr prkbfgt cfpfncs kn taf tfncfr prkgfcurf ta`t js gaksfn. @s fxpfgtfcdrkh taf g`sf sfmfgtjkn, jn `mm g`sfs taf gmjfnt cfgjcfc tk `ppmy taf rfstrjgtfc tfn-

cfrjno prkgfcurf wjta ` sfp`r`tf sfmfgtjkn `nc `n `w`rc pa`sf. af gkntr`gts wfrf

tk ef `w`rcfc kn taf e`sjs kd taf fgknkhjg`mmy hkst `cv`ntòfkus tfncfr. af

rf`skns dkr tafsf prkgfcur`m cfgjsjkns ta`t wfrf hfntjknfc curjno taf jntfrvjfws

wfrf ta`t ”` rfstrjgtfc prkgfcurf sujtfc taf prkgfss `nc taf erjfd‘ , tafy ”prfvjkusmya`c okkc fxpfrjfngf wjta tajs prkgfcurf‚ ‘, `nc ‘jt sffhfc pr`gtjg`m‘. afsf rf`skns

jhpmy ` aèjt r`tafr ta`n ` wfmm gknsjcfrfc gakjgf. Knmy jn g`sf kd taf \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf w`s taf gkntr`gt nkt tr`cjtjkn`m Cfsjon-Ejc-Eujmc eut jntf-

or`tfc Cfsjon-`nc-Eujmc. Jn tajs g`sf taf gmjfnt cfgjcfc tk `ppmy taf hjnjhuh

djn`ngj`m rfqujrfhfnts knmy tk taf gkntr`gtkrs nc mft taf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts kd taf

`rgajtfgt ef taf cfgjcjno d`gtkr. Ekta taf Wgakkm `nc taf Gjty A`mm prkbfgt tf`hs

takuoat èkut ` tkt`m fnojnffrjno gkntr`gt (knf gkntr`gt pfrskn dkr `mm cfsjon

`gtjvjtjfs), eut w`ntfc tk djmm jn taf cft`jms kd taf gkntr`gt `dtfr taf tfncfr, sk nk

cfdjnjtf st`tfhfnts ekut taf gkntr`gt wfrf h`cf efdkrfa`nc. af Wgakkm kemjofc

`mm suehjttjno p`rtjfs tk sjon st`tfhfnt ta`t tafy wkumc ef wjmmjno tk tìf kn taf

gkntr`gt kn tkt`m fnojnffrjno e`sjs.

af cfsjon kd ` tfncfr prkgfcurf a`s tk ef jn mjnf wjta taf FV prjngjpmfs kd

fqu`m trf`thfnt, tr`nsp`rfngy, kebfgtjvjty, `nc prkpkrtjkn`mjty. @mtakuoa fvfryknf

wkumc òrff kn tafsf e`sjg prjngjpmfs, jhpmfhfntjno tafh sffhs hkrf cjddjgumt

ta`n `ginkwmfcojno tafh. Jn `mm g`sfs taf h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nt cfsjonfc hkst

kd taf prkgfcurf, jngmucjno taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc grjtfrj`, `nc `gtfc `s gknt`gt

pfrskn tk taf fntr`nts. @mm prkgfcur`m `spfgts wfrf cjsgussfc `nc djn`mjsfc jn taf

stffrjno gkhhjttff. Knmy jn taf g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm cjc taf prkbfgt tf`h cfsjon

taf grjtfrj` tafhsfmvfs, `nc taf gjty gkungjm cftfrhjnfc taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf

`w`rc gkhhjttff. Jn hkst g`sfs taf g`mm dkr prkpks`ms wjta taf `gtu`m `ssjonhfnt

dkr taf ejc w`s nkt yft djn`m t taf hkhfnt taf tfncfr w`s nnkungfc nc taf g`mm

dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn w`s h`cf puemjg. ajs hf`nt ta`t jn mm g`sfs taf g`ncjc`tfs wfrf

nkt `w`rf kd taf jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf `w`rc grjtfrj` `nc taf rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf

kd taf grjtfrj` wafn tafy suehjttfc tafjr rfqufsts dkr jnvjt`tjkn. Drkh ` mfo`m pfr-spfgtjvf tajs g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s nkt vfry tr`nsp`rfnt. Drkh ` psygakmkojg`m pfr-

spfgtjvf tajs sakws ta`t ` tfncfr prkgfss js kdtfn nkt e`sfc kn ` st`nc`rc dkrh`t

`nc ta`t jt js `msk ` ‑wkri jn prkorfss‚ ta`t js `cbustfc e`sfc kn jngrf`sjno jnsjoats

`nc ga`nofs ta`t kggur curjno taf prkgfss. af `jh kd taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf js cjd-

dfrfnt ta`n taf `jh kd taf `w`rc pa`sf. @rgajtfgtur`m djrhs ta`t `rf jntfrfstfc jn

taf tfncfr sakumc ef emf tk uncfrst`nc wa`t wjmm ef fxpfgtfc kd tafh jn tfrhs kd

taf gkntr`gt `nc tafjr ga`ngfs kn efjno sfmfgtfc `s ` tfncfrfr, eut ck nkt a`vf tk

ef jndkrhfc èkut taf `ssjonhfnt jn taf `w`rc pa`sf drkh taf efojnnjno kd taf

prkgfss. afrf `rf mjhjt`tjkns tk tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf prkgfcurf eut taf djncjnos

jncjg`tf ta`t gmjfnts a`vf tk fxpmkrf tafsf ekunc`rjfs ey tafhsfmvfs.



041

Jn `mm tarff g`sfs taf str`tfojfs dkr taf cfsjon kd taf prkgfcurf `ppf`rfc tk ef

cjddfrfnt. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf taf prkgfcurf prkvjcfc ` pròh`tjg e`sjs dkr taf tfn-

cfr prkgfss. Jt kddfrfc rkkh tk jngmucf `mm stìfakmcfrs nc suppkrtfc taf `jh nc

stòf kd taf eujmcjno prkbfgt. Jn tafjr mjnf kd tajnijno taf jnvkmvfhfnt kd humtjpmf

stìfakmcfrs `nc taf fxpmjgjt jngmusjkn kd cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` `nc tafjr wfjoats cur-

jno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss wkumc jngrf`sf kebfgtjvjty. Jn g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm tafgknsumt`nt prkvjcfc ` st`nc`rcjsfc dkrh`t wajga w`s `cbustfc tk taf ga`r`gtfrjs-

tjgs kd taf prkbfgt ey taf prkbfgt h`nòfr. _jtajn taf mfo`m kemjo`tjkns taf prkbfgt

tf`h kd taf Gjty A`mm trjfc tk grf`tf `s huga rkkh dkr fv`mu`tjno taf cfsjon prk-

pks`ms `s pkssjemf. afy `gtfc drkh taf jcf` ta`t tr`nsp`rfngy wkumc efnfdjt drkh

` cfhkgr`tjg prkgfcurf. af prkbfgt tf`h kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf

trjfc tk hìf taf stffrjno gkhhjttff `w`rf kd taf cjddjgumty kd bucojno `rgajtfg-

tur`m qu`mjty eut taf fxfgutjvfs‚ h`jn gkngfrn w`s taf mjhjt`tjkn kd rjsis nc djnc-

jno w`y tk gkntrkm taf cfsjon prkgfss dtfr gkntr`gtjno. ajs gmjfnt gtfc drkh taf

efmjfd ta`t tafy wkumc efnfdjt drkh ` mfo`mmy skunc prkgfcurf.

Jn `mm g`sfs taf prfp`r`tjkns dkr taf tfncfr prkbfgt wfrf h`cf ey taf prkbfgttf`h. Gknsumt`nts pm`yfc ` m`rof rkmf jn sfttjno up taf prkgfcurf. Curjno taf

sfmfgtjkn pa`sf taf prkbfgt tf`h gafgifc jd taf fxgmusjkn `nc hjnjhuh rfqujrf-

hfnts wfrf dumdjmmfc, `nc prfp`rfc taf suehjssjkn ckguhfnts dkr f`sf kd rf`cjno

ey taf p`nfm hfhefrs. Jn ekta taf Wgakkm `nc taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf

g`sfs tarff fntrjfs wfrf tafrfdkrf fxgmucfc drkh durtafr p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn taf tfncfr

e`sfc kn taf fxgmusjkn orkuncs `nc/kr nkt dumdjmmjno taf hjnjhuh rfqujrfhfnts.

Jn taf Gjty A`mm knf fntry w`s fxgmucfc dkr sfmfgtjkn. Hkst fntrjfs wfrf fxgmucfc

kd durtafr p`rtjgjp`tjkn efgùsf kd ` m`gi kd jndkrh`tjkn kr jnv`mjc prkbfgt rfdfr-

fngfs (tkk kmc, tkk nfw, wrkno sfgtkr).

af h`jn ckguhfnts rfqujrfc jn taf g`mms dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn wfrf pkrtdkmjks,spfgjdjg prkbfgt rfdfrfngfs `nc Gurrjgumuh Tjt`f kd taf `rgajtfgts ta`t wkumc ef

`ssjonfc tk taf prkbfgt. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf taf prkbfgts ta`t wfrf usfc `s rfdfrfngf

jhòfs a`c tk ef cfsjonfc ey taf s`hf `rgajtfgt ta`t wkumc cfsjon taf eujmc-

jno kd taf gmjfnt. Knmy jn taf g`sf kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf wfrf taf

rfdfrfngfs bucofc `nknyhkusmy. Eut efgùsf taf mfvfm kd rfqujrfhfnts dkr sfmfg-

tjkn w`s sk ajoa (`nc tafrfdkrf taf prkbfgts `nc tafjr `rgajtfgts wfrf rfm`tjvfmy

wfmm-inkwn) `mhkst `mm prkbfgt cfsjonfrs gkumc ef jcfntjdjfc ey skhfknf d`hjmj`r

wjta gkntfhpkr`ry Cutga `rgajtfgturf. af Wgakkm cjc st`tf `mm (sue) grjtfrj` dkr

sfmfgtjkn jn taf g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn eut tafy wfrf skhftjhfs ‑ajccfn‚ `nc nkt

cjrfgtmy rfdfrrfc tk jn taf af`cjnos kd taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs. afy hfntjknfc dkrfx`hpmf taf fxtfnt tk wajga taf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts wkumc a`vf tk ef gkhp`rèmf

tk taf tfncfr erjfd kr sakw fxpfrjfngf wjta sust`jnèjmjty, eut cjc nkt mjst tafsf

jssufs uncfr af`cjno kd sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj` kr fv`mu`tjkn prkgfss. \rkgurfhfnt m`w

rfqujrfs gmjfnts tk cftfrhjnf `nc puemjsa taf rfm`tjvf wfjoat kd taf cfgjsjkn grj-

tfrj` efdkrfa`nc jd tajs js `ppmjgèmf dkr taf prkgfcurf. af wfjoat g`n ef fqu`mmy

cjvjcfc (`s jn taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf `nc Gjty A`mm) kr v`ry wjta

rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf (`s jn taf Wgakkm g`sf). Jn g`sf kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt

Kddjgf dkur fqu`mmy jhpkrt`nt `spfgts kd `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty wfrf spfgjdjfc2 taf

mfvfm kd puemjg ga`r`gtfr, tjhfmfssnfss, auh`n sg`mf `nc prkdfssjkn`m ga`r`gtfr.

afsf spfgts wkumc ef ssfssfc kn mfvfm drkh < (nkt suddjgjfnt) tjmm 7 (fxgfmmfnt).



04: ‗

af Wgakkm usfc njnf grjtfrj` jn tkt`m jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf9 tarff kd tafsf wfrf

`ssfssfc kn ` sg`mf mfvfm drkh 4 tk :¸ sjhjm`r tk sgakkm or`cjno, ktafrs wfrf hkrf

g`tfokrjg`m (yfs kr nk). af Wgakkm cjc nkt puemjsa taf fx`gt wfjoats kd taf sfmfg-

tjkn grjtfrj` efdkrfa`nc, eut cjc usf tafh jn taf bustjdjg`tjkn kd tafjr cfgjsjkn.

k skhfknf (suga `s taf ùtakr) wjtakut mfo`m tr`jnjno tajs hjoat `ppf`r tk ef `

vjkm`tjkn kd Furkpf`n fncfrjno m`w. Akwfvfr, taf rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf w`s `mskp`rt kd tafjr sfnsfhìjno prkgfss jn prfp`rjno taf sfmfgtjkn cfgjsjkns.

af rfdfrfngf prkbfgts `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf djrhs `ppf`rfc

tk ef taf h`jn skurgfs kd jndkrh`tjkn usfc ey taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff curjno

`ssfsshfnt kd taf prkpks`ms. af Wgakkm a`c taf muxury eut `msk taf eurcfn kd

gakksjno drkh 75 g`ncjc`tfs. af supfrvjskr kd OFH Tmfutfrwfjcf s`jc curjno

`n jntfrvjfw ta`t af pmf`cfc dkr mkw mfvfm kd rfqujrfhfnts dkr taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf

jn krcfr tk kddfr sh`mm nc hkrf jnnkv`tjvf djrhs ga`ngf t taf bke. af rfm`tjvf-

my mkw mfvfm kd rfqujrfhfnts, gkhejnfc wjta taf orf`t pktfntj`m `nc m`rof sjzf kd

taf prkbfgt, gkumc fxpm`jn taf r`tafr m`rof nuhefr kd jntfrfstfc p`rtjfs curjno taf

sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd taf tfncfr. Jn rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws taf prkbfgt h`nòfr `ncWgakkm Ek`rc hfhefrs st`tfc ta`t tafy wfrf pksjtjvfmy surprjsfc ey taf `hkunt

kd jntfrfst sakwn jn tafjr prkbfgt. @mtakuoa taf m`rof nuhefr kd fntr`nts cjc grf-

`tf ` ajoafr `chjnjstr`tjvf eurcfn kn taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjt-

tff, tafy cjc nkt rforft tafjr cfgjsjkn èkut taf rfqujrfhfnts. Jn taf g`sf kd taf

\rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf tafrf wfrf knmy djvf p`rtjfs mfdt dkr taf sfmfgtjkn

pa`sf dtfr fxgmusjkn nc gafgi kn hjnjhuh rfqujrfhfnts. Efgùsf prkgurfhfnt

m`w rfqujrfs ` hjnjhuh kd djvf tfncfrfrs, tafy a`c tk jnvjtf `mm djvf dkr taf `w`rc

pa`sf. ajs gkumc ef p`rtmy fxpm`jnfc ey taf ajoa rfqujrfhfnts nc tk skhf fxtfnt

ey taf mkw jntfrfst drkh taf h`rift jn taf Cfsjon-`nc-Eujmc gkntr`gt t ta`t tjhf

(taf fnc kd 5<<?).k gkhpmy wjta Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w ` gmjfnt js kemjofc tk `mmkw taf g`n-

cjc`tfs nc tfncfrfrs tk r`jsf qufstjkns ekut taf g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn nc g`mm dkr

prkpks`ms. Hkst kd taf qufstjkns r`jsfc jn tafsf g`sfs rfm`tfc tk taf jntfrprft`tjkn

kd taf prkgfcurf `nc taf grjtfrj`. @nswfrs wfrf cjspfrsfc vj` kddjgj`m hjnutfs. Jn

taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc taf \rkvjngj m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf taf jnst`ngfs kd cjrfgt

gkhhunjg`tjkn eftwffn taf gmjfnt `nc taf fntr`nts wfrf rfstrjgtfc tk ` prfsfn-

t`tjkn curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf. ajs dkrh`mjty kd gkhhunjg`tjkn w`s cuf tk taf

prkbfgt tf`h‚s jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf FV prjngjpmfs. afsf rfqujrf ta`t `mm g`ncj-

c`tfs rfgfjvf taf s`hf jndkrh`tjkn. Zft tajs prkgfcurf w`s `msk cjgt`tfc ey aèjt

`nc prfvjkus fxpfrjfngfs. af tfncfrfrs jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf wfrf jnvjtfc tk vjsjttaf duturf gknstrugtjkn sjtf `t taf st`rt kd taf tfncfr pa`sf wajmf efjno wfmgkhfc

ey taf H`ykr. Curjno taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws wjta taf tfncfrfrs hkst kd taf

`rgajtfgts s`jc tafy `pprfgj`tfc taf sjtf vjsjt `nc taf kppkrtunjtjfs ta`t wfrf kd-

dfrfc tk hfft taf gmjfnt.

af dkrh`t kd taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf prkpks`ms s jngmucfc jn taf cfsjon kd taf

tfncfr w`s jndmufngfc ey taf st`tus kd taf eujmcjno erjfd (cfvfmkpfc jn gkngfpt kr

jn cft`jm), taf jhs kd taf tfncfr prkbfgt (cfsjon vfrsus rgajtfgt), nc taf pa`sf kd

taf eujmcjno prkbfgt curjno taf pfrjkc kd tfncfr (st`rt kd jnjtj`m stòf vfrsus st`rt

kd cfsjon stòf). af prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf prkpks`ms jn taf w`rc pa`sf v`rjfc drkh

` sjhpmf prfsfnt`tjkn jn wajga taf `rgajtfgt fxpm`jns ` str`tfoy kr vjsjkn dkr taf



0?<

prkbfgt (taf Wgakkm g`sf), tk taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd siftga cfsjon wjta sg`mf hkcfm

(taf Gjty A`mm) `nc tk ` cft`jmfc cfsjon (taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf).

@mm tfncfrfrs a`c tk prfsfnt tafjr prkpks`ms tk taf `w`rc gkhhjttff tafh-

sfmvfs. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf taf `cvjskry hfhefrs kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff (dkrhfr

hfhefrs kd taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff) wfrf prfsfnt `t `mm prfsfnt`tjkns. af tfn-

cfrfrs cjc nkt suehjt `ny ckguhfnts efdkrfa`nc. Jn taf g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mmtaf p`rtjgjp`nts nffcfc tk suehjt taf siftga cfsjon efdkrfa`nc kn @<-pkstfrs

`nc `s ` sg`mf hkcfm, `ggkhp`njfc ey ` cft`jmfc gkst fstjh`tjkn `nc sfvfr`m ktafr

ckguhfnts cfsgrjejno taf gkngfpt. Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf tfncfrfrs a`c tk

prfsfnt tafjr prkpks`ms jn drknt kd dkur cjddfrfnt ùcjfngfs9 taf stffrjno gkhhjt-

tff, taf gjty gkungjm tkoftafr wjta taf prkbfgt hfhefrs, taf fhpmkyffs, `nc taf

gjtjzfns. @ suhh`ry kd tafjr ckguhfnt`tjkn w`s pm`gfc kn taf jntfrnft pòf kd

taf hunjgjp`mjty.

Jn `mm g`sfs taf prfsfnt`tjkns wfrf gkhejnfc wjta ` qufstjkn-`nc-`nswfr sfs-

sjkn wjta taf tfncfrfrs `hkno taksf prfsfnt. ajs skgj`m `nc jntfr`gtjvf `spfgt

h`cf jt pkssjemf tk sfnsf ` pktfntj`m gmjgi eftwffn taf rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf gmjfnt`nc tafjr pktfntj`m p`rtnfr jn cfsjon. Zft, `p`rt drkh tafjr `pprfgj`tjkn dkr taf

pkssjemjtjfs tk jntfr`gt wjta taf gmjfnt, taf Gjty A`mm prkgfcurf w`s `msk pfrgfjvfc

`s kvfr fmèkr`tf. af m`rof nuhefr kd prfsfnt`tjkns `nc taf drfqufnt cjsgussjkns

wjta stìfakmcfrs curjno taf `w`rcjno pa`sf turnfc taf wakmf tfncfr prkgfss jntk

` spfgt`gmf, kr r`tafr ` ‑prfsfnt`tjkn kroy‚ `s knf kd taf p`rtjgjp`tjno `rgajtfgts

`rtjgum`tfc jn `n jntfrvjfw `s ` rfspknsf tk ` qufstjkn èkut taf ofnfr`m kpjnjkn

èkut taf prkgfcurf2

”@ w`rh prkgfcurf wjta skhf sjons kd kvfr-cfsjon. Sa`t prfsfnt`tjkn kroy,tafy hjoat gknsjcfr jt vfry jhpkrt`nt eut dkr us jt gkumc a`vf effn hkrfgkncfnsfc. Jt w`s ` ejt kd ` psfuck cfhkgr`gy.‘

@mtakuoa taf tfncfr erjfds `nc prfsfnt`tjkn dkrh`ts dkr taf Gjty A`mm `nc taf

Wgakkm g`sfs cjddfrfc, twk ijncs kd prfsfnt`tjkn str`tfojfs kd taf tfncfrfrs gkumc

ef cjstjnoujsafc2 0) ` dkgus kn `n jntrkcugtjkn kd taf djrh `nc taf `rgajtfgt ta`t

wkumc ef `ssjonfc tk taf prkbfgt ey prfsfntjno ` r`tafr kpfn jcf` èkut ` pktfntj`m

skmutjkn dkr prkbfgt, `nc 5) taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd ` gkhpmftf cfsjon skmutjkn dkr taf

prkbfgt. Ekta str`tfojfs jhpmjfc ` rjsi tk taf `rgajtfgts. af prfsfntjkn kd ` gkh-

pmftf skmutjkn taf gmjfnt hìfs jt pkssjemf dkr ` gmjfnt tk bucof taf pktfntj`m gkh-

pftfngfs kd taf djrh jn taf gkntfxt kd taf eujmcjno prkbfgt `nc hìf ` st`tfhfnt

ta`t js suppkrtfc ey ` vjsu`mjs`tjkn kd taf duturf eujmcjno. ajs fnèmfs taf gmjfnttk oft ` t`stf kd wa`t‚s jn stkrf dkr tafh kngf tafy sjon ` gkntr`gt. af `rgajtfgt

akwfvfr runs taf rjsi ta`t taf gmjfnt ckfs nkt mjif taf cfsjon. Knf kd taf `cvjskry

hfhefrs kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff kd taf Wgakkm fxpm`jnfc curjno `n jntfrvjfw

way tajs js jhpkrt`nt dkr gmjfnts2

”Gmjfnts ajrf `n `rgajtfgt tk vjsu`mjsf tafjr jcf`s `nc tafrfdkrf tafy `rfmkkijno dkr `n `rgajtfgt jn tafjr mjnf kd tajnijno.‘

Kn taf ktafr a`nc skhf kd taf Wgakkm cfgjsjkn hìfrs jncjg`tfc ta`t taf `r-

gajtfgts wak prkpksfc ` gkhpmftf cfsjon skmutjkn sakwfc ‑jndmfxjejmjty‚. Knf kd

taf hfhefrs kd taf Wgakkm Ek`rc mjtfr`mmy hfntjknfc ‑kppkrtunjtjfs‚ s rf`skn tk



0?0 ‗

sfmfgt taf gaksfn `rgajtfgt. Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf skhf tfncfrfrs mfdt skhf `spfgts

kd taf cfsjon kpfn kr tafy prfsfntfc twk kptjkns tk cfhknstr`tf tafjr dmfxjejmjty.

Uf`gtjkns tk tajs str`tfoy v`rjfc. Wkhf pfkpmf rf`gtfc r`tafr sakrt-sjoatfcmy tk taf

mfvfm kd cft`jm kd prkpks`m ‗ ”tajs cfsjon ckfs nkt a`vf ejgygmf safc‘ - wajmf ktafrs

cjc nkt pprfgj`tf taf siftgafc kptjkns ta`t wfrf siftgafc efgùsf ”taf cfsjon w`s

nkt djnjsafc‘ . af djn`m cfgjsjkn jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf sffhfc tk ef h`jnmy e`sfckn taf fxtfrjkr `nc gkngfpt kd taf cfsjon. Hkrf fxpfrjfngfc cfgjsjkn hìfrs

st`tfc jn taf jntfrvjfws ta`t knf sakumc nkt bucof taf cft`jms curjno taf tfncfrjno

prkgfcurf efgùsf f`ga djrh ”wjmm tarkw taf cfsjon s prfsfntfc jntk taf w`stfe`sift ‘jd taf `gtu`m cfsjon prkgfss st`rts efgùsf ”taf ga`r`gtfr kd taf st`rtjno pkjnts `rfstjmm kd mjhjtfc usf jn suga `n f`rmy pa`sf jn taf prkbfgt‘ . Drkh tafjr fxpfrjfngf tafy

inkw ta`t ` cfsjon prkgfss sakumc ef e`sfc kn ` gknstrugtjvf cj`mkouf eftwffn

taf gmjfnt `nc taf `rgajtfgt. @ tfncfr prkgfcurf usu`mmy ckfs nkt prkvjcf tajs jn-

tfr`gtjkn. af `gtu`m v`muf kd ` skmutjkn prfsfntfc curjno ` tfncfr prkgfss taus

rfh`jns skhfwa`t ungmf`r9 ckfs taf cfsjon prkvjcf taf `gtu`m e`sjs dkr taf cfsjon

kd taf eujmcjno prkbfgt kr jt js usfc `s hf`ns tk ssfss taf qu`mjty kd taf tfncfrfr;Jd taf m`ttfr js taf g`sf, js ` (cft`jmfc) siftga cfsjon taf rjoat dkrh`t kd suehjs-

sjkn, gknsjcfrjno taf `hkunt kd tjhf `nc hknfy taf tfncfrfrs a`vf tk jnvfst; Ey

m`w gmjfnts `rf nkt kemjofc tk kddfr djn`ngj`m gkhpfns`tjkn dkr taf `gtjvjtjfs tafy

`si drkh taf tfncfrfrs. Jn tafsf g`sfs taf cfgjsjkn tk gkhpfns`tf taf `gtjvjtjfs kd

taf p`rtjgjp`nts w`s dkunc tk cfpfnc kn gustkh wjtajn taf sfgtkr (jn taf sgakkm

sfgtkr nk gkhpfns`tjkn js usu`mmy ojvfn), taf pfrgfptjkn kd wa`t jt tìfs tk ef `

prkdfssjkn`m gmjfnt (prkpksfc ey taf prkbfgt tf`h jn taf Okvfrnhfnt`m \rkvjngj`m

Kddjgf `nc Gjty A`mm), `nc/kr taf `hkunt kd wkri taf fntr`nts `rf efjno `sifc tk

cfmjvfr (siftga kr cft`jmfc cfsjon vfrsus ` vjsjkn prfsfnt`tjkn).

FV m`w rfqujrfs ta`t jn f`ga pa`sf kd taf tfncfr prkgfss taf cfgjsjkn (sue)grjtfrj` nc tafjr rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf a`vf tk ef puemjsafc efdkrfa`nc. Jn mm g`sfs

taf kddjgj`m `w`rc grjtfrjkn w`s taf ‑fgknkhjg`mmy hkst `cv`ntòfkus tfncfr‚. Jn

taf g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm taf ‑dmfxjejmjty `nc synfroy kd taf prkor`hhf‚, taf ‑jn-

tfmmjofngf `nc jnnkv`tjkn kd taf skmutjkn‚, `nc taf ‑`ccfc v`muf dkr taf gkntfxt‚

wfrf taf sue grjtfrj` `s `nnkungfc jn taf g`mm dkr prkpks`ms. afsf `spfgts wfrf

`mm rfm`tfc tk taf cfsjon prkpks`m `s prfsfntfc ey taf tfncfrfrs. Durtafr `n`mysjs

e`sfc kn taf CPJ systfh kd O`nn ft `m. (5<<7) sakws ta`t taf djrst grjtfrjkn gkr-

rfspkncs tk dungtjkn`mjty, `nc taf sfgknc `nc tajrc grjtfrj` tk jhp`gt kd taf cf-

sjon. Eujmc qu`mjty `nc fxkofnkus jssufs suga `s eucoft `nc cfmjvfry fxpfgt`tjkns

`ppf`r tk ef suesuhfc jntk dungtjkn`mjty. af prkhjnfngf kd jhp`gt hkno tafsfgrjtfrj` gkumc ef sjon ta`t taf gkngfptjkn kd suggfss w`s h`rifcmy cjddfrfnt drkh

wa`t hjoat nkrh`mmy ef fxpfgtfc uncfr taf tafhf kd ‑fgknkhjg`mmy hkst `cv`n-

tòfkus‚. Jn tajs g`sf taf dff w`s djxfc efdkrf taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss `s p`rt kd taf

gkntr`gt gkncjtjkns, wajga jncjg`tfs ta`t taf fstjh`tfc eucoft `nc dff prkpks`m

wfrf h`jnmy gknsjcfrfc `s hjnkr jhpkrt`ngf gkhp`rfc tk taf qu`mjty kd cfsjon.

Cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn taf Wgakkm g`sf gmf`rmy dkgusfc kn djncjno ` p`rtnfr. ajs

w`s rfdmfgtfc jn taf ijnc kd `w`rc grjtfrj`9 dkur kut kd fjoat `spfgts kd taf `w`rc

grjtfrj` `s cfsgrjefc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs rfdfr tk taf prkdfssjkn`m èjmjtjfs `nc

rfput`tjkn kd taf `rgajtfgt (gkhhunjg`tjvf sijmms, prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf vjsjkn kn

taf erjfd, taf pkrtdkmjk, taf pm`n kd `gtjkn), kd wajga taf gkhhunjg`tjvf sijmms



0?5

sffhfc hkst jhpkrt`nt. af ktafr `spfgts kd taf `w`rc grjtfrj` (vjsjkn kn taf

erjfd, sust`jnèjmjty `nc ure`n pm`n) g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s `spfgts ta`t rfm`tf tk

dungtjkn`mjty, eujmc qu`mjty `nc jhp`gt kd taf cfsjon prkpks`m. @ggkrcjno tk taf

bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn taf djn`ngj`m hf`ns a`c ` rfm`tjvf wfjoat sjhj-

m`r tk taf gkhhunjg`tjvf sijmms kd taf tfncfrfr. ajs jhpmjfs ta`t jn taf Wgakkm

g`sf taf prkgfss kd taf prkbfgt `nc prkdfssjkn`m èjmjtjfs kd taf `rgajtfgt wfrf bust`s jhpkrt`nt s taf prkpks`m jtsfmd. af prkpksfc grjtfrj` dkr taf \rkvjngj`m Kddjgf

wfrf `rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty, dungtjkn`mjty, sust`jnèjmjty, h`jntfn`ngf, prjgf `nc

pm`n kd `gtjkn. Wk ekta jn taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf

taf `w`rc grjtfrj` rfm`tfc tk taf e`sjg `spfgts kd taf CPJ (dungtjkn`mjty, eujmc

qu`mjty `nc jhp`gt), gkhpmftfc wjta `spfgts drkh jts rfskurgf fnvfmkp (auh`n

rfskurgfs, n`tur`m rfskurgfs, tjhf `nc djn`ngf).

Drkh ` mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn sakumc dkgus kn taf kddfr kd taf

tfncfrfr jn rfm`tjkn tk taf rfqujrfhfnts jn taf g`mm dkr prkpks`ms. Durtafr `n`my-

sjs drkh taf g`mm dkr prkpks`ms jn gkhejn`tjkn wjta taf kesfrv`tjkns curjno taf

`w`rc pa`sf sakws ta`t jn pr`gtjgf taf hkst fgknkhjg`mmy `cv`ntòfkus tfncfrgknt`jns ` hjxturf kd prkpks`m, pfrskn `nc prkgfss rfm`tfc jssufs (sff èmf 4.0<).

af prkpks`m rfm`tfc jssufs a`vf tk ck wjta taf ddfgtjvf rfspknsfs tk taf prkpks`ms

`nc taf h`tga eftwffn taf fxpfgt`tjkns `nc kppkrtunjtjfs ta`t `rf kddfrfc. af

pfrskn rfm`tfc jssufs cf`m wjta sfmfgtjno p`rtnfr. af ktafr rouhfnts cfpfnc kn

taf gkursf kd taf prkgfss `nc taf prfdfrfngfs kd taf stìfakmcfrs. afsf djncjnos

jncjg`tf ta`t taf cfsjon kd taf tfncfr prkgfcurf sakumc cfpfnc kn taf rf`sknjno

efajnc taf `jh kd taf tfncfr2 ` sf`rga dkr taf ‑hkst `ppf mjno cfsjon prkpks`m‚ kr

mkkijno dkr taf ‑hkst `ppf`mjno cfsjon p`rtnfr‚. Jn tajs gkntfxt ` tfncfr erjfd `nc

prkgfcurf sakumc ef dkgusfc kn sfmfgtjno ` ‑cfsjon‚ kr ` ‑cfsjonfr‚. af tr`cjtjkn

kd taf cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn jn wajga `nknyhkus cfsjons `rf usfc tk fv`mu`tf tafgkhpftfngfs kd n rgajtfgt, gùsfs hjxturf kd jntfrprft`tjkns kd taf rfoum`tjkns.

ajs hjxturf gùsfs gkndusjkn dkr gmjfnt tryjno tk oft taf efst kd ekta wkrmcs eut

fncjno up jn ` buhemf kd fxpfgt`tjkns `nc cjs`ppkjnthfnts.

af kesfrv`tjkns kd taf hfftjnos jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc

taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf sakwfc ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs usf knf kd

twk str`tfojfs tk pfrgfjvf `nc bucof taf jndkrh`tjkn prkvjcfc ey taf g`ncjc`tfs2

0) djrst vjfw nc fv`mu`tf taf jndkrh`tjkn jncjvjcu`mmy, nc tafn st`rt cjsgussjkn,

`nc 5) vjfw `nc fv`mu`tf taf jndkrh`tjkn `s p`rt kd ` orkup cjsgussjkn. Jn taf

djrst sgfn`rjk taf cfgjsjkn hìfr rfmjfs kn ajs kr afr pfrskn`m dr`hf kd rfdfrfngfs

curjno taf v`muf bucofhfnt kd taf ckguhfnts, wafrf`s jn taf sfgknc sgfn`rjk tafdr`hf kd rfdfrfngfs kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs rf jndmufngfc ey ktafr orkup hfhefrs

curjno v`muf bucofhfnt. Jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd taf Wgakkm tafrf wfrf sk h`ny

ckguhfnts `nc sk mjttmf tjhf (knf c`y) ta`t jt w`s nkt pkssjemf dkr taf cfgjsjkn

hìfrs tk jncjvjcu`mmy stucy taf ckguhfnt`tjkn efdkrf taf cjsgussjkn wjta taf

orkup st`rtfc. Curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf dkr taf Gjty A`mm taf s`hf ckguhfnts

ta`t wfrf a`ncfc jn efdkrfa`nc wfrf cjstrjeutfc hkno taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. af

prfsfnt`tjkn `nc sg`mf hkcfms h`cf `v`jmèmf tk taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs `s orkup. Jntaf g`sf kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf `n `cvjskry fxpfrt oujcfc taf p`nfm

hfhefrs jn vjfwjno taf @< pkstfrs wjta vjsu`mjs`tjkns kd taf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts.

Af ‑tr`nsm`tfc‚ taf jhòfs jntk jndkrh`tjkn ta`t wkumc ef kd jntfrfst dkr taf hfh-



0?7 ‗

efrs kd taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff. E`sfc kn ta`t jndkrh`tjkn `nc tafjr kwn pfrgfp-tjkns tafy jncjvjcu`mmy bucofc taf sujtèjmjty kd taf `rgajtfgts. afsf bucofhfnts

wfrf jnput dkr ` pa`sf jn wajga taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs cfmjefr`tfc èkut taf pkssjemf

jhpmjg`tjkns kd ` gfrt`jn g`ncjc`tf.

Jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf dkr taf Wgakkm taf pfrgfptjkn `nc bucofhfnt str`tfojfs

cjddfrfc pfr p`rty. af Wgakkm Ek`rc vjfwfc taf ckguhfnts djrst jncjvjcu`mmy `nc

tafn cjsgussfc tafjr djncjnos wjta f`ga ktafr. Knf (hkrf fxpfrjfngfc) cfgjsjkn

hìfr kd taf hunjgjp`m Cfp`rthfnt kd Fcug`tjkn cjsgussfc taf ckguhfnt`tjkn

wjta ` mfss fxpfrjfngfc pfrskn wajmf fcug`tjno afr èkut cfsjon. afn tafy gkh-

hknmy bucofc taf rfqufsts kn taf sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj`. afsf cjddfrfnt str`tfojfs kd

jncjvjcu`m nc gkmmfgtjvf pfrgfptjkn suoofst ta`t taf jntfrprft`tjkn nc bucofhfnt

prkgfss js jndmufngfc ey taf `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn (cfpfncjno kn taf nuhefr kd

prkpks`ms), taf dkrh`t kd jndkrh`tjkn (vjsu`ms vfrsus tfxt), taf f`sf kd cjstrjeutjkn

(cjojt`m, paysjg`m, kr vjrtu`m), taf `v`jmèjmjty kd tjhf kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs (sfv-

fr`m akurs tk sfvfr`m c`ys), `nc taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs (mfss

vfrsus hkrf).

@p`rt drkh taf d`gt ta`t taf mfvfm kd cft`jm kd taf jndkrh`tjkn `s prkvjcfc jn

taf tfncfr erjfd, taf dkrh`t kd taf ckguhfnts `msk jndmufngfc taf mfvfm kd cft`jm kd

taf prkpks`ms. Jn `mm g`sfs strjgt rfqujrfhfnts wfrf sft dkr taf dkrh`t kd taf prk-

pks`ms jn taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf. Kesfrv`tjkns sakwfc ta`t ` st`nc`rcjsfc

dkrh`t jhprkvfc taf gkhp`rèjmjty kd jndkrh`tjkn eut cfgrf`sfc taf pkssjejmjtjfs

dkr taf rgajtfgts tk prfsfnt tafjr jncjvjcu`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs. Curjno taf pfrgfptjkn

kd taf jndkrh`tjkn s prkvjcfc ey taf rgajtfgts, jndkrh`tjkn js rftrjfvfc drkh cjd-

dfrfnt vfre`m `nc vjsu`m skurgfs. Jn `mm g`sfs taf jhòfs `nc tfxts `s prkcugfc ey

taf `rgajtfgt wfrf taf h`jn skurgf kd jndkrh`tjkn curjno taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc

pa`sf. Curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf tajs jndkrh`tjkn wfrf gkhejnfc wjta fxpm`n`tjkns

drkh taf `rgajtfgts tafhsfmvfs `nc jnput drkh ktafr stìfakmcfrs. Kesfrv`tjkns

jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf sakwfc ta`t ` prfsfnt`tjkn gkumc cjstr`gt pfkpmf drkh taf

ckguhfnt`tjkn, eut gkumc `msk gkndjrh kr gkuntfr`gt `ssuhptjkns h`cf e`sfc

kn taf pfrgfptjkn kd taf krjojn`ms. N`rr`tjvfs kd taf `rgajtfgt wfrf dkunc tk ojvf

taf prkpks`ms hkrf hf`njno jn taf fyfs kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs. af prfsfnt`tjkns

\rkpks`m rfm`tfc jssufs

Gkntfnt kd taf vjsjkn dkr taf erjfd kr taf cfsjon prkpks`m

Djt kd taf prkpks`m wjta fxpfgt`tjkns `nc crf`hs kd taf gmjfnt

Wurprjsf kr cfmjoat kfrfc ey taf prkpks`m

Dff kd taf rgajtfgt nc/kr g`mgum`tfc eucoft

Saf mfvfm kd cft`jm jn taf prkpks`m

\frskn rfm`tfc jssufs

\frskn`mjty kd taf rgajtfgt

Cfhknstr`tfc gkhpftfngfs s cfsjonfr kr mf`c rgajtfgt

\rkgfss rfm`tfc jssufs

Saf gkursf kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss

Wuppkrt kd taf cfgjsjkn ey ktafr stìfakmcfrs

Sèmf 4.0< Kvfrvjfw kd jssufs ta`t wfrf fhpmkyfc curjno cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf `w`rc pa`sf



0?3

fnèmfc taf `rgajtfgts tk gkhhunjg`tf taf h`jn jssufs `nc v`mufs kd taf prkpks`m

tk taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs wajga kdtfn mfc tk `pp`rfntmy nfw jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf

prkpks`ms. @mm tkoftafr tajs hf`ns ta`t jn tafsf g`sfs taf jndkrh`tjkn skurgfs dkr

cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno taf tfncfr prkgfss wfrf2

Jhòfs `nc tfxts prkcugfc ey taf `rgajtfgt.

Cjsgussjkn wjta ktafr stìfakmcfrs e`sfc kn taf suehjttfc prkpks`ms.Fxpm`n`tjkn kd taf `rgajtfgt èkut taf krjojn`m jhòfs `nc tfxts.

Fxpm`n`tjkn kd taf fxpfrts, gknsumt`nt kr stìfakmcfrs èkut taf krjojn`m jh-

òfs `nc tfxts.

(Jn)Dkrh`m gknt`gt eftwffn gmjfnt nc taf tfncfrfr (f.o. curjno mkg`tjkn vjsjt

kr `dtfr taf prfsfnt`tjkn).

af rgajtfgts p`rtjgjp`tjno jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf jncjg`tfc jn taf rftrkspfgtjvf

jntfrvjfws ta`t tafy wkumc a`vf `pprfgj`tfc hkrf jnput kd taf gmjfnt jn jntfrprft-

jno taf tfncfr erjfd efgùsf tafy wfrf nkt surf dkr wa`t taf gmjfnt w`s `jhjno dkr.

Zft taf prkbfgt h`nòfr `nc taf gmjfnt fhpa`sjsfc jn tafjr jntfrvjfws ta`t tafy

wfrf cfdjnjtfmy mkkijno dkr `n jgkn `nc ta`t tajs `hejtjkn a`c effn wjcfmy `n-

nkungfc curjno taf ijgi-kdd hfftjno (jngmucjno taf sjtf vjsjt) wjta `mm taf tfncfr-

frs. afsf cjddfrfngfs jn jntfrprft`tjkn gkumc a`vf effn gùsfc ey taf d`gt ta`t

gkntr`ry tk rfoum`r cfsjon prkgfssfs vfry mjttmf jntfr`gtjkn js pkssjemf eftwffn taf

gmjfnt `nc taf `rgajtfgt curjno ` tfncfr. @ mkg`tjkn vjsjt g`n gkntrjeutf tk taf

uncfrst`ncjno eftwffn taf gmjfnt `nc taf tfncfrfrs, eut jt ckfs nkt rfpm`gf taf

n`tur`m prkgfss kd st`rtjno taf cfsjon prkgfss tkoftafr.

af mfo`m gkntfxt nfgfssjt`tfc strjgt pm`nnjno kd taf tfncfr prkgfss9 nkt gkh-

pmyjno tk tafsf rfoum`tjkns jngrf`sfs taf ga`ngf kd m`w g`sfs. Jn `mm g`sfs taf p`nfm

hfhefrs rfmjfc kn taf suppkrt st`dd (suga s taf prkbfgt tf`h nc jntfrn`m gkhhjt-

tffs) tk prfp`rf taf `ssfsshfnt pa`sf jn tafjr cfgjsjkn hìjno prkgfss efgùsf kd

` m`gi kd tjhf ekta jn tfrhs kd taf g`mfnc`r `nc jn tafjr `v`jmèjmjty. Kesfrv`tjkns

sakwfc ta`t skhftjhfs tafrf w`s sjhpmy nk tjhf dkr taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs tk vfrjdy

taf jndkrh`tjkn `s prfsfntfc ey taf prkbfgt tf`h kr tfncfrfrs, fvfn jd taf rfoum`-

tjkns `mmkwfc. @p`rt drkh taf d`gt ta`t jt wkumc a`vf effn `mhkst jhpkssjemf tk

oft ` bury p`nfm tkoftafr dkr hkrf ta`n ` dfw c`ys, taf qufstjkns rfh`jns waftafr

hkrf jndkrh`tjkn kr tjhf wkumc jhprkvf taf cfgjsjkn. @s knf kd taf hkrf fxpf-

rjfngfc p`nfm hfhefrs dkr taf Wgakkm, `n `rgajtfgt ajhsfmd, st`tfc2

”Jd `n `rgajtfgt g`nnkt sfmm ajs jcf`s tk ` sh`mm gmjfnt p`nfm jn a`md `n akur,

akw tafn g`n af sfmm `n jcf` jn ` gknstrugtjkn hfftjno kd knf `nc ` a`mdakur;‘

af g`sfs sakw ta`t taf hkrf jndkrh`tjkn `ssfssfc `nc taf hkrf cfgjsjkn grj-

tfrj` nffcfc tk ef `ppmjfc, taf hkrf strugturf w`s nffcfc tk hìf ` okkc bucof-

hfnt. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf ` h`trjx safft wjta ` mjst kd taf grjtfrj` kn taf knf `xjs

`nc ` mjst kd taf fntrjfs kn taf ktafr grf`tfc sfvfr`m efnfdjts curjno taf `ssfsshfnt

prkgfss. @ggkrcjno tk taf jntfrvjfwffs tajs mfc tk strugturfc cjsgussjkn, fddjgjfnt

usf kd tjhf, `nc ` rf`cy rfgkrcjno tkkm tk gkmmfgt taf hkst jhpkrt`nt `nc strji-

jno `spfgts kd taf prkpks`ms. Drkh tafjr pfrspfgtjvf taf safft gkntrjeutfc tk taf

kebfgtjvjty kd taf cfgjsjkn `nc taf tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf prkgfss. Curjno taf sfmfg-tjkn pa`sf taf h`trjx safft suppkrtfc taf rfcugtjkn kd taf hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn

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0?6 ‗

vjfwfc kn taf jncjvjcu`m `nc orkup mfvfms, wajmf curjno cjsgussjkn jn taf `w`rc

pa`sf jt strugturfc taf prkgfss dkr taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Kesfrv`tjkns sakw cjddfr-

fnt w`ys tk usf taf dkrh jn cjddfrfnt pa`sfs kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Wkhf cfgjsjkn

hìfrs bucofc f`ga fntry kn f`ga kd taf sue grjtfrj` `nc tafn suhhfc taf bucof-

hfnts kd `mm tkpjgs tk grf`tf `n krcfr kd prfdfrfngf `hkno taf g`ncjc`tfs. Ktafrs

pfrgfjvfc `mm jndkrh`tjkn pfr rfqufst `nc tafn grf`tfc `n kvfr`mm bucofhfnt pfrg`ncjc`tf. aksf pfkpmf usu`mmy tkki nktfs kn taf dkrh wafn tafy pfrgfjvfc taf

jndkrh`tjkn tk suppkrt tafh kn hìjno ` bucofhfnt. Wkhf pfkpmf usfc taf h`-

trjx safft jn twk w`ys2 djrst tk survfy pmussfs `nc hjnusfs jn taf sue grjtfrj` `nc

tafn tk tkt`m taf sgkrf. Curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf kd taf Wgakkm g`sf sfgknc h`trjx

safft w`s cjstrjeutfc, eut jt w`s knmy usfc ey skhf cfgjsjkn hìfrs jncjvjcu`mmy.

@oorfo`tfc sgkrfs wfrf nkt cjsgussfc jn taf orkup. Jn `mm g`sfs skhf dkrh kd mjst

kd taf p`rtjgjp`nts w`s usfc. af usf kd taf h`trjx safft `msk gùsfc ` sjcf fddfgt

efgùsf jt stjhum`tfc str`tfojg sgkrjno efa`vjkur. Kesfrv`tjkns nc jntfrvjfws jn-

cjg`tf ta`t fxpfrt cfgjsjkn hìfrs fspfgj`mmy usfc tajs kppkrtunjty tk jngrf`sf taf

wfjoat kd tafjr prfdfrfngfs.af dkmmkwjno hftakcs wfrf dkunc kn akw taf p`nfm hfhefrs rf`gafc tafjr

djn`m cfgjsjkn2

• Tktjno dkr ` nuhefr kd fntrjfs.

• U`nijno taf fntrjfs.

• Cjsgussjkn `hkno taf p`nfm hfhefrs.

Vsu`mmy ` cjsgussjkn w`s gkhejnfc wjta r`nijno (wjta kr wjtakut taf usf kd

wfjoatjno d`gtkrs kn taf sfp`r`tf grjtfrj`) kr vktjno tk rf`ga ` gknsfnsus. af djn`m

cfgjsjkn w`s tìfn fjtafr ey vktjno kr ey gknsfnsus. af cfgjsjkn hftakcs `nc

cfgjsjkn stfps wfrf nkt hfntjknfc jn taf g`mms dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn kr prkpks`ms eut

cfgjcfc ey taf p`nfm hfhefrs curjno taf fv`mu`tjkn prkgfss. Jn twk g`sfs (taf

Wgakkm `nc taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf) taf grjtfrj` wfrf usfc tk strugturf

taf cjsgussjkn èkut taf prkpks`ms, fspfgj`mmy curjno taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf. Jn taf

sfmfgtjkn dkr taf \rkvjngj`m Kddjgf taf prkpks`ms wfrf cjsgussfc pfr grjtfrj`9 tafrf-

dkrf taf dkur grjtfrj` grf`tfc dkur cjsgussjkn rkuncs. Jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd taf

Wgakkm taf jnput dkr ` ejo h`trjx safft w`s e`sfc kn taf bucofhfnts pfr grjtfrjkn

pfr p`rty. af safft ùtkh`tjg`mmy jngkrpkr`tfc taf wfjoat kd taf grjtfrj` `nc kut-

gkhfs wfrf jnput dkr taf cjsgussjkn. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf taf hfhefrs kd taf sfmfg-

tjkn gkhhjttff djrst rf`gafc ` gknsfnsus èkut taf djrst tarff kr dkur djrhs kn tkp

kd taf mjst `nc fxgmucfc taf djrhs `t taf fnc kd taf mjst. afn tafy cjsgussfc taf

hkst strjijno cjddfrfngfs jn bucofhfnts pfr p`rty `s sakwn jn taf safft. E`sfc kn

ta`t cjsgussjkn tafy cfgjcfc tk sfmfgt sjx fntrjfs dkr taf nfxt pa`sf kd taf tfncfr.

Curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf taf bury p`nfm st`rtfc wjta r`nijno taf sjx fntrjfs akmjstj-

g`mmy `nc tafn st`rtfc ` cjsgussjkn `hkno taf p`rtjfs. af djn`m cfgjsjkn prkgfss

kd taf bury p`nfm jn taf Gjty A`mm tkki pm`gf efajnc gmksfc ckkrs. @ggkrcjno tk

taf jntfrvjfwffs taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs st`rtfc wjta vktjno `nc tafn cjsgussfc taf

h`bkr cjddfrfngfs jn krcfr tk fnc wjta ` vktjno rkunc. af djncjnos kd taf g`sfs

suoofst ta`t fspfgj`mmy wafn nfoktj`tjkns a`vf dkuncfrfc kr m`rof rfcugtjkn stfps

a`vf tk ef h`cf, ` cjddfrfnt cfgjsjkn hftakc js gaksfn tk oft taf prkgfss okjno.

Knf g`nnkt efdkrfa`nc cftfrhjnf wajga hftakc wjmm ef `ppmjfc jn wa`t krcfr



0?4

efgùsf tajs gakjgf js p`rt kd taf prkgfss kd hìjno sfnsf kd taf kppkrtunjtjfs ta`t

`rf prkvjcfc ey taf suehjttfc prkpks`ms.

4.?.7 Wtìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt

Jn taf `n`mysjs kd taf c`t` ` cjstjngtjkn w`s h`cf eftwffn taf `gtu`m `gtkrs jn

cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc taf ktafr stìfakmcfrs (sff `msk Ga`ptfr 4.4.7). Wfvfr`m `jhs wfrf dkunc dkr jnvkmvjno stìfakmcfrs jn taf prkgfss kd `ssfssjno taf jndkrh`tjkn

kd taf fntr`nts2

Jngrf`sjno taf jnvkmvfhfnt kd stìfakmcfrs (Wgakkm, Gjty A`mm).

Hkrf fddjgjfnt jndkrh`tjkn prkgfssjno/ jhprkvjno taf rf`cèjmjty (\rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf, Gjty A`mm, Wgakkm).

Tfrjdyjno taf jndkrh`tjkn (Gjty A`mm).

O`tafrjno cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs `nc kpjnjkns (Gjty A`mm, Wgakkm).

@mm `gtkrs jn taf g`sfs efmknofc fjtafr tk taf stffrjno gkhhjttff, taf prkbfgt

tf`h `nc/kr taf bury p`nfm. af ktafr stìfakmcfrs `rf nkt hìjno cfgjsjkns eut`rf hkrf p`ssjvfmy jnvkmvfc jn taf tfncfr. afsf stìfakmcfrs jngmucfc taf p`rfnts

kr nfjoaekurs kd taf Wgakkm, taf Puffn‚s gkhhjssjknfr `nc taf Cfp`rthfnt kd

Jntfrjkr nc Ijnockh Ufm`tjkns jn taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf, nc pfkpmf

drkh taf (mkg`m) `rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf. afsf stìfakmc-

frs efgkhf jnvkmvfc ùtkh`tjg`mmy wafn taf gkhhjssjknjno ekcy jnjtj`tfs taf

prkbfgt efgùsf tafy `rf p`rt kd taf okvfrn`ngf strugturf kd taf gmjfnt `nc usfrs kd

taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. fncfr g`ncjc`tfs `nc tfncfrfrs `msk a`vf ` r`tafr p`ssjvf

rkmf curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd taf gmjfnt jn ` tfncfr efgùsf tafy knmy prkvjcf

jnput dkr taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss `nc ck nkt hìf cfgjsjkns kn taf gmjfnts‚ efa`md.

afy efgkhf jnvkmvfc jn taf tfncfr ey rf`gtjno kn taf g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn `nca`vf tk dkmmkw taf prkgfcurf `s sft kut jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs. Akwfvfr, tafy

ck stffr taf cjrfgtjkn kd taf tfncfr `nc taf eujmcjno prkbfgt ey taf cfsjons tafy

prkpksf. afjr suehjssjkns cftfrhjnf taf nuhefr `nc ga`r`gtfr kd taf kptjkns

ta`t gmjfnts a`vf tk gakksf drkh jn cfgjcjno èkut ` wjnnfr. afrfdkrf tafy cf-

tfrhjnf taf jntrjnsjg e`sjs kd taf cfgjsjkn t`si. af nuhefr kd stìfakmcfrs ta`t

`rf jnvkmvfc jn taf tfncfr prkgfss `nc taf rkmf tafy a`vf jn cfgjsjkn hìjno w`s

dkunc `msk tk ef p`rt kd taf tfncfr cfsjon.

èmf 4.00 sakws `n kvfrvjfw kd taf pksjtjkn `nc taf rkmf kd taf stìfakmc-

frs pfr g`sf. \fkpmf wak `rf p`rt kd taf stffrjno gkhhjttff, sfmfgtjkn gkhhjt-

tff, `w`rc gkhhjttff kd prkbfgt tf`h `rf `gtkrs. Ktafr pfkpmf `rf fjtafr nkt jn-vkmvfc, a`vf `n `cvjskry rkmf dkr taf `gtkrs, kr `rf rfprfsfntfc jn taf gkhhjttffs

ey taf `gtkrs. Jn taf g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm sfvfr`m stìfakmcfrs wfrf jnvkmvfc kn

` gknsumt`tjvf e`sjs jn taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss kd taf prkpks`ms curjno taf `w`rc

pa`sf. Cjddfrfnt dkrh`ts kd jnvkmvfhfnt wfrf dkunc ta`t rfm`tfc tk taf dkrh`t jn

wajga tafjr `cvjgf w`s gkhhunjg`tfc tk taf bury hfhefrs. af fxpfrt gkhhjt-

tff, taf hunjgjp`m usfr orkup `nc taf mjer`ry usfr orkup prkvjcfc taf hfhefrs

kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff wjta ` hfhk jngmucjno tafjr kpjnjkns, prfdfrfngfs `nc

`rouhfnt`tjkn. af fhpmkyffs `nc gjtjzfns wfrf `sifc tk djmm kut ` survfy kn taf

jntfrnft kr jn taf taf`trf wafrf taf prkpks`ms wfrf prfsfntfc. af prkbfgt tf`h

prkvjcfc taf hfhefrs kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff wjta ` hfhk èkut taf rfsumts kd

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0?? ‗

` rfqujrfhfnt gafgi `nc twk eucoft gafgis ey jncfpfncfnt fxpfrts (`s gkuntfr

gafgis). Bust efdkrf taf `w`rc gkhhjttff kd taf Gjty A`mm hft ` puemjg cfe`tf w`s

afmc jn wajga taf hfhefrs kd taf w`rc gkhhjttff wfrf emf tk bustjdy tafjr cfgj-

sjkn. Jn taf g`sf kd taf Wgakkm taf h`jn stìfakmcfrs wfrf rfprfsfntfc jn taf sfmfg-

tjkn gkhhjttff, wajga hf`nt ta`t tafy a`c cfgjsjvf rjoats jn p`rt kd taf cfgjsjkn

hìjno. Curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf taf hfhefrs kd taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff wak

wfrf nkt p`rt kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff a`c taf pkssjejmjty tk `cvjsf taf `w`rc gkh-hjttff. Jn taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf taf stffrjno gkhhjttff gknsjst-

fc kd taf s`hf hfhefrs s taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff. ajs hf`nt ta`t jn hkst g`sfs

taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs wfrf `msk taf duturf usfrs kd taf eujmcjno. Jn taf pròh`tjg

`nc cfhkgr`tjg g`sfs taf ktafr stìfakmcfrs wfrf skhfakw `gtjvfmy jnvkmvfc jn

cfgjsjkn hìjno wajmf jn taf vfry pkmjtjg`m g`sf ` mjhjtfc orkup kd pfkpmf w`s jn-

vkmvfc. Knmy jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd taf Wgakkm g`sf wfrf stìfakmcfrs jnvkmvfc

jn cfgjsjkn hìjno wak wkumc nkt usf taf duturf eujmcjno tafhsfmvfs.

af dkrh`t jn wajga taf prfdfrfngfs kd taf stìfakmcfr orkups wfrf o`tafrfc

cjddfrfc pfr orkup `nc pfr g`sf. Curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf kd taf Wgakkm fvfryekcy

sffhfc tk òrff kn taf wjnnfr, sk cfgjsjkn hìjno h`jnmy gknsjstfc kd `n fx-ga`nof kd prfdfrrfc djrhs jnstf`c kd ` gkntfnt e`sfc cjsgussjkn. Jn g`sf kd taf Gjty

A`mm taf survfy grf`tfc n kvfrvjfw kd taf prfdfrfngfs kd taf gjtjzfns nc gkhpmftf

st`dd, eut knmy kn taf `spfgts ta`t wfrf jngmucfc jn taf survfy. af prfdfrfngfs kd

taf gjtjzfns `nc fhpmkyffs sakwfc ` sg`ttfrfc jhòf. af rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf

usfr orkup nc taf fxpfrts prkvjcfc taf w`rc gkhhjttff wjta hfhk jngmucjno

tafjr hkst jhpkrt`nt djncjnos `nc `n `cvjgf èkut taf prkpks`m ta`t wkumc efst

dumdjm taf rfqujrfhfnts kd hkst fgknkhjg`mmy `cv`ntòfkus tfncfr. Efgùsf taf

hfhk w`s rfdfrrfc tk curjno cfgjsjkn hìjno hkrf jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf, hfhk

`ppf`rfc tk ef hkrf hf`njnodum tk taf hfhefrs kd taf w`rc gkhhjttff ta`n taf

survfy. af rfsumts kd survfy mw`ys cjspm`y vfròf prfdfrfngfs kn gfrt`jn tkpjgs`nc `n jhòf kd taf kvfr`mm prfdfrfngfs. Jn taf Gjty A`mm tajs jhòf w`s sg`ttfrfc

* Nk w`rc pa`sf

jngmucfc jn g`sf

Wgakkm wjta spkrts d`gjmjty Gjty A`mm wjta mjer`ry \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt

Kgf*

Gkhhjssjknjno ekcy Nffcfc dkr `pprkv`m kd

`w`rc cfgjsjkn eut nk gtkrs

curjno cfgjsjkn prkgfss

Ufprfsfntfc jn taf w rc gkhhjttff Nffcfc dkr pprkv m kd w rc

cfgjsjkn eut nk `gtkrs curjno

cfgjsjkn prkgfss

Ufprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf

gmjfnt ekcy

\`rt kd stffrjno gkhhjttff,

sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff nc

`w`rc gkhhjttff

\`rt kd stffrjno gkhhjttff, sfmfgtjkn

gkhhjttff nc prkbfgt tf`h, hfhefr kd

p`rty rfprfsfntfc jn w`rc gkhhjttff

\`rt kd stffrjno gkhhjttff

`nc sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff

Wa`rfakmcfrs nc supfr-

vjskrs kd taf prkbfgt

\`rt kd sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff,

`cvjskr dkr w`rc gkhhjttff

Nkt cjrfgtmy jnvkmvfc Nkt cjrfgtmy jnvkmvfc

C`jmy usfrs Ufprfsfntfc jn sfmfgtjkn `nc

`w`rc gkhhjttff, p`rt kd

prkbfgt tf`h

@cvjskrs dkr w`rc gkhhjttff, p`rt kd

prkbfgt tf`h

\`rt kd prkbfgt tf`h

Nkn-c`jmy usfrs Nkt jnvkmvfc @cvjskrs dkr w`rc gkhhjttff Nkt jnvkmvfc

Ufprfsfnt`tjvf orkups

kd taf usfrs

Nkt jnvkmvfc Jncjrfgtmy rfprfsfntfc vj` gkhhjssjknjno

ekcy nc cvjskr dkr w`rc gkhhjttff

Jncjrfgtmy rfprfsfntfc vj`

gkhhjssjknjno ekcy

Sèmf 4.00 Kvfrvjfw kd stìfakmcfr `nc `gtkr jnvkmvfhfnt pfr g`sf.



0?1

`nc cjc tafrfdkrf nkt stffr taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs jntk ` gfrt`jn cjrfgtjkn. af jn-

dmufngf kd taf prfdfrfngfs gkumc akwfvfr `msk a`vf rfm`tfc tk ` pkwfr cjddfrfngf

eftwffn taf stìfakmcfrs orkups.

af jssuf kd stìfakmcfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn r`jsfs taf cjsgussjkn èkut taf pksjtjkn

`nc rkmf kd taf stìfakmcfrs kr tafrf rfprfsfnt`tjvfs. af c`t` suoofst ta`t gmjfnts

djnc jt a`rc tk fstjh`tf taf jhpkrt`ngf kd fxpfrjfngf, fxpfrtjsf, nc inkwmfcof jncfgjsjkn jnvkmvfhfnt. afy rf`mjsf ta`t taf cfgjsjkns tafy hìf gkumc a`vf h`bkr

jhpmjg`tjkns dkr ` m`rof pkpum`tjkn efgùsf ` mkt kd pfkpmf wjmm ef c`jmy usfrs kr

vjsjtkrs kd taf duturf eujmcjno. Akwfvfr, tajs ckfs nkt ùtkh`tjg`mmy hf`n fvfry-

ekcy sakumc ef jnvkmvfc jn taf tfncfr prkgfss. @ cjddfrfngf w`s dkunc eftwffn

a`vjno fxpfrtjsf `s ` cfgjsjkn hìfr, a`vjno fxpfrtjsf èkut `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon,

`nc a`vjno fxpfrtjsf jn tfncfr rfoum`tjkns. Hkst `gtkrs jn tafsf g`sfs (ktafr ta`n

taf gknsumt`nts) a`c effn jnvkmvfc jn ` tfncfr kr sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurf efdkrf, eut

knmy ` dfw `gtu`mmy sfmfgtfc taf sfrvjgfs kd `n `rgajtfgt jn `n FV gkntfxt. Durtafr

`n`mysjs kd taf djncjnos jn taf g`sfs cjspm`yfc cjddfrfnt ijncs kd fxpfrtjsf jn sfvfr`m

mfvfms `nc wjta humtjpmf pfrspfgtjvfs. Fxpfrtjsf tfncs tk ef ckh`jn spfgjdjg. Fvfntaf mfo`m `cvjskr kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf, ` nktfc pfrskn jn gkn-

strugtjkn m`w, dkunc jt a`rc tk cf`m wjta taf suebfgtjvjty kd taf tfncfr erjfd `nc

taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc grjtfrj`. Curjno taf `ssfsshfnt kd taf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts

curjno taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd taf Wgakkm taf p`nfm hfhefrs wjta rfmfv`nt fxpfrj-

fngf jn gknstrugtjkn `nc tfncfrs eut wjtakut ` e`giorkunc jn `rgajtfgturf cjc

nkt `ginkwmfcof taf s`hf qu`mjtjfs `s taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs wjta ` e`giorkunc jn

`rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. ajs grf`tfc cjddjgumtjfs jn taf cjsgussjkn. Kn taf ktafr a`nc

taf cjddfrfnt e`giorkuncs `nc pfrspfgtjvfs kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs rfdmfgtfc taf

gkhpmfx n`turf kd hìjno cfgjsjkns èkut eujmcjnos wjta ` puemjg ga`r`gtfr. af

c`t` ojvf rf`skn tk efmjfd ta`t taf hkrf cjvfrsf ` bury p`nfm, taf hkrf gkhpmftftaf `ssfsshfnt wjmm ef.

af djncjnos sakwfc ta`t ` m`gi kd fxpfrtjsf wjta ` gfrt`jn orkup w`s kdtfn

gkuntfre`m`ngfc ey jnvkmvjno ktafr fxpfrts jn taf bury p`nfm kr suppkrt kn `

gknsumt`tjvf e`sjs. Jn taf g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm `nc taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt`m

Kddjgf taf pkmjtjgj`ns h`cf usf kd spfgj`m `cvjskry gkhhjttffs wjta fhpmkyffs

ta`t dkgusfc kn ` spfgjdjg jtfh. Efgùsf taf gmjfnts cjc nkt a`vf st`dd hfhefrs

wjta taf spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf èkut `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns, tafy `mm ajrfc h`nòfhfnt

gknsumt`nts tk suppkrt tafh dkr taf tfncfr prkbfgt. Zft, tafsf gknsumt`nts cjc nkt

`mw`ys a`vf taf hkst spfgjdjg inkwmfcof fjtafr. af e`giorkunc kd taf h`nòf-

hfnt gknsumt`nts jn tafsf g`sfs v`rjfc drkh gjvjm fnojnffrjno tk rf`m fst`tf h`n-òfhfnt `nc `rgajtfgturf. af mfo`m `cvjskrs sffhfc tk a`vf mjhjtfc fxpfrjfngf

wjta tfncfrs jn `rgajtfgturf tkk. af ùtakrjty mfvfm kd taf gknsumt`nts `gtjno

jn taf prkbfgt tf`hs `ppf`rfc sjhjm`r tk taf ktafr hfhefrs kd taf prkbfgt tf`h.

Wkhftjhfs mfo`m, rgajtfgtur`m, kr rf`m fst`tf prkdfssjkn`ms kutsjcf taf prkbfgt tf`h

wfrf `sifc tk prkvjcf taf stffrjno gkhhjttff spfgjdjg str`tfojg `cvjgf kn jssufs

ta`t rfm`tfc tk taf eujmcjno prkbfgt. afsf ‑`ccjtjkn`m‚ gknsumt`nts `ppf`rfc tk

a`vf hkrf jndmufngf jn taf djn`m cfgjsjkn prkgfss ta`n taf gknsumt`nts wak cjc

hkst kd taf wkri kn taf prkgfcur`m cfsjon mfvfm jn taf prkbfgt tf`h. af gknsumt-

`nts ta`t p`rtjgjp`tfc jn taf g`sf cjc nkt a`vf ny cfgjsjvf rjoats, nc tafrfdkrf nk

spfgjdjg rfspknsjejmjty tk taf gmjfnt kro`njs`tjkn `p`rt drkh tafjr kwn jntforjty.



0?: ‗

af pfrgfptjkn kd `n jncjvjcu`m‚s kwn mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf jndmufngfc taf pksj-

tjkn af kr saf dkunc ajh kr afrsfmd jn curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. af c`t` kd taf

g`sfs suoofst ta`t taf pfrskn`mjty kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfr js jhpkrt`nt dkr taf cforff

jn wajga knf js `w`rf kd spfgjdjg cjddfrfngfs jn fxpfrtjsf. Dkr fx`hpmf, taf Wgakkm

cjrfgtkr jncjg`tfc ta`t af knmy `ttfncfc taf gkhhjttff hfftjnos p`ssjvfmy2

”Saf wakmf c`y J s`t tafrf wjta hy fyfs nc f`rs wjcf kpfn. J h m`yh`n9J cjc nkt nc tjhf tk s`y `nytajno usfdum èkut taf fntr`nts J s`w. J busts`t tafrf dkr taf sakw.‘

Eut taf prkbfgt h`nòfr wak ga`jrfc taf hfftjnos jncjg`tfc ta`t taf pfrgfp-

tjkn kd taf gkntrjeutjkn kd taf Wgakkm cjrfgtkr tk taf cjsgussjkn cjddfrfc drkh ajs

kwn2

”Nkvjgfs `rf vfry kdtfn vfry g`pèmf kd gknvfyjno ` gkafrfnt jhòf. AfYtaf Wgakkm CjrfgtkrX af`rc tfrhs af cjc nkt inkw eut af w`s èmf tk hìf` bucofhfnt. Safsf ijnc kd pfkpmf inkw wa`t cfsjon qu`mjty js ekut. Safn

jntujtjkn gkunts.‘

af djncjnos suoofst ta`t taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf `msk cjddfrfc pfr pksjtjkn kr

rkmf ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs pm`y. Knf kd taf Wgakkm Ek`rc hfhefrs ‗ ` rf`m fst`tf

h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nt jn c`jmy mjdf - fxpm`jnfc taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn efjno `

gknsumt`nt `nc efjno ` ek`rc hfhefr2

”Jt js tkt`mmy cjfrfnt. @s ` gmjfnt wf ck nkt knmy a`vf taf ùtakrjty eut `msktaf rfspknsjejmjty. Sa`t js way wf `rf hkrf `w`rf kd taf gakjgfs wf hìf.

Nkw J uncfrst nc way gmjfnts nc jt cjgumt tk hìf cfgjsjkns…. Jt js cf-njtfmy a`rcfr. J dffm rfspknsjemf. @s gknsumt`nt J `h rfspknsjemf eut J ck nkt

a`vf cjrfgt jnufngf kn taf cfgjsjkn. Sa`t drffckh, yku ck nkt fxpfrjfngfta`t `s `chjnjstr`tkr efgùsf yku a`vf tk `gt `s yku cfgjcfc.‘

@ sjhjm`r pafnkhfnkn w`s dkunc jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf. Dkr hkst gkungjm

hfhefrs efjno ` pkmjtjgj`n js nkt tafjr prjh`ry prkdfssjkn ‗ tafy usu`mmy a`vf

ktafr c`jmy bkes. Akwfvfr, tajs ckfs nkt hf`n ta`t pfkpmf tafy tafrfdkrf `rf mfssfr

cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Kr `s taf prkgfss h`nòfr kd taf Gjty A`mm jncjg`tfc èkut taf

cfgjsjkns tìfn jn taf `w`rc gkhhjttff2

”J tajni jt js rf`mmy gmfvfr kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff akw tafy e`m`ngfc `mm prfdfrfngfs. @mtakuoa ` pa`rh`gjst js nkt `n ure`n pm`nnfr, jt cjc turn

kut wfmm.‘

@mm bury p`nfms jn taf g`sfs gknsjstfc kd pfkpmf wjta cjddfrfnt e`giorkuncs

`nc cjddfrfnt mfvfms kd fxpfrtjsf ta`t `gtfc drkh cjddfrfnt pksjtjkns wjta cjvfrsf

jntfrfsts. af bury p`nfms kd taf Gjty A`mm `nc taf Wgakkm gknsjstfc kd ` hjxturf

kd rgajtfgts, chjnjstr`tkrs nc h`nòfrs wjta cjddfrfnt cfgjsjkn rjoats. af c`t`

sakwfc cjddfrfngfs jn taf efa`vjkur kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs e`sfc kn tafjr jntfrfsts

`nc mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf, dkr fx`hpmf èkut hknfy2 p`nfm hfhefrs wak wfrf nkt

rfspknsjemf dkr taf fvfntu`m gksts kr a`c hkrf fxpfrjfngf jn taf djfmc kd `rgajtfg-

turf sakwfc hkrf rjsi tìjno efa`vjkur. Kn taf ktafr a`nc, ktafr chjnjstr`tkrs

sakwfc hkrf rjsi `vfrsjvf efa`vjkur, prfsuhèmy efgùsf tafy g`n ef afmc pfr-



01<

skn`mmy `ggkuntèmf dkr tafjr cfgjsjkns. af `n`mysjs jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf gmf`rmy

sakwfc cjddfrfnt jntfrfsts eftwffn taf stìfakmcfr orkups ey taf nuhefr nc typf

kd `spfgts tafy usfc jn tafjr `rouhfnt`tjkn. Jn tkt`m 03 `spfgts kd cfsjon qu`mjty

wfrf jcfntjdjfc curjno taf `n`mysjs kd taf g`sf kn taf fmfhfnts kd dungtjkn`mjty,

eujmc qu`mjty, jhp`gt, prkbfgt gknstr`jnts, prkdfssjkn`m èjmjtjfs, `nc rfput`tjkn kd

taf rgajtfgt. af prkbfgt tf`h nc taf jncfpfncfnt djn`ngj`m gknsumt`nt rfvjfwfcknmy taf spfgts tafy wfrf ssjonfc, suga s pkssjemf gkndmjgts wjta taf zknjno pm`n

kr eucoft, `nc cjc nkt fxprfss ` prfdfrfngf dkr `n `rgajtfgt.

af survfy kd taf gjtjzfns w`s cfvfmkpfc efdkrfa`nc `nc dkgusfc kn taf jntf-

or`tjkn, h`tfrj`ms `nc ga`r`gtfr kd taf cfsjon jn taf gkntfxt kd taf gjty ey usjno

gmksfc qufstjkns. afrfdkrf taf prkspfgtjvf eujmcjno usfrs wjta nk prkdfssjkn`m

e`giorkunc jn rgajtfgturf (taf gjtjzfns) wfrf emf tk prfsfnt tafjr prfdfrfngfs kn

dkur `spfgts kd cfsjon qu`mjty. ajs w`s èkut a`md kd taf `spfgts ta`t taf fxpfrt

gkhhjttff `nc taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff usfc. af fhpmkyffs kd taf gjty gkh-

pmftfc taf s`hf survfy wjta `ccjtjkn`m qufstjkns èkut taf usf `nc `ttr`gtjvfnfss

kd taf kddjgfs (sjx `spfgts jn tkt`m). af usfr orkup fxtfncfc tafsf `spfgts wjta`n fv`mu`tjkn kd taf `jr gkncjtjknjno systfhs `nc taf jntfrjkr gmjh`tf (mjoat `nc

af`tjno) efgùsf kd taf gknsfqufngfs kd tafsf `spfgts dkr taf qu`mjty kd taf wkri-

pm`gfs. af mjer`ry fhpmkyffs dkgusfc kn taf pksjtjkn kd taf mjer`ry jn rfm`tjkn tk

taf ktafr p`rts kd taf eujmcjno `nc taf rfgkonjsèjmjty `nc jhòf kd taf mjer`ry

drkh kutsjcf. afy uncfrmjnfc taf rfqujrfhfnts drkh taf erjfd `s ` w`y tk fv`mu-

`tf taf cfsjon qu`mjtjfs `nc usfc tfn kut kd taf dkurtffn `spfgts. Jt w`s taf fxpfrt

gkhhjttff ta`t gknsjcfrfc taf ajoafst nuhefr kd cfsjon `spfgts (fmfvfn) kd taf

`cvjskrs, dkgusjno kn df`sjejmjty `nc taf gkntrjeutjkn kd taf cfsjon vjsjkn kd taf

qu`mjty kd taf gjty, eut fxgmucjno djn`ngfs, pfrdkrh`ngf, `nc eujmcjno sfrvjgfs.

af `w`rc gkhhjttff sffhfc tk a`vf dkmmkwfc taf fxpfrt gkhhjttff jn tafjr bucofhfnt eut `msk strfssfc taf djn`ngj`m mjhjt`tjkns. Jn taf puemjg cfe`tf tafy

`msk st`tfc ta`t taf gurrfnt st`tf kd taf cfsjon w`s tk ef cfvfmkpfc durtafr jn cj`-

mkouf eftwffn taf `rgajtfgt `nc taf gmjfnt. Jn tafjr prfss rfmf`sf, tajrtffn kd taf

dkurtffn `spfgts kd cfsjon qu`mjty wfrf hfntjknfc. Kvfr`mm taf `spfgts kd ure`n

`nc skgj`m jntfor`tjkn, dkrhs `nc h`tfrj`ms, ga`r`gtfr `nc jnnkv`tjkn wfrf hfn-

tjknfc ey `mm stìfakmcfrs. \frdkrh`ngf, systfh fnojnffrjno `nc djn`ngj`m hf`ns

wfrf knmy erkuoat up ey ` dfw stìfakmcfrs.

Cjddfrfngfs jn fxpfrtjsf wfrf `msk dkunc jn taf pfrgfptjkn `nc usf kd jndkrh`-

tjkn. Kesfrv`tjkns sakwfc ta`t fxpfrts wfrf efttfr èmf tk sff tarkuoa taf jh-

òfs `nc nffcfc mfss tjhf tk jntfrprft jndkrh`tjkn. af Wgakkm Cjrfgtkr, knf kdtaf mfss fxpfrjfngfc hfhefrs kd taf Wgakkm p`nfm, fxprfssfc tk a`vf effn ` ejt

hkrf gknvfrtjemf jd `ccjtjkn`m jndkrh`tjkn wkumc a`vf effn `v`jmèmf `nc wkumc

a`vf `pprfgj`tfc hkrf tjhf tk tajni efdkrf a`vjno tk tìf taf djn`m cfgjsjkn. af

jnfxpfrjfngfc hfhefrs kd taf \rkvjngj`m bury p`nfm `sifc taf fxpfrt dkr hkrf jn-

dkrh`tjkn èkut ktafr fxfhpm`ry eujmcjnos kd ` spfgjdjg `rgajtfgt, taf dmfxjejmjty

kd taf `rgajtfgt, taf g`p`gjty tk mjstfn tk gmjfnts, `nc taf jnnkv`tjvf `nc stymjstjg

fxpfgt`tjkns kd taf pkssjemf nfw eujmcjno. ajs w`y tafy grf`tfc `n jhòf kd taf

tfncfrfr `nc tafjr djrh jn ofnfr`m `nc tafy usfc taf fxpfrt tk tr`nsm`tf taf jh-

òfs nc jhpmjgjt inkwmfcof ekut taf rgajtfgts. Curjno prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf Gjty

A`mm prkpks`ms kesfrv`tjkns sakwfc ta`t dkr skhf hfhefrs stìfakmcfr orkups jt



010 ‗

w`s cjddjgumt tk fv`mu`tf taf siftga cfsjon `nc uncfrst`nc taf vjsjkn kd taf `rgaj-

tfgt. Wtìfakmcfrs skhftjhfs dkgusfc kn vfry auh`n jssufs kr cft`jmfc dungtjkn`m

cfsjon ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, suga `s taf mkg`tjkn kd taf ejgygmf safc `nc st`dd fntr`ngf,

wajmf taf cfsjon jn taf siftga stòf usu`mmy ckfs `ccrfss tafsf ijncs kd jtfhs.

Efsjcfs, nkt fvfry `spfgt kd pktfntj`m cfsjon qu`mjty g`n ef fx`hjnfc drkh taf

jndkrh`tjkn prkvjcfc jn taf tfncfr pa`sf. Fvfn taf `cvjskry fxpfrt jnvkmvfc jntaf Okvfrnhfnt`m Kddjgf g`sf `chjttfc a`vjno a`c cjddjgumty jn bucojno skhf kd

taf grjtfrj` e`sfc kn taf jhòfs kd taf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts. Af fxpm`jnfc ta`t fvfry

prkbfgt nffcs tk ef fv`mu`tfc jn taf gkntfxt kd jts eucoft, erjfd, gmjfnt `nc mkg`-

tjkn. @ggkrcjno tk ajh taf qu`mjty kd ` cfsjon g`n nfvfr ef dummy `ssfssfc wjtakut

a`vjno `ny pfrskn`m jnvkmvfhfnt jn ` prkbfgt.

Jn `mm g`sfs taf cjsgussjkn eftwffn taf p`nfm hfhefrs jndmufngfc taf dr`hf

kd rfdfrfngfs kd taf orkup `nc taf jncjvjcu`m. Kpjnjkns kd taf hkrf fxpfrjfngfc

p`nfm hfhefrs wfrf kdtfn tìfn rfm`tjvfmy sfrjkusmy curjno ` cjsgussjkn eut ‑nkv-

jgfs‚ gkumc `msk hìf taf ktafr hfhefrs tajni èkut gfrt`jn `rouhfnts. af c`t`

jncjg`tf ta`t mfss fxpfrjfngfc p`nfm hfhefrs usfc hkrf `rouhfnts prkvjcfc eytaf ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs ta`n cjc taf fxpfrts jn eujmcjno tafjr dr`hfs kd rfdfr-

fngf. af m`gi kd `n fxjstjno cfgjsjkn dr`hf gkumc fxpm`jn taf r`tafr p`ssjvf `nc

rf`gtjvf `ttjtucf kd taf mfss fxpfrjfngfc p`nfm hfhefrs jn taf Wgakkm g`sf. Jn taf

\rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt g`sf taf Fxfgutjvf trjfc tk skmvf fvfry ungfrt`jnty wjta `

mfo`m hf`surf, wajmf taf Cjrfgtkr kd taf Wgakkm”trustYfcX ajs ktafr orkup hfhefrskn tajs‘. Fxpfrts mrf`cy a`vf tafjr kwn dr`hfs kd rfdfrfngf. @mtakuoa tafy sffhfc

tk `cbust tafjr dr`hf tk taf tfncfr erjfd `nc taf `jhs kd taf ktafr stìfakmcfrs,

tafy cfpfncfc mfss kn taf ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs `nc sffhfc gfrt`jn kd tafjr gkh-

pftfngfs. Jn ekta taf Wgakkm `nc taf \rkvjngj m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sfs taf fx-

pfrts sffhfc tk tìf taf mf`c jn cjsgussjkns `nc puttjno `rouhfnts kn taf tèmf.afy wfrf `msk èmf tk usf taf cfgjsjkn prkgfcurf hkrf str`tfojg`mmy ey usjno fx-

trfhf sgkrfs kr tafjr vftk rjoats curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Wkhftjhfs tafy usfc

fhktjkns mjif efgkhjno `nory kr cjs`ppkjntfc tk gknvjngf ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs.

af pkmjtjgj`ns jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf cjspm`yfc tafjr èjmjty tk usf hft`pakrs `nc

pfrskn`m fhktjkn`m fxprfssjkns tk hìf st`tfhfnt. @t taf s`hf tjhf, jn mm g`sfs

fxpfrts wfrf hkrf g`pèmf kd cjstjnoujsajno eftwffn tafjr kwn t`stf nc taf nffcs

kd ` gmjfnt jn ` p`rtjgum`r sjtu`tjkn `nc eftwffn knf fx`hpmf kd fxgfmmfnt cfsjon

`nc taf gkhpmftf wkri kd ` gkhpftfnt prkdfssjkn`m. ajs jhpmjfs ta`t fxpfrts `rf

efttfr `t tìjno e`m`ngfc cfgjsjkns wjta ` mkno tfrh pfrspfgtjvf, wajmf nkvjgfs

usu`mmy dkgus kn taf jhhfcj`tf gknsfqufngfs kd ` cfgjsjkn.Wkhf kd taf jntfrvjfwffs kd taf Wgakkm hfntjknfc ta`t tafy a`c skhftjhfs

`cbustfc tafjr bucofhfnts cuf tk jndkrh`tjkn prkvjcfc ey kr kpjnjkns kd ktafr

tf`h hfhefrs. afsf ga`nofs wfrf hjnkr, f.o. drkh ? tk 1 kn ` sg`mf drkh 0

tk :¸. Cjsgussjkns `msk sffhfc tk a`vf suppkrtfc inkwmfcof tr`nsdfr `hkno

taf p`nfm hfhefrs `nc eftwffn taf p`nfm hfhefrs `nc taf `cvjskrs. af p`nfm

hfhefrs skhftjhfs gkhpmfhfntfc f`ga ktafr jn fxpfrtjsf eut jt w`s `msk dkunc

ta`t jn skhf g`sfs ` p`rtjgum`r inkwmfcof djfmc w`s hjssjno. Jn taf \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf sust`jnèjmjty w`s ` h`bkr tafhf kd taf prkbfgt. Curjno

taf sfmfgtjkn hfftjno, taf p`nfm cjsgkvfrfc ta`t nknf kd taf `v`jmèmf p`nfm hfh-

efrs kr fxpfrts a`c fnkuoa fxpfrtjsf tk hìf ` prkpfr bucofhfnt kn tajs `spfgt.



015

af s`hf pafnkhfnkn kggurrfc jn taf Wgakkm g`sf wjta sust`jnèjmjty. Jn taf

djn`m cfgjsjkn pa`sf sust`jnèjmjty cjc nkt sffh tk ef `n jssuf `nyhkrf. Jt g`n

ef gkngmucfc ta`t knokjno cjsgussjkns eftwffn taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs jngrf`sfc

taf `pprfgj`tjkn kd ktafr jntfrfsts, r`jsfc taf `w`rfnfss kd taf jhpkrt`ngf kd `

v`mjc bucofhfnt, `nc fxpksfc hkrf qu`mjtjfs kd taf suehjssjkns. Akwfvfr, cjs-

gussjkn g`nnkt gkhpfns`tf ckh`jn spfgjdjg inkwmfcof ta`t js nkt `v`jmèmf wjtataf bury p`nfm. afrfdkrf taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf p`nfm nffcs tk djt wjta taf grj-

tfrj` ta`t wjmm ef `ssfssfc `nc taf skurgfs kd jndkrh`tjkn ta`t `rf prkvjcfc ey taf

p`rtjgjp`nts.

4.?.3 \rkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno

Dkr ` gmjfnt ` rfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf gknsjsts kd ` sfmfgtjkn pa`sf `nc `n

`w`rc pa`sf. Jn `mm g`sfs f`ga pa`sf kd taf tfncfr prkgfss gknsjstfc kd dkur jtfr`t-

jno cfgjsjkn stfps kd ‑jnjtj`mjz`tjkn‚, ‑gkndrknt`tjkn‚, ‑gkhhunjg`tjkn‚, `nc ‑gkn-

tr`gt‚ eftwffn taf gmjfnt nc taf rgajtfgt. ajs prkgfss s jmmustr`tfc jn Djourf 4.4

rfsfhemfs ta`t kd `ny e`sjg cfsjon prkgfss (sff dkr fx`hpmf Ukkzfneuro & Ffifms,

0::6)2 taf cfsjon prkemfh js cfdjnfc, skmutjkns `rf prkpksfc `nc tafn fv`mu`tfc

jn krcfr tk jcfntjdy taf hkst sujtèmf knf. afy `msk rfsfhemf taf prkgfss `s cf-

sgrjefc ey r`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hkcfms2 prkemfh cfdjnjtjkn, jcfntjdjg`tjkn kd cfgj-

sjkn grjtfrj`, `mmkg`tjkn kd wfjoats `nc fv`mu`tjkn kd `mtfrn`tjvfs (f.o. A`rrjskn,

0:::). Zft knf kd taf tajnos ta`t taf e`sjg cfsjon hkcfm `nc r`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn

hkcfms èstr`gts drkh, n`hfmy taf rkmf kd cjddfrfnt stìfakmcfrs `nc `gtkrs jn

taf cfsjon prkgfss, js h`cf fxpmjgjt jn tajs cjòr`h. Ekta jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf

`nc taf `w`rc pa`sf taf gmjfnt jnjtj`tfs taf tfncfr ey puttjno taf cfh`nc jntk

taf h`rift ey prfsfntjno ` prkemfh cfdjnjtjkn `nc `n jnvjt`tjkn dkr `rgajtfgts tk

bkjn taf tfncfr. af `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs ta`t `rf jntfrfstfc jn taf gkntr`gt tafn

st`rt tk prfp`rf tafjr ckguhfnt`tjkn. @dtfr taf `rgajtfgts a`vf suehjttfc tafjr

prkpks`ms, taf rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf gkhhjssjknjno ekcy `rf gkndrkntfc wjta

taf nuhefr `nc gkntfnt kd taf prkpks`ms. ajs gkndrknt`tjkn eftwffn taf erjfd

`nc taf suehjttfc prkpks`ms g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s taf `gtu`m st`rt kd taf cfgjsjkn

hìjno prkgfss èkut taf qu`mjty kd taf cfsjon(frs), wajga fncs jn gkhhunjg`-

tjkn `nc gkntr`gt `mmkg`tjkn. Curjno tajs prkgfss taf ‑cfh`ncs‚ kd taf gmjfnts `rf

mjnifc tk taf `mtfrn`tjvfs taf h`rift p`rtjfs kddfr tafh `nc st`rt tk hìf sfnsf tk

taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs.

Kn taf sjcf kd taf `rgajtfgts (taf suppmyjno `gtkrs), taf jnjtj`m cfgjsjkn js waftafr kr nkt tk bkjn taf tfncfr kngf taf prkemfh cfdjnjtjkn a`s effn h`cf pue-

mjg. Jn taf tfncfr pa`sf wafn prkpks`ms nffc tk ef prfp`rfc, taf pa`sfs taf `rgaj-

tfgt okfs tarkuoa g`n ef cfsgrjefc `s ‑jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf prkemfh cfdjnjtjkn‚,

‑prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf prkpks`m‚, ‑pfrgfptjkn kd taf `rouhfnt`tjkn‚, `nc ‑`ggfpt`tjkn

kd taf cfgjsjkn‚ (@0 ‗ @3 jn Djourf 4.4). af `gtu`m gkntr`gt `mmkg`tjkn g`n st`rt

knmy `dtfr taf cfgjsjkn kd taf gmjfnt js `ggfptfc ey taf ktafr p`rtjgjp`nts `nc taf

mfo`m tfrh dkr `ppf`mjno a`s fxpjrfc. af prkgfss kd jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn ` gmjfnt

`nc n rgajtfgt curjno tfncfr cjddfrs drkh taf prkgfss kd jntfr`gtjkn jn rfoum`r

jnjtj`mjz`tjkn pa`sf kd ` eujmcjno prkbfgt. Hkst jntfrvjfwffs jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf

st`tfc ta`t ` okkc trustjno rfm`tjknsajp eftwffn taf gmjfnt `nc `rgajtfgt js fssfn-tj`m dkr ` ajoa-qu`mjty eujmcjno. Kn taf knf a`nc ` tfncfr prkbfgt js pfrgfjvfc `s



017 ‗

` r`tafr `rtjdjgj`m w`y tk eujmc ta`t rfm`tjknsajp. Kn taf ktafr a`nc, `ggkrcjno tk

knf kd taf `rgajtfgts, wjnnjno ` tfncfr gkumc `ggfmfr`tf taf st`rt kd ` prkbfgt ef-

gùsf ”` okkc fhktjkn `mrf`cy fxjsts eftwffn taf gmjfnt `nc taf cfsjon prkpks`m‘ .af jntfrvjfws `nc kesfrv`tjkns kd taf gmjfnt cfgjsjkn hìfrs jncjg`tfc ta`t

psygakmkojg`mmy `n jtfr`tjvf prkgfss kd pfrgfptjkn, bucofhfnt `nc fv`mu`tjkn g`n

ef cjstjnoujsafc jn ekta taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf kd ` tfncfr prkgfss. af

c`t` jhpmy ta`t jn taf g`sf kd ` cfsjon tfncfr tajs prkgfss ofnfr`mmy fxjsts kd dkur

pa`sfs (G0 tjmm G3 jn Djourf 4.4)2 ‑pfrgfptjkn kd jndkrh`tjkn‚, ‑jncjvjcu`m v`muf

bucofhfnt‚, ‑orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno‚, `nc ‑djn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno‚. E`sfc kn taf

pfrgfptjkn kd ` prkpks`m, taf hfhefrs kd taf bury p`nfm fv`mu`tfc tafjr pfrskn`m

jntfrfsts jn rfspfgt tk taf prkpks`m `nc dr`hf tafjr jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnt wjtajn

taf gkntfxt kd taf tfncfr prkbfgt. Jn taf Wgakkm `nc taf Gjty A`mm g`sf f`ga p`rty`gtfc `s ` p`nfm hfhefr jn taf orkup cjsgussjkn - tafy djrst cjsgussfc tafjr jncj-

vjcu`m v`muf bucofhfnts wjtajn tafjr kwn p`rty nc tafn cjsgussfc tafjr gkhhkn

bucofhfnt wjtajn taf bury p`nfm. af hfhefrs kd taf gkhhjttff kd taf \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf `gtfc `s jncjvjcu`m p`nfm hfhefrs wjtakut rfprfsfntjno `

orkup. Jn `mm g`sfs nfoktj`tjkn eftwffn p`nfm hfhefrs mfc tk ` djn`m cfgjsjkn ta`t

w`s gkhhunjg`tfc tk taf tfncfrfrs. Jn ekta taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf kd taf

tfncfr p`nfm hfhefrs nffcfc sfvfr`m rkuncs kd cjsgussjkn `nc/kr ktafr hf`ns tk

gkhf tk ` djn`m cfgjsjkn. af prkgfss kd gmjfnt cfgjsjkn hìjno g`n tafrfdkrf ef

sffn `s `n jtfr`tjvf prkgfss `hkno taf dkur cfgjsjkn pa`sfs gknsjstjno kd gknst`nt

fv`mu`tjkns eftwffn taf prkemfh cfdjnjtjkn, taf prkpks`ms kd taf `rgajtfgts `nctaf jntfrfsts kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs, rfspfgtjvfmy `s jncjvjcu`ms, `s rfprfsfnt`tjvfs

\rkemfh

cfdjnjtjkn

Jntfrprft`tjkn kd

prkemfhWtfp 02

Jnjtj`mjs`tjknG< @0

\frgfptjkn kd \rfsfnt`tjkn kd

Tjsu`mjs`tjkn

Wtfp 52

Gkndrknt`tjknG0 @5

Jncjvjcu`m v`muf

Fv`mu`tjkn kd

pfrskn`m jntfrfsts

prkpks`

G5 u

Orkup cfgjsjkn

Nfoktj`tjkn kd

cjddfrfnt jntfrfsts

\frgfptjkn kdWtfp 72

hìjno

Fv`mu`tjkn tkgrjtfrj`

`rouhfnt`tjkn

Ufdmfgtjkn

Gkhhunjg`tjkn

n` fg s kn ggfp `ngffp 2

Gkntr`gtG3 @3

Djourf 4.4 Saf cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs kd ` tfncfr `s ` rfsumt kd taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn cfh`nc

`nc suppmy jn `rgajtfgturf.



013

kd ` stìfakmcfr orkup `nc `s ` bury p`nfm. afsf fv`mu`tjkns gkntrjeutfc tk taf

cfvfmkphfnt kd ` gkhhkn dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf eftwffn taf p`nfm hfhefrs. ajs

dr`hf jngrf`sfc taf uncfrst`ncjno kd taf prkemfh, taf qu`mjty kd taf `ssfsshfnt

kd pktfntj`m skmutjkns, `nc taf mfvfm kd s`tjsd`gtjkn kvfr taf djn`m cfgjsjkn.

Jn `mm g`sfs skhf hfhefrs kd taf prkbfgt tf`h wfrf `ttfncjno taf hfftjnos kd

bury p`nfms jn taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf jn ` suppkrtjno rkmf. Hkst kd taf tjhftafy prfsfntfc taf djncjnos kd ` gafgi kd taf prkpks`ms kn taf fxgmusjkn orkuncs,

hjnjhuh rfqujrfhfnts `nc dkrh`t spfgjdjg`tjkns kn efa`md kd taf prkbfgt tf`h,

eut cjc nkt p`rtjgjp`tf jn taf `gtu`m sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. af p`nfm hfhefrs kd taf

Wgakkm afmpfc f`ga ktafr jn djncjno jndkrh`tjkn jn krcfr tk bucof gfrt`jn grjtf-

rj`, jn taf \rkvjngj`m Kddjgf g`sf taf `cvjskry fxpfrt afmpfc tk rf`c taf c`t`. Nk

ga`nofs jn taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury p`nfms kggurrfc curjno `ssfsshfnt, wajga

js jn mjnf wjta prkgurfhfnt m`w. ajs akwfvfr `msk hf`nt ta`t ` pktfntj`m m`gi kd

fxpfrtjsf wjtajn taf p`nfm hfhefrs gkumc nkt ef skmvfc ey jnvkmvjno ktafr pfkpmf.

Wkhftjhfs taf jndkrh`tjkn prkvjcfc ey taf g`ncjc`tf kr tfncfrfr w`s jngkhpmftf,

wajga cfgrf`sfc taf pkssjejmjty dkr ` systfh`tjg gkhp`rjskn. Jn skhf sjtu`tjknstajs jndkrh`tjkn w`s ‑gkhpmftfc‚ ey taf burkrs tafhsfmvfs, jn ktafrs jt w`s bust mfdt

kpfn. Jn taf g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm nc taf Wgakkm hjssjno jndkrh`tjkn cjc nkt prf-

vfnt taf wjnnfrs drkh wjnnjno, eut dkr skhf g`ncjc`tfs `nc tfncfrfrs jt cjc mf`c

tk fxgmusjkn kr mkw sgkrf kn gfrt`jn grjtfrj`. Kesfrv`tjkns jncjg`tf ta`t taf p`nfm

hfhefrs (ungknsgjkusmy) usfc ` m`gi kd jndkrh`tjkn kr gkndmjgtjno jndkrh`tjkn

dkr tafjr kwn efnfdjt, fspfgj`mmy curjno taf orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno. Wkhftjhfs

gkndmjgtjno kpjnjkns hkno taf p`nfm hfhefrs mfc tk ` hkrf takrkuoa n`mysjs kd

taf prkpks`ms, wajmf jn ktafr sjtu`tjkns jt mfc tk cjsqu`mjdjg`tjkn kr mjhjtfc prfdfr-

fngfs dkr prkpks`m. ajs msk cfpfncfc kn taf pkwfr e`m`ngf wjtajn orkup nc

taf ga`r`gtfr kd taf ga`jr9 jn taf \rkvjngj m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf taf ga`jr cjc nktjntfnc tk a`vf mkt kd cjsgussjkn wjta taf ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs, wafrf`s taf ga`jr

jn taf Wgakkm g`sf spfgjdjg`mmy stjhum`tfc ` strugturfc cfe`tf èkut taf prkpks`ms

`hkno taf cjddfrfnt p`rtjfs ta`t wfrf `ttfncjno taf hfftjno.

Curjno taf `ssfsshfnt kd taf prkpks`ms jn `mm g`sfs cfgjsjkn hìfrs fxpfrj-

fngfc cjddjgumtjfs kn akw tk cf`m wjta taf ekunc`rjfs `nc jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf

rfqujrfhfnts st`tfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs jn krcfr tk gkhp`rf taf g`ncjc`tfs

`nc tfncfrfrs `s fqu`m `s pkssjemf. \`nfm hfhefrs nffcfc tk hìf sfnsf kd tafjr

kwn rfqujrfhfnts efgùsf tafy a`c nkt rf`mjsfc taf fddfgts kd taf rfqujrfhfnts

efdkrfa`nc. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf, dkr fx`hpmf, skhf kd taf tfncfrfrs h`cf ` sg`mf

hkcfm kr d`jrmy cft`jmfc siftga tk prfsfnt tafjr vjsjkn kn taf tfncfr erjfd. Ktafrsprfsfntfc bust ` sakrt `n`mysjs kd taf eujmcjno vkmuhfs. Ekta dkrh`ts wfrf jn mjnf

wjta taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs eut jt h`cf fqu`m gkhp`rjskn taf prkpks`ms cjddjgumt

efgùsf kd taf cjddfrfnt jndkrh`tjkn mfvfms. af s`hf prkemfh kggurrfc wjta hjss-

jno kr jncfdjnjtf jndkrh`tjkn. Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf knf kd taf prkpks`ms cjc nkt

cf`m wjta taf gkst fstjh`tf jn ` prkpfr h`nnfr. k gkhp`rf taf prkpks`m wjta taf

ktafrs taf prkbfgt tf`h stjmm trjfc tk gkuntfr e`m`ngf tafsf gksts wajmf kddjgj`mmy

tafy sakumc a`vf fxgmucfc tajs prkpks`m drkh `ssfsshfnt. @nktafr jntfrfstjno

pafnkhfnkn ta`t kggurrfc w`s taf fddfgt kd cfvj`tjkns kd taf tfncfr erjfd kn taf

ga`ngf kd wjnnjno. Kn taf knf a`nc, ` surprjsjno fmfhfnt `ccjtjkn`m tk taf tfn-

cfr erjfd gkumc gknvjngf taf gmjfnt tk prfdfr ` gfrt`jn prkpks`m, eut kn taf ktafr



016 ‗

a`nc ` prkpks`m gkumc f`sjmy ef rfbfgtfc bust efgùsf kd ` cfvj`tjkn drkh taf erjfd.

afsf djncjnos jncjg`tf ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs usf tajs rkkh jn cfgjsjkn hìjno tk

stffr taf prkgfss jn ` cjrfgtjkn ta`t wkumc efnfdjt tafh. ajs hìfs jt cjddjgumt dkr

tfncfrfrs tk fstjh`tf taf ga`ngfs kd wjnnjno ` tfncfr.

Cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn taf Wgakkm `nc Gjty A`mm g`sf st`tfc curjno taf jntfrvjfws

ta`t ekta jn taf sfmfgtjkn `nc taf `w`rc pa`sf taf `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn prk-vjcfc ey taf prkpks`ms w`s suddjgjfnt tk hìf cfgjsjkns. @t taf s`hf tjhf sfvfr`m

p`nfm hfhefrs jncjg`tfc ta`t gfrt`jn `spfgts, mjif taf g`pèjmjty kd `n `rgajtfgt

tk hìf ` sust`jnèmf eujmcjno, wfrf vfry a`rc tk `ssfss. Jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf

jt w`s fvfn dkr fxpfrts cjddjgumt tk bucof taf pktfntj`m qu`mjtjfs kd taf g`ncjc`tf

efgùsf taf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts nffcfc tk ef `ssfssfc jn rfm`tjkn tk taf gkntfxt jn

wajga tafy wfrf h`cf. af c`t` suoofst ta`t jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf cfgjsjkn hì-

frs h`jnmy rfmjfc kn tafjr kwn jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf prkpks`ms, wajmf tafy o`tafrfc

hkrf jnput drkh ktafrs jn taf `w`rc pa`sf. ajs gkngmusjkn hjoat ef cjstkrtfc ey

taf d`gt ta`t gkntr`ry tk taf `w`rc pa`sf taf prkpks`ms jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf wfrf

nkt suppkrtfc ey ` n`rr`tjvf kd taf `rgajtfgts. Kn taf ktafr a`nc, jn taf sfmfgtjknpa`sf p`nfm hfhefrs usfc jndkrh`tjkn `nc pfrskn`m fxpfrjfngfs ta`t tafy o`jnfc

efdkrf taf tfncfr a`c st`rtfc èkut gfrt`jn `rgajtfgts kr tafjr eujmcjnos, wajmf

`rouhfnt`tjkns jn taf `w`rc pa`sf rfm`tf hkrf tk taf gkntfnt kd taf kddfrs kd taf

tfncfrfrs. ajs suoofsts ta`t pfrgfptjkn `nc bucofhfnt jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf js

hkrf rfm`tfc tk taf rfput`tjkn `nc stymf kd taf `rgajtfgts wafrf`s cfgjsjkns jn taf

`w`rc pa`sf `rf rfm`tfc hkrf cjrfgtmy tk taf prkpks`m. Jn taf `w`rc pa`sf p`nfm

hfhefrs skhftjhfs sffhfc tk dkroft ta`t tafy wfrf fv`mu`tjno prkpks`ms jnstf`c

kd gtu`m cfsjons `nc tafrfdkrf tkki taf jndkrh`tjkn hkrf mjtfr`mmy kr strjgtmy ta`n

taf tfncfrfrs jntfncfc. af dkrh`t kd taf siftga kr gkngfpt cfsjon fngkuròfs

tajs ijnc kd hjsjntfrprft`tjkn hkrf ta`n ` vjsjkn prfsfnt`tjkn wjtakut ` spfgjdjgcfsjon.

af djncjnos kd taf g`sfs jhpmy ta`t taf mknofr taf p`nfm hfhefrs wfrf jn-

vkmvfc jn taf prkgfcurf, taf hkrf tafy sffhfc tk efgkhf `w`rf kd taf jhpkr-

t`ngf kd taf tfncfr jn rfm`tjkn tk taf gkhpmftf eujmcjno prkbfgt. Curjno taf tfncfr

prkgfss cfgjsjkn hìfrs jngrf`sjnomy okt d`hjmj`r wjta taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf

prkbfgt, wjta f`ga ktafr, `nc wjta tafjr kwn `hejtjkns, nffcs `nc fxpfgt`tjkns.

Efgùsf jn taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc jn \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf taf bury

p`nfms jn taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf wfrf sjhjm`r, taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf w`s `

skrt kd prfp`r`tjkn pa`sf dkr taf w`rc pa`sf. ajs grf`tfc mf`rnjno fddfgt wajga

jngrf`sfc taf `w`rfnfss kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs èkut taf jhpmjg`tjkns kd taf cfgj-sjkns. Cfspjtf taf d`gt ta`t taf p`nfm hfhefrs kd taf \rkvjngf wfrf nkt jnvkmvfc

vfry huga jn taf prfp`r`tjkns kd taf tfncfr, taf hfftjno jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf

trjoofrfc taf fntausj`sh kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs2

”J `h tfrrjemy gurjkus èkut taf jcf`s tafsf vf g`ncjc`tfs wjmm prfsfnt jntaf `w`rc pa`sf.‘

\ktfntj`m gkndmjgts eftwffn jntfrfsts kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs g`hf jn p`rtjgum`r

tk taf surd`gf wafn rkkh `nc dmfxjejmjty jn cfgjsjkn hìjno w`s fxpmkrfc curjno

nfoktj`tjkns `nc wafn taf hkhfnt kd djn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno `pprk`gafc. @t taf

s`hf tjhf p`nfm hfhefrs wfrf prfp`rfc dkr taf d`gt ta`t ` cfgjsjkn nffcfc tk ef



014

h`cf `nc gfrt`jn e`rrjfrs eftwffn taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs `nc tafjr jntfrfsts nffcfc

tk ef kvfrgkhf. Ekta jn taf taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf hkrf fx-

pfrjfngfc cfgjsjkn hìfrs jncjg`tfc curjno taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws ta`t jn

taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf jt js r`tafr f`sy tk rf`ga ` cfgjsjkn èkut taf tkp tarff `nc taf

ekttkh tfn kd taf g`ncjc`tfs eut ta`t taf hjccmf g`tfokry grf`tfs taf hkst cjsgus-

sjkn. Eut tafy `msk st`tfc ta`t ` djn`m cfgjsjkn wjmm `mw`ys ef h`cf. af djncjnosjhpmy ta`t taf h`jn cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf `nc taf `w`rc pa`sf

`rf taf ga`r`gtfr kd taf djn`m cfgjsjkn `nc taf `hkunt kd m`tjtucf wjtajn taf cfgj-

sjkn. af `jh kd taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf js sfmfgtjno sfvfr`m pktfntj`m g`ncjc`tfs wajmf

jn taf w`rc pa`sf knf wjnnfr a`s tk ef gaksfn. afrfdkrf tafrf sffhs tk ef hkrf

rkkh dkr cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf ta`n curjno taf w`rc pa`sf.

Kn taf ktafr a`nc, tafrf sffhs tk ef hkrf rkkh dkr jntfrprft`tjkn jn fv`mu`tjno

taf prkpks`ms jn taf `w`rc pa`sf ta`n jn `ssfssjno taf rfqufsts dkr jnvjt`tjkns jn

taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf efgùsf taf rfqufsts dkr jnvjt`tjkn jngmucf hkrf dkrh`m st`tf-

hfnts `nc djn`ngj`m jndkrh`tjkn. af cfgjsjkns èkut cfsjon qu`mjty jn taf `w`rc

pa`sf ojvf taf p`nfm hfhefrs hkrf m`tjtucf tk dkmmkw tafjr jntujtjkn.Ekta curjno taf tfncfr nc taf `w`rc pa`sf kd taf Wgakkm g`sf taf p`nfm hfh-

efrs djrst cjsgussfc tafjr jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnts `hkno taf hfhefrs kd tafjr kwn

p`rty. af pmussfs `nc hjnusfs kd f`ga kptjkn wfrf put jn ` ejoofr pjgturf `nc

gkhp`rfc tk f`ga ktafr. afn tafjr prfdfrfngfs `nc bucofhfnts wfrf cjsgussfc

wjta taf ktafr p`rtjfs `nc cfgjsjkn hìfrs efg`hf `w`rf kd taf prfdfrfngfs `nc

jntfrfsts kd taf ktafr p`rtjfs. af djncjnos suoofst ta`t inkwjno taf rf`skn efajnc

` cfgjsjkn w`s efnfdjgj`m dkr `ggfpt`ngf kd taf cfgjsjkn `nc jngrf`sfc taf `hkunt

kd suppkrt dkr taf cfgjsjkn. af pkwfr rfm`tjknsajps eftwffn taf hfhefrs kd taf

bury p`nfm kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf wfrf cjddfrfnt ta`n jn taf Wgakkm

g`sf. Gkhp`rfc tk taf Wgakkm g`sf taf prkbfgt tf`h cjc nkt a`vf `s huga jndmu-fngf kn taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. ajs gkumc ef cuf tk taf d`gt ta`t taf p`nfm hfh-

efrs kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf wfrf hkrf `gqu`jntfc wjta f`ga ktafr

(tafy wfrf `mm hfhefrs kd taf s`hf Fxfgutjvf ek`rc) ta`n jn taf Wgakkm g`sf. af

kesfrv`tjkns jncjg`tf ta`t curjno taf hfftjno kd taf bury p`nfm kd taf \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf gfrt`jn efa`vjkur`m p`ttfrns kggurrfc jn krcfr tk prfvfnt dur-

tafr gkndmjgt wjtajn taf orkup, wajga gkumc ef jntfrprftfc `s orkup tajni. Jn `mm

g`sfs taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs jncjg`tfc jn rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws ta`t taf cjsgussjkns

curjno taf p`nfm hfftjnos gkntrjeutfc tk taf strfnota kd taf tfncfr prkbfgt `nc

kddfr `n fxgfmmfnt st`rtjno pkjnt dkr durtafr gkmmèkr`tjkn.

Jn g`sf kd taf Wgakkm `nc taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf taf cfgjsjkn grj-tfrj` wfrf usfc vfry fxpmjgjtmy curjno taf efojnnjno `nc taf fnc kd taf prkgfss,

eut vfry jhpmjgjtmy curjno taf cjsgussjkns jn eftwffn. Knf kd taf Wgakkm p`nfm

hfhefrs fxpm`jnfc èkut afr fxpfrjfngfs curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf2

”Zku knmy usf taf grjtfrj` efgùsf yku a`vf tk ef tr`nsp`rfnt `nc efgùsf yku a`vf tk fxpm`jn m`tfr kn. Eut J cjc nkt mkki `t taf grjtfrj` curjno hy bucofhfnt prkgfss9 J wkumc mjf jd J wkumc s`y sk...‘

af grjtfrj` kggurrfc tk a`vf jnjtj`tfc twk ijncs kd prkgfssfs2 0) strugturjno

taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss, `nc 5) jntfrprftjno taf `jhs dkr taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Jn taf

sfmfgtjkn pa`sf taf h`trjx safft kd taf Wgakkm g`sf strfnotafnfc taf fddfgt ta`t taf



01? ‗

grjtfrj` a`c kn strugturjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf. Kngf taf

prkpks`ms wfrf r`nifc jn taf safft krjojn`m bucofhfnts cjc nkt sffh jhpkrt`nt

`nyhkrf. Fvfryekcy trustfc taf cjojt`m safft nc dkgusfc kn taf tkt`m sgkrfs. ajs

w`s nffcfc tk tìf taf cjsgussjkn kn tk ` ajoafr mfvfm `nc djnc ` e`m`ngf eftwffn

taf sfmfgtfc g`ncjc`tfs `nc taf pfrskn`m jntfrfsts kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. af ò-

orfo`tjkn systfh kd taf sfp`r`tf bucofhfnts w`s tìfn dkr or`ntfc `nc nkt grjtj-g`mmy `ssfssfc ey taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. af f`sf jn wajga taf rfsumts kd taf h`trjx

safft wjta bucofhfnt kd p`rtjfs jnvkmvfc jn taf Wgakkm g`sf w`s ggfptfc, jncjg`tf

ta`t taf wfjoatjno d`gtkrs `s jngkrpkr`tfc jn taf safft wfrf nkt fxpmjgjtmy `ppmjfc

eut tìfn `s ` ojvfn curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. af cfgjsjkn èkut taf rfm`tjvf

jhpkrt`ngf kd taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` tafrfdkrf a`c jhpkrt`nt eut jhpmjgjt jhpmjg`-

tjkns kn taf cjrfgtjkn kd taf sfmfgtjkn cfgjsjkns.

af djncjnos kd taf g`sfs suoofst ta`t sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc grjtfrj` `s hfn-

tjknfc jn taf kddjgj`m gkhpftjtjkn rumfs knmy gkvfr taf e`sjg rfqujrfhfnts kd taf

gmjfnt. \rjkrjtjfs sajdtfc curjno taf prkgfss efgùsf taf hf`njno kd taf cfgjsjkn

t`si jngrf`sfc. ajs jncjg`tfs ta`t taf jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf grjtfrj` jngrf`sfs wjtaeujmcjno ` dr`hf kd rfdfrfngfs wjtajn taf orkup. ajs hf`nt ta`t skhftjhfs grjtf-

rj` wfrf jntfrprftfc hkrf wjcfmy, `nc skhftjhfs hkrf n`rrkwmy curjno taf prkg-

fss. Fvfry nkw `nc tafn taf prfvjkus fxpfrjfngf kd ` p`nfm hfhefr wjta ` gfrt`jn

djrh kr `rgajtfgt w`s usfc tk gknvjngf ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs, fspfgj`mmy ey taf

hkrf fxpfrjfngfc cfgjsjkn hìfrs. af p`nfm hfhefrs kd taf Wgakkm usfc taf

`rouhfnt kd fxpfrjfngf jn taf fcug`tjkn`m sfgtkr mkt curjno taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss

wajmf taf kddjgj`m sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj` dkr taf rfdfrfngf prkbfgts wfrf nkt spfgjdjg kn

(prjh`ry) fcug`tjkn. Jn g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm taf puemjg cfe`tf jn taf w`rc pa`sf

gmf`rmy sakwfc ` ga`nof jn jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj`. ajs w`s `msk

gkndjrhfc jn taf jntfrvjfw. Djrst dungtjkn`mjty, djn`ngj`m `spfgts `nc skgj`m tr`jts kdtaf cfsjonfrs ckhjn`tfc taf cjsgussjkn `hkno taf p`rtjgjp`nts kd taf cfe`tf. @t

taf fnc kd taf cfe`tf taf pkmjtjg`m p`rtjfs cjsgussfc taf kvfr`mm bucofhfnt wjtakut

rfdfrrjno tk `ny kd tafsf pkssjemf gknstr`jnts. Fhktjkn`m rfspknsfs tk taf cfsjons

g`hf jntk pm`y `nc `rouhfnts efg`hf hkrf ofnfr`m, hkrf suebfgtjvf `nc hkrf

e`sfc kn jntujtjkn. af cfgjsjkn hìfrs rfdfrrfc tk taf grjtfrj` kd ‑hkst ppf`mjno

cfsjon‚ s tafjr h`jn cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` jnstf`c kd ‑fgknkhjg`mmy hkst cv`ntòfkus

tfncfr‚. af ‑hkst `ppf`mjno cfsjon‚ sffhs tk jngmucf r`tafr jnt`nojemf grjtfrj`

suga `s pfrskn`m gknnfgtjkn, d`jta jn, `nc `ddjnjty wjta taf `rgajtfgtur`m djrh, `

cfsjon nc/kr tafjr cfsjonfrs. @msk jn taf Wgakkm g`sf taf h`jn rouhfnt dkr cfgj-

sjkn hìjno `ppf`rfc tk ef taf ‑gmjgi wjta taf `rgajtfgt‚, wajga sakws taf hf`n-jno tafy o`vf tk taf kddjgj`m `w`rc grjtfrj`.

af `gtu`m jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd taf grjtfrj` `s st`tfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs

gkumc knmy ef p`rtmy rftrjfvfc drkh taf paysjg`m kesfrv`tjkns `nc ckguhfnts ta`t

wfrf `v`jmèmf. af jhpmjgjt `rouhfnt`tjkn w`s cfrjvfc drkh jntfrvjfws `nc jn-

dkrh`m gknvfrs`tjkns wjta cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Jn g`sf kd taf Okvfrnhfnt`m Kddjgf

taf prfssurf tk tìf cfgjsjkns, taf m`gi kd `hejtjkn, `nc taf m`gi kd spfgjdjg fx-

pfrtjsf sffhfc tk kvfrrumf taf `gtu`m `ssfsshfnt kd taf prkpks`ms. Dkr skhf kd taf

sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj`, suga `s ‑tjhfmfss‚ `nc ‑eusjnfss mjif‚, rfsfhem`ngf w`s fxpfrj-

fngfc jn taf jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf grjtfrj`, tajs cjc nkt hìf `ppmyjno taf grjtfrj`

f`sy. Akwfvfr, efgùsf tafrf wfrf knmy djvf g`ncjc`tfs mfdt, tafy cjc nkt a`vf tk



011

par`sf `rouhfnts wajga wkumc bustjdy tafjr skmutjkn. Gkhp`rfc tk taf ktafr bury

p`nfms, taf p`nfm kd taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf fxpfrjfngfc gknsjcfrèmf

gkndmjgts wjta taf pfrgfjvfc `hkunt kd drffckh wjtajn taf FV prkgfcurf. ajs

w`s fngkuròfc ey taf d`gt ta`t ` Cfsjon-`nc-Eujmc gkntr`gt wkumc ef `w`rcfc.

af cfgjsjkn tk `w`rc `n jntfor`tfc gkntr`gt w`s h`cf jn ` prfvjkus tfrh kd kd-

djgf wjta cjddfrfnt Fxfgutjvf ek`rc. @w`rfnfss ekut taf mjhjt`tjkns kd tajs ijnckd gkntr`gt jn gkhejn`tjkn wjta ` ga`nojno h`rift sjtu`tjkn fvfntu`mmy mfc tk

g`ngfmm`tjkn kd taf tfncfr.

af fxpfrjfngf `nc/kr fxpfrtjsf kd taf djrhs, taf fxpfrjfngf `nc/kr fxpfrtjsf

kd taf prkpksfc `rgajtfgt, taf `ppf`m kd taf cfsjon stymf, `nc prfvjkus pfrskn`m

fxpfrjfngf wjta djrh, rgajtfgt nc/kr tafjr eujmcjnos wfrf dkunc tk ef taf h`jn

cfgjsjvf d`gtkrs kd sfmfgtjno p`rtjgum`r g`ncjc`tfs dkr taf `w`rc pa`sf. af c`t`

drkh taf Wgakkm g`sf suoofst ta`t taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss

dkgusfc kn `ssfssjno taf `ddjnjty kd taf djrh `nc/kr `rgajtfgt wjta taf dungtjkn,

gkntfxt `nc prkgfss kd taf duturf eujmcjno. @n`mysjs kd taf c`t` sakwfc ta`t cfgj-

sjkn hìfrs a`c cjddjgumty wjta taf cjstjngtjkn eftwffn fxpfrtjsf `nc fxpfrjfngf,`nc eftwffn taf `rgajtfgt `nc taf djrh ta`t js rfprfsfntfc. af p`nfm hfhefrs kd

Wgakkm g`sf cf`mt wjta taf dkmmkwjno jssufs jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf2

@hkunt kd fxpfrjfngf kr a`vjno fxpfrjfngf jn ofnfr`m.

Wpfgjdjg fxpfrjfngf jn ` eujmcjno sfgtkr (fcug`tjkn, utjmjty, kddjgfs ftg.) kr

fxpfrjfngf wjta sjhjm`r bkes `nc prkbfgts (` prjh`ry sgakkm wjta sjhjm`r sjzf)

kr fxpfrjfngf `s ` prkdfssjkn`m cfsjonfr jn ofnfr`m (akw h`ny `nc wajga

prkbfgts a`vf effn rf`mjsfc).

Fxpfrjfngf `s ` cfsjon djrh kr pfrskn`m fxpfrjfngf kd ` cfsjonfr.

@ssfsshfnt e`sfc kn gkhpftfngfs kr `ssfsshfnt e`sfc kn gkngrftf

fx`hpmfs.

H`ny cfgjsjkns sakwfc sjons kd str`tfojg efa`vjkur. Jn mm g`sfs taf bury p`nfms

jhpmjgjtmy trjfc tk fnm`rof taf r`nof kd `rgajtfgtur`m typfs dkr taf `w`rc pa`sf ey

sfmfgtjno `t mf`st ` wfmm rfputfc eut mfss fxpfrjfngfc djrh `nc ` sh`mmfr, jntfrn`-

tjkn`m nc/kr hkrf r`cjg`m djrh jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf. @t taf s`hf tjhf tafy trjfc

tk hìf surf ta`t `t mf`st ` dfw kd taf sfmfgtfc g`ncjc`tfs wkumc ef ` rfmjèmf dkrh

tk `mmkg`tf taf gkntr`gt. @n jntfrvjfwff jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf jncjg`tfc ta`t tafy

sfmfgtfc djvf ajoa qu`mjty djrhs tk ssurf taf qu`mjty kd taf cfsjon. ajs hf`nt ta`t

taf `w`rc pa`sf wkumc ef prjh`rjmy ` h`ttfr kd t`stf. af cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn tafWgakkm g`sf wfrf `w`rf kd taf d`gt ta`t tafy w`ntfc tk gkmmèkr`tf wjta taf ktafr

p`rtjfs durtafr kn jn taf prkbfgt sk tafy cfgjcfc tk sfmfgt sjx djrhs dkr taf `w`rc

pa`sf, fvfn takuoa tafy cjc nkt rf`ga ` gknsfnsus kvfr taf sujtèjmjty kd taf sjxta

g`ncjc`tf `nc tafy a`c jntfncfc tk sfmfgt djvf. @ggkrcjno tk taf hfhefrs kd taf

Wgakkm ek`rc tafy o`vf tajs sjxta rfm`tjvfmy ykuno `nc mfss fxpfrjfngfc djrh `

‑wjmc g`rc‚. ajs str`tfoy ga`r`gtfrjsfc taf `ttjtucf kd taf gmjfnt tkw`rcs taf tfncfr

prkgfcurf. af gmjfnt kd taf Wgakkm g`sf w`s dmfxjemf, wjmmjno tk tìf skhf rjsis jd

jt wkumc nkt gkst tkk huga `nc dkgusfc kn taf duturf. af wjmc g`rc w`s ` prò-

h`tjg cfgjsjkn tk `vkjc durtafr gkndmjgt.

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01: ‗

Wkhf kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt g`sf cjspm`yfc mfss

c`rjno `ttjtucf. Knf kd taf djvf suehjssjkns jn taf \rkvjngj m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf

g`sf, taf knf wjta taf hkst gkntrkvfrsj`m cfsjon, gkumc a`vf effn rfbfgtfc jd vfry

strjgt jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkn wkumc a`vf effn `ppmjfc. af bury p`nfm

cjsgussfc taf hfrjts `nc cfhfrjts kd `mmkwjno tajs suehjssjkn. afy e`m`ngfc taf

wfjoat kd taf cjvfrsjty kd gakjgf `nc pkssjejmjty kd `n unusu`m prkpks`m ò`jnst taf`ccjtjkn`m gkhpfns`tkry cfsjon dff, taf pkssjejmjty kd `n unpkpum`r prkpks`m `nc

gkndmjgt jn cjsgussjkns curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf. af ga`jr kd taf p`nfm w`s ò`jnst

`mmkwjno taf djdta suehjssjkn jn wafrf`s taf ktafr hfhefrs wfrf wjmmjno tk tìf

taf rjsi. Djn`mmy taf ga`jr cfgjcfc tk a`vf ` sfgknc kpjnjkn drkh taf mfo`m `cvj-

skrs. ajs fx`hpmf w`s typjg`m dkr taf wakmf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf

\rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf. Jn fvfry gkndmjgt sjtu`tjkn taf sjtu`tjkn w`s

put kn akmc tk sf`rga dkr mfo`m kr djn`ngj`m cvjgf tk suppkrt taf cfgjsjkn kutgkhf

wajga jngrf`sfc ckuet `nc taf mjifmjakkc kd g`ngfmm`tjkn. ajs mfc tk ` prkgfss

wajga w`s sa`ckwfc ey df`r, ` mgi kd cfgjsjkn suppkrt, `nc rjsi `vfrsf efa`vjkur.

Knf hknta `dtfr taf sfmfgtjkn gkhhjttff a`c hft taf wakmf prkgfcurf w`s putkn akmc. af kutgkhf kd taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf w`s nfvfr puemjsafc.

Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf jhp`gt `nc dungtjkn`mjty kd taf cfsjon prkpks`ms

mfc tk ` cfdjnjtf ‑gmjgi wjta taf cfsjon‚ jn taf `w`rc pa`sf. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf taf

pfrskn`mjty `nc gkhpftfngfs `s sakwn ey taf `rgajtfgt wfrf taf hkst jhpkrt`nt

jn taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn. @mhkst `mm cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn taf Wgakkm g`sf rfpkrtfc jn

rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws ta`t taf djn`m cfgjsjkn jn taf `w`rc pa`sf w`s e`sfc kn

tafjr jntujtjvf bucofhfnt èkut taf pfrskn `nc taf pktfntj`m gkhpftfngfs `s pfr-

gfjvfc ey taf gmjfnt, wajga mfc tk taf ‑hkst gknvjngjno p`rty‚ `nc ` ‑gmjgi wjta

taf `rgajtfgt‚. ajs ‑gmjgi‚ w`s nkt `n kddjgj`m `w`rc grjtfrjkn eut strknomy rfm`tfc

tk taf sue grjtfrjkn kd ‑gkhhunjg`tjvf sijmms‚. Wfvfr`m `cvjskry p`nfm hfhefrs kdtaf Wgakkm g`sf jncjg`tfc jn taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws ta`t taf gurrfnt wjnnfr

prfsfntfc ` wfì vjsjkn jn gkhp`rjskn tk ktafr djrhs. Akwfvfr tafy uncfrstkkc

taf gakjgf kd taf Wgakkm Ek`rc2

”Saf `rgajtfgt a`c ` vfry ga`rhjno pfrskn`mjty `nc dkgusfc kn taf nffcskd gajmcrfn jnstf`c kd `rgajtfgturf jn ofnfr`m.‘

af d`gt ta`t jn taf `w`rc pa`sf gkhhunjg`tjkn sijmms `nc syhp`tay kd taf

`rgajtfgt wfrf gknsjcfrfc hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n taf gkntfnt kd taf prkpks`m kr

prfvjkus pfrskn`m fxpfrjfngf wjta taf `rgajtfgt gkndjrhs ta`t taf gkhhjssjknjno

gmjfnt w`s mkkijno dkr ` p`rtnfr jnstf`c kd ` prkcugt. Efgùsf taf dff kd taf hkstprfdfrrfc `rgajtfgt jn taf Wgakkm g`sf turnfc kut tk ef taf mkwfst `nc taf Gjty

A`mm usfc ` djxfc dff, tafrf js nk fvjcfngf jn tafsf g`sfs dkr st`tfhfnts èkut taf

jndmufngf kd taf dff kn taf djn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno.

@mm jn `mm taf c`t` suoofst ta`t gmjfnts fv`mu`tf taf pktfntj`m kd taf dumm p`giòf

r`tafr ta`n taf gtu`m hf`surfhfnts. @msk jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf truf fxgfmmfngf cjc

nkt sffh tk ef èkut `nswfrjno tk `mm dungtjkn`m, curèmf `nc `fstaftjg`m rfqujrf-

hfnts eut r`tafr èkut taf pktfntj`m kd taf prkpks`m, taf cfsjonfr `nc taf djrh `mm

tkoftafr. afrfdkrf taf wjnnfr kd tfncfr rfdmfgts taf cfsjon djrh wajga taf gmjfnt

efmjfvfs wjmm efst dumdjm tafjr nffcs `nc prkvjcf tafh wjta taf rjoat `rgajtfgtur`m

v`muf. afy bucof taf gkhpftfngfs kd taf kddfr jn rfm`tjkn tk tafjr nffcs, wajga



0:<

g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` djrst stfp jn eujmcjno ` rfm`tjknsajp. ajs jncjg`tfs ta`t

eujmcjno trust eftwffn taf prkbfgt p`rtnfrs js knf kd taf h`jn hktjvfs curjno `

tfncfr prkbfgt. Knf kd taf p`rtjgjp`tjno `rgajtfgts jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf fxpm`jnfc

tajs ijnc kd efa`vjkur jn tfncfr sjtu`tjkns curjno `n jntfrvjfw2

”Knf `mw`ys sfmfgts pfkpmf wak knf trusts, wak hìf knf dffm rjoat. Safy

wjmm bust sff wa`t wkumc a`ppfn nfxt.‘

Curjno `n`mysjs kd taf c`t` sfvfr`m `spfgts wfrf dkunc ta`t gkumc a`vf jndmu-

fngfc taf cur`tjkn `nc ga`r`gtfr kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss2

af strugturf kd taf tfncfr prkgfss2 taf hkrf gmf`r `nc strugturfc taf tfncfr

cfsjon, taf hkrf fddjgjfntmy taf prkgfss wfnt.

af nuhefr kd stìfakmcfrs2 taf hkrf stìfakmcfrs ta`t a`c tk ef jnvkmvfc

`nc taf hkrf gkuntfr e`m`ngfs ta`t nffcfc tk ef pfrdkrhfc, taf hkrf tjhf

w`s nffcfc tk gkmmfgt `mm jndkrh`tjkn.

af nuhefr kd fntrjfs2 taf hkrf rfqufsts dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn nc prkpks`ms, taforf`tfr taf `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn ta`t nffcfc tk ef `ssfssfc `nc taf hkrf

tjhf jt usu`mmy tkki tk vjfw `nc `ssfss `mm jndkrh`tjkn

af sjzf kd taf tfncfr erjfd2 taf hkrf jndkrh`tjkn prkvjcfc pfr p`rty, taf

hkrf tjhf w`s nffcfc tk `ssfss taf jndkrh`tjkn jn taf prkpks`ms.

af `v`jmèjmjty kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs2 taf mfss tjhf taf p`nfm hfhefrs a`c

`v`jmèmf tk cfe`tf taf cfgjsjkn, taf skknfr cfgjsjkns nffcfc tk ef tìfn.

af cjddfrfngfs jn kpjnjkns2 taf mfss cjvfrsf `nc gkndmjgtjno kpjnjkns `nc jn-

tfrfsts `ppf`rfc, taf shkktafr taf prkgfss wfnt `nc taf mfss tjhf jt tkki.af `hkunt `nc ijnc kd fhktjkns2 pksjtjvf kr nfo`tjvf fhktjkns skhftjhfs

h`cf jt f`sjfr tk hìf cfgjsjkns (f.o. ‑d`mmjno jn mkvf wjta taf prkpks`ms‚)9 jn

ktafr sjtu`tjkns fhktjkns gùsfc hkrf ckuet (f.o. ungfrt`jnty èkut taf jh-

pmjg`tjkns kd ` cfgjsjkn).

af ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd p`nfm hfhefrs2 dmfxjemf `ttjtucfs, skgj`m gknsgjkusnfss,

fxpfrtjsf, rfspfgt dkr taf ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs `nc uncfrst`ncjno kd gmjfnt

nffcs wfrf dkunc tk jngrf`sf taf dmufntnfss kd taf prkgfss `nc prkeèmy rf-

cugfc taf tjhf nffcfc tk hìf cfgjsjkns.

af djncjnos jncjg`tf ta`t cfgjsjkn hìjno jn tfncfr cfgjsjkns sakws sjonjdj-g`nt rfsfhem`ngf tk n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkn hìjno nc taf usf kd afurjstjgs. _kumc

tajs ijnc kd n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkn hìjno ef ò`jnst taf m`w; af djncjnos kd tafsf

g`sfs sakw taf cjddjgumty kd tr`gjno taf `gtu`m jhpmjg`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj`

`nc taf rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf `rouhfnts ta`t `rf usfc curjno cfgjsjkn hì-

jno. Jn ekta taf Wgakkm `nc taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf v`mufs `nc fxprfssjkns usfc jn

taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs trjoofrfc taf jntfrprft`tjkn prkgfss kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs

eut cfgjsjkn hìfrs cjc nkt `mw`ys rfdfr cjrfgtmy tk taf fx`gt grjtfrj`. Hkstmy taf

grjtfrj` wfrf `ppmjfc jntujtjvfmy eut taf grjtfrj` `ppf`rfc tk a`vf grf`tfc ` strug-

turf tk strf`hmjnf taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno, kn jncjvjcu`m mfvfm `nc `t taf

mfvfm kd taf orkup. af `n`mysjs kd taf cfsjon `spfgts jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf sakwfc

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0:0 ‗

ta`t taf fxpfrt gkhhjttff jn p`rtjgum`r usfc grjtfrj` ta`t gkrrfspkncfc tk taf kd-

djgj`m `w`rc grjtfrj` `s cfsgrjefc jn taf g`mm dkr tfncfrs. @nc `mtakuoa taf tarff

sfp`r`tf w`rc grjtfrj` kd dmfxjejmjty, taf jntfmmjofngf kd taf skmutjkn, nc gkntrjeu-

tjkn tk taf cjvfrsjty wfrf nkt usfc fxpmjgjtmy curjno taf bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf `w`rc

cfgjsjkn, taf `n`mysjs sakws ta`t taf gkrrfspkncjno CPJ `spfgts kd Dungtjkn`mjty

`nc Jhp`gt wfrf taf `spfgts hkst hfntjknfc ey `mm stìfakmcfrs. afrfdkrf tafstrugturf kd taf tfncfr prkgfcurf `gtfc `s ` stffrjno hftakc ta`t fnèmfc taf gmj-

fnt tk st`y wjtajn taf gkntfxt kd taf m`w. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf taf djncjnos jncjg`tf

ta`t taf mfo`m strugturf jndmufngfc taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss hkrf strknomy ta`n jn taf

g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm. Efgùsf tafy usfc taf h`trjx safft tk bustjdy tafjr sfmfgtjkn

`nc w`rc cfgjsjkns tk taf p`rtjgjp`nts taf rouhfnts wfrf rfcugfc tk kddjgj`m grj-

tfrj` ta`t djttfc taf prf `nnkungfc strugturf. Jn taf gkntfxt kd tr`nsp`rfngy tajs

cfv`mufc taf hfssòf `s gkhhunjg`tfc tk taf tfncfrfrs.

af c`t` sakw ta`t taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf a`s ` cjddfrfnt `jh ta`n taf `w`rc

pa`sf. Jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf taf gmjfnts `jhfc `t ` sfmfgtjkn kd g`ncjc`tfs ta`t

sakwfc jntfrfst jn tafjr prkbfgt `nc wkumc ef qu`mjdjfc dkr taf bke. Jn taf `w`rcpa`sf taf gmjfnts jhfc `t sfmfgtjno taf efst `rgajtfgt tk w`rc taf gkntr`gt tk. af

djncjnos suoofst ta`t `w`rcjno ` gkntr`gt gkngfrns ` gknsgjkus tr`cf-kdd eftwffn

qu`mjty `nc prjgf, wajmf sfmfgtjkn dkgusfs sfmfgtjno g`ncjc`tfs wjta ` pktfntj`m tk

hfft taf rfqujrfhfnts kd taf gmjfnt jn ofnfr`m. Wk wajmf jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf

qufstjkns mjif ‑Ck wf inkw tajs djrh;‚, ‑Ck tafy a`vf sjhjm`r fxpfrjfngf;‚, `nc

‑_kumc tafy djt kur prkbfgt jn tfrhs kd `rgajtfgtur`m stymf `nc prkgfss `pprk`ga;‚

`ppf`rfc tk ef taf r`tjkn`mf dkr cfgjsjkn hìjno, taf `w`rc pa`sf w`s hkrf dk-

gusfc kn gkngrftf fxpfgt`tjkns dkr taf eujmcjno `nc taf eujmcjno prkgfss, mjif

‑_ak js taf pfrskn jn drknt kd hf;‚, ‑_a`t tk fxpfgt curjno taf prkgfss;‚, `nc

‑_a`t ck J oft wafn taf `rgajtfgt js oknf;‚. af Wgakkm `nc Gjty A`mm cfgjsjknhìfrs `msk tkki jntk `ggkunt ` hkrf str`tfojg qufstjkn kd ‑_a`t ck taf ktafr

p`rtjfs tajni;‚ Curjno taf sfmfgtjkn kd taf \rkvjngj m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf taf bustj-

djg`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn jhfc `t ‑G`n wf bustjdy tajs cfgjsjkn wjtakut unnfgfss`ry

mfo`m rjsis;‚. Jn tajs g`sf taf pkssjemf jhpmjg`tjkns kd taf sfmfgtjkn `nc duturf w`rc

cfgjsjkn dkr taf str`tfojg pksjtjkn kd taf kro`njs`tjkn wfrf vfry jhpkrt`nt2 ‑Akw

h`ny kd tafsf djrhs wjmm gtu`mmy p`rtjgjp`tf jn taf w`rc pa`sf nc nkt rftrjfvf jn

taf tfncfr;‚ `nc ‑_a`t wjmm jt gkst;‚. @t taf s`hf tjhf taf qufstjkn ‑Js tajs wa`t

wf w`nt kr nkt;‚ r`jsfc `w`rfnfss kd taf `gtu`m `jh kd taf prkbfgt2 ‑_a`t ck wf

w`nt `nyw`y;‚. Ekta jn taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf jngrf`sjno jnsjoat `ppf`rfc

tk ef `n jhpkrt`nt pafnkhfnkn curjno taf `ppmjg`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj`.af fhpjrjg`m rfsumts ck nkt sakw ` cjrfgt gknnfgtjkn eftwffn taf cfgjsjkns `nc

prfdfrfngfs kd taf djrst rkunc sfmfgtjkn `nc taf wjnnfr kd taf sfgknc rkunc, eut

jn ekta taf Wgakkm `nc taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf wjnnfr efmknofc tk taf tkp tarff

kd taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf. Jn `mm g`sfs taf stìfakmcfrs òrffc kn taf pktfntj`mmy ajoa

cfsjon qu`mjty kd `mm djvf kr sjx tfncfrfrs `nc tafrfdkrf fxpfgtfc ` sfrjkus kddfr jn

taf `w`rc pa`sf drkh f`ga kd taf tfncfrfrs.

Jn `mm g`sfs taf stffrjno gkhhjttff kr ajoafst r`nifc fxfgutjvf kd taf gkh-

hjssjknjno ekcy w`ntfc tk `pprkvf taf kutgkhfs kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff efdkrf

taf `gtu`m wjnnfr kd taf tfncfr w`s `nnkungfc. afn taf djn`m cfgjsjkn w`s gkh-

hunjg`tfc tk taf tfncfrfrs wjta ` sakrt hktjv`tjkn mfttfr, jn mjnf wjta taf mfo`m



0:5

kemjo`tjkns. af djncjnos jn tafsf g`sfs suoofst ta`t taf cforff jn wajga ` gmjfnt

okfs jntk cft`jms èkut taf cfgjsjkn cfpfncs kn taf pkmjtjg`m sfnsjtjvjty kd taf tfn-

cfr prkgfss `nc taf strugturf kd taf prkgfcurf. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf `mm grjtfrj` wfrf

bucofc qu`ntjt`tjvfmy `nc taf rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf grjtfrj` w`s gmf`rmy st`tfc.

afrfdkrf tafy wfrf emf tk gkhhunjg`tf gkhpmftfc h`trjx safft tk taf p`rtjgj-

p`nts tk uncfrpjn tafjr cfgjsjkn jn ekta taf sfmfgtjkn `nc taf `w`rc pa`sf. afydfmt ta`t tajs h`trjx wkumc bustjdy tafjr cfgjsjkns, fvfn takuoa taf h`trjx kd taf

`w`rc pa`sf w`s gkhpmftfc `dtfr taf kddjgj`m hfftjno kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff. Jn

taf g`sf kd taf Gjty A`mm nc taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf tafy usfc sjhjm`r

safft jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf, dkmmkwfc ey ` prfss rfmf`sf wjta ` sakrt st`tfhfnt.

Jt g`n ef cfcugfc drkh taf kesfrv`tjkns nc jntfrvjfws ta`t jn ekta taf Wgakkm

`nc taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf djn`m sgkrfs kd taf bucofhfnts jn taf sfmfgtjkn h`trjgfs

wfrf `cbustfc tk djt taf djn`m cfgjsjkns. afy cjc tajs nkt efgùsf tafy jntfntjkn-

`mmy w`ntfc tk fmucf taf m`w eut efgùsf tafy w`ntfc tk mjvf up tk taf gkhhkn

fxpfgt`tjkns kd taf m`w gkndkrh tafjr kwn jntfrprftfc. Knmy jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf

taf prkbfgt tf`h kd taf Gjty A`mm wrktf ` sakrt rfpkrt jnstf`c kd ` h`trjx safft tkhktjv`tf tafjr cfgjsjkns. _rjtjno ` hfhk èkut taf cfgjsjkn kutgkhfs js jn mjnf

wjta taf `rgajtfgtur`m tr`cjtjkn kd taf bury rfpkrt. fncfrfrs jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf

tafrfdkrf a`c hkrf jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf bucofhfnts kd tafjr prkpks`ms wajga

hjoat a`vf efnfdjt tk taf `ggfpt`ngf kd taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn.

4.1 Ufdmfgtjkn

af tarff g`sfs prkvjcfc vfry v`muèmf jnsjoats èkut taf `spfgts ta`t pm`y ` rkmf

jn taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno kd puemjg gmjfnts jn taf gkntfxt kd Furkpf`n tfn-

cfrjno rfoum`tjkns. af g`sfs gmf`rmy sakwfc ta`t cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno tfncfrjs ` auh`n prkgfss jn ` gkntfxt kd r`tjkn`m mfojsm`tjkn. Drkh ` mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf

sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt `ppf`rs tk ef d`r mfss gkhpmfx ta`n jn rf`m mjdf. _a`t prkvfs

tk ef n fddjgjfnt nc `ggkuntèmf tfncfrjno prkgfss drkh mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf js nkt

nfgfss`rjmy fddfgtjvf drkh ` gmjfnts‚ pfrspfgtjvf. ajs cjddfrfngf jn jntfrprft`tjkn

prkeèmy krjojn`tfs jn taf suebfgtjvf n`turf kd taf bucojno `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon

qu`mjty, taf cjddfrfnt tr`cjtjkns uncfrmyjno taf gurrfnt rfoum`tjkns, `nc taf okv-

frn`ngf strugturf kd puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnts. Jt ppf`rs ta`t curjno ` tfncfr

fvfry gmjfnt nffcs tk cjsgkvfr taf gkhpmfx nc sfnsjtjvf n`turf kd sfmfgtjkn prkg-

fss jn `rgajtfgturf dkr tafhsfmvfs. @n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn js tafrfdkrf ` prkgfss kd

sfnsfhìjno (sff dkr fx`hpmf E`mkoun, ft `m., 5<<19 _fjgi, 0::6).wk ijncs kd cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs g`n ef cjstjnoujsafc curjno ` tfncfr2 0) cfgj-

sjkns èkut taf cfsjon kd ` tfncfr, `nc 5) cfgjsjkns èkut taf qu`mjty kd taf (cf-

sjon) prkpks`ms ta`t `rf suehjttfc curjno taf jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd taf prkgfcurf.

Ekta tafsf prkgfssfs gkhprfafnc h`ny r`tjkn`m `nc jntujtjvf cfgjsjkns ta`t `rf

kdtfn e`sfc kn jngkhpmftf `nc gkndmjgtjvf jndkrh`tjkn. Jn pr`gtjgf fvfryknf‚s `t-

tfntjkn js hkstmy djxfc kn taf `ssfsshfnt cfgjsjkns èkut taf qu`mjty kd taf `rgaj-

tfgts, eut dkr gmjfnts taf prfp`r`tjkns hjoat ef `s jhpkrt`nt `s taf jhpmfhfnt`-

tjkn. Curjno taf prfp`r`tjkns kd ` tfncfr h`ny cfsjon cfgjsjkns `rf h`cf ta`t

jndmufngf taf gkursf kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Zft taf gkursf kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss

`msk strknomy rfm`tfs tk taf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs kd taf `gtkrs. @ tfncfr jngmucfs



0:7 ‗

h`ny `ssuhptjkns èkut taf duturf nffcs kd ` gmjfnt. J dkunc ta`t taf sfmfgtjkn kd

`n rgajtfgt w`s kdtfn nkt taf knmy ok`m kd taf tfncfr9 cfgjsjkn hìfrs trjfc tk dum-

djm str`tfojg nc pfrskn`m jhs s wfmm. Curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss nuhfrkus gkn-

dmjgts eftwffn taf jntfrfsts kd taf gtkrs nc stìfakmcfrs gkhf tk taf surd`gf. af

mfo`m strugturf kd taf tfncfr prkgfcurf h`jnmy cftfrhjnfs taf dmkw kd taf prkgfss

`nc tafrfdkrf nffcs tk djt taf gmjfnt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `nc taf ok`ms. af ga`r`gtfrjs-tjgs kd puemjg gmjfnts rf gmksfmy rfm`tfc tk taf okvfrn`ngf strugturf nc cfpfnc kn

taf gkhpftfngfs `nc pksjtjkns kd `gtkrs ta`t pm`y ` rkmf jn taf prkbfgt.

Jn taf tfncfr prkgfss taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc grjtfrj`, `nc prkpks`ms kd taf

`rgajtfgts g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s jnput, `rouhfnt`tjkn curjno taf prkgfss kd cfgj-

sjkn hìjno `s tarkuoaput, `nc taf djn`m cfgjsjkn `s kutput. af hf`njno kd taf

grjtfrj` sffhs tk jngrf`sf curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss wajga skhftjhfs gùsfc `

sajdt jn taf jhpkrt`ngf kd gfrt`jn cfsjon qu`mjty rfm`tfc `spfgts. Efgùsf prfp`r`-

tjkns wfrf usu`mmy h`cf ey ktafrs taf p`nfm hfhefrs nffcfc tjhf tk jntfrprft taf

cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` `nc d`hjmj`rjsf wjta taf gjrguhst`ngfs, jngmucjno taf prkhjsfs

ta`t wfrf h`cf jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs. af cfgjsjkn prkgfss jn taf sfmfgtjknpa`sf w`s jn fssfngf sjhjm`r tk taf prkgfss jn taf w`rc pa`sf. Jn krcfr tk hìf n

`w`rc cfgjsjkn taf p`nfms a`c tk ok tarkuoa `n jtfr`tjvf prkgfss kd sfvfr`m pa`sfs

kd pfrgfptjkn, jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnt `nc orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno. Curjno tafsf

pa`sfs vktjno, r`nijno `nc cjsgussjkn wfrf usfc. af kesfrv`tjkns jncjg`tf ta`t

taf knokjno cjsgussjkns eftwffn taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs jngrf`sfc taf `pprfgj`tjkn

kd f`ga ktafr‚s jntfrfsts `s wfmm `s taf qu`mjtjfs kd taf prkpks`ms. Cjsgussjkns `msk

gkntrjeutfc tk taf mfvfm kd s`tjsd`gtjkn `nc `ggfpt`ngf `hkno taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs

èkut kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss `nc taf cfgjsjkn jtsfmd. afsf fddfgts jngrf`sfc taf

tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss.

af sfmfgtjkn nc w`rc grjtfrj` wfrf usfc tk eujmc dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf hknotaf cfgjsjkn hìfrs, eut taf djn`m cfgjsjkn w`s h`jnmy e`sfc kn ` akmjstjg `nc kd-

tfn jntujtjvf bucofhfnt ta`t w`s suppkrtfc ey taf ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs. ajs suo-

ofsts ta`t taf mfo`m strugturf s gkhpfmmfc jn prkgurfhfnt m`w prkvjcfs strugturf

dkr taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno eut g`nnkt rfpm`gf taf `gtu`m cfgjsjkn prkgfss

kd taf gmjfnt. af dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs w`s jndmufngfc ey taf

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs (f.o. taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf `nc ijnc kd jn-

tfrfsts), taf gkntfnt kd taf suehjssjkns (f.o. vjsu`ms, n`rr`tjvfs `nc/kr tfxts), taf

cfsjon kd taf tfncfr prkgfcurf (f.o. ` prfsfnt`tjkn, taf dkrh`t kd taf ckguhfn-

t`tjkn, taf mfvfm kd rfqujrfhfnts), `nc taf jnvkmvfhfnt, rkmf `nc prfdfrfngfs kd

taf stìfakmcfrs (f.o. `gtkrs kr `cvjskrs9 `nc efjno rfprfsfntfc kr knmy jndkrhfc`dtfrw`rcs). af rfsumts jncjg`tf ta`t jndkrh`tjkn skurgfs, tjhf gknstr`jnts, `nc

cjddfrfnt ijncs, `nc mfvfms kd fxpfrtjsf `nc jntfrfsts nffc tk ef g`rfdummy gknsjc-

frfc wajmf cfsjonjno ` tfncfr.



0:6 -

Ga`ptfr ?

\UKGFWW CFWJON - @ GKH\FSJSJKN G@WF @NC

T@MJC@SJKN

?.0 Jntrkcugtjkn `nc rfsf`rga qufstjkns

af rfsumts kd taf tarff tfncfr g`sfs cfsgrjefc jn taf prfvjkus ga`ptfr fxpm`jnfc

taf hkst jhpkrt`nt fmfhfnts jn taf cfsjon kd ` tfncfr prkgfcurf. afy `msk jm-

mustr`tfc taf cjddjgumtjfs `nc gkndmjgts ta`t g`n `rjsf curjno jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd

` tfncfr. _afn taf eujmcjno kd taf V Cfmdt D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf w`s cf-

strkyfc ey ` djrf kn 07 H`y 5<<1, `n kppkrtunjty `rksf tk `ppmy taf fxpfrjfngfs

kd taf tfncfr g`sfs jn ` sjtu`tjkn ta`t w`s eujmt kn taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn jn`rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. @s `n fhpmkyff kd tajs unjvfrsjty J efg`hf ` p`rtjgjp`nt ke-

sfrvfr jn taf kro`njs`tjkn kd `n kpfn jntfrn`tjkn`m jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn ‑Eujmcjno

dkr Ekuwiuncf‚ dkr ` nfw eujmcjno dkr taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf. ajs ga`ptfr

cfsgrjefs taf cfgjsjkns ta`t wfrf h`cf jn kro`njsjno tajs jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn dkr `

D`gumty Eujmcjno `nc grjtjg`mmy rfdmfgts tafjr fddfgts `nc taf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr sfmfg-

tjkn prkgfcurf cfsjon.

af gfntr`m rfsf`rga qufstjkns `rf2

Akw ckfs ` puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt cfgjcf kn taf prkgfcurf dkr taf sf-

mfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt; _a`t `rf taf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd prkgfcurfs dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd

`rgajtfgts;

af strugturf kd taf ga`ptfr js e`sfc kn taf dr`hfwkri wjta wajga taf tarff g`sfs

drkh Ga`ptfr 4 wfrf `n`mysfc. Jn taf djrst sfgtjkn taf rfsf`rga hftakckmkoy js

cfsgrjefc. afn taf rfsumts kd taf `n`mysjs kd taf prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, taf gkn-

tfxt `nc taf `gtkrs kd tajs g`sf `rf rfpkrtfc jn knf sfgtjkn. af dkmmkwjno sfgtjkns

cfsgrjef rfdmfgtjkns kn taf rfsumts kn tfncfr cfsjon, jn tajs g`sf taf gkhpftjtjkn

prkor`hhf, kn taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd, kn taf tfncfr prkgfcurf, kn stìfakmcfr

jnvkmvfhfnt nc kn taf cfgjsjkn prkgfcurf. _afrf ppmjgèmf, taf djncjnos kd tajs

dkurta g`sf `rf usfc tk rfdmfgt kn taf djncjnos kd taf tarff tfncfr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr4 `nc taf tafkrftjg`m jnsjoats drkh Ga`ptfrs 6. af ga`ptfr fncs wjta ` cjsgus-

sjkn èkut tajs dkurta g`sf jn rfm`tjkn tk prkgurfhfnt m`w `nc taf gkntfxt kd taf

rfsf`rga.

?.5 Ufsf`rga hftakckmkoy

ajs ga`ptfr cfsgrjefs taf rfsumts kd ` sjnomf g`sf stucy. @s cfsgrjefc jn Ga`ptfr

6, taf hftakc kd stucyjno g`sfs hìfs jt pkssjemf tk stucy cfgjsjkn hìjno jn `

rf`m mjdf gkntfxt kn cjddfrfnt mfvfms kd jncjvjcu`m, orkup `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgj-

sjkn hìjno (A`gih`n, 5<<79 Zjn, 5<<:). ajs g`sf g`n ef sffn `s p`rt kd taf rf-

0.

5.



0:4

sf`rga str`tfoy jn wajga sfvfr`m g`sfs rf gkhp`rfc (Fjsfna`rct, 0:1:9 Fjsfna`rct

& Or`fenfr, 5<<?). Jt cjddfrs drkh taf g`sfs cfsgrjefc jn Ga`ptfr 4 jn tfrhs kd

taf hftakc kd c`t` gkmmfgtjkn nc taf `pprk`ga tk c`t` n`mysjs. af gkhpftjtjkn

a`c djrst effn jntfncfc `s ` Furkpf`n tfncfr, eut w`s ga`nofc jntk `n jcf`s gkh-

pftjtjkn tk prkvjcf jnput dkr ` duturf prkgurfhfnt prkgfss. af succfn gùsf nc

rusafc ga`r`gtfr kd taf gkhpftjtjkn hf`nt ta`t taf gkntfxt cjddfrfc drkh rfoum`rtfncfr. Akwfvfr, taf sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `nc prkgfssfs `msk sakw orf`t sjhj-

m`rjtjfs, wajga hìf jt pkssjemf tk gkhp`rf taf rfsumts wjta taf ktafr g`sfs jn tajs

rfsf`rga. ajs g`sf `ccs taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn `s knf kd taf rkkts kd `rgajtfgt

sfmfgtjkns jcfntjdjfc jn Ga`ptfr 3. af hkst jhpkrt`nt cjddfrfngfs wjta taf ktafr

g`sfs `rf jts jntfrn`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfr jnstf`c kd ` rfstrjgtfc Furkpf`n tfncfr, ta`t

prkpks`ms wfrf suehjttfc `nknyhkusmy jnstf`c kd ` prfsfnt`tjkn ey taf tfncfrfr,

`nc ta`t taf gmjfnt w`s vfry inkwmfcofèmf `nc wjcfmy inkwn jn taf djfmc kd `r-

gajtfgturf. afrfdkrf taf jhp`gt `nc taf `jh kd taf cfgjsjkns h`cf tk sfmfgt `n

`rgajtfgt cjddfrfc. afsf cjddfrfngfs `rf usfc tk fxpmkrf uncfrmyjno prjngjpmfs kd

taf gkhpmfxjty kd sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt.Jn tajs g`sf taf rfprfsfnt`tjvf kd taf gkhhjssjknjno ekcy, taf Cf`n kd taf

D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf, w`s `w`rf kd taf \aC rfsf`rga `nc jnvjtfc hf `s ` rf-

sf`rgafr jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurfs tk tìf `n `gtjvf rkmf jn kro`njsjno taf

gkhpftjtjkn. ajs grf`tfc ` rfvfm`tkry g`sf, ”` sjtu`tjkn jn wajga `n jnvfstjo`tkr

a`s taf kppkrtunjty tk kesfrvf `nc `n`mysf ` pafnkhfnkn prfvjkusmy jn`ggfssjemf

tk skgj`m sgjfngf jnqujry‘ (Zjn, 5<<:, p. 31). J w`s mrf`cy hfhefr kd taf kvfr`mm

kro`njs`tjkn jn wajga taf g`sf tkki pm`gf, eut sjngf taf prkbfgt w`s gkncugtfc

uncfr taf cjrfgtjkn kd `nktafr cfp`rthfnt, nknf kd taf prkbfgt tf`h hfhefrs

wfrf cjrfgt gkmmfòufs `nc taf kro`njs`tjkn`m gumturf w`s cjddfrfnt. ajs `mmkwfc

dkr suddjgjfnt ‑ktafrnfss‚ tk gkncugt taf p`rtjgjp`nt kesfrv`tjkn (W`nofr, 0::4). Zft, taf fntry-fxjt prkemfh w`s tafrfdkrf rfm`tjvfmy f`sy tk kvfrgkhf (Efgatfm &

Rfjsfm, 0:1?).

@ m`rof sft kd c`t` w`s gkmmfgtfc ey usjno cjddfrfnt hftakckmkojfs (sff èmf

?.0). J w`s jnvkmvfc `s knf kd taf prkbfgt gkkrcjn`tkrs `nc ` dumm hfhefr kd taf

prkbfgt tf`h dkr 75 wffis jn krcfr tk kro`njsf n jntfrn`tjkn`m jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn.

Curjno tajs pfrjkc J ifpt ` rfsf`rga cj`ry. @t mf`st kngf ` wffi J rfgkrcfc nktfs

èkut taf `gtjvjtjfs kd ta`t wffi, nktfc taf gknsjcfr`tjkns `nc `rouhfnts ta`t mfc

tk ` gfrt`jn cfgjsjkn, `nc djmfc `mm ckguhfnts. \frskn`m rfdmfgtjkns kn taf fvfnts

wfrf nktfc jn ` spfgj`m sfgtjkn kd taf mko. @dtfr taf jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn a`c fncfc,

J gkncugtfc sjx sfhj-strugturfc jntfrvjfws wjta taf bury hfhefrs `nc taf prkbfgtmf`cfr. k grf`tf ` gfrt`jn cjst`ngf tk taf c`t` J gkncugtfc taf `n`mysjs ` dfw

hkntas dtfr taf prkbfgt w`s djnjsafc `nc c`t` gkmmfgtjkn a`c fncfc. @mm c`t` wfrf

djrst `n`mysfc jn @tm`s.tj, ` skdtw`rf `ppmjg`tjkn dkr suppkrtjno qu`mjt`tjvf c`t`

`n`mysjs. af dr`hfwkri `s fstèmjsafc jn Ga`ptfr 4.7 `msk prkvfc tk ef ` okkc

strugturf dkr `n`mysjno tafsf c`t`. ajs hf`ns ta`t `gtkrs, prkbfgt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

`nc tfncfr/gkhpftjtjkn cfsjon wfrf tìfn `s taf h`jn tafhfs dkr taf `n`mysjs.

af c`t` `n`mysjs dkgusfc kn taf cfsjon kd ` tfncfr gkhpftjtjkn drkh ` prkbfgt

tf`h pfrspfgtjvf, nkt kn taf gkntfnt `nc suehjttfc rfsumts kd taf gkhpftjtjkn.

afrfdkrf skhf p`rts kd taf c`t`, suga `s taf c`tè`sf wjta suehjssjkns, wfrf nkt

usfc dkr taf purpksf kd tajs ga`ptfr.



0:? -

Hkst kd taf c`t` wfrf gkmmfgtfc ey p`rtjgjp`nt kesfrv`tjkn. \`rtjgjp`nt ke-sfrv`tjkn stucjfs `rf ”jn taf tr`cjtjkn kd ‑vfrstfafn‚ skgjkmkoy `nc g`nnkt ey rf-

pf`tfc jn taf fxpfrjhfnt`m h`nnfr kd taf n`tur`m sgjfngfs‘ (B`giskn, 0:17, p. 33).

Hy rkmf `s p`rtjgjp`nt-rfsf`rgafr w`s inkwn tk taf ktafr `gtkrs `nc jt w`s nkt

prkhjnfntmy gkngf`mfc curjno taf prkbfgt. @s ` prkbfgt hfhefr J kdtfn a`c djrst-

a`nc fxpfrjfngf eut gkumc nkt `mw`ys rfgkrc ‑prjv`tf‚ jndkrh`tjkn `s jt kggurrfc

(Grfswfmm, 0::3). J fxpfrjfngfc sfvfr`m efnfdjts `nc mjhjt`tjkns kd tajs rfsf`rga

`pprk`ga curjno c`t` gkmmfgtjkn.

Kn taf knf a`nc, efjno cjrfgtmy jnvkmvfc jn ` prkbfgt gkhpmjg`tfc taf gkmmfg-

tjkn kd c`t`. J okt pfrskn`mmy jnvkmvfc, jngmucjno taf hjxfc dffmjnos, rfspknsjejmj-

tjfs `nc fhktjkns ta`t tajs skhftjhfs erkuoat. afsf fhktjkns efg`hf p`rt kdhy prkgfss kd mf`rnjno tk hìf `ggur`tf kesfrv`tjkns drkh ` qu`mjt`tjvf rfsf`rga

pfrspfgtjvf (Efgatfm & Rfjsfm, 0:1?). @ ej`s gkumc a`vf kggurrfc cuf tk h`njpu-

m`tjkn kd fvfnts (Zjn, 5<<:) kr pfrskn`m jnvkmvfhfnt. C`t` gkmmfgtjkn w`s tjhf

gknsuhjno nc tafrf w`s gknst`nt tjhf prfssurf efgùsf kd taf tjoat cf`cmjnf kd

taf gkhpftjtjkn, `nc tafrfdkrf mjhjtfc tjhf tk rfdmfgt kn `gtjkns.

Kn taf ktafr a`nc, taf g`sf jmmustr`tfc taf gkhpmfxjty kd taf pafnkhfnkn

efgùsf J gkumc pfrskn`mmy fxpfrjfngf cfgjsjkn hìjno, jngmucjno taf gkndmjgtjno

jssufs. Jt `mmkwfc hf tk cjstjnoujsa jntfrpfrskn`m efa`vjkur `nc hktjvfs hkrf

g`rfdummy (Zjn, 5<<:)9 `nc ey efjno èmf tk stucy taf hunc`nf wkrmc, taf v`muf

kd djnf cft`jms wfrf hkrf `pprfgj`tfc (Wjmvfrh`n, 5<<?). @gtjno `s ` p`rtjgjp`ntkesfrvfr msk grf`tfc n kppkrtunjty dkr hf tk `ppmy taf djncjnos kd prfvjkus g`sfs

`nc oft jn gknt`gt wjta kro`njs`tjkns `nc pfrskns ta`t pm`y `n jhpkrt`nt rkmf jn

taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. Gkhp`rfc tk taf nkn-p`rtjgjp`nt kesfrv`tjkn

jn taf g`sfs kd Ga`ptfr 4, efjno prfsfnt curjno taf bury hfftjno wjtakut efjno

sffn s jntrusjvf w`s knf kd taf hkst efnfdjgj`m spfgts kd taf p`rtjgjp`nt pprk`ga

jn rfm`tjkn tk c`t` gkmmfgtjkn èkut fxpfrt cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn taf fnc J dfmt ta`t

efjno jnvkmvfc t n f`rmy stòf kd tfncfr cfvfmkphfnt prkvfc tk ef vfry efnfdjgj`m

jn `n`mysjno taf gkhpmfxjty `nc sfnsjtjvjty kd taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns.

Sypf kd c t` Wpfgjffg`tjkn kd c`t` skurgfs

Kesfrv t jkns \`rtjgj p nt kesfrv tjkn dkr 75 wffis nktfc jn mkoekki

Kesfrv`tjkn kd bury hfftjno.

Ckguhfnts Gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf

Jntfrn`m rfpkrt `n`mysjs rfpkrt kd taf suehjssjkns

C`tè`sf wjta suehjssjkns

\rfss rfmf`sfs nc nfws p`pfr rtjgmfs (f.o. cf Tkmir`nt, @mofhffn Còem`c,

E[njfuws)

Cfe`tf kn jntfrnft (f.o. www.`rgajnfc.nm9 www.`rgajtfgtfnwfe.nm9 www.`rgajgfntr`m.

gkh9 www.`rgajtfgtfnwfri.nm)

Bury rfpkrt

SV Cfmdt puemjg`tjkn èkut gkhpftjtjkn ‑Kpfn tk jcf`s‚

Jntfrvjfws 4 sfhj-strugturfc rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws wjta bury hfhefrs `nc prkbfgt mf`cfr

Cforff kd

jnvkmvfhfnt

_akmf prkgfss drkh ffrst prkbfgt pm`n tk `w`rc gfrfhkny nc puemjg`tjkn

Sèmf ?.0 Kvfrvjfw kd rfsf`rga hftakcs `nc `v`jmèmf c`t`



0:1

?.7 G`sf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

?.7.0 Cfsgrjptjkn kd taf gkntfxt

af D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf js taf m`rofst d`gumty kd Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy

`nc knf kd taf m`rofst jn jts djfmc jn Furkpf. Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy fh-

pmkys kvfr 5,?<< pfkpmf kd wajga kvfr 4<< efmkno tk taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf.

af D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf js ofnfr`mmy inkwn `s ‑Ekuwiuncf‚. Kd taf 06,<<<

V Cfmdt stucfnts èkut 7,6<< `rf Ekuwiuncf stucfnts. af D`gumty a`s dkur

cfp`rthfnts2 @rgajtfgturf, Vre`njsh, Eujmcjno fgankmkoy `nc Uf`m Fst`tf &

Akusjno. Ekta `t taf n`tjkn`m `nc `t taf jntfrn`tjkn`m mfvfm, taf D`gumty wkris tk-

oftafr wjta unjvfrsjtjfs, prjv`tf gkhp`njfs nc puemjg ekcjfs. Durtafrhkrf, tafrf

js `n fxtfnsjvf fxga`nof kd d`gumty hfhefrs `nc stucfnts wjta ktafr `rgajtfgturf

cfp`rthfnts, ekta jn taf Nftafrm`ncs `nc èrk`c. af nuhefr kd stucfnts wak

gakksf tk stucy `t taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf jn Cfmdt a`s stf`cjmy jngrf`sfc kvfr

taf p`st yf`rs. Wtucfnts `rf fcug`tfc tk efgkhf `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjonfrs wak kn

taf knf a`nc gkntrjeutf tk taf orkwta kd sgjfntjdjg inkwmfcof rfo`rcjno `rgaj-

tfgtur`m jssufs, `nc kn taf ktafr `rf èmf tk cfsjon pr`gtjg`m skmutjkns dkr t`gimjno

tafsf jssufs.

af dkrhfr eujmcjno kd taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf w`s mkg`tfc t taf Efrmòfwfo

jn taf hjccmf kd taf g`hpus jn Cfmdt. af eujmcjno w`s cfsjonfc jn taf tr`cjtjkn

kd Dungtjkn`mjsh ey v`n cfn Erkfi `nc Eìfh`, ekta dkrhfr tf`gafrs `t taf

d`gumty. af cfsjon w`s sfmfgtfc ey ` gkhpftjtjkn `hkno `mm cfsjon prkdfsskrs `t

ta`t tjhf, wak `msk `gtfc `s taf bury hfhefr. ajs kvfrm`p kd rkmfs `nc pktfntj`m

gkndmjgt kd jntfrfst `pp`rfntmy grf`tfc nk gkngfrn `t taf tjhf. af eujmcjno w`s

rf`mjsfc jn 0:?< `dtfr suest`ntj`m ga`nofs tk taf cfsjon gkngfpt cuf tk jngrf`sjno

stucfnt nuhefrs. H`ny stucfnts, `muhnj `nc st`dd hfhefrs s`w taf eujmcjno `s `

sfgknc akhf `nc ` skurgf kd jnspjr`tjkn wjta gknsjstfnt cft`jmjno `nc ` sp`rimjno

`thkspafrf (H``ncò, 5<<1).

@ djrf erkif kut jn taf hkrnjno kd 07 H`y 5<<1 `s taf rfsumt kd `n fmfgtrjg`m

dùmt. Cuf tk jts òf taf eujmcjno w`s nkt fqujppfc wjta sprjnimfrs `nc wafn taf

djrf sfrvjgf `rrjvfc tafy wfrf umtjh`tfmy unèmf tk fxtjnoujsa taf djrf. aus ”tajs

sturcy gkngrftf eujmcjno, wajga w`s dumm kd v`muèmf gkmmfgtjkns `nc `mw`ys eus-

tmjno wjta `gtjvjty, w`s rfcugfc tk `safs‘ (D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf, 5<<1). Jn ekta

` h`tfrj`m `nc `n fhktjkn`m sfnsf, taf cfstrugtjkn kd taf eujmcjno w`s unckuet-

fcmy ` h`bkr mkss dkr taf `rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty. af djrf w`s wjcfmy gkvfrfc jn(jntfr)n`tjkn`m nfwsp`pfrs `nc kn tfmfvjsjkn. Hfhkrjfs kd taf kmc eujmcjno wfrf

wrjttfn (H``ncò, 5<<1) `nc nfw crf`hs wfrf eujmt jn ` grf`tjvf dfstjv`m jn Bunf

5<<1 (Tfrou, 5<<1).

Wkkn ruhkurs st`rtfc ekut taf kpfnjno kd nfw eujmcjno nc taf sfmfgtjkn kd

`n `rgajtfgt dkr tajs nfw d`gumty eujmcjno. Akwfvfr, taf succfn `nc un`ntjgjp`tfc

jnjtj`tjkn kd suga ` sfmfgtjkn hf`nt ta`t tafrf w`s nk vjsjkn dkr taf nfw eujmcjno

yft. af D`gumty nc taf ek`rc kd taf unjvfrsjty (taf dkrh`m gkhhjssjknjno ekcy)

a`c tk sa`rpfn tafjr `hejtjkns djrst efdkrf tafy gkumc st`rt `n kddjgj`m Furkpf`n

tfncfr. Jn Bumy 5<<1 twk tr`bfgtkrjfs wfrf gaksfn tk sa`rpfn taf jcf`s dkr ` nfw

d`gumty eujmcjno2 `n Kpfn Jntfrn`tjkn`m Jcf`s Gkhpftjtjkn g`mmfc ‑Eujmcjno dkrEkuwiuncf‚ `nc ` n`tjkn`m ajni `ni wjta fxpfrts. Ekta prkbfgts wfrf oujcfc



0:: -

ey taf s`hf stffrjno gkhhjttff `nc a`c tk prkvjcf jnput dkr taf erjfd `nc pm`n

kd `gtjkn dkr ` nfw d`gumty eujmcjno jn taf duturf. ajs grf`tfc ` spfgj`m sjtu`tjkn,

sjngf pfkpmf jnvkmvfc jn ` D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf typjg`mmy a`vf ` spfgj`m rfm`-

tjknsajp tk `rgajtfgturf `nc taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt jn ofnfr`m. @mhkst fvfryekcy

usjno taf d`gumty eujmcjno js tr`jnfc jn knf kr hkrf spfgjdjg `rf`s rfm`tfc tk taf

djfmc. @ orf`t p`rt kd fhpmkyffs `t taf d`gumty `msk run kr p`rtjgjp`tf jn ` cfsjon krgknsumt`ngy djrh kn ` p`rt tjhf e`sjs. Efgùsf taf d`gumty jn Cfmdt w`s fstèmjsafc

jn 0:<3 `nc tafrf `rf knmy twk `rgajtfgtur`m d`gumtjfs jn taf Nftafrm`ncs, `muhnj

rfprfsfnt ` m`rof p`rt kd taf prkdfssjkn`m gkhhunjty. Jn taf gkntfxt kd taf ajni

`ni, taf d`gumty eujmcjno kd Ekuwiuncf w`s gknsjcfrfc `s ` g`sf stucy dkr rfcf-

vfmkphfnt kd taf g`hpus str`tfoy. af hunjgjp`mjtjfs kd surrkuncjno gjtjfs (Cfmdt,

af Aòuf, `nc Ukttfrc`h) `nc p`rtjfs drkh taf jncustry wfrf `gtjvfmy jnvkmvfc

jn taf ajni `ni.

Jhhfcj`tfmy `dtfr taf djrf, taf Cf`n kd Ekuwiuncf st`rtfc prfp`r`tjkns dkr

nfw ggkhhkc`tjkn dkr taf sfvfr`m takus`nc stucfnts nc kvfr 4<< fhpmkyffs kd

taf d`gumty. Jn taf hf`ntjhf unjvfrsjty st`dd wkrifc a`rc tk sft up tfhpkr`ry `g-gkhhkc`tjkn, wajmf st`dd nc stucfnts kd taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf wfrf akusfc

jn tfnts `nc `t ktafr d`gumtjfs. af tfhpkr`ry akusjno kd taf d`gumty w`s fstè-

mjsafc jn taf dkrhfr af`c qu`rtfrs kd taf unjvfrsjty `t Bumj`n`m``n jn taf nkrtafrn

p`rt kd taf g`hpus. af rfnkv`tjkn w`s jhhfnsf `nc rfqujrfc ` orf`t `hkunt

kd wkridkrgf `nc fnfroy jn ` sakrt pfrjkc kd tjhf. ajs grf`tfc ` pksjtjvf ga`ks

jn wajga fvfrytajno sffhfc pkssjemf. af cfsjon tf`h h`jnmy gknsjstfc kd `rgaj-

tfgts wak wfrf `msk fcug`tfc `t `nc fhpmkyfc ey Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty. af erjfdjno

`nc gknstrugtjkn tf`h `msk gknsjstfc kd fhpmkyffs kd taf d`gumty. Jn Wfptfhefr

5<<1 taf rfnkv`tfc eujmcjno w`s kpfnfc dkr taf nfw djrst-yf`r stucfnts, `nc ey

Nkvfhefr 5<<1 `mhkst `mm ktafr stucfnts `nc fhpmkyffs a`c hkvfc jn. Efgùsftafrf w`s nkt fnkuoa rkkh `v`jmèmf tk prkvjcf fvfry fhpmkyff wjta tafjr kwn

wkripm`gf, taf gkngfpt kd dmfxjemf wkripm`gfs w`s jntrkcugfc. @t taf tjhf kd wrjt-

jno, taf d`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf js stjmm akusfc jn tajs eujmcjno.

Efjno p`rt kd Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy, taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf js

suebfgt tk unjvfrsjty okvfrn`ngf. Jn taf Nftafrm`ncs, unjvfrsjtjfs `rf h`jnmy dj-

n`ngfc ey taf Cutga okvfrnhfnt, suppmfhfntfc wjta hknfy drkh jncustry `nc

taf Furkpf`n Vnjkn. Hkst kd taf eujmcjnos (jngmucjno taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf)

`rf kwnfc `nc jnsurfc ey taf Vnjvfrsjty. af Hjnjstry kd Fcug`tjkn, Gumturf `nc

Wgjfngf cfgjcfs kn taf eucoft cjrfgtmy `mmkg`tfc tk taf unjvfrsjtjfs `nc gkhpftj-

tjvf duncs dkr taf Cutga rfsf`rga gkungjm. Efgùsf kd taf sg`mf kd taf djn`ngj`m`nc jntfmmfgtu`m mkss, taf Hjnjstfr cfgjcfc tk `mmkg`tf `n `ccjtjkn`m ₭ 56 hjmmjkn

tk grf`tf nkt bust `n krcjn`ry nfw d`gumty eujmcjno eut `n ‑jgkn‚. Akwfvfr, jn

Wfptfhefr 5<<1 taf gknsfqufngfs kd ` prfvjkus rfstrugturjno kd okvfrnhfnt`m

djn`ngfs fhfrofc, wajga hf`nt ta`t Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty a`c tk sfrjkusmy rfvjsjt jts

spfncjno `nc gut e`gi kn fxpfncjturf. @t taf s`hf tjhf taf fddfgts kd taf djn`n-

gj`m grjsjs wfrf dfmt. Wk `p`rt drkh taf fhktjkn`m sakgi kd taf djrf, taf djn`ngj`m

sjtu`tjkn grf`tfc `n `thkspafrf kd ungfrt`jnty èkut taf duturf kd taf D`gumty.

ajs ga`nofc taf hjncsft kd taf D`gumty. af jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn st`rtfc bust ef-

dkrf taf djn`ngj`m sjtu`tjkn okt wkrsf. afrfdkrf taf strugturf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn

w`s sft up `ggkrcjno tk taf st`nc`rcs kd taf dkrhfr sjtu`tjkn, jn wajga hknfy



5<<

sffhfc kd sfgknc`ry jhpkrt`ngf dkr grf`tjvf nc jnnkv`tjvf gtjvjtjfs. @t taf tjhf

taf suehjssjkns a`c tk ef `ssfssfc `nc taf wjnnfrs wfrf `nnkungfc, taf jntfrjh

`ggkhhkc`tjkn a`c effn suggfssdummy erkuoat jntk usf `nc eucoft-guttjno pm`ns

wfrf tk ef jhpmfhfntfc `t taf d`gumty. Vntjm taf jnsur`ngf rfjheursfc taf unj-

vfrsjty, jt w`s stjmm ungfrt`jn jd taf gmùsf ta`t st`tfc ta`t taf rfjheursfhfnt a`c

tk ef spfnt kn ` nfwmy gknstrugtfc eujmcjno w`s tk ef fndkrgfc. Nkt `ppmyjno

ta`t gmùsf kpfnfc up taf kppkrtunjty tk tajni èkut taf jnsur`ngf hknfy `s `

djn`ngj`m wjncd`mm jn ` hkrf g`sa-str`ppfc sjtu`tjkn. Jn Bunf 5<<: taf jnsur`ngf

gkhp`ny p`jc taf unjvfrsjty ₭ 001 hjmmjkn wjtakut taf kemjo`tjkn tk rfjnvfst taf

hknfy jn nfw eujmcjno. @ekut a`md kd tajs hkunt a`c effn spfnt kn tfhpkr`ry

akusjno `nc jntfrjkr rfdurejsahfnt.

èmf ?.5 prkvjcfs `n kvfrvjfw kd taf stìfakmcfrs ta`t `rf jnvkmvfc jn tajs

g`sf. Efgùsf kd taf unjquf `nc unprfgfcfntfc ga`r`gtfr taf djrf g`n ef sffn `s

` r`rf fvfnt tarkuoa wajga kro`njs`tjkns g`n mf`rn jn krcfr tk rfvjt`mjsf tafjr kr-

o`njs`tjkn (Garjstj`nskn, ft `m., 5<<:).

?.7.5 Cfsgrjptjkn kd `gtkrs

Jn taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf taf h`jn `gtkrs wfrf ` stffrjno gkhhjttff, ` prkbfgt

tf`h `nc ` bury p`nfm. af prkbfgt tf`h gknsjstfc kd ` prkbfgt mf`cfr (fxtfrn`mmy

ajrfc), taf Cf`n kd taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf (ga`jr), `n `ccjtjkn`m prkbfgt gk-

krcjn`tkr (hf), `nc taf Af`c kd H`riftjno `nc Gkhhunjg`tjkn. af wfesjtf

`nc suehjssjkn systfh kd taf gkhpftjtjkn wfrf cfvfmkpfc ey ` gknsumt`ngy djrh,

JGK\, `nc taf prkbfgt tf`h w`s suppkrtfc ey ` sfgrft`ry kd taf Cf`n‚s kddjgf `nc

sfvfr`m stucfnt ssjst`nts. af stffrjno gkhhjttff gknsjstfc kd taf \rfsjcfnt kd tafFxfgutjvf ek`rc, taf Af`c kd taf rf`m fst`tf cfp`rthfnt kd taf V Cfmdt (DHTO),

` prkdfsskr kd Uf`m Fst`tf kd taf d`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf, `nc taf Cf`n.

Jn mjnf wjta tr`cjtjkn jn `rgajtfgturf, `n jntfrn`tjkn`m bury w`s `ssjonfc gkh-

prjsjno taf Cutga gajfd okvfrnhfnt `rgajtfgt (ga`jr), tarff `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon

cf`ns/prkdfsskrs drkh erk`c (VW@, Jncj` nc Gajn`), taf Cf`n kd taf @rgajtfgturf

d`gumty, twk Cutga prkdfsskrs kd @rgajtfgturf (`msk p`rtnfrs jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon

djrhs), taf cjrfgtkr kd taf Nftafrm`ncs @rgajtfgturf Jnstjtutf (N@j) jn Ukttfrc`h,

`nc Cutga HWg stucfnt kd Ekuwiuncf. Knf kd taf jntfrn`tjkn`m prkdfsskrs w`s

unèmf tk `ttfnc taf bury hfftjno, af w`s nkt rfpm`gfc. Efgùsf taf Cf`n w`s `

hfhefr kd `mm `gtkr orkups, af `gtfc `s taf gknnfgtjno mjni. Akwfvfr, rjoat `dtfr

Sypf kd stìfakmcfr Wpfgjffg`tjkn dkr tajs g`sf

Gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt ekcy SV Cfmdt (Fxfgutjvf Ek`rc)

Ufprfsfnt tjvfs kd gm jfnt Cf n kd taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf

Wa rfakmcfrs & supfrvjskrs Cutga Cfp`rthfnt kd Fcug tjkn, Gumturf nc Wgjfngf, Hunjgjp mjtjfs kd

Ukttfrc`h, Cfmdt nc Saf Aòuf

C`jmy usfrs D`gumty fhpmkyffs, D`gumty stucfntsNkn-c`jmy usfrs Tjsjtkrs, Wtucfnts nc fhpmkyffs kd ktafr (jntfrn`tjkn`m) d gumtjfs,

@muhnj, Nfjoaekurs, Hunjgjp`mjty, @rgajtfgturf gkhhunjty

Ufprfsfnt tjvf orkups Wtucfnt ek rc, _kris gkungjm, Cutga Uky m Jnstjtutf kd @rgajtfgts

Sèmf ?.5 Kvfrvjfw kd stìfakmcfrs kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf



5<0 -

taf kpfnjno kd taf gkhpftjtjkn jn Wfptfhefr 5<<1 taf Cf`n dfmm sfrjkusmy jmm, `nc

rfh`jnfc esfnt curjno taf rfst kd taf gkhpftjtjkn pfrjkc. Af w`s nkt rfpm`gfc jn

taf bury gkhhjttff. Ajs rfspknsjejmjtjfs wfrf `ssjonfc tk `nktafr hfhefr kd taf

stffrjno gkhhjttff, prkdfsskr jn rf`m fst`tf drkh taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf ncga`jr kd taf ajni ni, wak w`s nkt `s cffpmy jnvkmvfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn `s taf

Cf`n. ajs hf`nt ta`t `dtfr Wfptfhefr 5<<1 nkt fvfrytajno èkut taf gkhpftj-

tjkn w`s cjsgussfc kn taf s`hf cft`jmfc mfvfm wjta taf kddjgj`m rfprfsfnt`tjvf kd taf

gmjfnt `s efdkrf.

H`jn t`si kd taf prkbfgt tf`h w`s tk wrjtf taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf, prk-

vjcf taf jndkrh`tjkn dkr taf wfesjtf, prfp`rf taf bury hfftjno `nc gkkrcjn`tf taf

wakmf gkhpftjtjkn. Kn sfvfr`m kgg`sjkns taf stffrjno gkhhjttff prkvjcfc jnput

kn taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf `nc kn skhf kd taf h`nòfrj`m `spfgts (f.o. dj-

n`ngfs). af bury p`nfm `gtfc `s kddjgj`m ‑`w`rc gkhhjttff‚ `nc cfgjcfc kn taf

cjstrjeutjkn kd taf prjzf hknfy hkno taf wjnnjno fntr`nts. Jn prfp`r`tjkn kd taf bury fv`mu`tjkn, twk tf`hs kd fhpmkyffs wfrf `ssjonfc tk `ssfss taf suehjssjkns

kd twk pfrspfgtjvfs. èmf ?.7 prkvjcfs `n kvfrvjfw kd taf `gtkrs jn taf D`gumty

Eujmcjno g`sf.

?.7.7 G`sf cfsgrjptjkn

Curjno taf djrst dfw hkntas taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf w`s sft up h`jnmy `g-

gkrcjno tk taf jcf`s kd taf Cf`n, nc kn taf e`sjs kd taf hkcfm dkr gkhpftjtjkns s

cfsgrjefc jn taf Cutga puemjg`tjkn ‑Ikhp`s‚ (v`n G`hpfn & Afncrjisf, 0::?).

Ikhp`s rfdfrs tk ` hkcfm kd ` gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf `s ` rfsumt kd ` Gkvfn`ntdkr Gkhpftjtjkns jn taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf, ure`n pm`nnjno `nc m`ncsg`pf `r-

gajtfgturf. af gkvfn`nt w`s cfvfmkpfc `nc sjonfc jn 0::? ey `mhkst `mm prkdfs-

sjkn`m `nc okvfrnhfnt`m ekcjfs jn taf Cutga djfmc kd rfmfv`ngf ` dfw yf`rs efdkrf

Furkpf`n tfncfr rumfs `nc rfoum`tjkns wfrf `gtjvfmy jhpmfhfntfc. af hkcfm

sffhfc `pprkprj`tf dkr taf `jh kd tajs gkhpftjtjkn `nc grf`tfc strugturf dkr taf

prkbfgt tf`h. af prkbfgt tf`h djrst usfc taf Cutga vfrsjkn kd taf hkcfm, `nc

tr`nsm`tfc jt tk Fnomjsa efdkrf taf mùnga kd taf gkhpftjtjkn.

af gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf gknsjstfc kd twk h`jn p`rts2 \`rt @. Gkhpftjtjkn

Erjfd `nc \`rt E. Gkhpftjtjkn Uumfs. \`rt @ kd taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd jngmucfc2

@gtkr Sf`h hfhefrs

Wtffrjno gkhhjttff \rfsjcfnt kd taf SV Cfmdt Fxfgutjvf ek`rc, Af c kd taf Uf m Fst tf cfp`rthfnt kd taf SV

Cfmdt (DHTO), Cf`n kd taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf, \rkdfsskr kd Uf`m Fst`tf kd taf D`gumty kd

@rgajtfgturf

Bury p`nfm Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt (ga`jr), twk Cutga rgajtfgt/prkdfsskrs drkh Ekuwiuncf, twk

jntfrn`tjkn`m rgajtfgts/prkdfsskrs (Jncj`/Gajn`), HWg stucfnt kd Ekuwiuncf, Cjrfgtkr kd

taf N@j

Vnèmf tk ttfnc2 Cf`n/`rgajtfgt kd Ekuwiuncf, Jntfrn`tjkn`m Cf`n/\rkdfsskr drkh VW@

\rkbfgt tf`h Cf`n kd taf D`gumty (ga jr), fxtfrn`m prkbfgt mf`cfr, prkbfgt gkkrcjn tkr (taf rfsf`rgafr), taf

af`c kd H`riftjno & Gkhhunjg`tjkn, chjnjstr`tjvf suppkrt, wfesjtf cfsjonfrs nc mfo`m

gknsumt`nt

Sèmf ?.7 Kvfrvjfw kd `gtkrs kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf



5<5

@n jntrkcugtjkn tk taf prkemfh cfsgrjptjkn.

af ssjonhfnt.

af erjfd `t eujmcjno mfvfm.

af gkncjtjkns dkr taf mkg`tjkn.

\`rt E kd taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs jngmucfc ` cfsgrjptjkn kd2

af gkhpftjtjkn `nc kebfgtjvfs.

af rfqujrfhfnts kd taf fntr`nts, hftakc kd rfojstr`tjkn nc suehjssjkn, taf

m`nouòf, ` tjhf sgafcumf wjta cf`cmjnfs `nc taf hftakc kd qufstjkns `nc

`nswfrs.

af n`hfs kd taf bury p`nfm, taf prjzfs, taf fv`mu`tjkn grjtfrj`, fv`mu`tjkn

prkgfcurf `nc puemjg`tjkn kd ` bury rfpkrt.

af dkmmkw-up tk taf gkhpftjtjkn.

@n jncjg`tjkn èkut taf puemjgjty, puemjg`tjkns `nc fxajejtjkn.

af rumfs gkngfrnjno gkpyrjoat, usf, kwnfrsajp, `nc cjsputfs.

af kddjgj`m kebfgtjvfs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn wfrf2

k stjhum`tf rfsf`rga ey cfsjon.

k fngkuròf grf`tjvjty `hkno taf jhpkrt`nt ykunofr ofnfr`tjkn kd

cfsjonfrs.

k stjhum`tf sgjfntjdjg cfvfmkphfnt jn taf djfmc ey hf`ns kd grjtjg`m rfdmfgtjkn

`nc cfe`tf.

af Cf`n w`ntfc tk jnvkmvf `s h`ny pfkpmf `s pkssjemf jn taf jcf`s gkhpftj-

tjkn. Af s`w taf gkhpftjtjkn `s ` ga`ngf tk fna`ngf taf rfput`tjkn kd taf d`gumty.

Knf kd ajs str`tfojg ok`ms w`s dkr taf d`gumty tk efgkhf knf kd taf hkst d`hkus

knf jn `rgajtfgturf jn taf wkrmc. af gkhpftjtjkn `msk prkvjcfc ` dkruh dkr `mmpfkpmf jn taf gkhhunjty tk vkjgf tafjr jcf`s. ajs cjvfrsjty kd ok`ms js ga`r`gtfr-

jstjg dkr taf gkngfpt kd ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn, `s st`tfc jn Ga`ptfr 3.7.0. Wfvfr`m

hf`ns wfrf usfc tk rf`ga tafsf cjvfrsf ok`ms, wajga wjmm ef `ccrfssfc m`tfr jn tajs

ga`ptfr2

Gkhhunjg`tjkn jn Fnomjsa r`tafr ta`n Cutga.

@ gkhpftjtjkn wfesjtf dkr gkhhunjg`tjkn, rfojstr`tjkn `nc suehjssjkn.

Mkw fntr`ngf rfqujrfhfnts.

@n jntfrfstjno bury p`nfm.

@ suest`ntj`m `hkunt kd prjgf hknfy.Mùngajno taf gkhpftjtjkn kn taf @rgajtfgtur`m Ejfnn`mf jn Tfnjgf.

af kpfnjno `t taf @rgajtfgtur`m Ejfnn`mf jn Tfnjgf rfsumtfc jn ` strjgt cf`c-

mjnf tk prfp`rf kn nfgfss`ry ckguhfnt`tjkn efdkrf ta`t c`tf, 07 Wfptfhefr 5<<1.

ajs grf`tfc gknsjcfrèmf tjhf prfssurf dkr taf prkbfgt tf`h nc rfsumtfc jn rusafc

cfgjsjkn hìjno. Fntry w`s kpfn tk rfojstfrfc `rgajtfgts `nc ure`n pm`nnfrs `nc

tk stucfnts dkmmkwjno ` cforff prkor`hhf jn taf `rf` kd `rgajtfgturf, ure`n pm`n-

njno, gjvjm fnojnffrjno kr jncustrj`m cfsjon. af kddjgfs kd taf bury hfhefrs wfrf

fxgmucfc drkh gkhpftjtjkn. af gkhpftjtjkn w`s sft up `s `n kpfn prkgfcurf

wjta nk prf-sfmfgtjkn kd taf suehjssjkns. af wakmf gkhpftjtjkn w`s h`nòfc

vj` ` wfesjtf gknt`jnjno taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf, skhf st`tfhfnts kd rfnkwn

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7.

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5<7 -

(jntfrn`tjkn`m) prkdfssjkn`ms èkut taf `ssjonhfnt, `ccjtjkn`m jndkrh`tjkn èkut

taf g`hpus `nc taf d`gumty, rfojstr`tjkn `nc suehjssjkn `nc taf d`gjmjtjfs tk `si

qufstjkns (sff Djourf ?.0).

af fntr`nts wfrf `sifc tk2

”Dkrhum`tf ekta jn tfxt `nc jhòfs (h`xjhuh twk @0 pkstfrs `nc knf @3 tfxt) ` vjsjkn kn taf twk gkhpftjtjkn tafhfs2 ‑nfw gkngfpts‚ `nc ‑cy-

n`hjgs kd gjty `nc g`hpus‚. Sajs vjsjkn sakumc ef prfsfntfc jn ` siftgacfsjon dkr ` nfw Ekuwiuncf eujmcjno kn taf fxjstjno sjtf, kr kn ` wfmm-`r-

oufc, `mtfrn`tjvf sjtf.‘

Wust`jnèjmjty, gknnfgtjkn wjta taf ure`n `nc skgj`m gkntfxt, `nc pfrskn`mjty

wfrf jhpkrt`nt jssufs jn taf cfsgrjptjkn kd taf `ssjonhfnt. @n jncjg`tjkn kd taf

orkss dmkkr `rf` (66 ‗ 4<,<<< h5), taf eucoft (₭ 5,<<</h5) `nc `n kvfrvjfw kd

sfvfr`m dungtjkns tk ef jngmucfc jn taf eujmcjno wfrf prkvjcfc. Ofnfr`m `nc ajs-

tkrjg`m jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf d`gumty, h`ps kd taf dkrhfr mkg`tjkn (sg`mf 026<<)

`nc taf g`hpus (sg`mf 025,6<<), `nc ` h`stfr pm`n dkr taf g`hpus rfnfw`m wfrf

`v`jmèmf dkr ckwnmk`c kn taf wfesjtf.af gkhpftjtjkn w`s kddjgj`mmy mùngafc ey taf Cutga Hjnstfr kd Fcug`tjkn,

wajga grf`tfc ` mkt kd hfcj` `ttfntjkn (djrst pjgturf jn Djourf ?.5). af cf`cmjnf

dkr suehjssjkn w`s 07 Nkvfhefr 5<<1. \ktfntj`m p`rtjgjp`nts wfrf fntjtmfc tk `si

qufstjkns vj` taf gkhpftjtjkn wfesjtf untjm tarff wffis efdkrf suehjssjkn. ajs

rfsumtfc jn 0:3 qufstjkns, wajga wfrf `mm `nswfrfc ey taf prkbfgt tf`h vj` taf

wfesjtf. af wfesjtf prkvfc vfry pkpum`r `nc ` tkt`m kd 0,71< p`rtjgjp`nts rfojs-

tfrfc. Kd tafsf, 344 v`mjc suehjssjkns wfrf rfgfjvfc krjojn`tjno drkh 6< gkun-

trjfs. 6 suehjssjkns wfrf tfganjg`mmy jnv`mjc efgùsf tafy gkumc nkt ef kpfnfc kr

cjc nkt gknt`jn ny cr`wjnos rfm`tfc tk taf erjfd. 46% wfrf kd taf suehjttfrs wfrf

prkdfssjkn`ms `nc ??% wfrf h`mf.

Djourf ?.0 Akhf pòf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn wfesjtf www.eujmcjnodkrekuwiuncf.nm



5<3

af fv`mu`tjkn prkgfcurf gknsjstfc kd `n `ssfsshfnt pa`sf `nc `n fv`mu`tjkn

pa`sf. Curjno taf ssfsshfnt pa`sf taf suehjssjkns wfrf n`mysfc ey twk jntfrn`m

`n`mysjs tf`hs kn taf gkntfnt kd taf prkpks`ms `nc gafgifc ò`jnst taf rumfs `nc

`ssjonhfnt kd taf gkhpftjtjkn ey taf prkbfgt tf`h. Knmy 35% kd `mm suehjssjkns

dumdjmmfc `mm rfqujrfhfnts `s st`tfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf. af ga`jr kd

taf bury, akwfvfr, cfgjcfc tk jngmucf `mm tfganjg`mmy v`mjc suehjssjkns jn taf bury

fv`mu`tjkn prkgfss. af rfsumts kd taf `ssfsshfnt, ` typkmkoy kd taf suehjssjkns

(sff Djourf ?.7) `nc ` qu`ntjt`tjvf `n`mysjs, wfrf h`cf `v`jmèmf tk taf bury dkr

fv`mu`tjkn kn 03 `nc 06 B`nu`ry 5<<:.

af gkhpftjtjkn prjzf hknfy tkt`mmfc ₭ 4<.<<<, tk ef cjstrjeutfc `hkno taf

wjnnjno fntr`nts ey taf bury `t jts kwn cjsgrftjkn. @mm suehjssjkns rfgfjvfc `

rfojstr`tjkn nuhefr `nc wfrf fv`mu`tfc `nknyhkusmy ey taf bury jn taf dkrhfr

fganjfi Husfuh kd taf Vnjvfrsjty jn Cfmdt (sff hjccmf pjgturf jn Djourf ?.5).arff grjtfrj` wfrf puemjsafc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf kn taf e`sjs kd

wajga taf bury wkumc fv`mu`tf taf suehjssjkns2

Tjsjkn`ry pkwfr, j.f. taf krjojn`mjty `nc jnnkv`tjvf ga`r`gtfr kd taf siftga

cfsjon, jngmucjno taf jssuf kd sust`jnèjmjty.

@rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty, j.f. taf sp`tj`m gkhpksjtjkn, taf fhefccfcnfss jn taf

ure`n fnvjrknhfnt, taf fxprfssjkn `nc h`tfrj`mjs`tjkn, `nc taf gknsjstfngy

kd taf siftga cfsjon.

Fgknkhjg nc fgkmkojg`m vjèjmjty, j.f., taf dungtjkn`mjty nc df`sjejmjty kd taf

siftga cfsjon.

af bury sfmfgtfc sjx prjzf wjnnjno suehjssjkns nc twk aknkurèmf hfntjkns

jn twk rkuncs e`sfc kn `n jntfor`m bucofhfnt. Curjno taf djrst c`y 6< suehjs-

sjkns wfrf sfmfgtfc9 kn taf sfgknc c`y tafsf 6< wfrf rfcugfc tk 1 nkhjnffs `nc

djn`mmy sjx wjnnfrs2 tarff djrst prjzfs kd ₭ 06.<<< `nc tarff sfgknc prjzfs kd ₭

6.<<<. @dtfr taf bury hfhefrs a`c orffc kn taf kutgkhf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn, taf

n`hfs kd taf wjnnfrs wfrf rftrjfvfc ey taf `chjnjstr`tkr kd taf wfesjtf. @hkno

taf wjnnjno suehjssjkns wfrf tarff Cutga, knf Efmoj`n, knf Djnnjsa, `nc knf

Drfnga suehjssjkn. @mhkst `mm wjnnfrs efmknofc tk taf ykunofr ofnfr`tjkn9 twk

kd tafh wfrf stucfnts. af bury hfhefrs wfrf pksjtjvfmy surprjsfc ey taf d`gt

ta`t sk h`ny kd taf wjnnfrs wfrf ykuno prkdfssjkn`ms. af prkbfgt tf`h gafgifc

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Djourf ?.5 Jhòfs drkh taf kpfnjno kd taf gkhpftjtjkn jn Tfnjgf (mfdt, sakwjno taf hjnjstfr kd

fcug`tjkn), taf bury hfftjno jn Cfmdt (hjccmf, sakwjno taf suehjssjkns), `nc taf fxajejtjkn jn

taf N@j jn Ukfrc`h (rjoat, curjno taf kpfnjno)



5<6 -

Djourf ?.7 Kvfrvjfw kd g`tfokrjfs `s jcfntjfc jn taf `ssfsshfnt pa`sf (cfsjonfc ey Ikfakrst

jn ‑t Tfmc, jn D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf ‗ SV Cfmdt, 5<<1)



5<4

jd `mm wjnnfrs dumdjmmfc taf rfqujrfhfnt kd `n kddjgj`m rfojstr`tjkn jn tafjr gkuntry‚s

`rgajtfgt rfojstfr kr `t ` rfgkonjsfc fcug`tjkn`m jnstjtutjkn. Jn mjnf wjta `rgajtfg-

tur`m tr`cjtjkn `nc tk prkvjcf dkr fnkuoa tjhf dkr puemjgjty `nc prfp`r`tjkn, taf

n`hfs kd `mm nkhjnffs wfrf `nnkungfc djrst. af wjnnfrs `nc tafjr jcf`s wfrf

`nnkungfc curjno `n `w`rc gfrfhkny twk hkntas m`tfr. @t taf s`hf tjhf ` bury

rfpkrt w`s puemjsafc.

@n fxajejtjkn jn taf Nftafrm`ncs @rgajtfgturf Jnstjtutf jn Ukttfrc`h w`s

kpfnfc kn taf c`y `s taf `w`rc gfrfhkny, 03 H`rga 5<<:. af fxajejtjkn jngmuc-

fc `mm suehjssjkns kd taf gkhpftjtjkn `s wfmm `s taf rfsumts kd taf ajni `ni (sff

tajrc pjgturf jn Djourf ?.5). Jt ttr`gtfc mkt kd vjsjtkrs. af efst 6< jcf`s, sjxtffn

jcf`s dkr cjsgussjkn `nc taf rfsumts kd taf ajni `ni wfrf jngmucfc jn ` puemjg`-

tjkn g`mmfc ‑Eujmcjno dkr Ekuwiuncf ‗ Kpfn tk Jcf`s‚ (D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf

- V Cfmdt, 5<<:). af wakmf prkgfss kd jcf` ofnfr`tjkn (ajni `ni `nc Jcf`s

Gkhpftjtjkn) w`s gmksfc kut wjta ` cfe`tf `nc taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf puemjg`-

tjkn kn 07 H`y 5<<: tk gkjngjcf wjta taf `nnjvfrs`ry kd taf djrf. Jn ta`t hfftjno

taf rfsumts kd taf ajni `ni `nc jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn wfrf kddfrfc tk taf Fxfgutjvf

Ek`rc kn kd taf V Cfmdt, wajga wjmm cfgjcf èkut taf nfxt pa`sf kd taf prkbfgt.

èmf ?.3 prkvjcfs `n kvfrvjfw kd taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf,

wajga st`rtfc taf fnc kd H`y 5<<1 `nc kddjgj`mmy fncfc 07 H`y 5<<:.

?.3 Gkhpftjtjkn cfsjon

?.3.0 Gkhpftjtjkn erjfd

af gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf kd taf D`gumty g`sf gknsjstfc kd taf gkhpftjtjkn

erjfd `nc taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs. af gkhpftjtjkn erjfd pm`ys `n jhpkrt`nt rkmf jn

taf cjrfgtjkn kd taf suehjssjkns kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. Ufdmfgtjno kn taf djncjnos

kd taf gkhpftjtjkn jn rfm`tjkn tk taf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd, ` dfw

tafhfs efgkhf vjsjemf ta`t wjmm ef `ccrfssfc jn tajs sfgtjkn2

E`m`ngf eftwffn tr`cjtjkn `nc jnnkv`tjkn.

Jndmufngf kd tjhf `nc ga`nofs jn taf gkntfxt kn taf cjrfgtjkn kd taf erjfd.

@v`jmèjmjty `nc `w`rfnfss kd jndkrh`tjkn curjno prfp`r`tjkn.

0.

5.

7.

Ga`r`gtfrjstjgs Wpfgjffg`tjkn dkr tajs g`sf

Gkntr`gt \rjzf hknfy ₭ 4<.<<<

Eujmcjno gksts H`x ₭ 05< hjmmjkn

Orkss stkkr rf` 66,<<<- 4<,<<< h5

Wuehjssjkn rfqujrfhfnts Ufojstfrfc rgajtfgts nc ure`n pm nnfrs

kr cfsjon stucfnts jn rfmfv`nt rf`sE`sjs dkr w`rcjno Cfsjon siftga kn pkstfr

Gkhpftjtjkn pa sfs `n mysfc Kpfn prkgfcurf2 knf pa`sf

Gkhpfns tjkn dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn ₭ <

Ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd g`sf Wuccfn gùsf cuf tk ffrf, hejtjkus nc rusafc prkgfss,

mkkifc t ey fxtfrn`m nc jntfrn`m gkhhunjty

Sèmf ?.3 Kvfrvjfw kd D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf



5<? -

Dr`hf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn burkrs `nc p`rtjgjp`nts.

Gumtur`m `nc pkmjtjg`m cjddfrfngfs jn taf cfgjsjkn dr`hf.

@c 0) E`m`ngf eftwffn tr`cjtjkn `nc jnnkv`tjkn

Jn krcfr tk rf`ga taf kebfgtjvfs kd stjhum`tjkn kd grf`tjvjty `nc cfe`tf, taf `s-

sjonhfnt dkr taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd w`s ifpt rfm`tjvfmy kpfn tk `ny cjrfgtjkn pks-sjemf. Curjno taf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf taf prkbfgt tf`h

w`s gknst`ntmy d`gfc wjta gkndmjgtjno jssufs kn gmjfnt `nc eujmcjno rfm`tfc jssufs,

wajga wfrf `msk dkunc jn taf tfncfr g`sfs (Ga`ptfr 4.4.7) `nc ey Irfjnfr (5<<4)

`nc Uônn (5<<1). Jn cfdjnjno taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd taf prkbfgt tf`h fxpfrjfngfc

` nffc dkr jnnkv`tjkn `s wfmm `s ` nffc tk h`jnt`jn taf pksjtjvf qu`mjtjfs kd taf

kmc sjtu`tjkn. Dkr fx`hpmf, taf kmc eujmcjno strugturf prkvjcfc ` ‑strfft‚ kn taf

orkunc dmkkr dkr hfftjno `nc orkup o`tafrjnos. @t taf s`hf tjhf tajs strugturf

grf`tfc vfrtjg`m tr`ddjg jn taf eujmcjno ta`t cjc nkt fngkuròf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn

taf cfp`rthfnts `nc m`gifc dmfxjejmjty kn taf dmkkrs. Jn taf `ssjonhfnt skgj`m jn-

tfr`gtjkn `nc dmfxjejmjty tafrfdkrf efg`hf gfntr`m tafhfs. @nktafr fx`hpmf wjta pktfntj`m dkr jnnkv`tjkn w`s taf mkg`tjkn kd taf d`gumty

eujmcjno. af kmc d`gumty eujmcjno w`s sjtu`tfc kn taf skutafrn p`rt kd taf g`h-

pus. Kn taf g`hpus h`p tajs mkg`tjkn sffhfc rfm`tjvfmy gfntr`m, eut jn pr`gtjgf

hkst `gtjvjtjfs `nc d`gjmjtjfs `rf sjtu`tfc jn taf nkrtafrn p`rt kd taf g`hpus. af

prkbfgt tf`h cjc nkt inkw `t taf tjhf kd puemjg`tjkn wajga mkg`tjkn wkumc ef

efst `nc tafrfdkrf tajs jssuf w`s mfdt kpfn. af `ssjonhfnt grf`tfc taf pkssjejmjty

tk gakksf ‑` wfmm-`roufc, `mtfrn`tjvf sjtf‚ eut knmy 07% kd taf suehjssjkns prk-

pksfc `nktafr mkg`tjkn ta`n taf Efrmòfwfo.

af p`rtjgjp`nts jnstf`c sffhfc tk dkgus kn taf kmc sjtu`tjkn jn `n `ttfhpt tk

`n`mysf taf duturf nffcs. Ufh`rièmy nknf kd taf qufstjkns `sifc ey taf p`rtjgj-

p`nts jn taf pfrjkc efdkrf rfojstr`tjkn `nc suehjssjkn wfrf èkut `hejtjkns kr

str`tfojfs ktafr ta`n hfntjknfc jn taf erjfd. @ dfw p`rtjgjp`nts fxpmkrfc spfgjdjg

mkg`tjkn kptjkns eut jn ofnfr`m taf rfqujrfhfnt w`s nkt qufstjknfc. Akwfvfr, taf

suehjssjkns cjc r`jsf nfw jssufs nc nkt mm suehjssjkns dumdjmmfc mm rfqujrfhfnts.

@ekut a`md kd taf 0:3 qufstjkns r`jsfc ey taf p`rtjgjp`nts rfm`tfc tk taf gkhpftj-

tjkn rumfs (rfojstr`tjkn rfqujrfhfnts, g`tfokrjfs kd rfojstr`tjkn, rfojstr`tjkn `s `

tf`h, taf dkrh`t kd taf @3, st`tfhfnt kd jntfmmfgtu`m prkpfrty, taf rfqujrfhfnts

kd taf fntr`nts). @nktafr m`rof g`tfokry kd qufstjkns rfm`tfc tk taf gkntfnt kr jn-

tfrprft`tjkn kd taf `ssjonhfnt nc taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf d`gumty kd rgajtfgturf

`nc jts usfrs, jngmucjno taf strugturf kd taf kmc eujmcjno (taf usf `nc jntfrprft`-

tjkn kd taf h`ps, nuhefrs kd stucfnts cjvjcfc kvfr orkups, spfgjdjg `spfgts kd taf

`ssjonhfnt, `hkunt kd tafhfs, kpfnjno akurs, dmkkr pm`ns kd taf kmc eujmcjno). @

dfw qufstjkns rfm`tfc tk taf dkmmkw up kn taf gkhpftjtjkn (f.o. rfm`tjkn wjta taf

Furkpf`n tfncfr sfmfgtjkn) kr taf fv`mu`tjkn prkgfcurf kd taf bury (prfsfnt`tjkn

kd taf pkstfrs). ajs sakws ta`t jncffc ` gkhpftjtjkn erjfd js rf`c `s a`md stjhum`-

tjkn `nc a`md jnstrugtjkn (Irfjnfr, 5<<4) `nc tafrfdkrf `gts `s ` gkhhunjg`tjkn

djmtfr (Afynfn, 5<<0) ta`t stffrs taf cjrfgtjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. ajs cjrfg-

tjkn js e`sfc kn `n jntfrpm`y eftwffn taf gmjfnt nc taf p`rtjgjp`nts nc tafrfdkrf

cyn`hjg nc rfm`tjvfmy unprfcjgtèmf. Jn tajs g`sf taf erjfd w`s usfc tk fxpmkrf taf

kptjkns, wajga js jn mjnf wjta taf `jhs kd `n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn.

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6.



5<1

@c 5) Jndmufngf kd tjhf `nc ga`nofs jn taf gkntfxt kn taf cjrfgtjkn

kd taf erjfd

@t taf st`rt kd taf gkhpftjtjkn, taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd w`s gkhhunjg`tfc vj` `

wfesjtf. Dkr sfvfr`m wffis pktfntj`m p`rtjgjp`nts kd taf gkhpftjtjkn gkumc jn-

dkrh tafhsfmvfs èkut ungfrt`jn kr hjssjno jndkrh`tjkn. af prkbfgt gkkrcjn`-

tkrs wfrf rfspknsjemf dkr prkvjcjno `nswfrs vj` taf wfesjtf. Hkst kd taf qufstjkns wfrf f`sy tk rfspknc tk efgùsf taf `nswfrs wfrf kevjkus kr `mrf`cy jngmucfc

jn taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf. Wkhftjhfs qufstjkns nffcfc tk ef rfcjrfgtfc tk

ktafr pfkpmf jn taf kro`njs`tjkn efgùsf tafy rfqujrfc spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf (f.o. taf

cjvjsjkn kd taf HWg stucfnts pfr cfp`rthfnt). @s prkbfgt tf`h wf wfrf `w`rf kd

taf d`gt ta`t taf gkntfnt kd taf nswfrs wkumc stffr taf cjrfgtjkn kd taf suehjttfc

jcf`s. kk huga cfvj`tjkn drkh taf krjojn`m `ssjonhfnt gkumc pm`gf f`rmy st`rt-

frs `t ` cjs`cv`ntòf ò`jnst taksf st`rtjno m`tf. @s taf Cf`n w`s kn sjgi mf`vf, af

gkumc nkt tìf ` st`nc jn tajs h`ttfr kr `nswfr qufstjkns.

Akwfvfr, curjno taf pfrjkc ta`t taf p`rtjgjp`nts wfrf wkrijno kn tafjr sue-

hjssjkn, taf gkntfxt `t Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty a`c ga`nofc. af tfhpkr`ry `ggkhhk-

c`tjkn kd taf D`gumty w`s put jntk usf curjno taf gkursf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. Mkg`m

p`rtjgjp`nts wfrf `w`rf kd taf pksjtjvf fxpfrjfngfs kd tajs `ggkhhkc`tjkn `nc

tafrfdkrf èmf tk usf tajs jndkrh`tjkn jn tafjr suehjssjkns. Efgùsf taf prkbfgt

tf`h w`ntfc tk dkgus kn ` nfw d`gumty kd taf duturf, wf gaksf tk `nswfr taf qufs-

tjkns jn `n `s nfutr`m h`nnfr `s pkssjemf ey st`yjno gmksf tk taf krjojn`m tfxt. ajs

hf`nt ta`t nk `ccjtjkn`m jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf kmc d`gumty eujmcjno kr taf eujmc-

jno `t Bumj`n`m``n w`s prkvjcfc.

@ccjtjkn`m jndkrh`tjkn tk jhprkvf kr gkhpmftf taf `ssjonhfnt w`s kddfrfc,

suga `s stucfnt nuhefrs pfr sp`gf dungtjkn kr tfganjg`m cft`jms èkut taf mkg`-

tjkn. Ufdmfgtjno kn taf gkhhunjg`tjkn tk taf p`rtjgjp`nts, knf kd taf Cutga

bury hfhefrs hfntjknfc jn `n jntfrvjfw ta`t taf p`rtjgjp`nts gkumc a`vf effn

jndkrhfc èkut taf pksjtjvf fxpfrjfngfs `nc nfw jnsjoats èkut taf tfhpkr`ry

mkg`tjkn. ajs wkumc a`vf gùsfc ` cjs`cv`ntòf tk p`rtjgjp`nts wak st`rtfc taf

prfp`r`tjkns dkr taf gkhpftjtjkn f`rmy, eut wkumc a`vf cfgrf`sfc taf cjsgrfp`ngjfs

eftwffn mkg`m nc jntfrn`tjkn`m p`rtjgjp`nts. ajs cjmfhh` jmmustr`tfs taf cyn`h-

jgs kd taf h`tgajno prkgfss2 taf gkntfxt g`n ga`nof kvfr tjhf `nc tajs `ddfgts taf

`v`jmèjmjty `nc jhpkrt`ngf kd jndkrh`tjkn curjno taf prkgfss kd taf gkhpftjtjkn

cfsjon. @ gmjfnt a`s tk cfgjcf wajmf taf gkhpftjtjkn js knokjno jn wajga cjrfgtjkn

tk stffr jndkrh`tjkn nc tafrfdkrf msk kn taf v`rj`tjkn kd jndkrh`tjkn hkno tafp`rtjgjp`nts.

@c 7) @v`jmèjmjty `nc `w`rfnfss kd jndkrh`tjkn curjno prfp`r`tjkn

@s ` prkbfgt tf`h wf fxpfrjfngfc akw a`rc jt w`s tk cfdjnf ` gmf`r `hejtjkn dkr

taf tfncfr erjfd èkut taf duturf `ggkhhkc`tjkn e`sfc kn taf fxjstjno jndkrh`-

tjkn. O`tafrjno d`gtu`m jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf gmjfnt‚s kro`njs`tjkn w`s `msk nkt

f`sy kn suga sakrt nktjgf (f.o. nuhefr kd st`dd hfhefrs `nc stucfnts, hjssjkn,

str`tfoy). Kn g`hpus mfvfm, cfvfmkphfnt`m pm`ns fxjstfc wjtajn taf rf`m fst`tf

cfp`rthfnt kd taf V Cfmdt (DHTO), eut tafsf wfrf kevjkusmy nkt `cbustfc tk

` duturf wjtakut taf dkrhfr d`gumty eujmcjno `t taf Efrmòfwfo. af erjfd kd taf



5<: -

tfhpkr`ry `ggkhhkc`tjkn w`s usfc `s jnput dkr taf dungtjkn`m rfqujrfhfnts kd

taf gkhpftjtjkn. af Cf`n prkvjcfc taf prkbfgt tf`h wjta hkst kd taf jnput

dkr taf vjsjkn `nc `hejtjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkn `ssjonhfnt `nc grjtfrj` jn tarff

sfssjkns. Ajs jnput sffhfc tk ef ` gkhejn`tjkn kd taf nffcs kd ` d`gumty `s ` gmj-

fnt, taf fxpfgt`tjkns kd taf prkdfssjkn`m gkhhunjty èkut taf rkmf kd taf d`gumty

`s ` gmjfnt, `nc ajs kwn fxpfrjfngf `nc fxpfgt`tjkns `s `n `rgajtfgt èkut ` d`g-umty eujmcjno dkr @rgajtfgturf. Ufdmfgtjno kn taf prkgfss kd `hejtjkn dkrhum`-

tjkn, jt `ppf`rfc qufstjknèmf ta`t knmy taf Cf`n, prkeèmy jndmufngfc ey skhf

kd ajs gmksf gknt`gts `nc nftwkri, prkvjcfc jnput dkr taf `hejtjkn `nc erjfd. af

prkbfgt tf`h cfgjcfc tk `si `n fhpmkyff wjta ` e`giorkunc jn bkurn`mjsh tk turn

taf nktfs èkut taf `hejtjkn drkh taf prkbfgt tf`h hfftjnos jntk `n `pprkprj`tf

tfxt dkr taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf. @mtakuoa tajs pfrskn cjc h`rvfmmkus bke t

turnjno wjmc jcf`s jntk ` gknsjstfnt stkry, taf erjfd w`s nkt suppkrtfc ey ny ktafr

jncjvjcu`m kr orkup ta`n taf Cf`n `nc taf hfhefrs kd taf prkbfgt tf`h.

Jn taf tfncfr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr 4 ` sjhjm`r sjtu`tjkn w`s dkunc. @t taf efojn-

njno kd ` prkgfss cfgjsjkn hìfrs wfrf usu`mmy nkt `w`rf kd taf jhpkrt`ngf kdtaf erjfd wajmf taf erjfd js knf kd taf h`jn stffrjno jnstruhfnts kd taf gkhpftj-

tjkn. \`rtjgjp`nts rfmy kn taf jndkrh`tjkn jn taf erjfd efjno v`mjc `nc rfmjèmf ef-

gùsf tafkrftjg`mmy jt sakumc prkvjcf taf e`sjs dkr tafjr jcf`s. Fspfgj`mmy dkr dkrfjon

p`rtjgjp`nts taf jndkrh`tjkn kn taf gkhpftjtjkn wfesjtf w`s taf prjh`ry skurgf

kd jndkrh`tjkn. Dkr tafh jt w`s `mhkst jhpkssjemf tk o`tafr jnsjcf jndkrh`tjkn

èkut taf D`gumty. ajs js jmmustr`tfc ey taf d`gt ta`t kd taf wjnnjno p`rtjgjp`nts,

djvf kut kd sjx (a`c) stucjfc kr wkrifc `t taf Cfmdt D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf `s stu-

cfnt, fxga`nof stucfnt, kr fhpmkyff. Jn mjnf wjta Irfjnfr (5<<4) tafsf djncjnos

sakw ta`t spfgjdjg jndkrh`tjkn `nc ` dffm dkr taf rfmfv`ngf kd jndkrh`tjkn g`n

jhprkvf taf ga`ngfs kd wjnnjno efgùsf taf jcf`s prkvjcf efttfr h`tga wjta taf`ssjonhfnt.

@c 3) Dr`hf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn burkrs `nc p`rtjgjp`nts

\`rtjgjp`nts typjg`mmy fxpfgt ta`t taf jndkrh`tjkn jn taf erjfd wkumc `msk sfrvf

`s ` st`rtjno pkjnt dkr taf bury hfhefrs jn tafjr `ssfsshfnt prkgfss . ajs wkumc

jhpmy ta`t `mm bury hfhefrs `rf dummy jndkrhfc èkut taf gkhpftjtjkn `nc usf `

gkhp`rèmf dr`hf tk `ssfss taf p`rtjgjp`nts. Akwfvfr, `s taf mjtfr`turf kn cfgj-

sjkn hìjno sakwfc bury hfhefrs, fspfgj`mmy fxpfrts, tìf `mkno tafjr fxjstjno

dr`hf kd rfdfrfngfs `nc `ppmy tajs kn ` p`rtjgum`r sjtu`tjkn suga `s tajs gkh-

pftjtjkn (Auttkn & Imfjn, 0:::9 I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:). af rfsumts kd taf

tfncfr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr 4 sakwfc ta`t jd bury hfhefrs wkumc ef jnvkmvfc jn taf

prfp`r`tjkns kd taf gkhpftjtjkn tafy gkumc mjon tafjr dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf, kr sa`pf

ta`t kd taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf. Wuga `n fxga`nof wkumc jngrf`sf taf ga`ngf

ta`t taf bury js `w`rf `nc hjncdum kd taf gmjfnt‚s `hejtjkn r`tafr ta`n tafjr kwn

prfgkngfptjkns. Curjno taf cfsjon kd tajs g`sf, taf prkbfgt gkkrcjn`tkrs nc taf Cf`n tafrfdkrf

cfgjcfc tk jndkrh taf ga`jr kd taf bury èkut taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf `nc

rumfs. Dkr taf ktafr bury hfhefrs tajs w`s nkt pkssjemf cuf tk tjhf gknstr`jnts

`nc pr`gtjg`m rf`skns. Cuf tk taf èsfngf kd taf Cf`n curjno taf bury hfftjno,

tafrf w`s nk mknofr ` pfrskn`m gknnfgtjkn eftwffn taksf wak prkvjcfc jnput dkr



50<

taf `hejtjkn `nc taf hfhefrs kd taf bury `s jt a`c effn jntfncfc. aksf wak

wfrf prfsfnt, suga `s taf prkbfgt gkkrcjn`tkrs, taf ùtakr kd taf bury rfpkrt `nc

taf ùtakr kd `n fss`y dkr taf puemjg`tjkn, cjc nkt a`vf ` vktf jn cfgjsjkn hìjno

nkr ` ga`ngf kd prkvjcjno `ccjtjkn`m jndkrh`tjkn curjno taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss.

af rfsumts kd tajs g`sf jhpmy ta`t gkhpmftf fqu`mjty kd dr`hfs `hkno taf

p`rtjgjp`nts `nc bury hfhefrs js nkt ` rf`mjstjg `jh. ajs fddfgt w`s rfjndkrgfcey taf d`gt ta`t taf mùnga kd taf gkhpftjtjkn w`s `t mf`st twk hkntas efdkrf taf

cf`cmjnf dkr suehjssjkn `nc taf suehjssjkn ` dfw wffis efdkrf taf hkhfnt kd

`ssfsshfnt. @t taf tjhf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn mùnga, knmy ` dfw pfkpmf gkumc a`vf

prfcjgtfc ta`t taf wjnnfrs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn wkumc jngmucf twk suehjssjkns

ta`t prkpksfc tk rfnkv`tf `nc tr`nsdkrh taf eujmcjno `t Bumj`n`m``n. @mtakuoa

taf succfn gùsf `nc rusafc ga`r`gtfr kd taf gkhpftjtjkn hjoat nkt ef typjg`m

dkr `mm g`sfs, tafsf djncjnos suoofst ta`t tafrf wjmm `mw`ys ef ` cjddfrfngf eftwffn

taf dr`hfs wjta wajga suehjssjkns `rf cfsjonfc `nc wjta wajga tafy `rf `ssfssfc.

_jtajn tafsf cjddfrfnt dr`hfs burkrs‚ prfdfrfngfs dkr `mtfrn`tjvfs gkumc `msk cjddfr.

Jt wjmm tafrfdkrf ef vfry a`rc dkr p`rtjgjp`nts `nc kutsjcfrs tk prfcjgt prfdfrfngfskd ` bury p`nfm efdkrfa`nc.

@c 6) Gumtur`m `nc pkmjtjg`m cjddfrfngfs jn taf cfgjsjkn dr`hf

af `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf gurrfnt sjtu`tjkn kd taf D`gumty `msk cjd-

dfrfc pfr bury hfhefr. Uftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws wjta taf bury hfhefrs sakwfc

ta`t knmy ` dfw kd taf hfhefrs usfc taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd fxpmjgjtmy tk prfp`rf

tafhsfmvfs dkr taf hfftjno. af twk dkrfjon bury hfhefrs `rrjvfc bust knf fvfnjno

efdkrf taf bury prkgfss st`rtfc. afy vjsjtfc Cfmdt kngf kr twjgf efdkrf eut jn cjd-

dfrfnt gkntfxt. @mm taf ktafr hfhefrs a`c stucjfc `t taf d`gumty `nc/kr wfrf stjmm

jnvkmvfc kr d`hjmj`r wjta taf sjtu`tjkn `t taf D`gumty. Knmy ` dfw kd tafh a`c

vjsjtfc taf nfw tfhpkr`ry akusjno `t Bumj`n`m``n. Jn taf efojnnjno kd taf bury

hfftjno taf bury hfhefrs `ttfncfc ` prfsfnt`tjkn èkut taf g`hpus `nc taf gur-

rfnt akusjno sjtu`tjkn kd ` st`dd hfhefr. ajs w`s cknf tk `mjon taf dr`hf kd taf

bury hfhefrs.

Efgùsf kd taf èsfngf kd taf Cf`n, taf dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf èkut taf `ssjon-

hfnt w`s cfdjnfc ey bury hfhefrs wak a`c nkt effn cjrfgtmy jnvkmvfc wjta taf

par`sjno kd taf ssjonhfnt nkr taf gurrfnt unjvfrsjty okvfrn`ngf. ajs hf`nt ta`t

wjtajn taf bury p`nfm taf pkmjtjg`m gkntfxt kd cfgjsjkn hìjno w`s sjhpmjdjfc `nc

jnsjcf jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf gurrfnt st`tf kd taf djn`ngfs `nc jnsur`ngf jssufs

cjc nkt jndmufngf taf `rouhfnt`tjkn `s huga. af bury gkumc tafrfdkrf `gt `s `n

jncfpfncfnt gkhhjttff wjta taf jntfrfst tafy takuoat wkumc efnfdjt taf D`gumty.

Akwfvfr, taf kesfrv`tjkns jncjg`tfc ta`t skhf kd taf Cutga bury hfhefrs tkki

taf ga`nojno djn`ngj`m, pkmjtjg`m `nc skgj`m gkntfxt jntk `ggkunt `nc jngmucfc

tajs jntk tafjr dr`hf kd cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno fv`mu`tjkn kd taf suehjssjkns.

af dkrfjon bury hfhefrs wfrf mfss `w`rf kd tafsf ga`nofs eut wfrf jndkrhfc ey

taf ktafr bury hfhefrs èkut taf pksjtjvf fxpfrjfngfs wjta taf tfhpkr`ry eujmc-

jno `t Bumj`n`m``n. afrfdkrf tafy wfrf `msk èmf tk tìf skhf kd tafsf gkntfxtu`m

ga`nofs jntk `ggkunt jn tafjr cfgjsjkns.



500 -

Gumtur`m cjddfrfngfs h`y, akwfvfr, a`vf `msk `ddfgtfc taf ga`ngfs kd wjnnjno,

fvfn jn taf sjtu`tjkn kd `nknyhkus rfvjfwjno ey `n jntfrn`tjkn`m bury p`nfm. af

kutgkhf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn (wjnnfrs drkh Nftafrm`ncs, Dr`ngf, Efmojuh `nc

Djnm`nc) nc taf cjstrjeutjkn kd taf efst 6< suehjssjkns (h`jnmy krjojn`tjno drkh

Nftafrm`ncs, Dr`ngf, Vnjtfc Wt`tfs `nc ktafr _fstfrn gkuntrjfs) jhpmy ta`t taf

dr`hf wjta wajga taf bury hfhefrs `ssfssfc taf suehjssjkns a`c `n krjfnt`tjknsjhjm`r tk taf gkntfxt jn wajga taf ssjonhfnt w`s sft up. ajs hf`nt ta`t dkr p`r-

tjgjp`nts wak wfrf nkt d`hjmj`r wjta tajs dr`hf, taf ga`ngfs kd wjnnjno taf gkh-

pftjtjkn gkumc a`vf effn rfcugfc. Kn taf ktafr a`nc, jn taf gurrfnt cjojt`m fr` `

mkt kd mkg`m jndkrh`tjkn js f`sjmy `v`jmèmf `mm `rkunc taf wkrmc. Gfrt`jn `spfgts kd

`rgajtfgturf gumturf hjoat fvfn ef unjdkrh `rkunc taf wkrmc.

Gumtur`m cjddfrfngfs jn dr`hjno gkumc a`vf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr Furkpf`n prkgurf-

hfnt m`w `nc taf prjngjpmf kd fqu`m trf`thfnt. E`sfc kn taf djncjnos drkh tajs

g`sf jt rfh`jns ungmf`r jd taf cjddfrfngfs kd dr`hjno knmy gkngfrn jssufs kd jndkr-

h`tjkn èkut mkg`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, kr cjspm`y gumtur`m cjddfrfngfs. Ufm`tfc tk taf

jssuf èkut d`jr gkhpftjtjkn js taf m`nouòf kd gkhhunjg`tjkn. Jn tajs g`sf `mmgkhhunjg`tjkn w`s gkncugtfc jn Fnomjsa tk jnvkmvf `s h`ny pfkpmf `s pkssjemf.

ajs js jn mjnf wjta taf prjngjpmf kd fqu`m trf`thfnt kd prkgurfhfnt m`w. Akwfvfr,

h`ny Cutga gmjfnts prfdfr tk gkhhunjg`tf jn Cutga, `nc tafrfdkrf jngmucf gkh-

hunjg`tjkn jn Cutga `s ` rfqujrfhfnt curjno sfmfgtjkn, wajga fxgmucfs ` sjonjdj-

g`nt p`rt kd taf h`rift. Durtafr rfsf`rga kn tajs tkpjg js nffcfc.

?.3.5 \rkgfss prkgfcurf

af gkhpftjtjkn rumfs cftfrhjnfc taf ijnc kd fntr`nts, `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn

pfr fntry, taf prkgfss kd `ssfsshfnt, taf gkhhunjg`tjkn kd taf bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf

cfgjsjkns, `nc taf utjmjs`tjkn kd taf suehjssjkns `dtfr taf gmksurf kd taf gkhpftj-

tjkn. Ufdmfgtjkn kn taf djncjnos kd cfsjonjno taf prkgfcurf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn

r`jsfc sfvfr`m jssufs tk ef `ccrfssfc jn tajs sfgtjkn2

\rkbfgt h`nòfhfnt jn ` cyn`hjg gkntfxt.

Gkhhunjg`tjkn jn ` cjojt`m fr`.

Gkhpksjno ` bury p`nfm.

E`m`ngf eftwffn prkdfssjkn`mjsh `nc `hejtjkn.

Ufm`tjkn eftwffn `ssfsshfnt prkgfss `nc taf suehjssjkn dkrh`t.

Cftfrhjnjno `nc g`rryjno kut taf rumfs kd taf o`hf.

E`sjg prjngjpmfs kd prkgurfhfnt m`w jn pr`gtjgf.

@c 0) \rkbfgt h`nòfhfnt jn ` cyn`hjg gkntfxt

af mùnga kd taf gkhpftjtjkn `t taf kpfnjno kd taf Ejfnn`mf prkvjcfc ` strjgt

cf`cmjnf `nc hf`nt ta`t taf gkhpftjtjkn nffcfc tk ef sft up wjtajn twk hkntas.

afrf w`s nk gmf`r cf`cmjnf dkr taf fnc kd taf gkhpftjtjkn, `p`rt drkh taf c`tfs

ta`t wfrf nnkungfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf. af gkntfxt kd taf djrf hf`nt

ta`t nk rf`m kvfrvjfw kd taf eucoft nc gksts kd taf gkhpftjtjkn prkbfgt wfrf prk-

vjcfc. af pm`nnjno w`s e`sfc kn taf jntfntjkn tk st`rt taf nfw eujmcjno prkbfgt

wjtajn twk yf`rs `dtfr taf djrf efgùsf kd taf gkncjtjkns kd taf jnsur`ngf pkmjgy.

@s taf gkhpftjtjkn prkorfssfc, taf tjhf dr`hf dkr `ssfsshfnt w`s fxtfncfc `nc

0.

5.

7.

3.

6.

4.

?.



505

taf djn`ngj`m, h`nòfrj`m `nc psygajg`m gkntfxt a`c ga`nofc. ajs cjc nkt mf`c tk

`n fxtfnsjkn kd taf suehjssjkn cf`cmjnf eut ga`nofc taf c`tf ta`t taf nkhjnffs

`nc wjnnfrs wfrf `nnkungfc. @ccjtjkn`mmy jt sffhfc jhpkssjemf tk sft ` c`tf dkr

taf bury hfftjno wjtajn taf krjojn`m tjhf par`sf cuf tk tafjr eusy cj`rjfs, `nc taf

fv`mu`tjkn w`s sgafcumfc dkr B`nu`ry jnstf`c kd Nkvfhefr.

af c`t` kd taf gkhpftjtjkn sakw ta`t taf cyn`hjg gkntfxt kd ` gkhpftjtjkngkumc gùsf ga`nofs jn taf `hejtjkns kd taf gmjfnts. _jtakut ` gmf`r ok`m `nc `

rfmjèmf nftwkri kd pkssjemf `gtkrs tafsf ga`nofs gkumc gùsf sfrjkus cfdjgjfngjfs

wjta taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc taf Gjty A`mm taf rfspknsjemf

kddjgfrs a`c ` gmf`r `hejtjkn `nc ok`m, jn gkntr`ry tk taf kddjgfr jn taf \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf. Jn tafsf g`sfs gkntfxtu`m d`gtkrs wfrf dkunc - bust `s jn

taf gkhpftjtjkn g`sf - ta`t rfjndkrgfc kr wfìfnfc taf wjmmjnonfss tk rf`ga ` djn`m

gkngmusjkn. af mfo`m gkntfxt kddfrs knmy mjhjtfc pkssjejmjtjfs tk `cbust taf gkhpf-

tjtjkn rumfs jn g`sf tajs efgkhfs nfgfss`ry tk dumdjm taf `gtu`m `jh kd taf sfmfgtjkn

prkgfss. @ takrkuoa prfp`r`tjkn kd ` gkhpftjtjkn gkumc tafrfdkrf gkntrjeutf tk

taf suggfss kd ` tfncfr.

@c 5) Gkhhunjg`tjkn jn ` cjojt`m fr`

af prkbfgt tf`h cfgjcfc tk h`nòf taf gkhpftjtjkn vj` ` wfesjtf. @ wfesjtf

wkumc mkwfr taf gksts dkr taf fntr`nts efgùsf tafy wkumc nkt ef rfqujrfc tk prjnt

`nc sfnc tafjr suehjssjkns ey h`jm `nc jt wkumc cfgrf`sf taf e`rrjfrs tk bkjn taf

gkhpftjtjkn. Dkr taf gmjfnt, gakksjno ` wfesjtf rfcugfc `chjnjstr`tjvf gksts `nc

jt grf`tfc hkrf dmfxjejmjty tk `n`mysf `nc prfp`rf taf suehjssjkns dkr taf bury

fv`mu`tjkn. @t taf s`hf tjhf taf cjojt`m dkrh`t grf`tfc `n jntfrfstjno c`tè`sf

dkr duturf rfsf`rga. @dtfr taf mùnga kd taf gkhpftjtjkn taf wfesjtf turnfc kut tk

ef `n fxgfmmfnt hfcjuh tk jhprkvf taf prkdjmf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. af wfesjtf

w`s f`sjmy `ggfssjemf dkr pfkpmf drkh `mm kvfr taf wkrmc `nc sfvfr`m nfwsp`pfrs

`nc jntfrnft dkruhs prkvjcfc ` mjni tk jt. af wfesjtf a`c :0,<<< vjsjtkrs jn tk-

t`m untjm Bumy 5<<:, wjta `n `vfròf kd 7<? pfr c`y (Djourf ?.3). Wt`tjstjgs kd taf

wfesjtf sakw èkut 01,<<<-5<,<<< vjsjtkrs jn Wfptfhefr `nc Kgtkefr 5<<1 (taf

mùnga `nc suehjssjkn pfrjkc) wjta ?6<,<<<-1<<,<<< ajts. afn ajts crkppfc

tk jngrf`sf jn B`nu`ry (taf hknta kd taf bury hfftjno) untk 00,<<< vjsjtkrs jn

H`rga (taf hknta kd taf `w`rc gfrfhkny). Jn Bumy 5<<: taf wfesjtf stjmm a`c

Vnjtfc Ijnockh9 6,0319

?%

Ofrh`ny9 7,71?9 6%

Wjno`pkrf9 7,0049 3%

Wp`jn9 5,:6?9 3%

B`p`n9 5,:<:9 3%

Dr`ngf9 5,56?9 7%

Jt`my9 3,:739 ?%

Vnjtfc Wt`tfs9 00,04:9

06%

Ktafr9 03,7769 0:%

Nftafrm`ncs9 55,?439 5:%

Uussj`n Dfcfr`tjkn9 5,079

7%

Djourf ?.3 Tjsjtkrs kn gkhpftjtjkn wfesjtf pfr hknta `nc pfr gkuntry



507 -

èkut 5,6<< vjsjtkrs ` hknta. Hkst vjsjtkrs krjojn`tfc drkh taf Nftafrm`ncs, taf

Vnjtfc Wt`tfs, taf Vnjtfc Ijnockh `nc Jt`my, wjta ` sjhjm`r cjstrjeutjkn dkunc

dkr taf suehjssjkns. Jt g`n ef gkngmucfc ta`t taf wfesjtf w`s cfdjnjtfmy wkrta taf

jnvfsthfnt `nc djttfc taf `jhs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn.

@c 7) Gkhpksjno ` bury p`nfmaf prkbfgt tf`h `jhfc dkr `n jntfrfstjno, jntfrn`tjkn`mmy rfnkwnfc bury p`nfm.

af Cf`n infw drkh fxpfrjfngf ta`t `n jntfrfstjno bury p`nfm wkumc jngrf`sf

taf `ttr`gtjvfnfss kd taf gkhpftjtjkn `nc tafrfdkrf taf `hkunt kd fntr`nts. af

prkbfgt tf`h `msk infw drkh taf g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr 4 `nc prfvjkus fxpfrjfngfs ta`t

taf bury p`nfm sakumc gknsjst kd e`m`ngfc nc cjvfrsf orkup kd pfkpmf wak gkumc

`ccrfss `mm `spfgts kd taf `ssjonhfnt. Djn`mmy taf prkbfgt tf`h cfgjcfc tk jnvjtf

njnf bury hfhefrs. @n unfvfn nuhefr kd hfhefrs wkumc hìf vktjno f`sjfr,

`nc tajs sjzf `msk o`vf taf d`gumty taf kppkrtunjty tk oft ` sjonjdjg`nt `hkunt kd

fxpfrts jnvkmvfc.

Curjno taf hfftjnos kd taf prkbfgt tf`h sfvfr`m kptjkns dkr taf gkhpksjtjknkd taf bury p`nfm wfrf cjsgussfc. Jn taf efojnnjno taf jcf` w`s tk jnvjtf taf

ga`jr kd taf V Ek`rc `nc taf hjnjstfr kd Fcug`tjkn, Gumturf `nc Wgjfngf tk ef

p`rt kd taf bury, nfxt tk sfvfr`m rfnkwnfc (jntfr)n`tjkn`m `rgajtfgts. Akwfvfr, taf

hjnjstfr cfgmjnfc ajs jnvjt`tjkn dkr pkmjtjg`m rf`skns. k prfvfnt taf bury dkr `n

une`m`ngf jn taf cjrfgtjkn kd gmjfnt rfprfsfnt`tjvf, taf prkbfgt tf`h cfgjcfc ta`t

taf Cf`n wkumc rfprfsfnt taf gmjfnt, tkoftafr wjta ` stucfnt `nc ` prkdfsskr (`nc

pr`gtjgjno `rgajtfgt) kd taf unjvfrsjty. Jn taf fnc taf nftwkri kd taf d`gumty fn`-

emfc taf prkbfgt tf`h tk `ttr`gt skhf d`hkus Cutga `rgajtfgts, taf Cutga Gajfd

Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt, `nc rjsjno jntfrn`tjkn`m prkdfssjkn`ms `s bury hfhefrs dkr

taf gkhpftjtjkn. af sjhumt`nfkus prkgfss kd ` ajni `ni h`cf jt pkssjemf tk

jnvjtf ktafr ify pm`yfrs tk pm`y ` cjddfrfnt rkmf jn taf prkgfss kd rfeujmcjno taf

D`gumty. ajs `msk sujtfc taf `jhs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. Hkst kd taf Cutga bury

hfhefrs wak `ggfptfc taf jnvjt`tjkn `s ` bury hfhefr wfrf pfrskn`m `gqu`jnt-

`ngfs kd taf Cf`n. Wkhf kd tafh a`c `mrf`cy gtjvfmy pprk`gafc taf Cf`n ekut

tafjr jcf`s dkr ` nfw d`gumty eujmcjno `nc taf gkngfpt kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. af

prkbfgt tf`h `msk `pprk`gafc sfvfr`m jntfrn`tjkn`m prkdfssjkn`ms eut tafy nkt vfry

jntfrfstfc jn p`rtjgjp`tjkn. Jn taf fnc hkst kd taf jntfrn`tjkn`m bury hfhefrs

krjojn`tfs drkh taf nftwkri kd taf Cjrfgtkr kd taf N@j, wak `msk w`s jnvjtfc tk

ef ` hfhefr kd taf bury.

Vntjm taf m`st wffi efdkrf taf mùnga kd taf gkhpftjtjkn taf gkhpksjtjkn kd

taf bury gkhpksjtjkn w`s nkt djn`m. Fspfgj`mmy taf jntfrn`tjkn`m hfhefrs wfrf nkt

f`sjmy gkndjrhfc efgùsf taf prkbfgt tf`h cjc nkt a`vf cjrfgt gknnfgtjkns wjta

tafh `nc tafy a`c eusy sgafcumfs `nc tr`vfmmfc `mm `rkunc taf wkrmc. af c`t`

sakw ta`t gkhpksjno ` bury p`nfm rfmjfs `s huga kn taf cfsjon kd taf p`nfm `s kn

taf `v`jmèjmjty kd fxpfrts. af prkbfgt tf`h w`s `w`rf jn sa`pjno taf bury p`nfm,

taf cjstrjeutjkn kd djfmcs kd fxpfrtjsf, orkup rfprfsfnt`tjkn `nc taf `hkunt kd

fxpfrjfngf kd taf jncjvjcu`m hfhefrs sakumc ef e`m`ngfc ò`jnst f`ga ktafr `nc

rfm`tfc tk taf `jh kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. Akwfvfr taf prkbfgt tf`h fxpfrjfngfc ta`t

gkhpksjno tf`h ta`t wkumc hfft taf tafkrftjg`m rfqujrfhfnts kd n fxpfrt tf`h

w`s `mhkst jhpkssjemf wjtakut ` prkpfr pfrskn`mjty `ssfsshfnt `nc inkwmfcof kd



503

akw f`ga pfrskn wkumc g`rry kut tafjr dungtjkn. Wtr`tfojg `nc pkmjtjg`m `spfgts

`msk a`vf tk ef tìfn jntk `ggkunt. Zft jn hy kpjnjkn taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury

p`nfm dkr taf gkhpftjtjkn g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s taf efst pkssjemf rfsumt jn taf mjoat

kd taf cjddfrfnt `jhs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn.

af Cf`n gkntrjeutfc orf`tmy tk ekta taf cfsjon kd taf p`nfm `nc taf prkgfss

kd sfgurjno bury hfhefrs. af c`t` suoofst ta`t af `ppmjfc ajs t`gjt inkwmfcof`nc prjkr fxpfrjfngf `s ` ga`jr kr ` bury hfhefr jn tajs h`ttfr. af gkhpksjtjkn

kd taf prkbfgt tf`h cfvfmkpfc jn ` sjhjm`r h`nnfr jn taf `dtfrh`ta kd taf djrf2 taf

Cf`n `sifc sfvfr`m pfrskns tk ef jnvkmvfc, `nc cfpfncjno kn tafjr `v`jmèjmjty

`nc wjmmjnonfss tk p`rtjgjp`tf taf prkbfgt tf`h w`s gkhpksfc. af prkbfgt-e`sfc

`nc rusafc ga`r`gtfr kd tajs gkhpftjtjkn prkeèmy gkntrjeutfc tk tajs pròh`tjg

str`tfoy tk gkhpksf prkbfgt tf`h. af djncjnos drkh taf tfncfr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr

4 `msk suoofst ta`t jn pr`gtjgf jt js a`rc tk str`tfojg`mmy cfsjon bury p`nfms `nc

prkbfgt tf`hs jn taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf, efgùsf gmjfnts fjtafr dffm tkk gkndjcfnt

kr tkk jnsfgurf èkut tafjr inkwmfcof jn taf djfmc. _afn gmjfnts dffm gkndjcfnt

tafy tajni tafy ck nkt nffc suppkrt, `nc gmjfnts wak `rf jnsfgurf ck nkt inkw wakh tk jnvjtf.

af prkdfssjkn`m mfvfm kd taf gmjfnt gkumc a`vf gkntrjeutfc tk taf suggfss kd

taf tf`h gkhpksjtjkn jn taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf. Wtr`tfojg tf`h cfsjon kpfns

up pkssjejmjtjfs dkr eujmcjno fxpfrtjsf `nc prkdfssjkn`mjsh wjtajn `n kro`njs`tjkn

(W`m`s, ft `m., 5<<4). Jn taf sjtu`tjkn kd gkhpftjtjkns `nc tfncfrs taf p`nfm hfh-

efr gkumc mf`rn drkh taf dffce`gi tafy rfgfjvf drkh ktafr tf`h hfhefrs, p`rtjgj-

p`nts `nc taf hfcj`. Jd burjfs `nc prkbfgt tf`hs `rf nkt èmf tk pfrdkrh rfpf`tfc

t`sis `nc rfgfjvf dffce`gi kn tafjr `gtjkns, tafjr fxpfrjfngfs g`nnkt gkntrjeutf

tk taf jcf` kd kro`njs`tjkn`m mf`rnjno (sff dkr fx`hpmf Ofkrof & Ga`ttkp`cay`y,

5<<1). @mtakuoa taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn js ` r`rf fvfnt dkr hkstgmjfnts, J tajni nkt grf`tjno ` mf`rnjno fnvjrknhfnt `rkunc tajs ijnc kd fvfnt js

` hjssfc kppkrtunjty dkr durtafr cfvfmkphfnt kd taf gmjfnt kro`njs`tjkn `nc taf

prkdfssjkn`m djfmc.

@c 3) E`m`ngf eftwffn prkdfssjkn`mjsh `nc `hejtjkn

Jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs ` e`m`ngf nffcs tk ef strugi eftwffn taf `hejtjkn `nc

taf `gtu`m pktfntj`m. af hkrf taf prkbfgt tf`h rf`mjsfc taf pktfntj`m kd taf gkh-

pftjtjkn, taf hkrf fntausj`sh `nc `hejtjkn tafy sakwfc. @t taf s`hf tjhf taf

prkbfgt tf`h w`s w`rf ta`t tafy gkumc nkt tk si tkk huga kd taf p`rtjgjp`nts nc

taf bury hfhefrs jn rfm`tjkn tk taf prkdfssjkn`m jhòf kd taf d`gumty. _f `jhfc

dkr ` sjonjdjg`nt `hkunt kd suehjssjkns `nc ` s`tjsdjfc bury p`nfm ta`t wkumc efn-

fdjt taf jhòf kd taf d`gumty. wk fx`hpmfs èkut taf suehjssjkn `nc prfsfnt`tjkn

dkrh`t jmmustr`tf taf gknsjcfr`tjkns kd taf prkbfgt tf`h jn krcfr tk e`m`ngf tafjr

`hejtjkns wjta taf prkdfssjkn`m jhòf kd taf gmjfnt2 taf mfvfm kd cft`jm kd taf sue-

hjssjkns `nc taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf suehjssjkns tk taf bury p`nfm.

@ djrst fx`hpmf kd ` wfmm gknsjcfrfc cfgjsjkn èkut taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs js

taf e`m`ngf eftwffn taf cft`jm kd ` cfsjon prkpks`m `nc taf gkngfptu`m pkwfr `nc

`jhs kd n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn. Kn taf knf a`nc taf prkbfgt tf`h w`ntfc tk gkmmfgt

gkngrftf jcf`s `s jnput dkr ` prkbfgt erjfd jn ` duturf tfncfr. ajs wkumc rfqujrf

cft`jmfc skmutjkns `nc gmf`r cfsjons, eut tafrfdkrf `msk ` sjonjdjg`nt `hkunt kd



506 -

wkri drkh taf p`rtjgjp`nts `nc taf bury hfhefrs. Kn taf ktafr a`nc, taf gkhpf-

tjtjkn `gtfc `s ` st`rt kd ` nfw eujmcjno prkbfgt `nc `jhfc `t gkngfptu`m jcf`s kn

` ofnfr`m g`hpus mfvfm. afrfdkrf jt wkumc ef ` w`stf kd fnfroy tk `si dkr cft`jmfc

prkpks`ms jd taf e`sjg `ssuhptjkns (suga `s taf mkg`tjkn, eucoft `nc `hkunt kd

dmkkr `rf`) wfrf nkt yft cftfrhjnfc. afsf ijncs kd cfgjsjkns jndmufngfc taf dkr-

h`t kd taf suehjssjkn. af djrst jntfntjkn kd taf prkbfgt tf`h w`s tk `si dkr jcf`skn taf mfvfm kd ` siftga cfsjon efgùsf tajs wkumc grf`tf ` typjg`m `rgajtfgtur`m

cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn. Jn mjnf wjta taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn taf Cf`n w`s jn d`vkur

kd `msk rfqujrjno ` sg`mf hkcfm drkh taf p`rtjgjp`nts. Akwfvfr, `t taf st`rt kd taf

prkbfgt jt w`s cfgjcfc ta`t taf wakmf gkhpftjtjkn wkumc ef cknf cjojt`mmy vj` taf

wfesjtf. @ sg`mf hkcfm wkumc nkt djt ` cjojt`m dkrh`t. Nfxt tk ta`t jt wkumc kemjof

taf fntr`nts tk h`jm taf sg`mf hkcfm wajga wkumc rfsumts jn `ccjtjkn`m gksts dkr

p`rtjgjp`tjkn. @dtfr gknsumtjno ktafr kro`njs`tjkns ta`t kro`njsf jntfrn`tjkn`m cf-

sjon gkntfsts hkrf rfoum`rmy `nc durtafr cjsgussjkn wjtajn taf prkbfgt tf`h jt w`s

cfgjcfc ta`t sg`mf hkcfm wkumc nkt ef sifc. af fx`hpmf sakws ta`t taf cfsjon

kd taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs sakumc ef `mjonfc wjta taf `jhs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn.af cfgjsjkn èkut taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf suehjssjkns tk taf bury p`nfm `msk

rfm`tfs tk taf e`m`ngf eftwffn hkcfsty, prkdfssjkn`mjsh `nc `hejtjkn. af cjojt`m

suehjssjkn dkrh`t kddfrfc sfvfr`m hkrf jnnkv`tjvf kptjkns dkr taf prkbfgt tf`h

tk sa`pf taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss. af bury hfhefrs gkumc, dkr fx`hpmf, a`vf `s-

sfssfc taf suehjssjkns knmjnf, `n jncjvjcu`m vktjno systfh gkumc a`vf effn cf-

vfmkpfc `nc ` vjrtu`m bury hfftjno wkumc a`vf effn pkssjemf. ajs prkvfc tk ef

` erjcof tkk d`r dkr skhf hfhefrs kd taf bury `nc kd taf prkbfgt tf`h. afrfdkrf

wf cfgjcfc tk sfmfgt ` sfgurfc mkg`tjkn nf`r taf unjvfrsjty tk prfsfnt taf pkstfrs.

ajs wkumc f`sf taf prfp`r`tjkns wjtakut taf rjsi ta`t suehjssjkns wkumc efgkhf

puemjg.af mkg`tjkn kd taf dkrhfr fganjfi husfuh kd taf unjvfrsjty w`s gkjngjcfnt-

my `v`jmèmf cuf tk sgafcumfc rfnkv`tjkns, `nc turnfc kut tk ef ` vfry jnspjrjno

`hej`ngf curjno taf bury hfftjno. Kur djrst jntfntjkn w`s tk m`y `mm pkstfrs kn

taf dmkkr. af jcf` efajnc tajs w`s taf dmfxjejmjty kd rf`rr`nofhfnt, `n jndkrh`m

`thkspafrf curjno `ssfsshfnt, `nc mkwfr gksts dkr prfp`r`tjkn. af ga`jr kd taf

bury p`nfm jncjg`tfc ta`n `n fxpfrt wkumc nffc knmy ` om`ngf `t taf pkstfrs, wajga

gkumc f`sjmy ef cknf drkh èkvf. Djn`mmy taf prkbfgt tf`h gaksf tk ajrf r`tafr

fxpfnsjvf p`nfms tk prfsfnt taf suehjssjkns efgùsf tajs wkumc ef hkrf prkdfs-

sjkn`m `nc wkumc nkt grf`tf pkssjemf e`gi prkemfhs kd taf bury hfhefrs. Wtjmm

bury hfhefrs gkumc w`mi `mkno taf pkstfrs (sff Djourf ?.6) `nc pfrskn`m gknt`gt`hkno taf bury hfhefrs w`s fnsurfc. af gkngfpt ta`t burkrs paysjg`mmy hfft

curjno taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss js p`rt kd taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn. Ufdmfgtjno kn

taf bury prkgfss taf p`nfms `nc paysjg`m bury hfftjno `ppf`rfc tk a`vf effn efn-

fdjgj`m dkr taf gkafsjvfnfss kd taf bury p`nfm. Jt msk jngrf`sfc taf w`rfnfss hkno

taf hfhefrs kd taf bury p`nfm `nc taf prkbfgt tf`h èkut taf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf

gkhpftjtjkn `nc taf m`rof èkut kd wkri kd taf p`rtjgjp`nts. ajs fx`hpmf sakws

ta`t gmjfnts skhftjhfs a`vf tk `ginkwmfcof taf tr`cjtjkn kd taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc

kd `rgajtfgturf, fvfn jd jt rfqujrfs `n `ccjtjkn`m djn`ngj`m jnvfsthfnt. @t taf s`hf

tjhf taf cjojt`m dkrh`t sakwfc ta`t nfw cfvfmkphfnts g`n `msk jhprkvf pr`gtjgf

(sff `msk pkjnt 5 kd tajs sfgtjkn).



504

@c 6) Ufm`tjkn eftwffn `ssfsshfnt prkgfss `nc taf suehjssjkn

dkrh`t

af mjtfr`turf èkut cfgjsjkn hìjno sakws ta`t taf dkrh`t kd taf jndkrh`tjkn

prfsfntfc sakumc ef `cbustfc tk gfrt`jn tr`jts kd taf cfgjsjkn hìjno, suga `s taf

mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf (sff Ga`ptfr 7.3.7). af djncjnos kd taf tfncfr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr

4 suoofstfc ta`t gmjfnts `sifc dkr hkrf jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf g`ncjc`tfs tk cf-grf`sf taf ungfrt`jnty èkut taf pktfntj`m mfvfm kd qu`mjty kd taf tfncfrfrs, wajga

js jn mjnf wjta taf djncjnos `s rfpkrtfc jn mjtfr`turf (f.o. Eftsga, 5<<69 Hksjfr &

Djsgafr, 5<<:). Jn tajs D`gumty g`sf jt w`s gmf`r drkh taf efojnnjno kn ta`t ` bury

wkumc `ssfss taf suehjssjkns. Akwfvfr, taf dkrh`t `nc prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf fntry

ckguhfnts w`s nfvfr cjrfgtmy gknnfgtfc tk taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury. Dkr fx-

`hpmf, jd taf Hjnjstfr kr taf \rfsjcfnt kd taf fxfgutjvf ek`rc - pfkpmf wak `rf mfss

fxpfrjfngfc jn rf`cjno cfsjons - wkumc a`vf p`rtjgjp`tfc jn taf bury taf dkrh`t

gkumc a`vf effn `cbustfc, dkr fx`hpmf ey rfqujrjno mfss siftga cfsjon `nc hkrf

tfxt kr hkrf èstr`gt vjsjkns. Gkhp`rfc tk taf djncjnos jn Ga`ptfr 4.?.7, fxpfrts

kr hkrf fxpfrjfngfc bury hfhefrs gkumc a`vf a`c ` hkrf prkhjnfnt rkmf jn ‑fx-

pm`jnjno‚ taf suehjssjkn. af m`rof `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn w`s `msk grf`tfc ey

p`rtjgjp`nt efa`vjkur2 :<% kd taf fntr`nts suehjttfc twk pkstfrs, wajmf taf dkr-

h`t prkvjcfc drffckh tk suehjt knf pkstfr knmy. ajs jncjg`tfs ta`t p`rtjgjp`nts

kdtfn gakksf tk suehjt `s huga jndkrh`tjkn `s pkssjemf wjtajn taf gkhpftjtjkn

dkrh`t wajmf tajs ckfs nkt ùtkh`tjg`mmy jngrf`sfs taf ga`ngfs tk wjn2 Durtafr

`n`mysjs sakwfc ta`t taf `hkunt kd suehjssjkns usjno twk pkstfrs jnstf`c kd knf

rfh`jns fqu`m jn taf djn`m 6< (:5%). ajs suoofsts ta`t taf ga`ngfs kd wjnnjno

wfrf nkt jndmufngfc ey `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn `s suehjttfc ey taf p`rtjgjp`nts

`nc taf suehjssjkns wfrf bucofc ey taf gkntfnts. af kesfrv`tjkns jn tajs g`sf

`nc taf fxpfrjfngfs kd taf ktafr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr 4 jncjg`tf ta`t jn hìjno bucof-

hfnts jn cfsjon taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd taf `ssfsskr js hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n taf

`hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn, eut knmy jd taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs djts

taf jndkrh`tjkn hf`ns.

Knf kd taf h`jn cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf tfncfr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr 4 `nc

taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf w`s taf `nknyhkus bucofhfnt kd taf suehjssjkns.

@nknyhjty rfqujrfs ` vfry strugturfc dkrh`t tk mjni suehjssjkns tk p`rtjgjp`nts

`t taf fnc kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. af rfojstr`tjkn nuhefrs wfrf rfqujrfc `s p`rt

kd taf suehjssjkn dkrh`t, wajga wfrf usfc tk strugturf `nc hknjtkr taf m`rof

`hkunt kd suehjssjkns curjno prfp`r`tjkn nc ssfsshfnt. Curjno taf ssfsshfntpa`sf ` typkmkoy w`s cfvfmkpfc ey taf hfhefrs kd taf `n`mysjs tf`h tk strugturf

taf m`rof nuhefr kd suehjssjkns. af bury hfhefrs rfgfjvfc mjsts kd taf suehjs-

sjkns krcfrfc ey typf `nc jngrf`sjno rfojstr`tjkn nuhefrs. afy `msk rfgfjvfc `

a`nckut kd taf rfsumts kd taf qu`ntjt`tjvf stucy wjta taf hkst jhpkrt`nt tkpjgs `s

`ccrfssfc jn taf suehjssjkns. Jn taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws, mhkst mm bury hfh-

efrs fxprfssfc ta`t tafy `pprfgj`tfc taf strugturf prkvjcfc ey taf typkmkoy eut

ta`t tafy cjc nkt òrff kn taf gkntfnt `nc strugturf kd taf typkmkoy. Curjno taf

bury hfftjnos taf p`nfm cfgjcfc ta`t taf typkmkoy sakumc nkt ef p`rt kd taf bury

rfpkrt efgùsf jt w`s knmy n ssfsshfnt hf`ns nc nkt n kutgkhf kd tafjr fv`mu-

`tjkn prkgfss. Nfjtafr taf wjnnfrs nkr taf efst djdty rfprfsfnt taf cjstrjeutjkn kdtaf suehjssjkn kvfr taf typfs. afsf djncjnos suoofst ta`t ` strugturf g`n afmp tk



50? -

jntfrprft `nc prkgfss suehjssjkns eut ta`t tajs strugturf ckfs nkt ùtkh`tjg`mmy

cftfrhjnf taf cjrfgtjkn kr typkmkojfs kd taf kutgkhf kd taf bury `ssfsshfnt.

Jn mjnf wjta taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn taf suehjssjkns wfrf `ssfssfc `nkny-

hkusmy. af djncjnos sakw ta`t efgùsf tafrf w`s nk jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf cf-

sjonfr prkvjcfc, taf bury hfhefrs dkgusfc kn taf gkntfnt kd taf jcf` jnstf`c kd

taf e`giorkunc kd jts grf`tkr. @mtakuoa taf bury hfhefrs wfrf skhftjhfs vfrygurjkus èkut taf e`giorkunc kd taf p`rtjgjp`nts, tafy fxpmjgjtmy w`ntfc tk w`jt

wjta kpfnjno taf c`tè`sf ta`t mjnifc taf rfojstr`tjkn nuhefrs tk taf p`rtjgjp`nts

untjm dtfr tafy cfgjcfc ekut taf wjnnfrs. Jn tajs rfspfgt gkhpftjtjkn js nkt taf

s`hf s tfncfr. Jn tfncfr gmjfnt sf`rgafs dkr ` p`rtnfr tk durtafr cfvfmkp jcf`s

dkr ` eujmcjno prkbfgt, wajmf `n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn `jhs `t gkmmfgtjno cfsjon gkn-

gfpts jncfpfncfntmy kd taf pfrskn efajnc taf cfsjon. Jn `n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn `

rfm`tjvfmy sh`mm `hkunt kd hknfy js `w`rcfc, `nc gkhp`rfc tk sjonjno ` gkntr`gt

taf jhpmjg`tjkns kd ` cfgjsjkn èkut taf wjnnfr `rf mjhjtfc. ajs rfdmfgts taf nffc

tk `ssurf taf qu`mjdjg`tjkns kd taf cfsjonfr. Jn ` tfncfr taf `w`rc pa`sf sakumc

ef dkgusfc kn taf kddfr jnstf`c kd taf qu`mjdjg`tjkns kd taf tfncfrfr. ajs jhpmjfsta`t `nknyhjty wkumc sujt taf `w`rc pa`sf eut nkt taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf. @t taf

s`hf tjhf, taf tafkry `nc rfsumts drkh taf tfncfr g`sfs sakw ta`t `n kddfr `mw`ys

gknsjsts kd ` ‑p`giòf‚ kd taf pfrskn, taf prkcugt `nc taf djrh (sff Ga`ptfr 4.?).

Nfxt tk ta`t jt w`s dkunc ta`t taf pfrskn`m fxpm`n`tjkn kd taf cfsjonfr jngrf`sfs

taf uncfrst`ncjno kd taf prkpks`m. ajs hf`ns ta`t taf rkmf kd `nknyhjty curjno

` tfncfr jn `rgajtfgturf rfqujrfs durtafr rfsf`rga.

@c 4) Cftfrhjnjno `nc g`rryjno kut taf rumfs kd taf o`hf

af gkhpftjtjkn rumfs cftfrhjnf taf rumfs kd taf o`hf dkr ` gkhpftjtjkn. Jn tajs

g`sf taf usf kd taf Ikhp`s hkcfm grf`tfc taf strugturf `nc kvfrvjfw kd taf jssufs

dkr taf cfvfmkphfnt kd ` gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf. Akwfvfr, taf prkbfgt tf`h

`msk fxpfrjfngfc ta`t taf usf kd ` hkcfm gkumc wfìfn taf spfgjdjg ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

kd taf gkhpftjtjkn `nc ajcf pkssjemf wfìnfssfs kr jhpfrdfgtjkns jn taf hkcfm.

Knf kd tafsf jssufs gkngfrnfc taf p`yhfnt kd taf prjzf hknfy. af prkbfgt tf`h

a`c cfgjcfc tk rfmy kn taf hkcfm dkr tajs jssuf eut rfoum`tjkns èkut T@ a`c

ga`nofc. af stffrjno tf`h a`c bust `pprkvfc taf ckguhfnts kd taf prkbfgt tf`h

wafn jt efg`hf gmf`r ta`t taf nfw T@ rfoum`tjkns wkumc mf`c tk `n jngrf`sf kd

taf eucoft. afsf djncjnos jncjg`tf ta`t taf usf kd ` prf-cfvfmkpfc prkgfcurf js

knmy `pprkprj`tf jd taf prkbfgt tf`h js èmf tk cftfgt nfgfss`ry `cbusthfnts `nc

taf stffrjno gkhhjttff a`s taf fxpfrtjsf tk bucof taf rjsis dkr taf kro`njs`tjkn.

ajs rfqujrfs spfgjdjg sijmms `nc up-tk-c`tf inkwmfcof èkut rfoum`tjkns `nc gkn-

vfntjkns jn ` prkdfssjkn`m djfmc.

af ‑pm`yjno djfmc‚ kd gkhpftjtjkn js cftfrhjnfc ey taf cfsjon cfgjsjkns. af

prkbfgt tf`h fxpfrjfngfc curjno jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs ta`t

skhf kd taf vjkm`tjkns kd taf rumfs, suga `s hjssjno rfojstr`tjkn nuhefr, cjc nkt

jndmufngf taf pm`yjno djfmc kd taf gkhpftjtjkn eut knmy gùsfc `chjnjstr`tjvf js-

sufs. Ktafr rumfs `gtu`mmy gùsfc cfvj`tjkns jn taf pm`yjno djfmc, dkr fx`hpmf nkt

èmf tk gkhp`rf taf suehjssjkns efgùsf kd ` cjddfrfngf jn taf sg`mf mfvfms kd taf

siftgafs. ajs r`jsfc twk jssufs ta`t rfqujrfc sfnsfhìjno curjno taf jhpmfhfn-



501

t`tjkn prkgfss2 0) Akw strjgtmy sakumc taf rumfs ef `ppmjfc; `nc 5) Ck taf rumfs

nfo`tjvfmy jndmufngf taf ga`r`gtfr kd taf gkhpftjtjkn;

Dkr taf prkbfgt tf`h jt w`s cjddjgumt tk fstjh`tf taf fddfgts kd ` gfrt`jn rumf kn

taf nuhefr nc ijnc kd p`rtjgjp`nts nc suehjssjkns. Dkr fx`hpmf, taf kemjo`tjkn

tk ef rfojstfrfc jn n rgajtfgt rfojstfr gkumc a`vf saut mkt kd (jntfrn`tjkn`m) prk-

dfssjkn`ms kut, eut jt js rfh`jns ungfrt`jn akw h`ny pktfntj`m p`rtjgjp`nts wjmm ef`ddfgtfc ey tajs rfqujrfhfnt untjm `dtfr taf cf`cmjnf kd rfojstr`tjkn. Fvfn wjta taf

`v`jmèmf fxpfrtjsf wjtajn taf prkbfgt tf`h ` mkt kd tjhf w`s spfnc kn akw tk cf-

sjon taf gkhpftjtjkn jn krcfr tk rf`ga taf `jhs kd stjhum`tjkn grf`tjvjty, rfsf`rga

`nc cfe`tf. afrfdkrf jt g`n ef gkngmucfc ta`t ` g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn js `mw`ys `

oufss, `nc jt js knmy `dtfr taf suehjssjkn cf`cmjnf ta`t ` gmjfnt efgkhfs `w`rf kd

taf rfspknsf kd taf h`rift. afn kddjgj`mmy taf hkhfnt a`s p`ssfc tk hìf `c-

busthfnts tk taf rfqujrfhfnts `nc suehjssjkn dkrh`t. \`rtjgjp`nts a`vf tk cfgjcf

dkr tafhsfmvfs jd tafy dffm taf e`m`ngf eftwffn gksts `nc efnfdjts js wkrta tìjno

taf rjsi `nc jnvfsthfnt kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn. _f akpfc dkr ` rfspknsf kd `rkunc 76<

suehjssjkns eut cjc nkt fxpfgt taf gkhpftjtjkn tk a`vf suga ` m`rof jhp`gt jntaf djfmc. Jn mjnf wjta kur fxpfgt`tjkns nkt h`ny kd taf h`bkr pm`yfrs jn taf djfmc

bkjnfc taf gkhpftjtjkn, eut ekta taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc taf bury gknsjcfrfc ` gkh-

pftjtjkn wjta 3?0 suehjssjkns `nc ` mkt kd hfcj` `ttfntjkn ` vfry suggfssdum kut-

gkhf. afrfdkrf taf bury cfgjcfc tk bucof `mm suehjssjkns ta`t gkumc ef prjntfc

`nc prfsfntfc `n jcf` jnmjnf wjta taf `jhs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn.

af gkhpftjtjkn rumfs kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf prkvjcfc rkkh dkr jngrf`s-

jno jnsjoats ta`t wkumc rfspfgt taf pksjtjvf rfspknsf kn taf g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn.

@ strjgt mfo`m prkgurfhfnt gkntfxt ckfs nkt `mmkw dkr taf s`hf ijnc kd dmfxjejmjty.

Jn krcfr tk `ssurf gkhpftjtjkn taf tfncfr rfoum`tjkns ck nkt `mmkw mfss ta`n djvf

tfncfrfrs jn taf `w`rc pa`sf eut ` gmjfnt js drff tk jnvjtf `s h`ny tfncfrfrs `stafy w`nt `s mkno `s tafy dumdjm taf rfqujrfhfnts. Curjno ` tfncfr taf ga`jr kd taf

bury p`nfm wkumc nkt a`vf effn èmf tk `ggfpt taf suehjssjkns ta`t cjc nkt hfft

taf rfqujrfhfnts jntk taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfcurf (èkut 61%). af nffc tk rf`gt

kn taf rfspknsf kd taf h`rift kn taf g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn w`s `msk dkunc jn taf

Wgakkm g`sf. Efgùsf kd taf m`rof `hkunt kd g`ncjc`tfs ta`t rfspkncfc tk tafjr

g`mm, taf Wgakkm Ek`rc jnvjtfc sjxta g`ncjc`tfs dkr taf `w`rc pa`sf jnstf`c kd djvf.

af nffc dkr `cbusthfnts js p`rt kd taf prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno (_fjgi, 0::6).

rust jn taf kro`njs`tjkn `msk `ppf`rfc tk ef `n jhpkrt`nt jssuf jn jhpmf-

hfnt`tjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs. Jn tajs g`sf tafrf wfrf knmy twk kddjgj`m gkh-

pm`jnts kd p`rtjgjp`nts wak gkumc nkt tr`gf tafjr suehjssjkn. afy `ssuhfc ta`ttafjr suehjssjkn a`c nkt effn `ssfssfc ey taf bury efgùsf kd ` hjstìf kd taf

prkbfgt tf`h, wajga g`n ef rfm`tfc tk trust jn taf gkhhjssjknfr. Efgùsf bury

hfftjnos a`ppfn efajnc gmksfc ckkrs, p`rtjgjp`nts nfvfr inkw dkr surf jd taf

bury pfrskn`mmy mkkifc `t tafjr suehjssjkn. Knmy taksf p`rtjgjp`nts waksf sue-

hjssjkns wfrf jngmucfc jn taf puemjg`tjkn `nc `ccrfssfc jn taf bury rfpkrt a`vf

prkkd ta`t tafjr suehjssjkn w`s fv`mu`tfc ey taf bury. af prkbfgt tf`h rfmjfc kn

taf c`tè`sf kd taf wfesjtf wafn tafy grf`tfc taf mjsts kd p`rtjgjp`nts nc taf bury

p`nfms trustfc taf prkbfgt tf`h nkt tk a`vf h`cf hjstìfs. @mm fntr`nts rfgfjvfc

`n ùtkh`tjg gkndjrh`tjkn hfssòf `dtfr suehjssjkn. Wuga ùtkh`tjg hfssòfs

`rf hkrf mjifmy tk oft mkst jn sp`h djmtfrs, yft taf prkbfgt tf`h dfmt ta`t wjta tajs



50: -

m`rof nuhefr kd suehjssjkns nkn-ùtkh`tjg prkgfssfs wkumc a`vf gùsfc hkrf

`chjnjstr`tjvf prkemfhs.

af gkhhunjg`tjkn gkumc a`vf jhprkvfc jd taf p`rty wak cfvfmkpfc taf wfe-

sjtf a`c effn p`rt kd taf prkbfgt tf`h. Kn taf ktafr a`nc taf gkhhunjg`tjkn

`hkno taf `gtkrs jn tajs g`sf sffhfc tk a`vf m`rofmy cfpfncfc kn (` m`gi kd ) gmf`r

mf`cfrsajp `nc strugturf wjtajn taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc nkt fxpmjgjtmy kn efjno `hfhefr kd taf tf`h kr nkt. af jssuf kd trust eftwffn ` gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt

`nc taf tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs js hkst mjifmy hkrf jhpkrt`nt jn tfncfr ta`n jn `n jcf`s

gkhpftjtjkn efgùsf kd taf mfo`m gknsfqufngfs kd pkssjemf hjstìfs. Jt js tafrfdkrf

pmùsjemf ta`t ` bury rfpkrt gkntrjeutfs tk ` m`rofr fxtfnt tk eujmcjno trust ta`n

` qu`ntjdjfc sgkrf efgùsf jt cjspm`ys ta`t taf bury p`nfm `gtu`mmy mkkifc `t taf

prkpks`ms.

@c ?) \rkgurfhfnt m`w jn pr`gtjgf

Efgùsf taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf w`s e`sfc kn taf Ikhp`s hkcfm `nc st`tfc `s

`n kpfn jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn, taf mfo`m gkntfxt sffhfc qujtf gmf`r. Akwfvfr, tafrfm`tjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkn tk taf Furkpf`n tfncfr kd taf duturf nfw eujmcjno

stjmm rfh`jns ` tkpjg kd cjsgussjkn. Curjno taf prfp`r`tjkn pa`sf taf prkbfgt tf`h

suspfgtfc ta`t taf mjni eftwffn taf gkhpftjtjkn `nc tfncfr wkumc ef jhpkrt`nt

tk `ttr`gt (hkrf fstèmjsafc) prkdfssjkn`ms drkh taf djfmc. Wkhf hfhefrs kd taf

bury `nc taf Cf`n trjfc tafjr vfry efst tk kddjgj`mmy gknnfgt taf kutgkhf kd tajs

gkhpftjtjkn tk taf duturf tfncfr, eut taf fxtfrn`mmy ajrfc mfo`m `cvjskr suggfssdummy

prfvfntfc tajs. af gkhpftjtjkn rumfs tafrfdkrf knmy jngmucfc ` ofnfr`m hfssòf

ta`t ”taf wjnnfrs rf fhpa`tjg`mmy jnvjtfc tk tìf p`rt jn taf (duturf) prkbfgt gkh-

pftjtjkn‘ (D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf, 5<<1). @t taf tjhf kd wrjtjno jt js stjmm unsurf

jd tafrf fvfr wjmm ef nfw eujmcjno prkbfgt. Zft taf bury hfhefrs nc p`rtjgjp`nts

stjmm fxpfgt taf wjnnfrs kd taf jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn tk efnfdjt jn taf nfxt pa`sf kd

taf prkbfgt. Jt js nkw up tk taf stffrjno gkhhjttff tk cfgjcf kn tajs h`ttfr `s

taf prkbfgt tf`h w`s cjsh`ntmfc `dtfr taf `w`rc gfrfhkny a`c tìfn pm`gf. Wk

kddjgj`mmy nk mfo`m gkhhjthfnts wfrf h`cf eut ` gmjfnt sakumc ef `w`rf ta`t ey

kro`njsjno ` gkhpftjtjkn ` gmjfnt ckfs grf`tf prkdfssjkn`m kemjo`tjkns tk taf p`r-

tjgjp`nts `nc taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc.

Curjno taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury p`nfm `nc taf ajni `ni, taf mfo`m prjn-

gjpmfs kd fqu`m trf`thfnt `nc kebfgtjvjty prkvfc tk ef ` e`rrjfr tk gkmmèkr`tjkn.

Wkhf kd taf fxpfrts ta`t wfrf jnvjtfc dkr taf bury p`nfm `nc taf ajni `ni fvfn

cfgmjnfc efgùsf tajs wkumc hf`n ta`t tafy wkumc nkt ef èmf tk p`rtjgjp`tf jn

duturf `gtjvjtjfs kd taf eujmcjno prkbfgt. Jn tajs sfnsf ` gkndmjgt eftwffn taf mfo`m

gkntfxt `nc taf `hejtjkn `nc wjsafs kd taf gmjfnt sffhfc tk a`vf kggurrfc. Jn

pr`gtjgf ` tfncfr js prfgfcfc ey nuhfrkus ktafr `gtjvjtjfs tk `n`mysf taf nffcs,

`hejtjkns `nc pkssjejmjtjfs kd ` gmjfnt gkngfrnjno taf duturf eujmcjno, suga `s

tajs jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn. Cr`wjno up ` eusjnfss g`sf kr cfvfmkpjno ` erjfd `rf bust

skhf fx`hpmfs kd `gtjvjtjfs ta`t kdtfn rfqujrf gkntrjeutjkns kd fxtfrn`m p`rtjfs

ta`t hjoat w`nt tk ef jnvkmvfc jn taf rfst kd taf prkbfgt tkk. Kd gkursf efjno

jnvkmvfc jn tafsf ijncs kd `gtjvjtjfs gkumc efnfdjt taf pktfntj`m tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs

`nc tafrfdkrf tarf`tfn taf mfo`m prjngjpmfs kd fqu`m trf`thfnt `nc kebfgtjvjty.



55<

Jn taf fnc taf prkbfgt tf`h a`c tk cfgjcf ta`t pfkpmf ta`t wfrf jnvkmvfc jn taf

ajni ni kr bury p`nfm wkumc ef fxgmucfc drkh ny duturf tfncfr dkr taf d`gum-

ty eujmcjno. Dkr taf gkhpftjtjkn nk prkhjsfs wfrf h`cf kn durtafr gkmmèkr`tjkn

wjta taf wjnnfrs. Jt rfh`jns tk ef sffn jd jncffc d`jr gkhpftjtjkn wkumc nkt a`vf

effn pkssjemf wjtakut tajs ijnc kd hf`surfs. @w`rcjno gkntr`gts tìfs pm`gf jn taf

gkntfxt kd `n kro`njs`tjkn ta`t kdtfn a`s humtjpmf `jhs `nc stìfakmcfrs tk sfrvf.Jn `mm g`sfs kd tajs rfsf`rga sfvfr`m ok`ms wfrf jcfntjdjfc uncfrmyjno taf tfncfr kr

gkhpftjtjkn. af gmjfnts kdtfn `msk a`c hkrf str`tfojg ok`ms jn hjnc `nc usfc taf

tfncfrs tk jhprkvf taf rfm`tjknsajps wjta jhpkrt`nt stìfakmcfrs. Wtr`tfojg efa`v-

jkur js jnafrfnt tk ckjno eusjnfss cfgjsjkns eut prkgurfhfnt m`w ckfs nkt sffh tk

tìf tafsf ijncs kd `jhs jntk `ggkunt.

?.3.7 Wtìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt

af jnvkmvfhfnt kd stìfakmcfrs w`s `msk jn tajs g`sf `n jhpkrt`nt fmfhfnt.

Djncjnos kn taf jssuf kd stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt jn taf gkhpftjtjkn r`jsfc taf

dkmmkwjno jssufs2

Ufm`tjkn eftwffn p`rtjgjp`tkry hf`ns `nc gkhpftjtjkn `jhs.

f`h gkhpksjtjkn `nc p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn cfgjsjkn hìjno.

Fxpfrtjsf `nc gmjfnt kemjo`tjkns.

@c 0) Ufm`tjkn eftwffn p`rtjgjp`tkry hf`ns `nc gkhpftjtjkn `jhs

af prjh`ry kebfgtjvfs kd taf D`gumty g`sf wfrf tk gkmmfgt jnspjr`tjkn dkr ` nfw

eujmcjno erjfd, tk fngkuròf grf`tjvjty hkno taf ykunofr ofnfr`tjkn, nc tk stjh-

um`tf rfsf`rga `nc ofnfr`m cfe`tf. Efgùsf kd taf trfhfnckus fddfgt kd taf djrf kn

taf mkg`m `rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty, taf gkhpftjtjkn w`s `msk kro`njsfc tk suppkrtfhpmkyffs, (dkrhfr) stucfnts, `nc taf prkdfssjkn`ms jn taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf jn

taf prkgfss kd gkpjno wjta taf mkss kd taf kmc eujmcjno. af Cf`n tafrfdkrf w`ntfc

tk dkgus kn taf duturf `nc jnvkmvf `s h`ny pfkpmf `s pkssjemf. Jcf`s èkut taf

jnvkmvfhfnt kd taf prfss wfrf str`tfojg`mmy dkrhum`tfc drkh taf efojnnjno kd taf

gkhpftjtjkn prfp`r`tjkn pfrjkc. \rkdfssjkn`m `rgajtfgts, fhpmkyffs kd taf d`gumty

`nc `rgajtfgtur`m stucfnts wfrf taf h`jn stìfakmcfrs. Ajstkrjg`mmy gkhpftjtjkns

a`vf prkvfn tk ef ` erfìtarkuoa dkr sfvfr`m `rgajtfgts. afrfdkrf fvfry `rgajtfgt

sjmfntmy akpfs ta`t tafjr t`mfnts wjmm ef cjsgkvfrfc ey ` rfnkwnfc bury. af prkbfgt

tf`h cjc nkt gknsgjkusmy cfsjon ` p`rtjgjp`tjkn str`tfoy dkr taf stìfakmcfrs kd taf

g`sf, eut cjc cfvfmkp sfvfr`m p`rtjgjp`tjkn kptjkns wjta cjddfrfnt mfvfms kd jndmu-

fngf kn taf djn`m cfgjsjkn èkut ` nfw D`gumty eujmcjno (sff èmf ?.6).

Jn taf tèmf ` cjstjngtjkn js cjspm`yfc eftwffn cfgjsjvf (0), `cvjskry (5), `nc

jndkrh`tjvf rjoats (7) kn taf cjrfgtjkn kd taf duturf eujmcjno (D), taf gkhpftjtjkn

rumfs (GU), `nc taf gkhpftjtjkn kutgkhf (GK). Dkr hkst stìfakmcfrs, cfgjsjvf

kr `cvjskry kptjkns wfrf knmy pkssjemf ey pfrskn`m jnvjt`tjkn (f.o. p`rt kd taf

prkbfgt tf`h kr bury p`nfm). Ktafr prkdfssjkn`ms jn taf djfmc gkumc knmy jndmufngf

cfgjsjkn hìfrs ey suehjttjno tafjr jcf`s dkr taf cjrfgtjkn kd taf duturf d`gumty

tk taf gkhpftjtjkn. Bury cfgjsjkns wfrf ejncjno. af stffrjno gkhhjttff cjc nkt

a`vf ` s`y jn taf gkhpftjtjkn `s suga, eut cjc a`vf tk gknsjcfr taf rfsumts kd taf

gkhpftjtjkn `nc ajni `ni tk `cvjsf taf ek`rc kd taf Vnjvfrsjty. Krjojn`mmy taf

0.

5.

7.



550 -

Cf`n kd taf d`gumty w`s ` hfhefr kd taf bury p`nfm, eut efgùsf kd ajs jmmnfss taf

d`gumty w`s knmy rfprfsfntfc ey ` stucfnt, ` prkdfsskr `nc `n fhfrjtus prkdfsskr.

@p`rt drkh taf Cf`n, nfjtafr taf stffrjno gkhhjttff nkr taf ek`rc kd taf unjvfr-

sjty wfrf p`rt kd taf bury p`nfm. J a`vf taf dffmjno tajs w`s h`jnmy efgùsf kd str`-

tfojg nc pkmjtjg`m rf`skns. Jn taf fnc, taf prjh`ry gkhpftjtjkn jhs (jnspjr`tjkn,

stjhum`tjkn `nc cfe`tf) `nc ajccfn kro`njs`tjkn`m prkbfgt `jhs (prkvjcjno ` pk-

cjuh dkr stìfakmcfrs, jngrf`sjno taf D`gumty‚s jntfrn`tjkn`m rfput`tjkn) sffhfc

tk a`vf strfnotafnfc f`ga ktafr. ajs rfsumtfc jn `n kvfrwafmhjno `hkunt kd

ajoa qu`mjty jcf`s dkr taf duturf d`gumty `s wfmm `s trfhfnckus jntfrn`tjkn`m fxpk-

surf kd taf d`gumty tk stucfnts `nc prkdfssjkn`ms.

af djrf jn taf eujmcjno `t taf Efrmòfwfo `nc durtafr djn`ngj`m cfvfmkphfnt

wjtajn taf kro`njs`tjkn ga`nofc taf pkjnt kd cfp`rturf kd taf rf`m fst`tf str`tfoy

kd Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty. @t taf tjhf kd wrjtjno, Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty js stjmm rfgknsjcfrjnojts rf`m fst`tf str`tfoy e`sfc kn taf rfsumts kd taf ajni `ni `nc taf jcf`s gkh-

pftjtjkn. Hkst kd taf jcf`s kd taf gkhpftjtjkn gkngfntr`tfc kn taf cfsjon kd taf

nfw d`gumty eujmcjno `nc cjc nkt gknsjcfr durtafr jhpmjg`tjkns kn g`hpus mfvfm

kr èkut fcug`tjkn`m str`tfojfs. af rfsumts kd taf ajni `ni cjc jngmucf ` mkt

kd jcf`s `nc str`tfojfs kn g`hpus mfvfm (@rifstfjbn, cfn Afjbfr, T`ncf \uttf, &

Tkmifr, 5<<:). afrfdkrf gkhpftjtjkn p`rtjgjp`nts gkumc a`vf taf jhprfssjkn ta`t

taf rfsumts kd taf gkhpftjtjkn hjoat a`vf a`c ` mfssfr jhp`gt kn gurrfnt cfgjsjkn

hìjno èkut taf rf`m fst`tf str`tfoy. Nfvfrtafmfss, taf d`gt ta`t taf bury p`nfm

cfgjcfc tk sfmfgt twk wjnnfrs wak prkpksfc tk rfnkv`tf taf Bumj`n`m``n eujmcjno

stjhum`tfc taf cjsgussjkn èkut taf pkssjejmjty tk st`y `t taf tfhpkr`ry mkg`tjkn.

Wtìfakmcfrs nc kptjkns dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn2

0 8 cfgjsjvf rjoats

5 8 `cvjskry rjoats

7 8 efjno jndkrhfc `nc prkvjcf suppkrt

GU 8 Gkhpftjtjkn rumfs

GK 8 Gkhpftjtjkn kutgkhfD 8 Duturf cjrfgtjkn kd D`gumty ggkhhkc`tjkn

W t f f r j n o g k h

h j t t f f ( e y j n v j t ` t j k n )

S a j n i S ` n i ( e

y j n v j t ` t j k n )

\ r k b f g t t f ` h (

e y j n v j t ` t j k n )

B u r y p ` n f m ( e y j n v j t ` t j k n )

G k h p f t j t j k n

p ` r t j g j p ` n t

@ n ` m y s j s t f ` h

s ( e y j n v j t ` t j k n ` n c

v k m u n t ` r j m y )

J n v j t f c k p f n

` g t j v j t j f s ( f . o . ff n ` m

s y h p k s j u h )

K p f n ` g t j v j t j f s ( ` w ` r c g f r f h k n y ,

f x a j e j t j k n , p u e m j g ` t j k n )

Gkhhjssjknjno ekcy (Fxfgutjvf Ek`rc) 5-D 5-D

Ufprfsfnt`tjvfs kd gmjfnt (f.o. D`gumty st`) 0-GU 0-GK9 5-D

Wa`rfakmcfrs nc supfrvjskrs (f.o. Hjnjstry,

hunjgjp`mjtjfs)

5-D 7

C`jmy usfrs (f.o. fhpmkyffs, stucfnts) 0-GU 0-GK9 5-D 5-D 7 7 7

Nkn-c`jmy usfrs (f.o. muhnj, fxga`nof stucfnts &

prkdfssjkn`ms)

0-GK9 5-D 5-D 7

Ufprfsfnt`tjvf orkups (f.o. EN@, stucfnt ek`rc) 7 7

Sèmf ?.6 Kvfrvjfw kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn kptjkns `nc jnufngf kn taf duturf eujmcjno



555

Jn B`nu`ry 5<0< taf Fxfgutjvf Ek`rc cfgjcfc ta`t taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf

wkumc rfh`jn jn taf eujmcjno `t Bumj`n`m``n untjm durtafr nktjgf, `nc ekuoat taf

eujmcjno e`gi drkh taf rf`m fst`tf cfvfmkpfr tafy krjojn`mmy a`c skmc jt tk. @ gur-

rfnt m`gi kd djn`ngj`m hf`ns `nc taf pksjtjvf fxpfrjfngfs wjta taf eujmcjno `p-

pf`rfc tk a`vf effn taf h`jn rf`skns dkr tajs cfgjsjkn. Akwfvfr, taf gkhpftjtjkn

gkntrjeutfc tk taf sfnsfhìjno prkgfss kd taf Fxfgutjvf ek`rc `nc taf Cf`n kdtaf d`gumty.

@c 5) Sf`h gkhpksjtjkn `nc p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn cfgjsjkn hìjno

@msk jn tajs g`sf taf prkbfgt tf`h, taf stffrjno gkhhjttff `nc taf bury p`nfm wfrf

taf hkst jhpkrt`nt `gtkrs. Akwfvfr, `s cjspm`yfc jn emf ?.6, ` mkt kd ktafr stìf-

akmcfrs wfrf jnvkmvfc jn taf kro`njs`tjkn nc jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkn.

afkrftjg`mmy ` mkt kd gknnfgtjkns `nc rkmfs `rf pkssjemf tk mft pfkpmf p`rtjgjp`tf

jn cfgjsjkn hìjno. r`cjtjkn`mmy gkhpftjtjkn bury p`nfms h`jnmy gknsjst kd `rgaj-

tfgt fxpfrts. af bury p`nfms ta`t `gtfc `s sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc gkhhjttffs jn taf

tarff tfncfr g`sfs gknsjstfc kd hjxturf kd fxpfrts, chjnjstr`tkrs nc rfprfsfnt`-tjvfs kd gfrt`jn stìfakmcfr orkups (sff Ga`ptfr 4.6). Jn gurrfnt pr`gtjgf skhf

pfkpmf `ssuhf ta`t `rgajtfgt fxpfrts `rf efst èmf tk bucof taf qu`mjty kd cfsjon,

wajmf ktafrs `rf gknvjngfc ta`t taf rfspknsjemf cfgjsjkn hìfrs drkh taf gmjfnt

kro`njs`tjkn sakumc ef pfrskn`mmy jnvkmvfc, fvfn jd tafy ck nkt a`vf ckh`jn spf-

gjdjg fxpfrtjsf èkut `rgajtfgturf. Jn taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf taf tfncfr `nc taf

gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkns wfrf bkjnfc efgùsf taf gmjfnt rfprfsfnt`tjvfs wfrf jn taf

h`jn msk fxpfrts jn taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc. Jn taf tfncfr g`sfs taf e`m`ngf eftwffn

nuhefr kd fxpfrts `nc ktafr stìfakmcfrs `ppf`rfc tk rfdmfgt taf `ttjtucf kd taf

gkhhjssjknjno ekcy tkw`rcs taf pafnkhfnkn kd bucojno cfsjon qu`mjty.

af c`t` `msk suoofst ta`t taf jntfrfst kd stìfakmcfrs tk ef jnvkmvfc jn ` bury

p`nfm `msk rfm`tfc tk taf pktfntj`m jhp`gt kd taf cfgjsjkn (sff Ga`ptfr 4.?.7). af

jhp`gt kd `w`rcjno ` gkntr`gt js m`rofr ta`n taf jhp`gt kd cjvjcjno prjzf hknfy,

wajga gkumc fxpm`jn way taf hfhefrs kd taf stffrjno gkhhjttff kd taf D`gumty

g`sf wfrf mfss jntfrfstfc jn p`rtjgjp`tjno `s burkrs ta`n jn tfncfr sjtu`tjkns. Dkr

tajs s`hf rf`skn taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury p`nfm gkumc a`vf `msk gùsfc hkrf

cjsgussjkn eftwffn taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc taf stffrjno gkhhjttff. Efgùsf bury

hfhefrs nc tafjr djrhs rf usu`mmy fxgmucfc drkh p`rtjgjp`tjkn, jt js usu`mmy a`rc

tk `ttr`gt `rgajtfgt fxpfrts dkr ` bury p`nfm. Jn tajs g`sf taf bury hfhefrs wfrf

wjmmjno tk ojvf up tafjr ga`ngfs `t wjnnjno taf gkhpftjtjkn jn krcfr tk ef p`rt kd

taf bury p`nfm. Jd tajs gkhpftjtjkn wkumc a`vf effn ` tfncfr jt prkeèmy wkumc

a`vf effn hkrf cjddjgumt tk djnc fxpfrts dkr taf bury p`nfm. Hkrf mf`cjno prkdfs-

sjkn`m djrhs hjoat a`vf p`rtjgjp`tfc. ajs sakws ta`t taf jhs nc jhpmjg`tjkns kd

` tfncfr jndmufngf taf `gtkrs ta`t tìf p`rt `nc taf pksjtjkn kd taf stìfakmcfrs.

af djncjnos kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf jncjg`tf ta`t taf bury p`nfm cjc nkt

fxpfrjfngf taf s`hf tfnsjkns eftwffn taf mfo`m kemjo`tjkns `nc taf gmjfnt fxpfg-

t`tjkns `s dkunc jn taf tfncfr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr 4.?.3. Drkh taf efojnnjno kd taf

gkhpftjtjkn taf prkbfgt tf`h `ssuhfc ta`t taf bury p`nfm wkumc a`vf cfgjsjvf

rjoats èkut taf prjzf hknfy. ajs hf`nt ta`t rfspknsjejmjtjfs wfrf cfmfo`tfc tk

`gtkrs ta`t wfrf nkt p`rt kd taf gkhhjssjknjno ekcy. ajs w`s nkt pfrgfjvfc `s



557 -

` tarf`t efgùsf taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd taf bury hfhefrs w`s gknsjcfrfc `s `

qu`mjty ou`r`ntff. Jt g`n `msk ef sffn `s p`rt kd taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn ta`t taf

grjtfrj` st`tfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs wfrf nkt usfc `s jnput dkr cfgjsjkn h`trjx

e`sfc kn jncjvjcu`m kr gkmmfgtjvf bucofhfnts kd taf bury hfhefrs. Jt w`s `mhkst

tìfn dkr or`ntfc ta`t ` bury rfpkrt wkumc ef cr`wn up e`sfc kn taf cjsgussjkns

jn taf bury hfftjno. ajs sakws taf efnfdjts kd ` prkvfn gkngfpt kd cfgjsjkn hì-jno wjtajn ` gfrt`jn prkdfssjkn, ` tr`cjtjkn wajga stjmm nffcs tk ef cfvfmkpfc dkr

tfncfr prkgfcurfs.

@c 7) Fxpfrtjsf `nc gmjfnt kemjo`tjkns

af g`sf kd D`gumty Eujmcjno js unjquf efgùsf kd taf cjrfgt gknnfgtjkn eftwffn

taf n`turf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn `nc taf gkrf `gtjvjtjfs kd taf gmjfnt. af mfvfm kd

fxpfrtjsf kd taf c`jmy usfrs kd taf duturf eujmcjno w`s gknsfqufntmy rfm`tjvfmy ajoa

`nc tafy wfrf èmf tk bkjn taf gkhpftjtjkn. Jn taf cfsjon kd taf p`rtjgjp`tjkn

kptjkns nk spfgjdjg `ttfntjkn w`s p`jc tk taf cjddfrfnt mfvfms kd fxpfrtjsf kd taf

stìfakmcfrs jn rfm`tjkn tk tafjr jnvkmvfhfnt jn taf prkgfss eut curjno taf prfp`-r`tjkn kd taf bury `ssfsshfnt suppkrt gkumc f`sjmy ef dkunc wjtajn taf kro`njs`-

tjkn. Kddfrjno tafsf kppkrtunjtjfs dkr fhpmkyffs `nc stucfnts jngrf`sfc taf p`r-

tjgjp`tjkn kptjkns. @msk jn gkhpksjno taf prkbfgt tf`h taf `v`jmèmf rfskurgfs

wjtajn taf (nftwkri kd taf) kro`njs`tjkn fxpfrtjsf wfrf usfc. @s ` dkrhfr Gajfd

Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt taf Cf`n w`s `w`rf kd taf pktfntj`m kd ` gkhpftjtjkn, taf

rfoum`tjkns nc tr`cjtjkns, nc af dfmt fntausj`stjg ekut grf`tjno tajs kppkrtunjty

dkr taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf. af prkbfgt tf`h gkumc eujmc kn tajs fxpfrjfngf jn

gknsjcfrjno taf v`rjkus p`rtjgjp`tjkn kptjkns, wajga w`s vfry afmpdum.

Jn taf tfncfr g`sfs kd Ga`ptfr 4 taf gmjfnts wfrf nkt vfry d`hjmj`r wjta (tfn-

cfr) gkhpftjtjkns nc rgajtfgturf jn ofnfr`m. Jt w`s dkunc ta`t wajmf hkst puemjg

gmjfnts ck a`vf ` spfgj`m purga`sf, prkgurfhfnt, kr rf`m fst`tf cfp`rthfnt tafy

stjmm cfgjcfc tk ajrf ` gknsumt`nt dkr taf spfgjdjg gkhpftfngfs nffcfc dkr `rgajtfgt

sfmfgtjkns. af rfsumts kd taf g`sfs jncjg`tf ta`t taf pfrgfptjkn kd taf kppkrtunj-

tjfs ta`t tfncfr g`n kddfr nc taf v`jmèmf suppkrt wjtajn taf kro`njs`tjkn gkumc

ga`nof taf `pprk`ga kd taf prkbfgt. Jn taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf, taf Wgakkm `nc

taf Gjty A`mm g`sf taf gmjfnt `mm s`w ` mkt kd kppkrtunjtjfs `nc trjfc tk rf`mjsf tafjr

`hejtjkns jn taf (tfncfr) gkhpftjtjkn. Jn taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf, wkrijno wjta

fxpfrjfngfc `nc cffpmy jnvkmvfc stìfakmcfrs `msk grf`tfc ` mkt kd fxpfgt`tjkns

èkut taf qu`mjty kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. af gkhpftjtjkn tafrfdkrf `msk a`c `n fx-

fhpm`ry dungtjkn, wajga grf`tfc `ccjtjkn`m prfssurf kn taf wkri kd taf prkbfgt

tf`h `nc taf bury p`nfm. @mm bury hfhefrs st`tfc jn taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws

ta`t tafy wfrf s`tjsdjfc èkut taf mfvfm kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn ey taf stìfakmcfr orkups.

@t taf s`hf tjhf tafy cjc nkt sffh tk ef vfry jntfrfstfc jn tajs jssuf, kr jn taf mfv-

fm kd taf rfqujrfhfnts sft dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rfoum`tjkns. afy

sffhfc tk gknsjcfr p`rtjgjp`tjkn tk ef ` ojvfn jn `rgajtfgtur`m gumturf2 gkhpftjno

jn ` gkhpftjtjkn kddfrs ` mkt kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn kptjkns `mrf`cy. af gmjfnt sfts taf

rumfs `nc taf bury hfhefrs gkhpmy wjta tafsf rumfs, kn taf gkncjtjkn ta`t tafy

`rf èmf tk ck tafjr bke prkpfrmy. @t taf tjhf kd wrjtjno, hkst rfsjst`ngf èkut taf

gkhpftjtjkn `hkno `muhnj, stucfnts `nc st`dd rfm`tfc tk taf m`gi kd gkhhunjg`-



553

tjkn drkh taf unjvfrsjty h`nòfhfnt èkut taf `ggkhhkc`tjkn str`tfoy dkr taf

d`gumty `nc taf dkmmkw-up kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. E`sfc kn tafsf djncjnos jt g`n ef

gkngmucfc ta`t `t mf`st stìfakmcfrs sakumc ef wfmm jndkrhfc èkut taf cfvfmkp-

hfnts `nc dkmmkw-up kd taf gkhpftjtjkn.

?.3.3 Cfgjsjkn prkgfcurfaf prfvjkus sfgtjkns `ccrfssfc taf cfgjsjkns ta`t wfrf h`cf jn taf prfp`r`tjkn

`nc cfsjon pa`sf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. ajs sfgtjkn dkgusfs kn taf ssfsshfnt prkg-

fss kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. af kesfrv`tjkns `nc jntfrvjfws èkut taf prkgfssfs kd

cfgjsjkn hìjno o`vf rf`skn tk cjsguss taf dkmmkwjno jssufs2

Cfvfmkphfnt kd `n `ssfsshfnt dr`hf.

Wtòfs kd jngrfhfnt`m cfgjsjkn hìjno.

Wuebfgtjvf ga`r`gtfr kd kebfgtjvf grjtfrj`.

Hftakcs tk fxprfss `nc bustjdy prfdfrfngfs.

Cjddfrfngfs eftwffn fxpfrts.Gknnfgtjkn eftwffn taf bury p`nfm `nc taf `jhs, grjtfrj`, djn`m cfgjsjkn kd `

gkhpftjtjkn.

@c 0) Cfvfmkphfnt kd `n `ssfsshfnt dr`hf

af mjtfr`turf kn cfgjsjkn hìjno sakwfc ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs a`vf tk cfvfmkp

` dr`hf jn krcfr tk hìf cfgjsjkns (f.o. Ef`ga & Gknnkmmy, 5<<6). af fv`mu`-

tjkn prkgfcurf s fxpm`jnfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs gknt`jnfc strjgt cjstjngtjkn

eftwffn taf `ssfsshfnt pa`sf (` gafgi ò`jnst rfqujrfhfnts `nc `n`mysjs kd jndkr-

h`tjkn) `nc `n fv`mu`tjkn pa`sf (` v`muf bucofhfnt èkut cfsjon qu`mjty e`sfc

kn cjddfrfnt ijncs kd `ssfsshfnt). Knmy taf bury w`s fntjtmfc tk hìf bucofhfntsèkut taf qu`mjty kd taf suehjssjkns `nc tafjr cfgjsjkns wfrf ejncjno. af bury

p`nfm cjc nkt a`vf `n `gtjvf rkmf jn prfp`rjno `nc `ssfssjno taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs

nkr taf suehjssjkns. Curjno taf gafgi ò`jnst taf rfqujrfhfnts taf prkbfgt gkkr-

cjn`tkrs cfvfmkpfc sfnsf kd cjrfgtjkn ekut taf suehjssjkns ey ssfssjno taf djrst

0< kr 5< suehjssjkns tkoftafr. Cfgjsjkns a`c tk ef h`cf èkut wafn tk `pprkvf

taf suehjssjkn kn ` gfrt`jn tkpjg kr nkt. ajs w`s gkncugtfc jn tarff g`tfokrjfs2

‑yfs‚, ‑ckuet‚, `nc ‑nk‚. Cuf tk taf m`rof nuhefr kd suehjssjkns, `dtfr taf djrst 6<

suehjssjkns, taf t`sis wfrf cjvjcfc `hkno taf twk prkbfgt gkkrcjn`tkrs.

@ tf`h kd 56 vkmuntffr fhpmkyffs jncjvjcu`mmy `n`mysfc `mm suehjssjkns wjta

rfspfgt tk akw tafy cf`mt wjta taf tafhfs `nc rfqujrfhfnts jn taf gkhpftjtjkn

erjfd. afy usfc `n jnvfntkry mjst cfvfmkpfc ey taf prkbfgt tf`h jn gkmmèkr`tjkn

wjta taf ga`jr kd taf bury. af jnvfntkry mjst w`s fxpm`jnfc curjno `n jntrkcugtkry

hfftjno kd taf prkbfgt tf`h wjta taf hfhefr kd taf vkmunt`ry tf`h ta`t gkumc

`ttfnc. af rfsumts kd taf `n`mysjs wfrf gkmmfgtfc jn ` c`tè`sf `nc `n`mysfc ey

twk stucfnt `ssjst`nts. af mfvfm kd cft`jm kd `n`mysjs `nc `hkunt kd tjhf spfnt

kn f`ga fntry cjddfrfc orf`tmy pfr fhpmkyff `nc taf rfmjèjmjty kd taf `n`mysjs `p-

pf`rfc mjhjtfc. Akwfvfr, jt prkvjcfc ` usfdum kvfrvjfw kd taf suehjssjkns `nc `

st`rtjno pkjnt dkr durtafr `n`mysjs. af rfsumts kd taf `n`mysjs wfrf cjsgussfc jn

` sh`mm gkrf tf`h kd dkur fhpmkyffs `s rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf jssufs `ccrfssfc jn

taf grjtfrj`2 ‑`rgajtfgturf‚, ‑gknstrugtjkn‚, ‑sust`jnèjmjty‚ `nc ‑fgknkhjg vjèjmjty‚.

0.

5.

7.

3.

6.4.



556 -

ajs tf`h pfrdkrhfc jts kwn `n`mysjs jn tarff hfftjnos. afjr djrst hfftjno w`s

`mhkst fntjrfmy spfnt kn cftfrhjnjno taf jh kd tafjr tf`h nc tafjr cfgjsjkn t`si.

afy h`jnmy cjsgussfc akw tk efst suppkrt taf bury2 ey cfvfmkpjno typkmkojfs,

ey cjstjnoujsajno fxgfmmfngf kn sust`jnèjmjty, fgknkhjg vjèjmjty kr `rgajtfgtur`m

qu`mjty, ey hìjno prkpks`ms kr ktafrwjsf. Jn taf fnc taf `n`mysjs tf`h prfsfntfc

taf bury wjta 06 eujmcjno typfs (sff Djourf ?.7), sujtèjmjty sgkrfs pfr fntry, nc `nkvfr`mm kvfrvjfw kd trfncs `ccrfssfc jn fcug`tjkn, rfsf`rga `nc rf`mjs`tjkn.

af èkvf djncjnos sakw ta`t `ny ijnc kd `ssfsshfnt st`rts wjta taf cfvfm-

kphfnt kd ` dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf, wajga js e`sfc kn taf `jh kd taf `ssfsshfnt jn

gkhejn`tjkn wjta taf ckguhfnts tk ef `ssfssfc. ajs hf`ns ta`t prfp`r`tjkns

kn `n `ssfsshfnt dr`hf g`n ef g`rrjfc kut efdkrfa`nc, eut taf `gtu`m `ssfsshfnt

dr`hf rfh`jns p`rt kd ` sfnsfhìjno prkgfss. Jt tafrfdkrf g`nnkt ef cfvfmkpfc

wjtakut taf prkpks`ms ta`t `rf grf`tfc jn rfspknsf tk taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd. af

prkbfgt tf`h a`c ` cjddfrfnt vjfw kn taf suehjssjkns ta`n taf `n`mysjs tf`h, `nc

taf typkmkoy kd taf `n`mysjs tf`h w`s jn taf fnc nkt usfc `s ` typkmkoy kd taf bury

prkgfss. Jn fvfry pa`sf kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss ` orkup kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs wfnttarkuoa tafjr kwn prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno. ajs strugturf `nc kutgkhf kd tafsf

prkgfssfs `rf nkt prfcjgtèmf efdkrfa`nc. Jn tajs sfnsf `ssfsshfnt gkumc ef gkh-

p`rfc tk taf prkgfss kd qu`mjt`tjvf c`t` `n`mysjs9 taf strugturf kd `n`mysjs `rjsfs

drkh taf c`t`. ajs js jn gkntr`st tk hkst rfsf`rga kn ` qu`ntjt`tjvf e`sjs, wajga

typjg`mmy gknsjsts kd tfstjno ssuhptjkns ta`t `mrf`cy oujcfc taf prkgfss kd gkmmfgt-

jno c`t`. \rkgurfhfnt m`w `ssuhfs ` qu`ntjt`tjvf prkgfss jn tajs h`ttfr, wajmf taf

djncjnos kd taf g`sfs suoofst ` qu`mjt`tjvf prkgfss. af gkhpftjtjkn rfoum`tjkns

`msk gkhpfm cfgjsjkn hìfrs tk hìf prfcjgtjkns èkut taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss eut

tafsf rf jntfrprftfc wjtajn taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn nc nkt taf mfo`m gkntfxt kd

tfncfrjno. afsf djncjnos suoofst ta`t jt js h`jnmy taf jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf rfoum`-tjkns ta`t gùsf taf pktfntj`m gkndmjgt eftwffn taf pkssjejmjtjfs nc taf jhs kd taf

gmjfnt jn hìjno cfgjsjkns èkut cfsjon qu`mjty.

Bury hfhefrs nffc ` sa`rfc `ngakr pkjnt, wajga gkumc ef prkvjcfc ey taf

gkhpftjtjkn erjfd `nc rfoum`tjkns. afkrftjg`mmy taf ga`ngf ta`t cfgjsjkn hì-

frs `ppmy taf grjtfrj` `nnkungfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs wkumc jhprkvf jd tafsf

grjtfrj` wfrf `mrf`cy p`rt kd taf dr`hf kd taf bury hfhefrs. Jn taf gurrfnt Cutga

tr`cjtjkn bury hfhefrs tfnc tk spfnc knf kr twk c`ys h`xjhuh kn cjsgussjno

taf suehjssjkns `nc cfgjcjno èkut taf wjnnfr(s). Gkntr`ry tk taf Wg`ncjn`vj`n

tr`cjtjkn (sff dkr fx`hpmf I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:), prfp`r`tjkns `rf usu`mmy nkt

cknf jn gknsumt`tjkn wjta taf dumm bury p`nfm. Jn tajs g`sf taf prkbfgt tf`h cjs-gussfc taf hkst jhpkrt`nt gkhpftjtjkn rumfs wjta taf ga`jr kd taf bury p`nfm eut

cjc nkt jnvkmvf taf ktafr bury hfhefrs fjtafr. Wfvfr`m h`jnmy pròh`tjg rf`skns

wfrf gkntrjeutf tk taf m`gi kd prfp`r`tjkn `nc `ssfsshfnt tjhf kd bury hfhefrs.

Djrst kd `mm, taf djn`m gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury rfh`jnfc ungfrt`jn untjm taf `g-

tu`m hkhfnt kd taf hfftjno, jn ktafr wkrcs untjm `dtfr taf suehjssjkns a`c effn

rfgfjvfc. Wfgkncmy hfhefrs kd taf bury wfrf ajoamy rfo`rcfc prkdfssjkn`ms `nc

tafrfdkrf eusy. Jt w`s vfry cjddjgumt tk sgafcumf ` c`tf dkr taf twk-c`y bury hfft-

jno. Jt wkumc a`vf effn fvfn a`rcfr tk pm`n ` hfftjno tk cjsguss taf grjtfrj` kr

cjsguss taf grjtfrj` wjta `mm hfhefrs jncjvjcu`mmy efdkrf taf nnkungfhfnt kd taf

gkhpftjtjkn jn Wfptfhefr. ajs p`rtmy gùsfc ey taf strjgt cf`cmjnfs dkr nnkung-



554

jno taf gkhpftjtjkn t taf Ejfnn`mf, eut djncjnos drkh taf tfncfr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr

4 sakwfc sjhjm`r pm`nnjno jssufs. af prkbfgt tf`h ntjgjp`tfc taf mjhjtfc prfp`-

r`tjkn tjhf `nc kro`njsfc ` bkjnt prfsfnt`tjkn èkut taf g`hpus `nc taf d`gumty

`t taf st`rt kd taf bury hfftjno. ajs grf`tfc ` ijnc kd sa`rfc `ngakr pkjnt `nc

n`tur`m st`rtjno pkjnt dkr taf bury hfhefrs tk jnjtj`tf tafjr `ssfsshfnt prkgfss.

Mfss jnvkmvfhfnt kd taf bury p`nfm hf`nt gknsjcfrèmy hkrf jndmufngf kd tafprkbfgt tf`h jn sfttjno up taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs `nc prfp`rjno taf bury fv`mu`-

tjkn. Jt js ofnfr`mmy `ssuhfc ta`t taf cfgjsjkn h`cf jn taf prfp`r`tjkn pa`sf kd

taf bury `ssfsshfnt `rf ijnc kd kebfgtjvf wajga jhpmjfs ta`t `ny `ssfsskr wkumc

`rrjvf t taf s`hf cfgjsjkn. Jn taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf taf ssfsshfnt kd taf sue-

hjssjkn rfqujrfhfnts `nc taf djrst `n`mysjs kd taf jssufs `ccrfssfc ey taf p`rtjgj-

p`nts wfrf cknf ey taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc taf suppkrt st`dd jn twk cjddfrfnt `n`my-

sjs tf`hs. Efgùsf kd taf prkdfssjkn`m mfvfm kd taf gmjfnt tafrf w`s hkrf suppkrt

st`dd `v`jmèmf ta`n jn taf tfncfr g`sfs kd Ga`ptfr 4. Jn taf tfncfr g`sfs tafy a`c

tk gkhpfns`tf tajs wjta fxtfrn`mmy ajrfc gknsumt`nts wak kdtfn `msk `cvjsfc taf

p`nfm hfhefrs jn `ssfssjno taf prkpks`ms. Jn tajs g`sf taf jndmufngf kd taf prkbfgttf`h kn taf fv`mu`tjkn prkgfss w`s mjhjtfc efgùsf tafrf w`s nk sfmfgtjkn pa`sf

`nc hkst bury hfhefrs wfrf fxpfrjfngfc burkrs. afrfdkrf taf p`nfm hfhefrs

wfrf èmf tk hìf ` cjstjngtjkn eftwffn taf strugturf ta`t w`s nffcfc tk grf`tf

`n kvfrvjfw kd taf suehjssjkns `nc taf `gtu`m fv`mu`tjkn prkgfss. Zft taf rfsumts

kd taf g`sfs jncjg`tf ta`t taf rkmf `nc qu`mjdjg`tjkns kd taf prkbfgt tf`h hfhefrs

sakumc ef grjtjg`mmy hknjtkrfc ey taf stffrjno gkhhjttff `nc taf bury p`nfm, ef-

gùsf tafy jhpmjgjtmy jndmufngf taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd taf gmjfnt.

@c 5) Wtòfs kd jngrfhfnt`m cfgjsjkn hìjno

af rfsumts kd taf D`gumty g`sf sakw gkhp`rèmf jtfr`tjvf pa`sfs kd cfgjsjkn hì-

jno `s dkunc jn taf tfncfr g`sfs (sff Ga`ptfr 4.?.3). Jn tajs g`sf tafrf wfrf sfvfn

bury hfhefrs jngmucjno taf ga`jr prfsfnt curjno taf twk-c`y bury hfftjno. af

prkbfgt mf`cfr `gtfc `s sfgrft`ry kd taf bury. @p`rt drkh taf ùtakr kd taf bury rf-

pkrt (`msk ùtakr kd taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd `nc st`dd hfhefr), ` st`dd hfhefr kd

taf D`gumty (ùtakr kd `n fss`y dkr taf puemjg`tjkn), taf ktafr prkbfgt gkkrcjn`tkr

(hf), nc twk stucfnt ssjst`nts nkekcy fmsf ttfncfc taf bury hfftjno. af ga`jr

kd taf bury p`nfm gmf`rmy st`tfc jn afr jntrkcugtjkn ta`t knmy taf bury hfhefrs

wkumc ef jnvkmvfc jn taf fv`mu`tjkn kd taf suehjssjkns, eut `s gkmmfòufs jt `p-

pf`rfc a`rc dkr taf utakrs kd taf bury rfpkrt nc taf fss`y tk iffp sjmfnt tarkuoa-

kut taf wakmf fv`mu`tjkn prkgfss. @msk curjno munga `nc erfìs taf bury hfhefrs

spkif wjta taf ktafr `ttfnc`nts. Curjno tafsf cjsgussjkns taf bury hfhefrs fx-

ga`nofc fxpfrjfngfs èkut tfncfrs `nc taf pktfntj`m jhp`gt kd gkhpftjtjkns mjif

tajs knf kn taf gurrfnt prkgurfhfnt sjtu`tjkn, wajga jmmustr`tfs taf strkno gkn-

nfgtjkn eftwffn ekta typfs kd sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs.

af rfsumts kd I`zfh`jn `nc Uônn (5<<:) cfsgrjef ` bucofhfnt prkgfss kd sjx

stòfs2 suehjssjkn gafgi, cftfrhjn`tjkn kd krcfr kd wkri, gakjgf `nc prfmjhjn`ry

bucofhfnts, prfsfnt`tjkn kd jntfrfstjno gkntrjeutjkns, r`nijno `nc cfgjsjkn hì-

jno wjta `rgajtfgtur`m grjtjgjsh. af djncjnos kd tajs g`sf `nc taf tfncfr g`sfs jn

Ga`ptfr 4 gkndjrh tafsf stòfs hkrf kr mfss kn ` ofnfr`m mfvfm, eut `msk sakw `

hkrf jngrfhfnt`m prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno drkh psygakmkojg`m pfrspfgtjvf. Jn



55? -

tajs gkhpftjtjkn taf suehjssjkn gafgi w`s cknf ey taf prkbfgt tf`h efdkrf taf

bury hfftjno st`rtfc, eut taf ga`jr cfgjcfc tk `mmkw `mm suehjssjkn dkr `ssfsshfnt

ey taf bury. af cftfrhjn`tjkn kd krcfr kd wkri w`s cknf ey taf prkbfgt tf`h jn

gknsumt`tjkn wjta taf ga`jr kd taf bury p`nfm. af prkor`hhf kd taf bury hfftjno

w`s e`sfc kn taf djncjnos kd taf prfvjkus g`sfs (sff Djourf 4.4) èkut taf prkgfss

kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. afrfdkrf taf hfhefrs kd taf bury wfnt tarkuoa prkgfss kd20) jnjtj`mjz`tjkn, 5) pfrgfptjkn, 7) jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnt, `nc 3) orkup cfgjsjkn

hìjno.

af pjgturfs jn Djourf ?.6 cjspm`y taf st`rt kd taf bury hfftjno wjta ` ofnfr`m

prfsfnt`tjkn (mfdt), jncjvjcu`m pfrgfptjkn `nc bucofhfnt (hjccmf), `nc taf orkup

cjsgussjkns (rjoat). Curjno taf twk c`ys ta`t taf bury hft tafsf dkur pa`sfs wfrf

rfpf`tfc jn sfvfr`m jngrfhfnt`m rkuncs kd cfgjsjkn hìjno jn krcfr tk hìf sfnsf

kd taf suehjssjkns nc taf jh kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. Gakjgf nc prfmjhjn`ry bucof-

hfnt w`s cknf jn twk pa`sfs2 djrst ` rfcugtjkn tk hìf ` prfsfnt`tjkn kd jntfrfst-

jno gkntrjeutjkns pkssjemf (gkhp`rèmf tk taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd ` tfncfr), `nc

tafn ` gkhp`rjskn tk hìf ` r`nijno `hkno taf efst suehjssjkns `nc djn`m cfgj-sjkn èkut taf wjnnfr (gkhp`rèmf tk taf `w`rc pa`sf kd ` tfncfr). af prkgfss

kd taf djrst bury c`y g`n ef cfsgrjefc `s ‑sfmfgtjkn ey pksjtjvf jhprfssjkn‚ òrffc

ey skhf eut nkt `mw`ys taf h`bkrjty kd taf bury hfhefrs. af sfgknc c`y g`n

ef cfsgrjefc `s ` prkgfss kd ‑sfmfgtjkn ey gkhp`rjskn‚ e`sfc cjsgussjkn `hkno taf

p`nfm hfhefrs jn wajga taf bury hfhefrs o`vf jnput e`sfc kn tafjr kwn pfr-

gfjvfc qu`mjtjfs kd taf suehjssjkn.

af jnjtj`mjz`tjkn pa`sf g`n ef sffn `s ok`m sfttjno (Ef`ga, 0::<). Jn tajs djrst

pa`sf taf bury hfhefrs jntrkcugfc tafhsfmvfs, `nc taf ga`jr jntrkcugfc taf `jh

`nc gkntfxt kd taf gkhpftjtjkn `nc cjsgussfc taf kddjgj`m fv`mu`tjkn grjtfrj`. @

hfhefr kd taf tfhpkr`ry akusjno tf`h prfsfntfc ` sakrt cfsgrjptjkn kd taf tfh-pkr`rjmy akusjno prkgfss `nc taf gurrfnt sjtu`tjkn `t taf g`hpus. af jnjtj`mjz`-

tjkn pa`sf hkstmy `jhfc `t ok`m gm`rjdjg`tjkn `t taf efojnnjno `t ` nfw stòf eut

w`s skhftjhfs `msk p`rt kd taf fv`mu`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkns `t taf fnc kd ` prfvjkus

cfgjsjkn gygmf. af ga`jr usfc taf grjtfrj` `nc `jhs `s st`tfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn

prkor`hhf tk suppkrt tafsf `gtjvjtjfs. Curjno tajs pa`sf taf bury hfhefrs kdtfn

`ccrfssfc tafjr kpjnjkn èkut taf gkhpftjtjkn, jncjg`tjno ` gknnfgtjkn eftwffn

taf `jhs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn, `nc taf kvfr`mm jhprfssjkn kd taf suehjssjkns. afy

Djourf ?.6 Gkhhkn prfsfnt`tjkn `t taf st`rt kd taf bury hfftjno (mfdt), jncjvjcu`m pfrgfptjkn

`nc bucofhfnt kd taf pkstfrs (hjccmf) `nc orkup cjsgussjkn `hkno taf bury hfhefrs (rjoat)



551

trjfc tk rf`c taf cfgjsjkn t`si (sff E`mkoun, ft `m., 5<<1) `nc tk tr`nsm`tf taf `jhs

kd taf gmjfnt jntk taf gkhpftjtjkn gkntfxt.

af pfrgfptjkn pa`sf (sff dkr fx`hpmf Efmm, ft `m., 0::49 Ukeejns & Bucof,

5<<1) kn taf djrst c`y w`s pm`nnfc `s jncjvjcu`mmy w`mijno `mkno taf pkstfrs.

Nknf kd taf bury hfhefrs a`c sffn taf suehjssjkns jn `cv`ngf. af ga`jr a`c

pm`nnfc tk sfmfgt `rkunc 6< suehjssjkns `t taf fnc kd taf djrst c`y dkr durtafr cjs-gussjkn, `nc taf bury suggffcfc tk ck sk. afrfdkrf taf djrst rkunc kd `ssfsshfnt

`jhfc `t ‑ok/nk-ok‚ cfgjsjkns. af suehjssjkns wfrf strugturfc ey taf typkmkojfs

kd taf prfp`r`tkry n`mysjs (sff Djourf ?.7) nc taf bury hfhefrs usfc mjsts tk iffp

tr`gi kd taf suehjssjkns tafy a`c sffn. Kesfrv`tjkns sakw ta`t taf bury hfhefrs

hkstmy mkkifc `t taf @0 pkstfrs tk o`tafr taf jndkrh`tjkn èkut taf suehjssjkns.

af @3 wjta tfxt w`s knmy gknsumtfc wafn skhftajno w`s ungmf`r kr dkr c`rjno

gkngfpts. Jn tkt`m taf bury hfhefrs w`mifc `rkunc jncjvjcu`mmy dkr èkut tarff

akurs. Curjno munga taf djrst jhprfssjkns wfrf cjsgussfc. afn ` hfhefr kd taf

gkrf `n`mysjs tf`h prfsfntfc taf rfsumts kd tafjr `n`mysjs. af bury hfhefrs `sifc

akw `nc kn wajga e`sjs taf typkmkojfs a`c effn cfvfmkpfc. @mm gkndjrhfc tafsuppkrtjno ga`r`gtfr kd taf typkmkoy. afsf djncjnos gkndjrh ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs

usf taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd `nc taf suehjssjkns tk cfvfmkp tafjr jncjvjcu`m dr`hf

kd rfdfrfngfs.

Jn gknsjcfr`tjkn wjta taf ktafr bury hfhefrs taf ga`jr cfgjcfc tk st`rt c`y

twk ò`jn wjta `n jncjvjcu`m pfrgfptjkn rkunc. af prkbfgt tf`h a`c prfp`rfc

tajs c`y ey gkmmfgtjno mm 6< sfmfgtfc suehjssjkns jn taf rf` kd taf cjsgussjkn tèmf

`nc hìjno tafsf 6< `msk `v`jmèmf kn @7 dkrh`t, jngmucjno taf @3 kd tfxt. arff

kd taf Cutga prkdfssjkn`ms wfrf èsfnt jn taf hkrnjno9 p`rtmy efgùsf kd kemjo`-

tjkns fmsfwafrf, p`rtmy efgùsf tafy dfmt ta`t tafy cjc nkt nffc ta`t huga tjhf tk

stucy taf djn`m 6<. k prfp`rf knfsfmd dkr `nktafr vktjno rkunc skhf kd taf buryhfhefrs cfgjcfc tk stucy taf suehjssjkns kn @7 wajmf sjttjno `t taf tèmf, ktafrs

w`mifc `rkunc taf suehjssjkns kn @0 dkrh`t. @t taf fnc kd taf djrst c`y taf ga`jr

a`c prkpksfc ` sfgrft rkunc jn wajga taf bury hfhefr gkumc prkpksf skhf `c-

cjtjkn`m suehjssjkns tk `cc tk taf djn`m 6< `dtfr taf sfgknc jncjvjcu`m pfrgfptjkn

rkunc. Nknf kd taf bury hfhefrs usfc tajs kppkrtunjty. ajs jhpmjfs ` ajoa mfvfm

kd gkndjcfngf èkut taf cfgjsjkns ta`t wfrf h`cf curjno taf djrst c`y. @ gkhp`rj-

skn kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss s dkunc jn taf tfncfr g`sfs nc taf pfrgfptjkn prkgfss

kd taf bury p`nfm jn tajs g`sf jncjg`tfs ta`t taf str`tfoy kd jndkrh`tjkn pfrgfptjkn

`s cfsgrjefc jn Ga`ptfr 4.? (‑djrst jncjvjcu`mmy, ta`n ` cjsgussjkn‚ vfrsus ‑pfrgfp-

tjkn s p`rt kd cjsgussjkn‚) cfpfncs kn taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd taf bury hfhefrs.Fxpfrts `mrf`cy a`vf ` dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf wjta wajga tafy pfrgfjvf taf cfsjons.

afrfdkrf taf str`tfoy kd ‑jncjvjcu`m pfrgfptjkn djrst‚ sffhs pprkprj`tf dkr fxpfrt

burjfs. Mfss fxpfrjfngfc bury hfhefrs sffh tk efnfdjt kd ` ‑sa`rfc pfrgfptjkn cur-

jno cjsgussjkn‚ str`tfoy tk eujmc tafjr dr`hf kd rfdfrfngfs.

@p`rt drkh taf ofnfr`m prkor`hhf `s prkpksfc ey taf prkbfgt tf`h taf `g-

tu`m cfgjsjkn hftakcs `nc prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno w`s cfsjonfc ey taf bury

hfhefrs tafhsfmvfs curjno taf twk-c`y bury hfftjno. Orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno kn

taf djrst c`y w`s gkncugtfc ey w`mijno `mkno f`ga suehjssjkn gkmmfgtjvfmy `nc fx-

ga`nojno taf prfdfrfngfs kd taf bury hfhefrs ekut ta`t p`rtjgum`r suehjssjkn. Jd

bury hfhefrs wfrf jn d`vkur kd ` p`rtjgum`r fntry, taf ktafr hfhefrs a`c tk òrff



55: -

kn ojvjno jt ` ‑ok‚ pkst-jt. @dtfr taf djrst dfw hjnutfs kd gkmmfgtjvfmy w`mijno `mkno

taf pkstfrs, jt efg`hf gmf`r ta`t skhf suehjssjkns m`gifc qu`mjty eut t`gimfc `n

jntfrfstjno tkpjg kr prkpksfc ` okkc jcf`. af bury p`nfm cfgjcfc nkt tk sfmfgt

tafsf suehjssjkns dkr taf nfxt rkunc eut tk p`y fxtr` ttfntjkn tk tafh jn taf bury

rfpkrt. af bury hfhefrs `ssjonfc tafsf suehjssjkns `n ‑jcf`‚ pkst-jt. af sfgrf-

t`ry nktfc `mm pkst-jts. @t taf fnc kd taf djrst c`y, èkut ` auncrfc suehjssjknsstjmm nffcfc tk ef cjsgussfc nc taf hfhefrs kd taf bury efg`hf tjrfc. Efgùsf taf

ok`ms dkr taf c`y wfrf gmf`rmy sft, taf bury hfhefrs stjhum`tfc f`ga ktafr tk djnjsa

tajs djrst rkunc kd sfmfgtjkn. Hjr`gumkusmy taf bury sfmfgtfc fx`gtmy 6< suehjssjkns

`t taf fnc kd taf c`y. af `ccjtjkn`m ‑jcf`‚ g`tfokry cfhknstr`tfs taf jngrf`sjno

jnsjoats ta`t kggurrfc curjno taf bucofhfnt prkgfss ta`t ga`nofc taf strugturf

kd taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss. afrfdkrf jt g`n ef gkngmucfc taf `ssfsshfnt dr`hf js

eujmt curjno taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss eut taf prfp`r`tjkn prkvjcfs taf strugturf.

Bust efdkrf munga taf bury hfhefrs a`c tk vktf dkr tafjr djvf d`vkurjtf suehjs-

sjkns. @dtfr munga taf bury p`nfm st`rtfc ` cjsgussjkn `rkunc taf tèmf. Curjno

tajs cjsgussjkn taf @7 ckguhfnts kd taf 6< suehjssjkns wfrf put jn taf hjccmfkn taf tèmf `nc usfc tk dkgus taf cjsgussjkn kn taf cfsjon. Jn tkt`m twk rkuncs

kd nkn-`nknyhkus `nc knf rkunc kd `nknyhkus vktjno wfrf usfc kn taf sfgknc

c`y tk stffr taf cjsgussjkn `hkno taf bury hfhefrs. @dtfr f`ga vktjno rkunc taf

rfsumts wfrf cjsgussfc. af ga`jr st`rtfc tk cjsguss taf suehjssjkns ta`t rfgfjvfc

bust ` dfw vktfs tk rfcugf taf nuhefr kd suehjssjkns sujtèmf dkr ` prjzf. afn taf

suehjssjkns wjta mkt kd vktfs wfrf cjsgussfc kn tafjr jcf`s nc jhp`gt dkr jhpmf-

hfnt`tjkn. Ufh`rièmy skhf kd taf bury hfhefrs vktfc dkr `mhkst taf s`hf djvf

suehjssjkns kut kd taf djn`m 6<. Durtafr `n`mysjs kd tafsf sjhjm`rjtjfs cjc nkt sakw

`ny p`ttfrn eftwffn ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd tafsf bury hfhefrs (n`tjkn`mjty, `hkunt kd

fxpfrjfngf, pfrskn`m jntfrfst), wajga suoofsts nk sa`rfc dr`hf kd fxpfrtjsf `hknosueorkups kd taf bury p`nfm.

Kesfrv`tjkns sakwfc ta`t taf bury hfhefrs e`sfc tafjr bucofhfnts kn taf jn-

dkrh`tjkn prkvjcfc jn taf orkup cjsgussjkn nc jndkrh`tjkn s pfrgfjvfc drkh taf

prkpks`ms. af cjsgussjkns `mw`ys `jhfc `t `ggfpt`ngf kd ` cfgjsjkn ey taf ktafr

bury hfhefrs. Efdkrf taf vktjno rkuncs taf bury hfhefrs mjhjtfc tafjr cjsgus-

sjkns tk st`tfhfnts mjif ”J tajni tajs js knf js jntfrfstjno‘ `nc ”J òrff‘ `s ` qujgi

fxga`nof kd kpjnjkns. @dtfr taf djrst vktjno rkunc taf p`nfm hfhefrs st`rtfc tk

nfoktj`tf ey puttjno hkrf fxpmjgjt `rouhfnts kn taf tèmf jn krcfr tk gknvjngf

taf ktafr bury hfhefrs nc tk bustjdy tafjr prfdfrfngfs. Djn`mmy taf bury cfgjcfc tk

`w`rc twk suehjssjkns `n aknkurèmf hfntjkn efgùsf tafy gkumc nkt gknvjngf`mm bury hfhefrs, eut tafy cjc cjspm`y ` ajoa mfvfm kd cfsjon qu`mjty `nc prkvjcfc

usfdum jnput dkr cfe`tf. @t taf fnc kd taf nfoktj`tjkn pa`sf sjx suehjssjkns wfrf

mfdt dkr ` djn`m `nknyhkus vktjno rkunc tk cftfrhjnf taf wjnnfrs kd taf gkhpftj-

tjkn. afsf djncjnos jncjg`tf ta`t nfoktj`tjkn js nffcfc tk rf`ga ` cfgjsjkn èkut

` wjnnfr. Jn tajs g`sf taf djn`m cfgjsjkn w`s ` gknsfnsus e`sfc kn ` vktjno rkunc.

af hftakcs ta`t wfrf usfc tk rf`ga taf cfgjsjkn `rf `ccrfssfc uncfr pkjnt 3 kd

tajs sfgtjkn.

af jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn w`s e`sfc kn `n kpfn prkgfcurf. ajs hf`ns tafrf wfrf

kddjgj`mmy nk sfp`r`tfc pa`sfs dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd sujtèmf g`ncjc`tfs `nc cftfr-

hjnjno ` wjnnfr. Akwfvfr, taf rfsumts sakw ta`t fvfn wjtakut `n kddjgj`m sfmfgtjkn



57<

pa`sf ` bury p`nfm nffcs tk rfcugf taf nuhefr kd pktfntj`m g`ncjc`tfs. afrfdkrf

sjhjm`r prkgfssfs wfrf dkunc `s dkr taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf jn taf tfncfr

g`sfs. af djrst c`y kd taf bury hfftjno `jhfc dkr ` sfmfgtjkn kd 6< prkeèmf wjn-

nfrs, wajmf taf sfgknc c`y dkgusfc kn ` gkhp`rjskn kd tafsf jn krcfr tk cfgjcf

kn taf efst. Jn taf gkhpftjtjkn ekta pa`sfs wfrf gkncugtfc ey taf s`hf orkup

kd pfkpmf jn taf s`hf tjhf smkt. Jn g`sf kd ` rfstrjgtfc tfncfr tafrf `rf twk str`tf-ojfs2 sfp`r`tjkn kd taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rcjno pa`sfs ey `ppkjntjno twk cjddfrfnt

gkhhjttffs, kr gknnfgtjno taf pa`sfs ey usjno taf s`hf gkhhjttff dkr `w`rcjno

`s wfmm `s sfmfgtjkn. af djncjnos kd tajs rfsf`rga suoofst ta`t, `mtakuoa sffhjnomy

hkrf tjhf gknsuhjno dkr taf p`nfm hfhefrs, cfgjsjkn hìjno wkumc efnfdjt drkh

usjno taf s`hf gkhhjttff hfhefrs dkr ekta pa`sfs. ajs wkumc fnèmf cfgjsjkn

hìfrs tk `ppmy taf s`hf dr`hf jn ekta pa`sfs `nc gknnfgt taf `rouhfnt`tjkns

jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf tk taf `rouhfnt`tjkns jn taf w`rc pa`sf. af sfnsfhìjno

prkgfss `hkno taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs gkumc tafn ef gkntjnufc hkrf f`sjmy.

@c 7) Wuebfgtjvf ga`r`gtfr kd kebfgtjvf grjtfrj` Jn Ga`ptfr 5.5 ` cjstjngtjkn w`s h`cf eftwffn t`nojemf `nc jnt`nojemf `spfgts kd

cfsjon qu`mjty `nc jn Ga`ptfr 7.7.5 taf strugturf kd taf cfgjsjkn t`si w`s rfm`tfc

tk taf usf kd jntujtjkn `nc mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf ta`t js rfqujrfc tk pfrdkrh wfmm kn

taf cfgjsjkn t`si. af g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr 4 jncjg`tfc ta`t `ssfsshfnts kd wfmm-strug-

turfc jndkrh`tjkn wjta prfcfdjnfc g`tfokrjfs `rf kdtfn `ssjonfc tk ` prkbfgt tf`h

efgùsf kd tafjr prfsuhèmy kebfgtjvf ga`r`gtfr. Jn tajs g`sf taf prkbfgt tf`h `msk

pfrdkrhfc taf gafgi kd taf dkrh`m suehjssjkn rfqujrfhfnts. af c`t` akwfvfr

sakwfc ta`t fvfn wjta tafsf ijncs kd `ssfsshfnts, ` mkt kd bucofhfnts rfqujrf

fxpfrtjsf `nc sfnsfhìjno `hkno taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. af dkrh`t kd taf fntry

ckguhfnts `nc taf tjhf kd suehjssjkn `rf bust ` dfw fx`hpmfs kd prfsuhèmy

kebfgtjvf bucofhfnt`m t`sis ta`t rfqujrfc jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs

`nc r`jsfc ftajg`m qufstjkns2 Jd taf wfesjtf d`jms, jt js `mmkwfc tk suehjt `n fntry

kn taf c`y `dtfr; Akw h`ny hjmmjhftrfs g`n taf sjzf kd taf suehjssjkn cfvj`tf tk

stjmm dumdjm taf rfqujrfhfnts; _a`t g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` pm`n, `n fxtfrjkr vjfw,

`nc ` mkg`tjkn siftga; Efgùsf kd jntfrn`tjkn`m cjddfrfngfs taf rfqujrfhfnts dkr

rfojstr`tjkn jn ` prkdfssjkn`m kr stucfnt rfojstfr `msk r`jsfc qufstjkns. ajs sakws

ta`t fvfn wjta rfm`tjvfmy sjhpmf `ssfsshfnt t`sis ` gfrt`jn `hkunt kd fxpfrtjsf js

nffcfc.

af rfsumts kd taf ssfsshfnt pa`sf msk sakwfc cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf n`my-

sjs tf`h `nc fxpfrts drkh taf st`dd `nc taf bury p`nfm. E`sfc kn tafjr ofnfr`m

jhprfssjkns taf hfhefrs kd taf `n`mysjs tf`hs suspfgtfc ta`t hkst kd taf suehjs-

sjkns wfrf grf`tfc ey stucfnts efgùsf ` ruhkur a`c effn sprf`c ta`t taf kvfr`mm

qu`mjty mfvfm kd taf suehjssjkn w`s nkt vfry ajoa. af bury kn taf ktafr a`nc w`s

vfry jhprfssfc ey taf qu`mjty kd taf suehjssjkns nc fxpfgtfc mkt kd suehjssjkns

tk gkhf drkh prkdfssjkn`ms. af ga`jr kd taf bury fvfn st`tfc jn rfdfrfngf tk afr

fxpfrjfngfs `s Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt ta`t

”Saf qu`mjty kd hkst suehjssjkns fxgffcs taf qu`mjty kd `n `vfròfFurkpf`n tfncfr prkbfgt.‘



570 -

@ sjhjm`r cjsgrfp`ngy w`s dkunc kn taf tafhf kd sust`jnèjmjty. af `n`mysjs

tf`hs sgkrfc taf suehjssjkns kn taf mfvfm kd sust`jnèjmjty tk grf`tf `n kvfrvjfw.

af bury w`s `msk jndkrhfc ekut tafsf sgkrfs. Knf kd taf bury hfhefrs rfh`rifc

ta`t

”Sajs sgkrf w`s `mhkst kppksjtf tk taf suehjssjkns J takuoat wkumc ef

vfry sust`jnèmf.‘

af cjddfrfngfs ta`t kggurrfc eftwffn taf cjddfrfnt orkups kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs

g`n ef fxpm`jnfc jn tfrhs kd tafjr rkmf, jntfrfsts, `hkunt kd fxpfrjfngf, mfvfm kd

fxpfrtjsf, nc e`giorkunc. @t taf s`hf tjhf tafy sakw taf suebfgtjvf nc rfm`tjvf

ga`r`gtfr kd bucofhfnts èkut cfsjon qu`mjty. _ak cfgjcfs kn taf `pprkprj`tf

mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf `nc wak js èmf tk hìf ` ‑rjoat‚ bucofhfnt; Knf wkumc fxpfgt

taf st`dd hfhefrs wak wfrf jnvjtfc tk bkjn taf `n`mysjs tf`h efgùsf kd tafjr fx-

pfrtjsf kn ` gfrt`jn `rf` tk ef èmf tk bucof cfsjon qu`mjty, eut `pp`rfntmy tafy

`pprk`gafc taf suehjssjkns drkh ` cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvf ta`n taf bury hfhefrs.

af bury kd tajs gkhpftjtjkn cjc nkt sffh tk ef ektafrfc ey cfvj`tjkns drkh tafrfqujrfhfnts nkr cjddfrfngfs kd kpjnjkns wjta taf suppkrtjno tf`hs9 tafy bucofc

taf jcf` efajnc taf suehjssjkn drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf tafy dfmt w`s rjoat. af gkh-

pftjtjkn rfoum`tjkns h`cf tajs pkssjemf `nc tafy dfmt gkndjcfnt fnkuoa tk dkmmkw

tafjr kwn jntujtjkn.

Jn taf djn`m cfe`tf taf suehjssjkns wfrf gknsjcfrfc `s kptjkns dkr taf duturf

d`gumty eujmcjno nc wfjoafc akmjstjg`mmy o`jnst f`ga ktafr kn tafjr unjquf qu`mj-

tjfs. Curjno tajs djn`m sfmfgtjkn prkgfss taf tfxt ckguhfnts ta`t `ggkhp`njfc taf

suehjssjkns wfrf kdtfn usfc s hf`ns tk gknvfy taf hfssòf ekut cfsjon jcf`

drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd taf p`rtjgjp`nt. Jn ajs gkmuhn jn taf gkhpftjtjkn puemjg`-

tjkn (D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf - V Cfmdt, 5<<:, p. 47) Ekuh`n (knf kd taf buryhfhefrs) rfdfrs tk2

”Gfrt`jnmy hkrf ta`n fnkuoa fntrjfs tk `mmkw dkr fxtfnsjvf gkhp`rjskn, drkh wajga knf w`s èmf tk cjsgfrn p`ttfrns jn taf jntfrn`tjkn`m cfvfmkp-hfnt kd taf `rgajtfgturf prkdfssjkn Y… wajgaX v`mjc`tfs taf suesfqufnt

prknkungfhfnts èkut `rgajtfgturf‚s vjt`mjty `s ` gumtur`m hfcjuh.‘

af ijnc kd gkhp`rjskn Ekuh`n rfdfrs tk w`s `msk dkunc kn ` mkwfr mfvfm jn

sfvfr`m rfh`ris h`cf curjno rouhfnt`tjkn kn taf sfgknc c`y kd taf bury hfftjno

èkut tk sfmfgt taf wjnnfrs drkh taf djn`m djdty. Ufoum`rmy st`tfhfnts wfrf usfc ey

taf bury hfhefrs suga `s2

”Saf ktafr knf a`s ` sjhjm`r jcf` eut efttfr qu`mjty‘, kr

”Sajs w`s kn hy mjst tkk, eut ta`t knf js efttfr gkhp`rfc tk tajs knf.‘

Knf kd taf Cutga prkdfssjkn`ms st`tfc ta`t2

”J `mhkst `mw`ys gkhp`rf taf skmutjkn tk taf kmc sjtu`tjkn jn krcfr tk ncskhftajno efttfr.‘



575

Ktafr bury hfhefrs usfc tafjr pfrskn`m fxpfrjfngfs wjta taf kmc eujmcjno tk

gknvjngf taf ktafr bury hfhefrs kd taf `pprkprj`tfnfss kd ` gfrt`jn suehjssjkn

wjta st`tfhfnts mjif2

”Jt Ytaf `ggkhhkc`tjkn sjtu`tjknX w`s rf`mmy mjif ta`t `dtfr taf rf.‘

@sskgj`tjkns wjta ktafr fnvjrknhfnts kr gkhp`rèmf eujmcjnos wfrf `msk h`cf2

”Jt Yknf kd taf prkpksfc jcf`sX dffms mjif ` g`r`v`n fxajejtjkn a`mm.‘

@t taf s`hf tjhf cjsgussjkn w`s r`jsfc èkut taf nffc tk rftajni fcug`tjkn

jn `rgajtfgturf `nc rfpksjtjknjno taf d`gumty kn ` hkrf ofnfr`m mfvfm. af bury

rf`mjsfc ta`t cjsgussjkns kn ` ajoafr mfvfm èkut sa`pf `nc sp`gf wfrf cfdjnjtjvfmy

nffcfc tk rf`ga ` gknsfnsus èkut taf kutgkhf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. _ajmf cjs-

gussjno taf suehjssjkns prfdfrfngfs wfrf par`sfc ey sakrt st`tfhfnts suga `s ”rf-`mmy jntfrfstjno sgafhf‘ , ”jntfrfstjno st`tfhfnt‘ , ”`ttr`gtjvf‘, kr ”nkt vfry rf`mjstjg‘ .

Gkhhkn tafhfs jn taf cjsgussjkn wfrf taf sfp`r`tjkn kd dungtjkns (fcug`tjkn,rfsf`rga, suppkrtjno dungtjkns), ` gfntr`m hfftjno pm`gf, dmfxjejmjty kd taf eujmc-

jno jn tjhf, taf gkngfpt kd sust`jnèjmjty, gknnfgtjkn tk taf ‑kutfr‚ wkrmc, `nc taf

pksjtjkn kd taf d`gumty wjtajn taf g`hpus. Cjsgussjkns èkut `rgajtfgturf jn ofn-

fr`m wfrf mjhjtfc, `mtakuoa sfvfr`m rfh`ris wfrf h`cf èkut taf m`rof nuhefr kd

jgknjg `rgajtfgtur`m kebfgts `hkno taf suehjssjkns. Jn taf fnc taf bury hfhefrs

wfrf `mhkst surprjsfc èkut taf kutgkhf tafhsfmvfs2

”Jt js prkeèmf, eut surprjsjno ta`t tafsf jcf`s g`hf kut Y`s wjnnfrsX9 nknf`rf Wupfr Cutga `rgajtfgturf.‘

ajs jhpmjfs ta`t taf bury hfhefrs wfrf èmf tk gknnfgt taf kutgkhf kd tajsgkhpftjtjkn wjta taf ajstkrjg`m gkntfxt, skhftajno ta`t g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s taf

ajoafst mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf ggkrcjno tk \`rskns (0:1?). Djncjnos kd taf tfncfr g`sfs

jn Ga`ptfr 4 jncjg`tf ta`t taf fxpfrjfngfs kd hkst kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs cjc nkt

rf`ga tafsf ajoa mfvfms kd fxpfrtjsf9 taf rf`gtjkns kd hkst cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn taf

tfncfr g`sfs cjc nkt fxgffc taf pksjtjvf fxpfrjfngf `s suga.

af cfgjsjkn hìjno prkgfss kd taf bury hfhefrs cjspm`yfc h`ny kd taf ga`r-

`gtfrjstjgs cfsgrjefc jn taf mjtfr`turf kn N`tur`mjstjg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (f.o. Okrf,

ft `m., 5<<49 Mjpsajtz, ft `m., 5<<4). af kesfrv`tjkns kd taf bury hfftjnos sakwfc

ta`t burkrs usfc p`ttfrns drkh tafjr kwn dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf tk hìf bucofhfnts

èkut cfsjon qu`mjty jn taf gkntfxt kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. afy bkjntmy cfvfmkpfc `gkhhkn dr`hf jn wajga taf cfgjsjkn èkut taf wjnnfrs w`s pm`gfc. ajs hf`ns

ta`t bucofhfnts wjtajn tajs dr`hf rf jntfr-suebfgtjvf nc spfgjdjg tk taf g`sf - taf

dr`hf g`nnkt f`sjmy ef tr`nsdfrrfc tk nktafr gkntfxt. af dr`hf js p`rt kd ` sfnsf-

hìjno prkgfss `hkno taf hfhefrs kd taf bury. Ekta taf rfsumts kd tajs g`sf `nc

taf g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr 4 r`jsf taf qufstjkn jd rfpf`tjno taf s`hf `ssfsshfnt prkg-

fss sfvfr`m hkntas m`tfr kr pfrdkrhjno taf s`hf t`si ey twk cjddfrfnt bury p`nfms

wkumc rfsumt jn taf s`hf kutgkhfs. af jssuf uncfrmyjno tajs qufstjkn js taf jssuf

kd akw kebfgtjvf ` bucofhfnt jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn g`n ef jn ofn-

fr`m. Gmjfnts nffc tk tìf taf rfm`tjvjty kd cfgjsjkns èkut cfsjon qu`mjty gfrt`jnmy

jntk `ggkunt wafn tafy cfsjon ` (tfncfr) gkhpftjtjkn.



577 -

@c 3) Hftakcs tk fxprfss `nc bustjdy prfdfrfngfs

afrf rf cjddfrfnt w`ys tk fxprfss nc bustjdy taf cfgjsjkns ta`t rf h`cf curjno `

sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. af cfgjsjkn tk ssjon sfvfr`m wjnnfrs djttfc taf jh kd taf gkh-

pftjtjkn2 tk o`tafr jcf`s `nc stjhum`tf cfe`tf `nc grf`tjvjty `hkno taf ykunofr

ofnfr`tjkn. af gkhpftjtjkn rumfs prkvjcfc tajs drffckh. Jt `msk sujtfc taf st`tf-

hfnt taf bury w`ntfc tk hìf2 tk sakw taf wf`mta kd taf jcf`s `nc tk hìf gmjfnts`w`rf kd taf pktfntj`m grf`tjvjty kd cfsjon `s cjspm`yfc jn tajs ijnc kd gkhpftjtjkn

dkrh`t. af bury p`nfm w`s emf tk djmm jn taf cfgjsjkn str`tfojfs ey tafhsfmvfs. af

ga`jr kd taf bury w`s hkst gkngfrnfc wjta taf kddjgj`m fv`mu`tjkn grjtfrj` `nc taf

ktafr bury hfhefrs wfrf h`jnmy rfmyjno kn afr dkr ta`t h`ttfr. af kddjgj`m cfgj-

sjkn grjtfrj` s st`tfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn rumfs wfrf nkt fxpmjgjtmy fv`mu`tfc curjno

taf djn`m cfe`tf eut hfrfmy jntfrwkvfn jntk taf dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf `s cfvfmkpfc

curjno cfgjsjkn hìjno. af bury usfc taf grjtfrj` fxpmjgjtmy tk jnjtj`tf taf cfgj-

sjkn prkgfss `nc dkr durtafr sa`rpfnjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si jn rf`gtjkn tk tafjr jn-

cjvjcu`m pfrgfptjkn kd taf suehjssjkns `nc gkmmfgtjvf cjsgussjkns. _afn taf bury

nffcfc cjrfgtjkn jn krcfr tk rfcugf taf `hkunt kd suehjssjkns kr jnjtj`mjsf kd `

nfw pa`sf jn cfgjsjkn hìjno, tafy `msk `ppmjfc taf grjtfrj` jn eftwffn taf cjddfr-

fnt cfgjsjkn pa`sfs. ajs jncjg`tfs ta`t taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` stffrfc taf cfgjsjkn

prkgfss jn hìjno sfnsf kd taf cfgjsjkn t`si. Efgùsf taf grjtfrj` wfrf nkt fxpmjg-

jtmy `nc krcfrmy `ccrfssfc curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss, jt js vfry a`rc tk tr`gf taf

fx`gt rf`skns way ` gfrt`jn suehjssjkn w`s gaksfn `s ` wjnnfr.

Curjno taf cjddfrfnt pa`sfs kd taf bury prkgfss taf ga`jr kdtfn prkpksfc cfgj-

sjkn prkgfcurf `nc cjsgussfc jt wjta taf ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs. af prkpks`ms mfc

tk taf usf kd sfvfr`m cfgjsjkn hftakcs2

Cjsgussjkn wjta ssjonjno pkst-jts e`sfc kn taf mjsts wjta jncjvjcu`m nkt`tjkns(c`y 0).

Fxprfssjkn kd ` nuhefr kd vktfs curjno ` cjsgussjkn rkunc taf tèmf (twjgf

`t c`y twk).

@nknyhkus vktf (fnc kd c`y twk).

Tktjno h`cf jt pkssjemf tk cfdjnf `n jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnt efdkrf taf st`rt kd

` orkup cjsgussjkn `nc tafrfdkrf stjhum`tfc taf jncfpfncfnt jncjvjcu`m jnput kd

taf burkrs. @ dfw g`tfokrjfs kd skmutjkns fvkmvfc curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss2 taf

mkg`tjkn Efrmòfwfo, taf mkg`tjkn hjccmf kd g`hpus, `nc taf tfhpkr`ry `ggkh-

hkc`tjkn `t Bumj`n`m``n. af djn`m vktjno rfdmfgtfc tafsf tarff g`tfokrjfs, wajgah`cf taf bury gakksf dkr tarff djrst prjzfs `nc tarff sfgknc prjzfs. Curjno taf

cjsgussjkn taf prfdfrfngfs hkno taf sfmfgtfc suehjssjkns cjc nkt sffh tk ef vfry

kevjkus, eut taf vktjno fxprfssfc ` gmf`r cjddfrfngf eftwffn taf djrst `nc sfgknc

prjzfs. ajs jhpmjfs ta`t ` mkt kd taf `rouhfnts wfrf nkt mjtfr`mmy fxprfssfc curjno

taf cjsgussjkns. Jt msk suoofsts taf usf kd jntujtjvf nc r`tafr akmjstjg bucofhfnts.

afsf ijncs kd cfgjsjkns `rf cjddjgumt tk bustjdy tk pfkpmf wak wfrf nkt p`rt kd taf

jntfr-suebfgtjvf cfgjsjkn dr`hf jn wajga taf cfgjsjkn w`s h`cf.

Tktjno `ppf`rfc tk ef ` okkc w`y kd fxprfssjno jntujtjvf prfdfrfngfs curjno

`n ssfsshfnt prkgfss. @mtakuoa gurrfnt jntfrprft`tjkn kd prkgurfhfnt m`w hjoat

jhpmy ktafrwjsf, knmy st`tjno taf (nuhefr kd ) vktfs wkumc nkt a`vf bustjdjfc taf

djn`m cfgjsjkn kd taf bury p`nfm. ajs g`sf sakws ta`t ` bury rfpkrt `gtu`mmy gkh-

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573

hunjg`tfs taf stkry kd taf rf`skns way ` gfrt`jn suehjssjkn w`s gknsjcfrfc `s `

wjnnfr. Eut `s I`zfhj`n `nc Uônn (5<<:, p. 0??) st`tf ”jt js typjg`m dkr pr`gtj-

tjknfrs tk fv`mu`tf cjddfrfnt suehjssjkns `nc cjstjnoujsa taf d`vkurjtf knf wjta-

kut nffcjno tk `rtjgum`tf tkk huga èkut akw `nc way‘. Efgùsf kd taf m`rof

nuhefr kd suehjssjkns, knmy sh`mm pkrtjkn kd suehjssjkns wfrf ccrfssfc jn taf

bury rfpkrt. @ rfdmfgtjkn kn taf kesfrv`tjkns jn rfm`tjkn tk taf bury rfpkrt jncj-g`tfs ta`t skhf `spfgts kd taf bury‚s `rouhfnt`tjkn `nc g`tfokrjg`m strugturf wfrf

hkrf fxpmjgjtmy st`tfc jn taf bury rfpkrt ta`n curjno taf cjsgussjkns. ajs w`s dkr

fx`hpmf sakwn jn taf strugturf kd taf djvf tafhfs jn taf bury rfpkrt2 ‑sust`jnèmf

`nc tfgankmkojg`m jnnkv`tjkns‚, ‑cyn`hjg m`ncsg`pfs kd fcug`tjkn‚, ‑ofnfr`tkrs kd

skgj`m jntfr`gtjkn‚, ‑kut kd sjtf2 taf d`gumty `s ` hkejmf gkhhunjty‚, `nc ‑vjsjkns kn

duturf fcug`tjkn`m gkngfpts‚.

af prkbfgt tf`h cfgjcfc tk `ppkjnt ` st`dd hfhefr tk wrjtf taf bury rfpkrt

efgùsf nknf kd taf bury hfhefrs wkumc a`vf dkunc taf tjhf tk wrjtf ` cfgfnt

bury rfpkrt. ajs js r`tafr gkhhkn jn Cutga cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns. @ rfpkrt js `m-

w`ys cjddfrfnt ta`n taf hfftjno jtsfmd `nc tafrfdkrf taf bury rfpkrt jngmucjno jtsstrugturf `nc par`sfs wjmm rfdmfgt taf hfftjno tarkuoa taf fyfs kd taf rfpkrtfr. Jn

mjnf wjta taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn, nfjtafr taf prkbfgt tf`h nkr taf bury p`nfm

gknsjcfrfc ` qu`ntjt`tjvf sgkrf dkrh taf grjtfrj` `nc tafjr rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf tk

bustjdy tafjr cfgjsjkn. ajs jssuf r`jsfs ` qufstjkn èkut taf cjmfhh`s cfgjsjkn

hìfrs hust d`gf curjno taf bustjdjg`tjkn kd tafjr cfgjsjkns. af bury rfpkrt w`s

wrjttfn ey taf s`hf ùtakr kd taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd `nc `pprkvfc ey taf ga`jr `d-

tfr gkrrfgtjkns drkh `mm bury hfhefrs. Zft J efmjfvf ta`t stjmm ` mkt kd taf rf`sknjno

efajnc taf djn`m cfgjsjkn w`s s`jc eftwffn taf mjnfs. ajs hìfs jt vfry cjddjgumt

tk bustjdy ` cfgjsjkn tk ‑kutsjcfrs‚. af bury dfmt tafy a`c cknf bustjgf tk taf jh-

prfssjvf `nc fxtfnsjvf `hkunt kd wkri cknf ey taf fstffhfc p`rtjgjp`nts kd tafgkhpftjtjkn ey prkvjcjno `n fxtfnsjvf bury rfpkrt.

Jn rfm`tjkn tk taf tfncfr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr 4 tafsf djncjnos suoofst ta`t efjno

p`rt kd taf bury p`nfm wkumc jngrf`sf taf f`sf tk fxpm`jn `nc `gt upkn ` cfgjsjkn

`s h`cf curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Akwfvfr, nfjtafr ` bury rfpkrt nkr ` h`trjx

dkrh rfdmfgt taf dumm cfgjsjkn, fspfgj`mmy wafn ` mkt kd jntujtjkn w`s usfc wjtajn

taf rfm`tjvfmy gmksfc gkntfxt kd ` orkup. ajs hf`ns ta`t bustjdyjno ` cfgjsjkn rf-

h`jns tk ef ` h`ttfr kd trust eftwffn taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs `nc taf p`rtjgjp`nts.

@t taf s`hf tjhf jt `msk r`jsfs ` qufstjkn èkut taf `hkunt kd wajga ` djn`m cf-

gjsjkn rfdmfgts upkn taf wakmf prkgfss kd jngrfhfnt`m cfgjsjkn hìjno kd ` bury

p`nfm. Dkr bustjdjg`tjkn nc mfojtjh`gy wkumc jt ef fnkuoa tk ef tr`nsp`rfnt ekuttaf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf dr`hf `nc taf prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno, kr sakumc taf dumm

dr`hf ef bustjdjfc; Jn wajga w`y `nc tk wa`t fxtfnt g`n ` h`trjx safft `gtu`mmy

suppkrt taf bustjdjg`tjkn;

@c 6) Cjddfrfngfs eftwffn fxpfrts

af prkbfgt tf`h cfgjcfc ta`t taf suehjssjkns wkumc ef `nknyhkusmy bucofc

ey `n fxpfrt bury tk fnsurf fqu`m ga`ngfs dkr `mm p`rtjgjp`nts, taus dkr ykuno `s

wfmm `s fstèmjsafc t`mfnt. ajs fxgmucfc d`gf-tk-d`gf jntfr`gtjkn wjta p`rtjgjp`nts

`nc hf`nt ta`t `mm bucofhfnts wfrf e`sfc kn taf pfrgfptjkn kd taf suehjttfc

h`tfrj`ms knmy. Jn hìjno v`muf bucofhfnts ` mkt kd `ssuhptjkns `rf h`cf èkut



576 -

taf pktfntj`m qu`mjty kd taf suehjssjkns. ajs js jnafrfnt tk taf gkngfptu`m stòf

kd `n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn kr tfncfr. af stucfnt hfhefr kd taf bury sfvfr`m tjhfs

fxprfssfc afr cjddjgumty wjta fv`mu`tjno `mm pm`ns jn suga ` sakrt pfrjkc kd tjhf,

ekta curjno taf bury hfftjno `s wfmm `s jn taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws. Waf dfmt

fspfgj`mmy jnsfgurf èkut taf tjhf spfnt kd kn f`ga kd taf suehjssjkns kn taf djrst

c`y. af ktafr hfhefrs kd taf bury p`nfm sffhfc qujtf surf èkut tafjr cfgjsjkns`nc cjc nkt hìf usf kd taf ga`ngf tk rf-`ssjon vktfs kr ga`nof tafjr jnjtj`m prfd-

frfngfs. @mhkst `mm taf bury hfhefrs st`tfc jn taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws ta`t

tafy a`c fnkuoa tjhf tk hìf `n `ggur`tf bucofhfnt. ajs cjddfrfngf g`n ef fx-

pm`jnfc ey taf d`gt ta`t taf stucfnt hfhefr a`c mfssfr p`ttfrns `v`jmèmf tk `ppmy,

wajga js jn mjnf wjta taf tafkrjfs kn fxpfrt bucofhfnt (f.o. Imfjn, 0::79 vfrsiy

& Iànfh`n, 0:?3). Hkst kd taf bury hfhefrs `msk fxprfssfc tk trust taf ktafr

hfhefrs kn nkt a`vjno hjssfc kut kn jntfrfstjno suehjssjkns. E`sfc kn ` gkh-

p`rjskn kd taf djncjnos jn tajs g`sf wjta taf djncjnos jn taf tfncfr g`sfs jn Ga`ptfr

4 jt g`n ef gkngmucfc ta`t fxpfrts nffc mfss tjhf tk hìf v`muf bucofhfnt ekut

taf qu`mjty kd taf cfsjon. Ey rfgkonjzjno p`ttfrns (sakwn ey rfdfrfngf tk sjhjm`rfxpfrjfngfs) tafy sffh efttfr emf tk put taf cfsjon jcf` jntk pfrspfgtjvf nc rfdfr

tk gfrt`jn ‑qu`mjty st`nc`rcs‚ tafy eujmt up curjno yf`rs kd fxpfrjfngf. afy `msk

trustfc tafjr pffrs jn tajs h`ttfr.

Wjhjm`r tk taf djncjnos jn Ga`ptfr 4.?.3 taf c`t` kd tajs g`sf jncjg`tf ta`t a`v-

jno fxpfrjfngfs s bury hfhefr jn ktafr burjfs h`cf cfgjsjkn hìfrs hkrf w`rf

kd orkup prkgfssfs `nc str`tfojg vktjno kppkrtunjtjfs. Drkh tajs `nomf ` mf`rnjno

fddfgt kggurs hkno bury hfhefrs. ajs mf`rnjno sakumc ef tìfn hkrf cv`ntòf

drkh jn tfncfr prkgfssfs efgùsf jt cfgrf`sfs taf `hkunt kd df`r `hkno cfgjsjkn

hìfrs. Wfvfr`m kd taf bury hfhefrs st`tfc jn taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws ta`t

tafy inkw ta`t2

”@mhkst fvfry bury prkgfss fvfntu`mmy mf`cs tk ` s`tjsdyjno rfsumt.‘

Hkst hfhefrs kd taf bury wfrf emf tk cfdfnc tafjr prfdfrfngfs vfry wfmm jn taf

cjsgussjkn wjta taf ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs. af ga`jr kd taf bury stjhum`tfc taf stu-

cfnt hfhefr tk fxpmjgjtmy fxprfss afr kpjnjkn `nc jn taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfw

taf stucfnt st`tfc ta`t saf dfmt strfnotafnfc ey tajs suppkrt. Wkhftjhfs taf bury

hfhefrs fxpm`jnfc taf grjtfrj` ta`t tafy pfrskn`mmy usfc tk fv`mu`tf ` suehjssjkn

tk strfnotafn tafjr st`tfhfnts `nc gknvjngf ktafrs kd tafjr kpjnjkn. Fxpfrtjsf kd

taf bury hfhefrs w`s dkr fx`hpmf sakwn ey taf èjmjty tk vjsu`mjsf taf prkpksfc

jcf`, `s `rtjgum`tfc ey knf kd taf bury hfhefrs curjno taf cjsgussjkn2

”J njsa tajs prkbfgt jn hy hjnc9 J inkw yku ck ta`t tkk, nc jt a`s sk huga pktfntj`m. Jt wjmm grf`tf ` wkncfrdum fnvjrknhfnt.‘

Wkhf bury hfhefrs `msk cjspm`yfc ta`t tafy wfrf èmf tk put tafjr pfrskn`m

jntfrfsts `sjcf `nc fxpmjgjtmy hfntjknfc ta`t2

”Jt js nkt hy gup kd tf` eut jt js ` vfry gmfvfr jcf`.‘

Zft tafy `msk trjfc tk oft tafjr kwn prfdfrfngf jngmucfc jn taf djn`m sfmfgtjkn kd

pktfntj`m wjnnfrs. Knf kd taf bury hfhefrs sakwfc ` orf`t cf`m kd jntfrfst jn tafg`tfokry kd ‑bust jcf`s‚. af wjnnfrs `nc nkhjn`tjkns kd taf gkhpftjtjkn ck nkt



574

jngmucf `ny suehjssjkns kd tajs g`tfokry efgùsf taf bury dfmt ta`t ` okkc suehjs-

sjkn a`c tk `nswfr `mm tarff grjtfrj` `s hfntjknfc jn taf gkhpftjtjkn prkor`hhf,

`rgajtfgtur`m qu`mjty jngmucfc. Curjno taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfw af fxpm`jnfc ajs

jntfrfsts dkr taf jcf` g`tfokry drkh ajs e`giorkunc jn `rgajtfgtur`m `nc gumtur`m

ajstkry. Ajs grjtjquf ekut taf djn`m kutgkhf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn rfm`tfc tk taf cjd-

dfrfngf kd ajs jntfrfsts jn gkhp`rjskn wjta taf ktafr bury hfhefrs. Af fxprfssfctk a`vf trjfc tk stffr taf cjsgussjkn jn taf cjrfgtjkn kd cjsgussjno taf gkngfpt

kd taf sgafhfs r`tafr ta`n taf jhpmjg`tjkns kd taf paysjg`m sa`pf gknnfgtfc tk

taf jcf`s. af kesfrv`tjkns gkndjrh tajs `nc `msk sakwfc ta`t tajs str`tfoy w`s

stkppfc ey `nktafr hfhefr kd taf bury ey s`yjno2

”J nktjgf wa`t yku `rf ckjno, `nc J wfnt `mkno jn ykur cjrfgtjkn dkr ` mknotjhf, eut tajs js taf mjhjt.‘

af str`tfojg ga`r`gtfr kd bury cjsgussjkns w`s gkndjrhfc jn taf jntfrvjfws,

h`jnmy wjta taf Cutga prkdfsskrs `msk wkrijno jn pr`gtjgf. af kesfrv`tjkns

sakwfc ta`t str`tfojg efa`vjkur w`s skhftjhfs `msk h`cf r`tafr fxpmjgjt, dkr fx-`hpmf wafn knf burkr fxpm`jnfc tk taf ktafr bury hfhefrs ta`t2

”J mjifc ta`t fntry ` mkt eut cfgjcfc tk gakksf tajs knf efgùsf jt wkumca`vf efttfr ga`ngfs kd ofttjno sfmfgtfc.‘

af bury hfhefrs jn tajs g`sf wfrf wfmm `w`rf kd taf vktjno efa`vjkur `nc

prfdfrfngfs kd ktafr hfhefrs. Jn taf jntfrvjfws tafy t`mifc èkut taf e`m`ngf ef-

twffn gmjfnts nc prkdfssjkn`ms jn bury `nc taf rjoat hkhfnt tk fxprfss prfdfr-

fngf jn taf orkup tk gknvjngf ktafrs. wk kd taf bury hfhefrs fxpm`jnfc curjno

taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws ta`t p`nfms wjta hjxfc cjsgjpmjnfs `nc cjddfrfnt fx-

pfrtjsf mfvfms gkumc mf`c tk sueorkups wjtajn taf p`nfm. ajs g`n ef gkhp`rfc tktaf djncjnos `s dkr fx`hpmf cfsgrjefc ey Ofkrof `nc Ga`ttkp`cay`y (5<<1) `nc

Ukeejns nc Bucof (5<<1) ekut taf fddfgts kd orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno. af fxpfr-

tjsf mfvfm kd taf bury p`nfm kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf fxgffcfc taf fxpfrtjsf mfvfm

kd mm tfncfr g`sfs. af kesfrv`tjkns jncjg`tf ta`t taf bury p`nfm kd taf D`gumty g`sf

`gtfc hkrf mjif `n fxpfrt tf`h jn ojvjno f`ga ktafr dffce`gi `nc tryjno tk gkn-

sjcfr taf suehjssjkn jn ` ajstkrjg`m gkntfxt (sff `msk sfgtjkn ?.3.3). Kn taf ktafr

a`nc tafjr rfm`tjvf jncfpfncfnt ga`r`gtfr gkumc a`vf mjhjtfc taf djt eftwffn taf

`jhs `nc `hejtjkns kd taf gmjfnt `nc taf rfsumts kd taf gkhpftjtjkn.

Fhktjkns `nc pfrskn`m `ddfgtjkn wfrf skhftjhfs usfc jn `rouhfnt`tjkn2

”_f wjmm stjmm ef drjfncs jd yku mf`vf tajs kut, eut J stjmm tajni jt js vfry strkno prkbfgt.‘

Zft fhktjkn`m gkndmjgts eftwffn taf bury hfhefrs cjc nkt kggur jn tajs g`sf.

af djncjnos suoofst ta`t g`n ef `ttrjeutfc tk taf d`gt ta`t taf ga`r`gtfr kd taf

gkhpftjtjkn w`s nkt mfo`mmy ejncjno `nc taf bury a`c taf kppkrtunjty tk cjvjcf

taf prjzf hknfy `hkno sfvfr`m wjnnfrs. Jn taf djn`m pa`sf kd cfgjsjkn hìjno taf

mkno tfrh str`tfoy ppf`rfc tk ef hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n pfrskn`m cjddfrfngfs. Wk jn

taf fnc kd taf sfgknc c`y cjsgussjkns prkgffcfc kn ` hkrf str`tfojg mfvfm èkut

taf kutgkhf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn2



57? -

”_f a`vf tk tajni èkut taf hfssòf‘, `nc

”Jd wf tìf tafh ekta, wf rf`mmy hìf ` st`tfhfnt.‘

Wuehjssjkns wjta jntfrfstjno tkpjgs, suga `s gfntr`mjz`tjkn kd dungtjkns,

ga`nofs jn taf fcug`tjkn`m systfh, `nc cjddfrfnt pajmkskpajg`m st`tfhfnts èkut

taf prkdfssjkn ta`t wfrf nkt ef p`rt kd taf wjnnjno suehjssjkns, wfrf nktfc tk efjngmucfc jn taf bury rfpkrt. ajs o`vf taf bury p`nfms taf kppkrtunjty tk `ccrfss

taf jssufs wjtakut durtafr cfgjsjkn jhpmjg`tjkns, wajga gkntrjeutfc tk taf dmkw kd

taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss.

@c 4) Gknnfgtjkn eftwffn taf bury p`nfm `nc taf `jhs, grjtfrj`,

djn`m cfgjsjkn kd ` gkhpftjtjkn

Jn taf gkntfxt kd `ssfssjno qu`mjty curjno gkhpftjtjkns, Afynfn (5<<0) hfntjkns

taf jhpkrt`ngf kd `mjonjno taf prkbfgt cfdjnjtjkn, taf paysjg`m, mfo`m, fgknkhjg`m,

skgj`m `nc gumtur`m gkntfxt, taf sa`pf, gknstrugtjkn `nc h`tfrj`mjz`tjkn kd taf

pm`nnfc sp`gf, nc taf pktfntj`m kd usf, hf`njno nc pfrdkrh`ngfs. af mjtfr`turf

jn Ga`ptfr 7.3 suoofsts ta`t tafrfdkrf ` cfgjsjkn dr`hf sakumc jngmucf ` gknnfg-

tjkn eftwffn taf `jhs kd taf cfgjsjkn `nc taf hkst jhpkrt`nt `spfgts kd taf cfgj-

sjkn t`si. Jn tajs g`sf taf prkbfgt tf`h jntfncfc tk grf`tf ` gknnfgtjkn eftwffn

taf `hejtjkns `nc `jhs kd taf gmjfnt `nc taf bury p`nfm ey hìjno taf Cf`n p`rt

kd taf bury, jnvjtjno sfvfr`m bury hfhefrs wjta gmksf gknnfgtjkns tk taf d`gumty

`nc jnvkmvjno taf ga`jr jn taf prfp`r`tjkns. ajs cjc nkt ou`r`ntff ` gknnfgtjkn

eftwffn taf `jhs, taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj`, `nc taf cfgjsjkn kutgkhf, eut suoofsts

`t mf`st ` wfmm-gknsjcfrfc gkhpftjtjkn cfsjon. Jd ` gmjfnt cfmfo`tfs taf djn`m cfgj-

sjkn tk ` dummy jncfpfncfnt bury, tafy a`vf tk hìf surf tajs p`nfm sakumc ef vfry

wfmm `w`rf kd taf `hejtjkn `nc `jhs kd taf gmjfnt. @n jntrkcugtkry prfsfnt`tjkn

kr hkrf jnvkmvfhfnt jn taf prfp`r`tjkns kd taf gkhpftjtjkn gkumc fnsurf ` gmksf

gknnfgtjkn. Akwfvfr, taf rfsumts kd tajs g`sf jncjg`tf ta`t efjno p`rt kd taf bury

hjoat ef taf efst kptjkn tk fnsurf ` h`tga eftwffn taf `jhs, `hejtjkns, nffcs

`nc kppkrtunjtjfs ta`t `rf kddfrfc curjno ` gkhpftjtjkn.

Ufdmfgtjno kn taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf gkhpftjtjkn bury, rfm`tjknsajp eftwffn

taf typf kd wjnnjno suehjssjkns `nc taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury sffhs vjsjemf.

af fxprfssjkns jn taf hfcj` èkut taf rfsumts kd taf gkhpftjtjkn suoofst ta`t

fspfgj`mmy taf m`gi kd jgknjg `rgajtfgturf `nc taf prfdfrfngf dkr mkw-rjsf eujmcjnos

w`s spfgjdjg dkr taf ijnc kd fxpfrts jnvjtfc dkr taf bury p`nfm (Ekgih`, 5<<:9Tkmm``rc, 5<<:e). af bury akpfc tk a`vf rfvf`mfc ` trfnc jn `rgajtfgturf, wajga

aypktaftjg`mmy sakumc ef jncfpfncfnt kd taf pfrskns wak sjon`m jt. @ trfnc g`n

akwfvfr knmy ef fv`mu`tfc dtfr ginkwmfcofhfnt jn taf nfxt (dfw) yf`rs. Afynfn

(5<<0) suoofsts tk sfmfgt cjvfrsf orkup kd bury hfhefrs wak rf gkhpftfnt t mm

rfmfv`nt ckh`jns nc a`vf vjsjkn ekut rgajtfgturf ta`t tafy g`n gkhhunjg`tf

curjno ` cfe`tf. af djncjnos kd tajs g`sf suoofst ta`t jn mjnf wjta taf djncjnos

kd taf tfncfr g`sfs, knmy jngmucjno ` p`nfm hfhefr wjta spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf suga

`s sust`jnèjmjty fnsurfs ta`t gknsjcfr`tjkns kn tafsf spfgjdjg tafhfs efgkhf p`rt

kd taf djn`m cfgjsjkn. Jn tajs g`sf durtafr cjddfrfntj`tjkn kn taf djfmcs kd fxpfrtjsf

`nc stìfakmcfr pfrspfgtjvf gkumc a`vf jngrf`sfc taf `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn `ncpfrspfgtjvfs ta`t wfrf erkuoat tk taf tèmf curjno taf bury hfftjno. Akwfvfr,



571

` e`m`ngf sakumc ef ifpt eftwffn taf hfhefrs kd ` bury `s ` orkup efgùsf tkk

huga cjvfrsjty gkumc sg`ttfr taf jntfrfsts tkk huga (f.o. Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<1).

Jn taf rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws hkst kd taf bury hfhefrs fxprfssfc tk a`vf effn

s`tjsdjfc wjta taf gkhpksjtjkn kd tajs bury.

af kesfrv`tjkns `nc taf jntfrvjfws gkndjrh ta`t ekta pfrskn`m `nc prkdfs-

sjkn`m gkhpftfngfs `rf jhpkrt`nt dkr cfgjsjkn hìfrs tk dungtjkn `s ` prkdfs-sjkn`m bury hfhefr (I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:). afy suoofst ta`t efjno ` bury

hfhefr `ppf`rs tk rfqujrf ` gfrt`jn ijnc kd wjmmjnonfss dkr grjtjg`m rfdmfgtjkn,

kpfnnfss tk mf`rn drkh ktafrs, tk spfnc tjhf kn fcug`tjno pfkpmf, `nc tk jnvfst

jn taf duturf ofnfr`tjkn kd cfsjonfrs `nc skgjfty. afsf tr`jts sffhfc rfm`tfc tk taf

p`ssjkn, fntausj`sh, nc ktafr fhktjkn`m rfspknsfs ey wajga bury prkgfss sffhs

tk efnfdjt drkh. af rfsumts jncjg`tf jngmucjno sfvfr`m hfhefrs wak fxpfrjfngfc

bury prkgfss efdkrf wkumc surfmy efnfdjt taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. af h`jn

rf`skn dkr tajs js taf d`jta ta`t fxpfrjfngfc cfgjsjkn hìfrs a`vf jn tafjr sfmvfs,

jn taf bury `s ` orkup, `nc jn taf gmjfnt kro`njs`tjkn. ajs rfdmfgts kn taf pksjtjvf

`thkspafrf jn taf rkkh wafn cfgjsjkns a`vf tk ef h`cf.afn taf jssuf kd taf gkntfnt kd taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` jn rfm`tjkn tk cfsjon qu`m-

jty rfh`jns kpfn2 _a`t sakumc ef taf e`m`ngf eftwffn dungtjkn`mjty `nc `fstaft-

jgs, eftwffn gksts `nc qu`mjty, `nc eftwffn vjèjmjty, jnnkv`tjkn, sust`jnèjmjty

`nc curèjmjty; Jn Ga`ptfr 5 sfvfr`m hkcfms `nc mjsts kd qu`mjty `spfgts `rf cjs-

gussfc ta`t `rf gkndjrhfc ey taf djncjnos jn taf tfncfr g`sfs. Mjtfr`turf kn bury

prkgfssfs jn cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns sakws ta`t nkt knmy taf sfp`r`tf qu`mjtjfs `rf

jhpkrt`nt jn `ssfssjno qu`mjty eut `msk taf tkt`mjty kd ` cfsjon skmutjkn `nc jts jh-

p`gt kn taf gkntfxt (Afynfn, 5<<09 I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:9 Wprfjrfofn, 5<<1).

af wfjoat kd taf qu`mjtjfs sakumc strknomy rfm`tf tk taf `hejtjkns `nc fxpfgt`-

tjkns kd taf gmjfnt èkut ` duturf eujmcjno. af `spfgts kd ‑cfvfmkphfnt pktfntj`m‚akwfvfr rfdfr tk taf pktfntj`m v`muf kd taf prkpks`m dkr duturf usf `nc taf v`muf

curjno rf`mjz`tjkn `s wfmm. Curjno taf bury hfftjno kd tajs g`sf skhf rfdfrfngfs

wfrf h`cf tk duturf pktfntj`m kd taf eujmcjno, eut durtafr `rouhfnts ta`t rfm`tfc

tk taf rfskurgf fnvfmkp (tjhf, djn`ngf, n`tur`m rfskurgfs `nc auh`n rfskurgfs) kd

taf prkbfgt wfrf mhkst esfnt. ajs g`n ef ttrjeutfc tk taf ga`r`gtfr nc jhs kd

taf gkhpftjtjkn ta`t cjc nkt jngmucf taf `gtu`m rf`mjs`tjkn kd taf cfsjons `s prk-

pksfc ey taf p`rtjgjp`nts. afsf djncjnos jncjg`tf ta`t efgùsf taf jh kd tfncfr

prkgfcurf js tk `w`rc ` sfrvjgf gkntr`gt, cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` sakumc `msk rfdfr tk taf

duturf rkmf kd taf rgajtfgt. Jd taf rgajtfgt sakumc pm`y spfgjdjg kr ckhjn`nt rkmf

jn durtafr cfvfmkphfnt kd taf erjfd kr curjno gknstrugtjkn, taf tfncfr erjfd `nc`w`rc grjtfrj` sakumc skhfakw rfdmfgt tafsf fxpfgt`tjkns.

?.6 Cjsgussjkn

?.6.0 G`sf rfdmfgtjkn

ajs dkurta g`sf stucy sft kut tk `ppmy taf djncjnos kd taf tarff fhpjrjg`m g`sfs jn

` gkhpftjtjkn cfsjon. @p`rt drkh taf `jh `nc gkntfnt kd tajs g`sf, J g`n gkngmucf

ta`t taf kro`njs`tjkn `nc cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs kd ` gkhpftjtjkn `rf sjhjm`r tk wa`t

w`s dkunc dkr taf tfncfrs jn Ga`ptfr 4. Jn gkhpftjtjkns taf stìfs `nc jhpmjg`-



57: -

tjkns `rf usu`mmy nkt `s ajoa `s jn tfncfr prkbfgts, eut jn f`ga kd taf dkur g`sfs

puemjg hknfy w`s spfnt nc fxpfgt`tjkns wfrf jhfc t ‑eujmcjno crf`hs‚. Jn tajs

g`sf, taf gmjfnt ey vjrtuf kd efjno ` D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf w`s vfry gmksfmy gkn-

nfgtfc tk taf djfmc `nc a`c `n fxfhpm`ry dungtjkn tk pr`gtjgf. ajs gmksf gknnfg-

tjkn tk taf djfmc h`cf jt pkssjemf tk usf taf fxjstjno nftwkri jn sfmfgtjno hfhefrs

kd taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc bury p`nfm, tk gknsumt fxpfrts jn taf djfmc f`sjmy, tk jnvkmvftaf prfss jn `nnkungjno taf gkhpftjtjkn `nc taf wjnnfrs, `nc tk `jh dkr `n jn-

tfrn`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfr. af fxajejtjkn jn taf N@j prkvjcfs ` okkc fx`hpmf kd gkm-

mèkr`tjkn wjta taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc.

Curjno taf gkhpftjtjkn twk jntfrtwjnjno pfrspfgtjvfs kn taf rkmf kd taf gmjfnt

g`hf tk taf dkrf2 0) pm`yjno ` rkmf jn skgjfty `s ` stìfakmcfr jn taf djfmc kd `rgaj-

tfgturf nc efjno jntfrfstfc jn ofnfr`m cfe`tf s wfmm `s ckjno eusjnfss, nc 5) gt-

jno `s ` prkdfssjkn`m gmjfnt, tryjno tk s`tjsdy stìfakmcfrs jn ` gkntfxt kd djn`ngj`m

`nc kro`njs`tjkn`m gknstr`jnts. afsf pfrspfgtjvfs ck nkt nfgfss`rjmy a`rhknjsf

wfmm. Jn taf tarff tfncfr g`sfs tafsf cjmfhh`s wfrf `msk fxpfrjfngfc ey taf cfgj-

sjkn hìfrs eut hfrfmy sajdtfc tkw`rcs mfo`m rfspknsjejmjtjfs jnstf`c kd rfspknsj-ejmjtjfs tkw`rcs taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf. ajs rfqujrfc ta`t skhftjhfs cfgjsjkns

nffcfc tk ef h`cf kd wajga taf `cvfrsf gknsfqufngfs wfrf (jhpmjgjtmy) inkwn. J

efmjfvf ta`t jn taf g`sf kd taf gkhpftjtjkn taf jntfrfsts kd efjno ` prkdfssjkn`m gmj-

fnt usu`mmy prfv`jmfc, bust s jn taf ktafr g`sfs. Zft, jn mm g`sfs taf cjddjgumtjfs wjta

taf jhpmjg`tjkns kd taf cfgjsjkns `rf gurrfntmy stjmm sakwn, wajga jncjg`tfs ta`t

cfgjcjno èkut cfsjon qu`mjty js `mhkst tkk gkhpmfx tk ck jt pfrdfgtmy rjoat.

af gkhpksjtjkn kd taf prkbfgt tf`h w`s qujtf sjhjm`r tk taf prkbfgt tf`hs

dkunc jn taf tarff tfncfr g`sfs. Akwfvfr, taf rfsf`rga hftakc kd p`rtjgjp`nt ke-

sfrv`tjkn h`cf jt pkssjemf tk o`jn inkwmfcof `nc fxpfrjfngfs drkh taf jnsjoats

pfrspfgtjvf jnstf`c kd rfdmfgtjno drkh taf kutsjcf knmy. Curjno taf kro`njs`tjkn kdtaf gkhpftjtjkn J fxpfrjfngfc tfnsjkns ta`t rfm`tfc tk gkhhkn prkbfgt h`nòf-

hfnt jssufs, mjif taf jnput kd pfrsknnfm, jntfr-kro`njs`tjkn`m pkmjtjgs, `nc `v`jm-

èmf djn`ngj`m hf`ns. @ mkt kd tafsf gkndmjgts krjojn`tfc drkh cjssjhjm`rjty eftwffn

taf tfhpkr`ry prkbfgt-e`sfc `jhs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn `nc taf mkno-tfrh `jhs kd

taf kro`njs`tjkn. Cuf tk ` gfrt`jn mf`cfrsajp stymf taf t`sis `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs

wfrf nkt gmf`rmy cfdjnfc `hkno taf hfhefrs kd taf prkbfgt tf`h. k skhf cforff

trust skhf hfhefrs kd taf tf`h cjc nkt trust f`ga ktafr `nc `ppf`rfc tk a`vf

cjddfrfnt stymfs kd wkrijno. af rusafc ga`r`gtfr `nc succfn jhpftus kd taf g`sf

surfmy msk gkntrjeutfc tk tafsf tfnsjkns. Fspfgj`mmy dtfr taf Cf`n a`c d`mmfn sjgi,

taf nuhefr kd cjddfrfngfs jn jntfrfsts èkut p`ttfrns kd spfncjno `nc ùtakrjty wjtajn taf kro`njs`tjkn eftwffn taf jntfrn`mmy `nc fxtfrn`mmy ajrfc hfhefrs kd

taf tf`h jngrf`sfc. af gkndmjgts wfrf, dkr fx`hpmf, rfvf`mfc jn rfm`tjkn tk taf g-

gur`gy kd jndkrh`tjkn nc dffmjnos kd rfspknsjejmjty jn gkhhunjg`tjkn tk taf prk-

dfssjkn`m pr`gtjgf. ajs rfsumtfc `hkno ktafr tajnos jn ` hjstìf jn ` prfss rfmf`sf

`nc `n `cbusthfnt jn taf tjhjno kd taf `nnkungfhfnt kd taf wjnnfrs. Kvfr`mm J

efmjfvf taf gkhpftjtjkn g`n ef g`mmfc ` suggfss wjta sk h`ny suehjssjkns drkh

`mm kvfr taf wkrmc. ajs jhpmjfs ta`t taf prkbfgt tf`h cjc ck ` okkc bke. Hkst kd

taf `jhs kd taf gkhpftjtjkn a`vf effn rf`gafc, `mtakuoa knf gkumc `rouf jd taf

dumm pktfntj`m kd taf rfsumts js `mrf`cy tìfn `cv`ntòf kd jn rfm`tjkn tk rfsf`rga-



53<

ey-cfsjon `nc stjhum`tjkn kd cfe`tf. @n jntfrfstjno c`tè`sf wjta suehjssjkns,

kesfrv`tjkns, nc ktafr ijnc kd ckguhfnts w`jts durtafr n`mysjs, msk jn rfm`tjkn

tk taf rfsumts kd taf ajni `ni.

@mm g`sfs sakw ta`t efjno ` bury hfhefr prkvjcfs `n fxgfmmfnt mf`rnjno kp-

pkrtunjty drkh ekta taf ktafr bury hfhefrs `nc taf p`rtjgjp`nts. af gkhpksj-

tjkn kd ` bury p`nfm js tafrfdkrf nkt knmy jhpkrt`nt dkr taf suggfss kd ` (tfncfr)gkhpftjtjkn eut `msk dkr taf bury hfhefrs tafhsfmvfs. ajs rfsf`rga grf`tfc taf

kppkrtunjty tk fv`mu`tf taf bury prkgfss `nc gmksf taf mf`rnjno gygmf dkr taf bury

tk `gt `s `n fxpfrt tf`h. @t mf`st a`md kd taf bury hfhefrs fxprfssfc curjno taf

rftrkspfgtjvf jntfrvjfws tk a`vf rfvjfwfc taf gkhpftjtjkn prkgfssfs nc kutgkhfs

hkrf g`rfdummy jn prfp`r`tjkn kd tafjr jntfrvjfw. fncfrs `nc gkhpftjtjkn gkumc

`msk kddfr p`rtjgjp`nts ` mf`rnjno fxpfrjfngf, kn taf gkncjtjkn ta`t fxpmjgjt dffc-

e`gi js prkvjcfc. @ nuhefr jn ` h`trjx safft kr or`cf ckfs nkt qu`mjdy dkr ta`t.

_rjtjno ` bury rfpkrt gkumc `msk gkntrjeutf tk taf sgjfntjdjg `nc skgj`m rfmfv`ngf kd

gkhpftjtjkns `nc tfncfrs. af mf`rnjno fddfgt gkumc ef durtafr fxpmkjtfc ey jntfr-

n`tjkn`m systfh`tjg rfsf`rga eut gmjfnts `nc p`rtjgjp`nts wkumc a`vf tk kpfn uptafjr `ttjtucf tkw`rcs `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns `nc rfsf`rga jn tajs jntfrfstjno djfmc.

?.6.5 Djncjnos jn taf gkntfxt kd prkgurfhfnt m`w

E`sfc kn tafsf dkur fhpjrjg`m g`sfs J dkunc ta`t taf h`jn cjddfrfngf eftwffn kr-

o`njsjno tfncfr nc kro`njsjno gkhpftjtjkn js taf pktfntj`m jhp`gt kd taf cfgj-

sjkn ekut wjnnfr. ajs strknomy rfm`tfs tk taf jh kd taf cfgjsjkn nc ddfgts taf

cfgjsjkn prkgfss. ajs cjddfrfngf grf`tfc gfrt`jn hkunt kd dmfxjejmjty ta`t wkumc

nkt ef `v`jmèmf jn ` prkgurfhfnt g`sf. Jn gkhp`rjskn tk ` tfncfr, taf gkhpftjtjkn

kddfrs taf gmjfnt hkrf kptjkns tk gkntrkm taf gkursf kd taf prkgfss `nc tafrfdkrf

`msk taf pktfntj`m v`muf kd taf cfgjsjkns. Gknsfqufntmy taf cyn`hjgs `nc skgj`m

`spfgts kd taf okvfrn`ngf gkntfxt kd taf gmjfnt gkumc ef tìfn jntk `ggkunt `nc

prfvfnt jndkrh`tjkn drkh efjno keskmftf `t taf tjhf kd puemjg`tjkn. fncfr `gtjvj-

tjfs kdtfn grkss kro`njs`tjkn`m gtjvjtjfs wajga grf`tf ungfrt`jntjfs hkno cfgjsjkn

hìfrs `nc ` nffc tk rfdr`hf taf `jhs kr cfgjsjkn hftakcs. Jn hy kpjnjkn taf

gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn h`cf jt pkssjemf tk grf`tf rkkh dkr jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf

erjfd `nc `cbusthfnts tk taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj`9 jt grf`tfc tafrfdkrf rkkh dkr sfnsf-

hìjno prkgfssfs curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Jn ekta tfncfrjno `nc gkhpftjtjkn

rfoum`tjkns taf prjngjpmf kd d`jr pm`y nc `n fqu`m mfvfm pm`yjno djfmc rf jhpkrt`nt

v`mufs wajga nffc tk ef rft`jnfc. Zft, taf gurrfnt jntfrprft`tjkn kd prkgurfhfntm`w sffhs tk gùsf ` dffmjno kd rfstrjgtjkns `hkno taf rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd puemjg

gmjfnts ta`t ckfs nkt efnfdjt taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. J skhftjhfs qufstjkn

jd taf gurrfnt tfncfr rfoum`tjkns `rf rf`mjstjg efgùsf puemjg `chjnjstr`tkrs a`vf

tk dumdjm tafjr skgj`m, mfo`m, pfrskn`m, `nc pkmjtjg`m cutjfs jn `n `rf` ta`t js usu`mmy

nkt tafjr djfmc kd fxpfrtjsf.

af rfsumts kd taf dkur fhpjrjg`m g`sfs sakw ta`t cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno `n r-

gajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss js prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno jn wajga nuhefr kd jhpmjgjt

`jhs `nc `hejtjkns, ` pktfntj`mmy fxpmjgjt erjfd, `nc sfvfr`m èstr`gt prkpks`ms dkr

duturf skmutjkns rf mjnifc. Drkh n fgknkhjg`m pfrspfgtjvf tfncfr gknnfgts taf

cfh`ncs kd ` gmjfnt wjta taf pktfntj`m suppmy drkh taf h`rift. Cfgjsjkn grjtfrj`



530 -

sakumc ef ` tr`nsm`tjkn kd taf `spfgts ta`t taf gmjfnt tajnis wjmm ef jhpkrt`nt, eut

hfrfmy prkvjcf taf strugturf dkr taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss jnstf`c kd stffrjno taf cfsjon

kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. koftafr wjta taf gkhpftjtjkn erjfd taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj`

sakumc prkvjcf `n `ngakr pkjnt dkr taf bury. Bury hfhefrs `mm erjno jn tafjr kwn

jntfrfsts, kpjnjkns `nc fxpfrtjsf `nc try tk `gt `s rfprfsfnt`tjvfs dkr taf gmjfnt.

afy `jh dkr ` gknsfnsus kn tafjr bucofhfnts eut g`n skhftjhfs a`rcmy djnc taftjhf nc kppkrtunjty tk o`jn hkrf jn-cfpta inkwmfcof ekut taf tkpjg kd cjsgus-

sjkn. af fhktjkns ta`t krjojn`tf drkh taf jntfr`gtjkn wjta taf prkpks`ms `nc taf

ktafr bury hfhefrs jndmufngf taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno jn ` sfnsf ta`t g`n-

nkt ef prfcjgtfc efdkrfa`nc. Jn `mm g`sfs s`tjsd`gtjkn w`s dfmt `hkno taf cfgjsjkn

hìfrs wafn ` gknsfnsus w`s rf`gafc èkut taf wjnnfrs, fvfn tkuoa tafy wfrf

efdkrfa`nc `w`rf ta`t tajs gknsfnsus wkumc nfvfr dumdjm `mm taf rfqujrfhfnts `nc

kemjo`tjkns. af rfsumts sakw ta`t gmjfnts fxpfrjfngf ` gkndmjgt kd twk r`tjkn`mjtjfs

efgùsf tafy a`vf tk gkhpmy wjta prkgurfhfnt m`w ey `gtjno r`tjkn`m, wajmf cfgj-

sjkn hìfrs rfprfsfntjno ` gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjty nffc ` psygakmkojg`m prkgfss kd

sfnsfhìjno jn krcfr tk rf`ga ` cfgjsjkn. ajs hf`ns ta`t taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kdtaf prkgfss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn tfnc tk gùsf ` gkndmjgt wjta taf jntfrprft`tjkn

kd taf gkhhknmy `ggfptfc mfo`m prjngjpmfs kd tr`nsp`rfngy, kebfgtjvjty, fqu`m trf`t-

hfnt, `nc prkpkrtjkn`mjty.

?.4 T`mjc`tjkn kd djncjnos

@s st`tfc jn taf prfvjkus sfgtjkn gmjfnts kdtfn fxpfrjfngf gkndmjgts jn taf jntfr-

prft`tjkn kd taf mfo`m prjngjpmfs kd tr`nsp`rfngy, kebfgtjvjty, fqu`m trf`thfnt `nc

prkpkrtjkn`mjty. E`sfc kn taf rfsumts kd taf dkur fhpjrjg`m g`sfs `nc taf tafkrftjg`m

dr`hfwkri J cjstjnoujsafc sfvfr`m sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs `nc sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`g-tfrjstjgs ta`t wfrf dkunc tk ef kd jndmufngf jn taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd puemjg gmjfnts

jn taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts (sff Ga`ptfr 6). Jn krcfr tk v`mjc`tf taf djncjnos kd

tajs rfsf`rga ` wkrisakp w`s kro`njsfc jn B`nu`ry 5<0< wjta tfn fxpfrts drkh taf

djfmc kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. Wkhf fxpfrts wfrf sfmfgtfc drkh taf nftwkri kd taf

supfrvjskrs `nc taf rfsf`rgafr, ktafrs wfrf `sifc tk bkjn efgùsf kd tafjr rfput`-

tjkn. _f jhfc dkr ` hjxfc fxpfrt p`nfm kd Cutga puemjg gmjfnts, mfo`m prkdfssjkn-

`ms `nc wfmm rfspfgtfc `rgajtfgts. Jn taf fnc tfn fxpfrts wfrf prfsfnt curjno taf

wkrisakp2 twk rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd ` prkdfssjkn`m puemjg gmjfnt9 knf rfprfsfnt`tjvf

kd taf rf`m fst`tf cfvfmkpfrs9 twk mfo`m prkdfssjkn`ms wak ekta wkri jn pr`gtjgf

eut `msk `rf prkdfsskrs (jn eujmcjno m`w `nc prkgurfhfnt m`w rfspfgtjvfmy). afktafr djvf fxpfrts wfrf pr`gtjgjno `rgajtfgts wak `msk a`c suest`ntj`m fxpfrjfngf

`s ` hfhefr kd bury p`nfms efgùsf kd tafjr (jntfr)n`tjkn`m rfput`tjkn. J `sifc taf

cjrfgtkr `nc sfnjkr rfsf`rgafr kd @rgajtfgtuur Mki``m - `n jncfpfncfnt n`tjkn`m

gfntrf kd fxpfrtjsf `nc jndkrh`tjkn cfvktfc tk gkhhjssjknjno eujmcjno cfvfmkp-

hfnt jn taf Nftafrm`ncs - tk kesfrvf taf wkrisakp `nc rfdmfgt kn taf djncjnos

`t taf fnc kd taf wkrisakp. afy cjc nkt `gtjvfmy fnoòf jn taf wkrisakp `nc

h`jnmy tkki nktfs. af supfrvjskry tf`h kd taf rfsf`rga prkbfgt suppkrtfc hf

curjno taf cjddfrfnt jtfhs kd taf wkrisakp.



535

af wkrisakp w`s pm`nnfc dkr twk `nc ` a`md akurs eut tkki `mhkst tarff.

af prkor`hhf kd taf wkrisakp w`s `s dkmmkws2

_fmgkhf `nc sakrt jntrkcugtjkn kd `ttfncffs.

\rfsfnt`tjkn kd taf djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs `s ` rfsumt kd taf rfsf`rga ey

taf rfsf`rgafr, suppkrtfc ey fmfvfn \kwfr\kjnt smjcfs.

Djrst rf`gtjkn `nc rfdmfgtjkn kd taf fxpfrts kn taf djncjnos (v`mjc`tjkn stfp

0).

Hkcfmmjno fxfrgjsf wjta taf djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs, fmfvfn sjtu`tjkn`m

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `nc dkur mfo`m prjngjpmfs (sff tèmf ?.4).

\rfsfnt`tjkn kd taf djncjnos kd taf hkcfmmjno fxfrgjsf ey taf p`rtjgjp`nts (v`m-

jc`tjkn stfp 5).

Ufdmfgtjkn kn taf wkrisakp djncjnos ey taf fxtfrn`m kesfrvfrs.

Gmksurf kd taf wkrisakp.T`mjc`tjkn stfp 0 gknsjstfc kd rfdmfgtjkn kd taf fxpfrts kn taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd

taf djncjnos kd taf rfsf`rga. af prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf djncjnos w`s suppkrtfc wjta

` pkwfr pkjnt prfsfnt`tjkn jn wajga taf rfsf`rga w`s sakrtmy jntrkcugfc `nc taf

djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs wfrf fxpm`jnfc drkh tafkrjfs `nc fhpjrjg`m djncjnos.

@mm fxpfrts fxprfssfc tk rfgkonjsf fvfry sfnsfhìjno prkgfss ta`t w`s jcfntjdjfc

jn taf gkngmusjkns. Curjno tajs rkunc kd rfdmfgtjkn sfvfr`m fxpfrts sa`rfc tafjr

fxpfrjfngfs ekut taf gurrfnt prkemfhs jn Cutga pr`gtjgf. afsf nfgcktjg stkrjfs

wfrf tk ` m`rof fxtfnt sjhjm`r tk taf prkemfhs `s cfsgrjefc jn Ga`ptfr 3.4. Wfvfr`m

jssufs wfrf r`jsfc s suoofstjkns dkr durtafr rfsf`rga ekut taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn

prjv`tf `nc puemjg gmjfnts, `nc eftwffn prkbfgt cfvfmkphfnt `nc `rgajtfgt sfmfg-tjkns, taf prkpkrtjkn`mjty èkut bucofhfnts kd taf gkhpftfngfs kd `n `rgajtfgt,

`nc taf mfvfm kd prkdfssjkn`mjsh `hkno puemjg gmjfnts jn ofnfr`m.

T`mjc`tjkn stfp 5 gknsjstfc kd hkcfmmjno fxfrgjsf jn wajga taf djvf sfnsfhì-

jno prkgfssfs, fmfvfn sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `nc dkur h`jn mfo`m prjngjpmfs `s

cjstjnoujsafc jn tajs rfsf`rga wfrf usfc `s jnorfcjfnts dkr jhpmjg`tjkns dkr tfncfr

cfsjon. af tfn fxpfrts wfrf cjvjcfc jn dkur orkups. F`ga orkup w`s tkmc tk sfmfgt

knf kd taf mfo`m prjngjpmfs (fqu`m trf`thfnt, tr`nsp`rfngy, kebfgtjvjty, prkpkrtjkn-

`mjty) nc cjsguss taf pkssjemf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd tfncfr, wajmf tìjno

taf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs `nc d`gtkrs jntk `ggkunt. F`ga orkup rfgfjvfc knf yfm-

mkw pkst-jt wjta taf mfo`m prjngjpmf, djvf pjni pkst-jts wjta taf sfnsfhìjno prkg-

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

Wfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs2 H`jn sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs2

Uf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si Gkhpmfxjty, Vngfrt`jnty, Sjhf

Wf`rgajno dkr h`tga Gkntrkm, Sjhf, @fgt

_rjtjno cfgjsjkn prkgfss Sjhf, Jntujtjkn, Fxpfrtjsf

@oorfo`tjno v`muf bucofhfnts Wtrugturf, Wystfh, Fxpfrtjsf

Bustjdyjno o jnst cjfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs Wuppkrt, Srust, Gkntrkm

Sèmf ?.4 Kvfrvjfw kd sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs `nc sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs



537 -

fssfs, fmfvfn orffn pkst-jts wjta taf sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, ` safft kd erkwn

p`pfr, ` sakrt a`nckut èkut taf rfsumts `nc ` h`rifr. Jn èkut tajrty hjnutfs taf

orkups takuoat èkut pkssjemf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr ` tfncfr cfsjon. afn f`ga orkup

prfsfntfc tafjr djncjnos tk taf ktafrs.

Djourf ?.4 sakws taf pkst-jts (kn taf mfdt), taf cjsgussjkn kd knf kd taf orkups

(jn taf hjccmf), `nc taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd tafjr djncjnos tk taf ktafr orkups (kn taf

rjoat). af t`si `ppf`rfc tk ef cjddjgumt jn taf efojnnjno takuoa suggfssdum jn taf

fnc. Curjno taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf djncjnos taf fxpfrts `gtjvfmy rf`gtfc kn taf

rfm`tjknsajps `s prkpksfc ey taf ktafr orkups `nc cjsgussfc pkssjemf jhpmjg`tjkns

dkr ` tfncfr cfsjon.

af pksjtjvf rfsumts kd taf v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp sakwfc ta`t taf cjstjngtjkn

kd taf djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs `nc taf sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs afmpfc taf

fxpfrts tk rfdmfgt kn ` hkrf èstr`gt mfvfm kn taf krjojn kd taf gurrfnt gkndmjgts jn`rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs. @t taf s`hf tjhf taf rfsumts suoofstfc ta`t taf jhpmj-

g`tjkns kd taf mfo`m prjngjpmfs drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd ` gmjfnt kdtfn gkndmjgt wjta

f`ga ktafr (sff èmf ?.?). af fxpfrts jncjg`tfc ta`t prkpkrtjkn`mjty dkr fx`hpmf

gkumc ef pksjtjvfmy jndmufngfc ey taf usf kd jntujtjkn, wajmf jntujtjkn w`s jncj-

g`tfc tk a`vf ` nfo`tjvf fddfgt kn fqu`m trf`thfnt. Dkr strugturf tajs `ppf`rfc tk

ef taf ktafr w`y rkunc. jhf w`s nkt dkunc vfry rfmfv`nt, p`rt dkr taf d`gt ta`t

fvfryknf usu`mmy js eusy. afrfdkrf knmy rfmfv`nt qufstjkns sakumc ef r`jsfc. af

hktjv`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn w`s dkunc tk ef vfry jhpkrt`nt, drkh ` mfo`m `s wfmm `s

drkh prkdfssjkn`m pfrspfgtjvf.

Djourf ?.4 T`mjc`tjkn stfp 5 jn wajga f`ga orkup kd fxpfrts usfc pkst-jts wjta taf prkgfssfs

`nc sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs tk cjsguss pkssjemf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr ` tfncfr cfsjon

Mfo`m prjngjpmf2 \ksjtjvfmy jnstufngfc ey2 Nfo`tjvfmy jnstufngfc ey2

Fqu`m trf`thfnt Wtrugturf Jntujtjkn, Vngfrt`jnty, @fgt

Sr`nsp`rfngy Ufspfgt, Kpfnnfss, Gmf`r ok`ms `nc

`jhs, Ujsi fstjh`tjkn

Vngfrt`jnty, M`gi kd Gkntrkm

Kebfgtjvjty Gkntrkm, Fxpfrtjsf, @fgt, Jntujtjkn,

Wuppkrt, Srust

M`gi kd rfgkonjtjkn, Wuppkrt kd cfgjsjkn

\rkpkrtjkn`mjty Fxpfrtjsf, Fxpfrjfngf, Jntujtjkn, Gkntrkm,

Wuppkrt

Wtrugturf, Wystfh

Sèmf ?.? Wuhh`ry kd taf rfsumts kd taf hkcfmmjno fxfrgjsf jn v`mjc`tjkn stfp 5



533

af h`jn gkngmusjkn kd taf fxtfrn`m kesfrvfrs w`s ta`t taf fxpfrts h`jnmy

rf`sknfc drkh tafjr kwn pfrspfgtjvf, wajga js `n jnfvjtèmf p`rt kd taf prkemfh

jn rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. ”_a`t skuncs mkojg`m drkh knf pfrspfgtjvf ckfs nkt hìf sfnsf drkh `nktafr pfrspfgtjvf ‘ tafy st`tfc. afy jncjg`tfc ta`t taf prkdfssjkn`m mfvfm kd

gmjfnts nffcs tk jngrf`sf tk kvfrgkhf ` p`rt kd taf gurrfnt prkemfh. H`yef `rgaj-

tfgts gkumc pm`y ` rkmf jn tajs. Nkt `mm sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `nc sfnsfhìjnoprkgfssfs wfrf gknsjcfrfc rfmfv`nt dkr f`ga mfo`m prjngjpmf, wajga js jn mjnf wjta

taf djncjnos kd taf rfsf`rga. E`sfc kn taf rfsumts kd taf v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp J gkn-

gmucf ta`t taf dr`hfwkri s suoofstfc jn taf wkrisakp g`n ef suggfssdummy usfc jn

prkpksjno pkssjemf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr duturf tfncfrs.

Jn Ga`ptfr 1 taf rfsumts kd taf fhpjrjg`m g`sfs nc taf v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp rf

gkhp`rfc tk taf suggfss d`gtkrs prkpksfc jn taf tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri kd Ga`ptfr

6 tk cr`w gkngmusjkns èkut taf prkgfss kd v`muf bucofhfnts `nc cfgjsjkn hì-

jno jn taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts ey puemjg gmjfnts uncfr Furkpf`n tfncfrjno

rfoum`tjkns.



53?,

Ga`ptfr 1

GKNGMVWJKN, UFGKHHFNC@SJKNW @NC UFDMFGSJKN

1.0 Jntrkcugtjkn

ajs rfsf`rga dkgusfc kn taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno kd puemjg gmjfnts curjno

`rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns jn krcfr tk `ccrfss taf ga`mmfnofs tafy gurrfntmy d`gf jn taf

gkntfxt kd FV prkgurfhfnt m`w. @ tfncfr dkr ` puemjg eujmcjno js hkrf ta`n mfo`m

kemjo`tjkn `nc sakumc ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` prkbfgt fhefccfc jn taf prkgfss kd dum-

djmmjno taf `ggkhhkc`tjkn nffcs kd ` puemjg gmjfnt. Jn taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts

sfvfr`m `gtkrs pm`y rkmfs ta`t rfprfsfnt cjddfrfnt orkups kd stìfakmcfrs. Fxjstjno

oujcfmjnfs `nc hkcfms tk suppkrt taf tfncfr prkgfss sffh tk nfomfgt taf d`gt ta`t` cfgjsjkn tk sfmfgt ` wjnnfr kd ` tfncfr js prfgfcfc ey nuhfrkus ktafr cfgjsjkns

ey ` puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcy ta`t rfm`tf tk taf `hejtjkn `nc fxfgutjkn kd taf

tfncfr `s wfmm `s taf eujmcjno prkbfgt `s ` wakmf. Dkr ` puemjg gmjfnt taf bustjdjg`-

tjkn kd taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn hjoat ef `s jhpkrt`nt `s taf cfgjsjkn jtsfmd. @ prkgfss

kd sfnsfhìjno js tafrfdkrf fssfntj`m.

Dkr taf tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri dkr tajs rfsf`rga J crfw kn mjtfr`turf drkh taf

djfmcs kd `rgajtfgturf, jncustrj`m cfsjon, fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy, gknstrugtjkn

h`nòfhfnt, h`nòfhfnt sgjfngf, `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m psygakmkoy tk fxpmkrf taf

krjojn kd hìjno v`muf bucofhfnts `nc cfgjsjkns èkut taf qu`mjty kd cfsjon. J

o`tafrfc fhpjrjg`m c`t` ey usjno cjddfrfnt qu`mjt`tjvf rfsf`rga hftakcs jn dkurg`sf stucjfs `nc v`mjc`tfc taf rfsumts jn ` wkrisakp wjta prkdfssjkn`ms. af h`jn

dkgus curjno c`t` gkmmfgtjkn w`s kn taf gkonjtjvf `nc skgj`m prkgfssfs kd cfgjsjkn

hìfrs jn taf gkntfxt kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. Jn tajs ga`ptfr J gkhp`rf taf djvf

sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs nc taf djdtffn pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkrs prkpksfc jn Ga`ptfr

6 tk taf prkgfssfs nc sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs jcfntjdjfc drkh taf fhpjrjg`m c`t`

jn Ga`ptfr 4 nc ?. E`sfc kn tajs gkhp`rjskn, J ojvf rfgkhhfnc`tjkns dkr taf cf-

sjon kd duturf tfncfrs jn `rgajtfgturf. afsf rfgkhhfnc`tjkns tìf taf dkrh kd `

sfrjfs kd suggfss d`gtkrs. af ga`ptfr gkngmucfs wjta rfdmfgtjkn kd taf mjhjt`tjkns

`nc pkssjemf jhpmjg`tjkns kd taf stucy `nc cjrfgtjkns dkr durtafr rfsf`rga.

1.5 Gkngmusjkn

1.5.0 Djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs gkntrjeutjno tk `n jntfrpm`y kdr`tjkn`mjtjfs

af fvjcfngf drkh taf dkur g`sf stucjfs gkndjrhfc ta`t taf prkgfss kd puemjg gmj-

fnts sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt js jncffc efst cfsgrjefc `s ` prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno

jn ` prfsuhèmy r`tjkn`m wkrmc. Dkr puemjg gmjfnts tajs kdtfn mfc tk ` gm`sa kd taf

cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs ta`t pm`y ` rkmf jn cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn `mm fhpjrjg`m g`sfs

jn tajs rfsf`rga, cfgjsjkn hìjno st`rtfc wafn pfkpmf efg`hf `w`rf kd ` prkemfh



531

`nc fxpfrjfngfc ` nffc dkr ` skmutjkn. @ g`mm dkr tfncfrs js `n jhpkrt`nt gkh-

pknfnt jn taf prkgfss kd rf`mjsjno ` eujmcjno prkbfgt tk rfskmvf ` gmjfnt‚s akusjno

prkemfh. af fx`gt rfsumts kd suga prkbfgt rf nkt cfdjnjtf, nkr js taf hf`njno kd

taf rfsumts dkr taf kro`njs`tjkn. af rfsumts kd taf g`sfs gkndjrh ta`t jn `rgajtfgt

sfmfgtjkn cfgjsjkns g`n ef sffn drkh twk cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs2 ` mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf

`nc ` psygakmkojg`m pfrspfgtjvf. af uncfrmyjno mkojg kd taf mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf jsta`t n kpfn prkgurfhfnt h`rift nc drff hkvfhfnt kd okkcs nc sfrvjgfs jn taf

Furkpf`n Vnjkn wkumc umtjh`tfmy efnfdjt `mm gjtjzfns. Fqu`m trf`thfnt, tr`nsp`r-

fngy, kebfgtjvjty, `nc prkpkrtjkn`mjty `rf taf hkst jhpkrt`nt prjngjpmfs dkr taf

prkgurfhfnt kd sfrvjgfs, wkris, `nc cfmjvfrjfs. \rjkr `nnkungfhfnt kd cfgjsjkn

grjtfrj` `nc cfgjsjkn hftakcs gkumc afmp tk jnst`ntj`tf tafsf prjngjpmfs `nc jn-

dkrh p`rtjgjp`tjno gkhp`njfs wa`t tk fxpfgt. Gurrfnt Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w

js e`sfc kn `ssuhptjkns sjhjm`r tk taf djrst ofnfr`tjkn cfgjsjkn tafkrjfs (Ef`ga &

Gknnkmmy, 5<<69 A`rrjskn, 0:::). afsf hkcfms pfrgfjvf taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn

hìjno `s ` sfqufngf kd prkemfh cfdjnjtjkn, jcfntjdjg`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn grjtfrj`, `m-

mkg`tjkn kd wfjoats tk taf grjtfrj`, cfvfmkphfnt kd `mtfrn`tjvfs `nc fv`mu`tjkn kd`mtfrn`tjvf wjta taf usf kd taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` `s sft kut jn taf efojnnjno.

af psygakmkojg`m pfrspfgtjvf `ckptfc jn tajs stucy, akwfvfr, `ccrfssfs akw

pfkpmf `gtu`mmy hìf cfgjsjkns `nc wajga sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs jndmufngf

tafsf prkgfssfs. af cyn`hjgs kd taf gkntfxt jhpmjfc ta`t taf jndkrh`tjkn ta`t

prkbfgt cfdjnjtjkns wfrf e`sfc kn kdtfn a`c efgkhf keskmftf ey taf tjhf ` bucof-

hfnt js h`cf. ajs h`cf taf jcfntjdjg`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` `nc `mmkg`tjkn kd

wfjoats tk taf grjtfrj` hkrf gkhpmfx ta`n prfsuhfc jn taf mfo`m hkcfm. af cfgj-

sjkn `mtfrn`tjvfs `rf cfvfmkpfc ey `rgajtfgts wak suehjt ` prkbfgt prkpks`m, wjta

nk pkssjejmjtjfs dkr taf gmjfnt tk jndmufngf kr gkntrkm taf cfvfmkphfnt kd `mtfrn`-

tjvfs. af knmy kppkrtunjtjfs ` gmjfnt a`s dkr gkntrkmmjno taf qu`mjty kd taf sfrvjgfmjf efdkrf nc curjno taf fv`mu`tjkn kd taf `mtfrn`tjvfs. af prkgfss kd gmjfnt cfgj-

sjkn hìjno w`s dkunc tk ef cyn`hjg `nc jngrfhfnt`m r`tafr ta`n garknkmkoj-

g`m `nc st`tjg. af fhpjrjg`m g`sfs sakwfc ta`t taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd sfmfgtjno

`n `rgajtfgt w`s ` rfsumt kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs‚ jntfr`gtjkn wjta taf `mtfrn`tjvfs

kngf tafy wfrf gkndrkntfc wjta tafh `nc efo`n tk hìf sfnsf kd taf prkpksfc

cfsjons. Jt js tafrfdkrf `mhkst jhpkssjemf dkr gmjfnts tk cfsjon ` sfmfgtjkn prkgf-

curf `nc `nnkungf taf grjtfrj` `nc wfjoatjno d`gtkrs up drknt, `s rfqujrfc ey

prkgurfhfnt m`w. Jn tajs rfspfgt taf r`tjkn`mjty kd taf mfo`m rfqujrfhfnts gm`safs

wjta taf psygakmkojg`m r`tjkn`mjty kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. Kn taf ktafr a`nc taf mfo`m

r`tjkn`mjty prkvjcfs ` puemjg gmjfnt wjta taf strugturf `nc rkkh nffcfc dkr sug-gfssdum cfgjsjkn hìjno. af c`t` sakwfc ta`t tajs jntfrpm`y kd r`tjkn`mjtjfs rfsumts

jn sfnsfhìjno efjno `n fssfntj`m p`rt kd cfgjsjkn hìjno dkr puemjg gmjfnts jn taf

sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts.

af djncjnos kd tajs rfsf`rga gkndjrhfc djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs ta`t gkn-

trjeutf tk ` pktfntj`m gm`sa eftwffn fxpfgtfc `nc `gtu`m cfgjsjkn hìjno efa`v-

jkur, n`hfmy2

Uf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si.

Wf`rgajno dkr ` h`tga eftwffn `jh, `hejtjkns, nffcs `nc kppkrtunjtjfs.

_rjtjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss.

0.

5.

7.



53:,

@oorfo`tjno cjddfrfnt ijncs kd v`muf bucofhfnts.

Bustjdyjno ` cfgjsjkn ò`jnst cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs.

Gmjfnts gt jn taf gkntfxt kd taf tfncfrjno rfoum`tjkns kd FV prkgurfhfnt m`w.

Jn fvfry g`sf taf stffrjno gkhhjttff, prkbfgt tf`h, `nc bury p`nfm wfrf jcfntj-

djfc `s taf h`jn `gtkrs. Jn `n`mysjno taf prkbfgt gkntfxt, taf okvfrn`ngf, taf sk-

gj`m fnvjrknhfnt, `nc prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt dr`hf jndmufngfc taf cfgjsjkn prkgfssskhfakw. af tfncfr erjfd, taf prkgfcurf kd taf prkgfss, taf jnvkmvfhfnt kd taf

stìfakmcfr, `nc taf cfgjsjkn prkgfcurf wfrf dkunc tk ef taf hkst jhpkrt`nt

fmfhfnts kd taf tfncfr cfsjon. J dkunc ta`t gmjfnts fnckrsf taf prjngjpmfs kd FV

prkgurfhfnt m`w - fqu`m trf`thfnt, tr`nsp`rfngy, kebfgtjvjty, `nc prkpkrtjkn`mjty

- drkh ` psygakmkojg`m pfrspfgtjvf. Akwfvfr, taf jntfrprft`tjkn `nc fxfgutjkn kd

tafsf prjngjpmfs gkumc gùsf gm`safs. E`sfc kn taf fhpjrjg`m c`t` `nc tafkrftjg`m

dr`hfwkri fmfvfn sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs wfrf jcfntjdjfc tk jndmufngf taf sfnsf-

hìjno prkgfssfs kd taf puemjg gmjfnts2 `ddfgt, gkhpmfxjty, gkntrkm, fxpfrtjsf, jn-

tujtjkn, strugturf, systfh, suppkrt, tjhf, trust, ungfrt`jnty. afsf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

wfrf suggfssdummy v`mjc`tfc jn ` wkrisakp wjta prkdfssjkn`ms.

af tafkrftjg`m gkngfpt kd sfnsfhìjno fxpm`jns way `gtkrs kdtfn knmy fxpfrj-

fngf taf gkndmjgts wjta taf mfo`m prjngjpmfs wafn taf tfncfr cfsjon js jhpmfhfntfc

curjno ` prkgurfhfnt prkgfss. af gkhpmfxjty `nc ungfrt`jnty kd sfmfgtjno taf

sfrvjgfs kd `n `rgajtfgt hf`ns ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs nffc tjhf tk uncfrst`nc taf

`gtu`m `jhs `nc kppkrtunjtjfs kd ` tfncfr prkgfss. Efgùsf kd taf cyn`hjgs kd taf

kro`njs`tjkn`m gkntfxt jn wajga ` cfgjsjkn js h`cf, ga`nofs gkumc a`vf kggurrfc

jn taf e`sjg `ssuhptjkns `rf krjojn`mmy dr`hfc jn taf g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn. ajs

pktfntj`mmy gkndmjgts wjta taf e`sjg prjngjpmf kd fqu`m trf`thfnt efgùsf taf prk-

gfcurf nc taf p`rtjgjp`nts g`nnkt ef cbustfc tk tafsf ga`nofs wajmf taf cfgjsjkn

hìfrs ck. afrfdkrf gmjfnts `rf nkt èmf tk pm`y ey taf rumfs kd prkgurfhfnt m`w.

Efgùsf taf rumfs kd taf o`hf hìf jt pkssjemf dkr tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs `nc tfncfr-

frs tk inkw wa`t tk fxpfgt, taf sfnsfhìjno prkgfss js jngknsjstfnt wjta taf mfo`m

jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf tr`nsp`rfngy prjngjpmf. r`nsp`rfngy, akwfvfr, a`s cjddfrfnt

hf`njnos wafn mkkifc upkn drkh cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs.

Jn sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs cfgjsjkn hìfrs nffc tjhf tk ok tarkuoa sfvfr`m

jtfr`tjvf `nc jngrfhfnt`m stòfs kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. afsf stòfs `rf kdtfn `g-

gkhp`njfc ey nuhfrkus nfo`tjvf `nc pksjtjvf fhktjkns `s ` rfsumt kd jntfr`gtjkn

wjta taf prkpks`ms `nc wjta taf ktafr cfgjsjkn hìfrs `nc taf usf kd jntujtjvf

cfgjsjkns. Jn taf sf`rga dkr ` h`tga fvfry cfgjsjkn pa`sf jngrf`sfs taf pkssjejm-

jty tk gkntrkm taf prkgfss. af jhpfnftrèmf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd sfnsfhìjno prkg-

fssfs gkumc hìf `rgajtfgts dffm ta`t tafy wfrf nkt trf`tfc fqu`mmy. af pksjtjvf

fhktjkns ta`t `rf dfmt wafn ` h`tga js dkunc eftwffn ` gmjfnt `nc `n `rgajtfgt

gkumc `msk mf`c tk dffmjnos kd unfqu`m trf`thfnt wjta taf ktafr tfncfrfrs. Gmjfnts

`nc wjnnjno `rgajtfgts tfnc tk ef vfry s`tjsdjfc èkut taf kutgkhf kd taf sfmfg-

tjkn prkgfss efgùsf taf cfgjsjkn ‑orkws‚ upkn tafh. af usf kd ` prfcfdjnfc `nc

strugturfc òorfo`tjkn systfh gkumc prfvfnt taf p`rtjgjp`nts drkh `ggusjno taf

gmjfnt kd unfqu`m trf`thfnt. Akwfvfr, tafsf ijncs kd systfhs kdtfn mf`vf nk rkkh

dkr taf `ccfc v`muf kd taf tkt`mjty kd ` sfrvjgf p`giòf `nc taf cyn`hjg gkursf

kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Gkntr`ry tk fxpfgt`tjkns tafy h`y tafrfdkrf cfgrf`sf taf

3.

6.



56<

v`mjcjty `nc tafrfdkrf taf kebfgtjvjty kd taf v`muf bucofhfnts usfc jn cfgjsjkn

hìjno.Fxpfrt bucofhfnts `rf usu`mmy hkrf f`sjmy `ggfptfc ey stìfakmcfrs `s kebfg-

tjvf, fvfn jd tafsf ijncs kd bucofhfnts `rf nkt `ggkhp`njfc ey ` gkhpmftfmy rf`-

sknèmf fxpm`n`tjkn. Kro`njs`tjkns try tk gkhpfns`tf dkr taf d`gt ta`t jncjvjcu`m

jntujtjvf bucofhfnts hjoat nkt ef kebfgtjvf ey usjno ` orkup kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs.

Orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno kdtfn rfsumts jn `n jntfr-suebfgtjvjty gknsfnsus cfgjsjkn,

wajga strjgtmy spfìjno gkndmjgts wjta taf jcf` kd kebfgtjvjty. Hìjno cfgjsjkns jn

` tf`h kd fxpfrts suppkrts taf prkgfss kd p`rtjgjp`nts trustjno taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs,

`nc skhfwa`t `mmfvj`tfs taf pkssjemf m`gi kd r`tjkn`m fxpm`n`tjkn. af jnvkmvf-

hfnt kd fxpfrts `msk gkntrjeutfs tk qu`mjty kd taf cfgjsjkns `nc taf gkntrkm kd

taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. @t taf s`hf tjhf, taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd `n fxpfrt bucofhfntprfvfnt cfgjsjkn hìfrs drkh fxpm`jnjno taf fx`gt rf`sknjno `nc gkursf kd taf

prkgfss efdkrfa`nc, kr tr`gjno ` cfgjsjkn `dtfrw`rcs. ajs gkumc gkndmjgt wjta taf

gurrfnt mfo`m pfrgfptjkn kd taf prjngjpmf kd tr`nsp`rfngy.

èmf 1.0 prkvjcfs `n kvfrvjfw kd taf h`jn ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t wfrf dkunc tk

jndmufngf taf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs `nc cjspm`ys taf pktfntj`m gkndmjgts wjta taf

prkgurfhfnt prjngjpmfs. ajs kvfrvjfw jmmustr`tfs taf gkhpmfx `nc cyn`hjg ga`r-

`gtfr kd sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. Cuf tk taf fxpmkr`tjvf ga`r-

`gtfr kd tajs stucy tajs kvfrvjfw kd prkgfssfs, sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `nc mfo`m

prjngjpmfs sakumc ef gknsjcfrfc `s `n jncjg`tjkn r`tafr ta`n dkrh`m prkkd.

Jn taf nfxt sfgtjkns f`ga sfnsfhìjno prkgfss js fxpm`jnfc e`sfc kn taf tafk-rftjg`m gkngfpts jntrkcugfc jn Ga`ptfr 0 tk 6 `nc taf fhpjrjg`m djncjnos rfpkrtfc

jn Ga`ptfr 4 `nc ?. Jn taf dkmmkwjno sfgtjkns taf suggfss d`gtkrs prkpksfc jn

Ga`ptfr 6 `rf fv`mu`tfc `nc gknvfrtfc tk rfgkhhfnc`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd `

duturf tfncfr jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. af rfgkhhfnc`tjkns `rf nuhefrfc jn taf

s`hf w`y `s taf prkpksfc suggfss d`gtkrs wfrf.

1.5.5 Uf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si

Efgùsf ` puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcy `gts `s ` gmjfnt r`tafr ta`n ` gustkhfr, cjs-

tjngtjvf cjhfnsjkns kd `rgajtfgtur`m `nc mfo`m m`nouòf a`vf tk ef `n`mysfc ey tafcfgjsjkn hìfrs curjno taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno jn krcfr tk inkw wa`t tk

Wfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs `s jcfntjfffc

jn tajs stucy2

H`jn sjtu`tjkn`m

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs2

\ktfntj`m gknstjgt wjta mfo`m prjngjpmf kd2

Uf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si Gkhpmfxjty, Vngfrt`jnty,

Sjhf

Fqu`m trf`thfnt, Sr`nsp`rfngy

Wf`rgajno dkr h`tga Gkntrkm, Sjhf, @fgt Fqu`m trf`thfnt, \rkpkr tjkn`mjty

_rjtjno cfgjsjkn prkgfss Sjhf, Jntujtjkn, Fxpfr tjsf Sr`nsp`rfngy, Fqu`m trf`thfnt

@oorfo tjno v`muf bucofhfnts Wtrugturf, Wystfh,

Fxpfrtjsf

Sr`nsp`rfngy, Kebfgtjvjty, Fqu`m

trf`thfnt

Bustjdyjno ò`jnst cjfrfnt

r`tjkn`mjtjfs

Wuppkrt, Srust, Gkntrkm Sr nsp rfngy, Kebfgtjvjty

Sèmf 1.0 Kvfrvjfw kd sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs, sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs `nc prkgurfhfnt

prjngjpmfs



560,

fxpfgt. af sfnsfhìjno prkgfss kd rf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si js e`sfc kn taf gkn-

gfpts kd sfnsfrf`cjno `nc dr`hjno `s cfsgrjefc ey E`mkoun, \yf `nc Akcoijnskn

(5<<1) `nc Ef`ga `nc Gknnkmmy (5<<6) `nc cf`ms wjta taf tr`nsm`tjkn kd taf

`jhs kd taf gmjfnt jntk ` tfncfr prkgfcurf (Bknfs & Mjvnf-`r`nc`ga, 5<<1) (sff

Ga`ptfr 6.5.0). af cfvfmkphfnt kd ` tfncfr erjfd `nc taf `n`mysjs kd taf prkbfgt

fnvjrknhfnt `rf jhpkrt`nt p`rts kd tajs sfnsfhìjno prkgfss. af rfsumts kd tajsstucy suoofst ta`t gkhpmfxjty, ungfrt`jnty nc tjhf rf taf h`jn sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r-

`gtfrjstjgs ta`t jndmufngf taf prkgfss kd rf`cjno ` cfgjsjkn t`si.

Jn `mm g`sfs taf tfncfr ckguhfnts ta`t a`c tk ef prfp`rfc jn taf efojnnjno

kd taf tfncfr prkgfssfs wfrf typjg`mmy skhfwa`t vòuf `t taf tjhf wafn ` gmjfnt

cfgjcfc tk st`rt `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. Knf kd taf h`jn qufstjkns taf

cfgjsjkn hìfrs `sifc tafhsfmvfs curjno taf g`sfs w`s ‑Akw sakumc wf sfmfgt `n

`rgajtfgt `nc wa`t sakumc taf dkgus kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss ef;‚ af rfsumts jncj-

g`tf ta`t ` cjstjngtjkn a`s tk ef h`cf eftwffn taf erjfd dkr taf tfncfr prkgfss `nc

taf erjfd dkr taf eujmcjno prkgfss. Jn krcfr tk suppkrt taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss, taf

mfvfm kd cft`jm kd taf tfncfr erjfd nffcs tk ef `mjonfc wjta taf `jh kd taf tfncfr`nc taf prkpksfc prkgfcurf. ajs hf`ns ta`t ` siftga cfsjon rfqujrfs ` cjddfrfnt

ijnc kd tfncfr erjfd ta`n ` vjsjkn dkr ` pktfntj`m cfsjon prkbfgt. af rfsumts kd taf

p`rtjgjp`tkry kesfrv`tjkn jn taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf sakwfc ta`t taf cyn`hjgs

`nc ungfrt`jntjfs kd taf sjtu`tjkn h`cf jt a`rc tk fxpmjgjtmy cfsjon ` tfncfr prk-

gfcurf nc cfvfmkp erjfd efgùsf ekta taf rfqujrfhfnts nc tafjr jntfrprft`tjkn

ga`nofc curjno taf gkursf kd taf prkgfss. ajs w`s cuf ekta tk taf jntfrn`m fvkmu-

tjkn kd taf uncfrst`ncjno kd taf prkbfgt nc ‑fxtfrn`m‚ fvfnts ta`t g`sf ga`nof tk

taf sgkpf kr erjfd. Uf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si js gknsfqufntmy `n knokjno `gtjvjty

ta`t rfqujrfs `ttfntjkn tarkuoakut taf tfncfr prkgfss.

af `hejoukus ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd gurrfnt tfncfr prkgfcurfs `nc uncfrmyjno`ssfsshfnt systfhs stjmm sakw taf hjxturf kd tafjr rkkts jn taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cj-

tjkn, taf tfncfrjno kd wkris, nc taf sf`rga dkr p`rtnfr jn cfsjon (Wtrkno, 0::4).

af puemjg gmjfnts jn taf tarff tfncfr g`sfs `mm gkhejnfc taf prkgfcurfs kd tafsf

tr`cjtjkns wjtakut efjno `w`rf kd fmfhfnts ta`t wkumc fnsurf d`jr pm`y `nc fqu`m

trf`thfnt. af hkst jhpkrt`nt cjmfhh` ta`t gmjfnts d`gfc w`s ` cjstjngtjkn ef-

twffn taf sf`rga dkr taf rjoat skmutjkn dkr tafjr cfsjon prkemfh s suoofstfc ey taf

tr`cjtjkn kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns, `nc taf sf`rga dkr taf rjoat p`rtnfr jn cfsjonjno

` skmutjkn dkr tafjr `ggkhhkc`tjkn nffcs, `s suoofstfc ey taf tfncfr prjngjpmfs

(sff Djourf 6.7). Jn taf g`sfs kd taf Gjty A`mm `nc taf D`gumty Eujmcjno, taf dr`hf

jn wajga cfgjsjkns wfrf tìfn dkgusfc kn taf sf`rga dkr `n `pprkprj`tf cfsjon sk-mutjkn. ajs sf`rga gknnfgtfc wjta taf `rgajtfgtur`m tr`cjtjkn jn wajga `rgajtfgts

`nknyhkusmy sakw tafjr gkhpftfngfs tk taf puemjg `nc taf gmjfnt ey hf`ns kd `

cfsjon kr vjsjkn èkut taf duturf eujmcjno. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf, taf hkst ckhjn`nt

dr`hf w`s taf sf`rga dkr taf rjoat p`rtnfr ta`t wkumc ef g`pèmf kd cfsjonjno taf

duturf eujmcjno `nc rf`mjsjno tafjr crf`h. afjr sf`rga dkgusfc kn taf h`xjhuh

v`muf drkh gmjfnt‚s pfrspfgtjvf wjta sfvfr`m p`rtjfs `gqujrjno gkntr`gt. af pfr-

gfptjkn kd gjrguhst`ngfs `nc cfvfmkphfnt kd taf cfgjsjkn dr`hf g`n tafrfdkrf ef

gknsjcfrfc `s fssfntj`m p`rt kd taf sfnsfrf`cjno prkgfss.



565

D`gtkrs 0 & 5 `s prkpksfc jn Ga`ptfr 6.5.0 dkr ` suggfssdum rf`cjno prkgfss

kd taf cfgjsjkn t`si rfm`tf tk taf jcf` ta`t ` cfgjsjkn èkut cfsjon qu`mjty wjmm ef

e`sfc kn ` akmjstjg bucofhfnt èkut taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf pfrskn, taf duturf

prkcugt ta`t tafy wjmm cfmjvfr `nc taf djrh tafy rfprfsfnt. Jn `mm g`sfs fxjstjno

v`mufs, strugturfs, `hejtjkns `nc nffcs kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs pm`yfc ` rkmf jn

rfm`tjkn tk cfsjon qu`mjty `nc taf pktfntj`m v`muf dkr taf duturf (sff dkr fx`h-pmf Djourf 4.6). Wpfgjdjg fx`hpmfs `rf taf kesfrv`tjkn ta`t taf jntfrn`tjkn`m bury

hfhefrs kd taf D`gumty g`sf skhftjhfs sakwfc hkrf jntfrfst jn taf jhp`gt kd taf

gkhpftjtjkn kn taf jntfrn`tjkn`m gkhhunjty ta`n jn taf gknsfqufngfs dkr taf

duturf usfrs kd taf unjvfrsjty eujmcjno. Mjifwjsf taf Fxfgutjvf kd taf \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf `ppf`rfc tk ef hkrf wkrrjfc èkut ajs pksjtjkn ta`n èkut

taf suggfssdum gkngmusjkn kd taf tfncfr. af `n`mysjs kd taf Gjty A`mm c`t` gmf`rmy

sakwfc cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf cjddfrfnt ijncs kd stìfakmcfrs jn taf `hkunt nc

ijnc kd cfsjon qu`mjtjfs ta`t wfrf tìfn jntk `ggkunt curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss

(sff Ga`ptfr 4.?.7). ajs gkndjrhs ta`t cfsjon qu`mjty js fssfntj`mmy e`sfc kn jncj-

vjcu`m pfrgfptjkn s rfsumt kd taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn n jncjvjcu`m nc cfsjon.af c`t` kd taf D`gumty g`sf jmmustr`tf ta`t fvfn sffhjnomy kebfgtjvf rfqujrfhfnts

kr grjtfrj`, suga `s taf suehjssjkn tjhf `nc dkrh`t kd taf fntrjfs, gknt`jnfc sue-

bfgtjvf `nc jnt`nojemf `spfgts (sff Ga`ptfr ?.3.3). af bury hfhefrs usfc tafjr

fxpfrtjsf tk kvfrgkhf tafsf jssufs kd kebfgtjvjty `nc pktfntj`mmy gkndmjgtjno ga`r-

`gtfrjstjgs kd `ssfssjno cfsjon qu`mjty. af kesfrv`tjkns cjspm`yfc ta`t `mm cfgjsjkn

hìfrs usfc sfvfr`m cfgjsjkn rkuncs jn wajga (p`rtj`m) bucofhfnts wfrf gkhejnfc

jn krcfr tk hìf ` cfgjsjkn. afjr djn`m bucofhfnts wfrf akmjstjg ey n`turf `nc

hktjv`tfc ey cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` ta`t rfm`tfc tk taf p`rtjgum`r prkpks`m.

Jn `mm g`sfs taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt fnèmfc gmjfnts tk rf`ga humtj-

pmf jhs ta`t wfrf kdtfn hkrf str`tfojg jn n`turf ta`n taf sfmfgtjkn kd n `rgajtfgt wkumc jhpmy. ajs js jn mjnf wjta taf cjvfrsf gkhpftjtjkn `jhs `nc `ppmjg`tjkns

cfsgrjefc ey Wprfjrfofn (0:?:) `nc Wvfnsskn (5<<1). ajs humtjtucf kd `jhs w`s

usu`mmy rfdmfgtfc jn taf `rouhfnts ta`t wfrf usfc tk bustjdy taf cfgjsjkn dkr ` wjn-

njno `rgajtfgt eut nkt `mw`ys h`cf fxpmjgjt jn taf tfncfr cfsjon. èmf 4.0< jn

Ga`ptfr 4.?.5 cjspm`ys taf prkpks`m, pfrskn `nc prkgfss rfm`tfc jssufs ta`t wfrf

dkunc jn taf `rouhfnt`tjkn èkut taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn curjno taf tfncfr g`sfs.

Fvfn jn g`sfs wjta ` gmf`r cfsjon prkcugt tk ef fv`mu`tfc, suga `s taf Gjty A`mm,

kr jn sjtu`tjkns kd `nknyhkus fv`mu`tjkn, suga `s wjta taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf,

`rouhfnt`tjkn `mw`ys rfm`tfc tk taf pfrskn `nc taf djrh efajnc taf prkpks`m `s

wfmm `s taf kddfr ta`t w`s prfsfntfc. Gmjfnts wfrf nkt èmf tk hìf ` gmf`r cjstjng-tjkn eftwffn tafsf jssufs. af sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt taus `ppf`rs tk ef

`jhfc `t sfmfgtjno ` ‑p`giòf‚ kd taf pfrskn, taf djrh `nc taf prkpks`m tafy kddfr

taf gmjfnt. af rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf prkcugt jn gkhp`rjskn tk taf pfrskn

`nc taf djrh sakumc cjrfgt taf tfncfr prkgfcurf `nc taf tr`cjtjkn jn wajga taf

tfncfr js cfsjonfc.

E`sfc kn taf rfsumts J gkngmucf ta`t suggfss d`gtkrs dkr rf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn

t`si `rf2

@mmkwjno dkr ` akmjstjg bucofhfnt jn taf tfncfr cfsjon ta`t jngkrpkr`tfs pk-

tfntj`mmy gkndmjgtjno bucofhfnts.

0.



567,

@ccrfssjno taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf `rgajtfgt `s ` pfrskn, taf prkpksfc cf-

sjon, `s wfmm `s taf djrh ta`t tafy rfprfsfnt jn taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` kd taf

tfncfr cfsjon.

1.5.7 Wf`rgajno dkr ` h`tga eftwffn `jhs, `hejtjkns, nffcs `nc

kppkrtunjtjfs fncfrjno js ` w`y kd or`ntjno gkntr`gts dkr prkbfgts e`sfc kn taf prjngjpmf kd `n

kpfn h`rift. ajs jhpmjfs prkgfss kd h`tgajno suppmy `nc cfh`nc. af sfgknc

sfnsfhìjno prkgfss kd sf`rgajno dkr ` h`tga (sff Ga`ptfr 6.5.5) rfm`tfs tk taf

d`gt ta`t curjno taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss ` gmjfnt‚s `rgajtfgtur`m v`mufs `rf gknnfgtfc

tk taf kppkrtunjtjfs ta`t `rf kddfrfc ey taf `rgajtfgts tk ef h`tgafc wjta spfgjdjg

ok`ms `nc kpfr`tjkn`m pm`ns. ajs h`tgajno prkgfss kd ok`ms `nc pm`n js `msk p`rt

kd taf jhòf tafkry (Ef`ga, 0::<). @mtakuoa Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w `jhs `t

kpfnjno taf h`rift grkss taf FV hfhefr st`tfs, fxpfrjfngfs gkndjrh ta`t Cutga

gmjfnts prfdfr tk wkri wjta Cutga `rgajtfgts (Offrtsf, ft `m., 5<<:). af rfsumts

sakw ta`t taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs ppmy fxjstjno inkwmfcof ekut taf rgajtfgts jn kr-

cfr tk grf`tf ` sfnsf kd gkntrkm kvfr taf sjtu`tjkn. ajs jhpmjfs ta`t taf h`tga ef-

twffn cfh`nc nc suppmy js jndmufngfc ey taf usf kd gumtur`mmy cfpfncfnt afurjs-

tjgs (Ojofrfnzfr & Wfmtfn, 5<<09 vfrsiy & Iànfh`n, 0:?3). af rfsumts kd tajs

stucy suoofst ta`t gkntrkm, `ddfgt `nc tjhf `rf taf h`jn sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

ta`t uncfrmjf taf h`tgajno prkgfss kd `jhs, `hejtjkns, nffcs `nc kppkrtunjtjfs.

Jn taf tfncfr g`sfs taf `rgajtfgts rkuoamy `ckptfc twk ijncs kd str`tfojfs tk

prfsfnt tafjr skmutjkn dkr taf tfncfr erjfd2 0) ` dkgus kn taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd taf

djrh nc taf prkpksfc rgajtfgt ey prfsfntjno r`tafr kpfn jcf` ekut taf `ssjon-

hfnt, `nc 5) ` dkgus kn taf prfsfnt`tjkn kd ` gkhpmftf cfsjon skmutjkn dkr taf

`ssjonhfnt. af djrst str`tfoy djts taf prkgurfhfnt prjngjpmfs wjta gkmmèkr`tjkn

pfrspfgtjvf, taf sfgknc str`tfoy h`tgafs taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn wjta prkcugt

pfrspfgtjvf `s cjspm`yfc jn Djourf 6.7 jn Ga`ptfr 6.5.0. Dkr `rgajtfgts p`rtjgjp`t-

jno jn ` tfncfr, jt js cjddjgumt tk fstjh`tf waftafr ` gmjfnt akmcs ` gkmmèkr`tjvf kr

` prkcugt pfrspfgtjvf. \rfsfntjno ` gkhpmftf cfsjon skmutjkn prkvjcfs taf gmjfnt

wjta ` okkc kppkrtunjty tk bucof taf pktfntj`m gkhpftfngfs kd taf djrh jn taf

gkntfxt kd taf ssjonhfnt nc hìf st`tfhfnt kn taf okvfrn`ngf mfvfm. Dkgusjno

kn taf qu`mjtjfs `nc gkhpftfngfs kd ` djrh ojvfs ` gmjfnt taf kppkrtunjty tk gkn-

trkm taf cfsjon prkgfss drkh taf efojnnjno kn tkoftafr wjta ` p`rtnfr. Gmjfnts cjc

nkt gknsgjkusmy or`sp taf str`tfojfs ta`t taf `rgajtfgts cjspm`yfc. af tfncfr g`sfssakwfc ta`t gmjfnts fjtafr gknsgjkusmy kr ungknsgjkusmy `ppmjfc tafjr inkwmfcof

èkut taf wkri `nc rfput`tjkn kd taf hkst jhpkrt`nt pm`yfrs jn taf Cutga djfmc

kd `rgajtfgturf curjno tafjr tfncfr prkgfss. Fspfgj`mmy curjno taf sakrt-mjstjno kd

p`rtjfs jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf, tajs jhpmjgjt inkwmfcof pm`yfc `n jhpkrt`nt rkmf

jn taf dr`hjno prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Wkhftjhfs cfgjsjkn hìfrs usfc tafjr

jhpmjgjt inkwmfcof tk rfo`jn taf mkss kd gkntrkm tafy fxpfrjfngfc curjno taf g`mm

dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn, jn ktafr sjtu`tjkns tafy usfc jt dkr str`tfojg rf`skns.

Dkr hunjgjp`mjtjfs, eujmcjno rfm`tjknsajps wjta fntrfprfnfurs js ` dkrh kd

qu`mjty `ssur`ngf jn gknstrugtjkn (Ckrff, 0::4). Jn taf gurrfnt jntfrprft`tjkn

kd Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w, tajs nffc dkr qu`mjty gkntrkm js nkt dumdjmmfc sud-djgjfntmy. Jn fvfry g`sf J dkunc humtjpmf `jhs ta`t wfrf nkt `mw`ys cjrfgtmy rfm`tfc

5.



563

tk taf tfncfr kr gkhpftjtjkn prkgfcurf. Jt w`s dkunc ta`t dkr gmjfnts taf eusjnfss

ok`ms ta`t wfrf suekrcjn`tf tk prkgurfhfnt kdtfn prfv`jm kvfr taf mfo`m kemjo`-

tjkns. Drkh ` prkbfgt pfrspfgtjvf taf `w`rcfc gkntr`gt js hf`nt tk pm`y ` gfrt`jn

rkmf dkr taf `rgajtfgt jn cfsjonjno ` eujmcjno prkbfgt, eut ` gmjfnt a`s tk tìf rf-

spknsjejmjty dkr taf prkcugt rfsumtjno drkh taf prkbfgt. af rfsumts sakwfc ta`t

taf hkrf taf tfncfr prfgfcfc, taf hkrf cfgjsjkn hìfrs dfmt ta`t ` cfgjsjkn èkuttaf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt gkumc a`vf h`bkr jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf gkhhunjty

tafy rfprfsfntfc. Drkh ` r`tjkn`m pfrspfgtjvf knf wkumc s`y ta`t ` gkhhjssjkn-

jno gmjfnt sakumc ef wfmm `w`rf kd taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t gkhf wjta taf n`turf

kd `w`rcjno ` sfrvjgf gkntr`gt jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. afn taf `jhs gkumc ef

f`sjmy fxprfssfc jn taf gknstjtutjkn kd taf `w`rc grjtfrj`. Akwfvfr jn psygakmkoj-

g`m tfrhs tajs cjddfrfntj`tjkn `ppf`rs tk ef fxtrfhfmy cjddjgumt, fspfgj`mmy efdkrf

taf prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno a`s st`rtfc. af kesfrv`tjkns jncjg`tfc ta`t cfgjsjkn

hìfrs st`rtfc tk rf`mjsf taf fddfgt kd tafjr rfqufst dkr jnvjt`tjkn knmy `dtfr tafy

rfgfjvfc taf rfqufsts dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn `nc prkpks`ms ta`t wfrf suehjttfc ey taf

`rgajtfgts. @ccjtjkn mmy cfgjsjkn hìfrs a`c tk cf`m wjta ` m`gi kd gknsjstfnt `ncrfmjèmf jndkrh`tjkn. @mm tkoftafr tajs mfc tk ` sf`rgajno prkgfss jn krcfr tk djnc

` h`tga eftwffn taf `jhs, `hejtjkns `nc nffcs kd ` gmjfnt `nc taf kppkrtunjtjfs

ta`t wfrf kddfrfc ey taf h`rift.

D`gtkrs 7 & 3 wfrf prkpksfc jn Ga`ptfr 6.5.5. afy gkngfrn taf sf`rgajno

prkgfss `s jt rfm`tfs tk taf djt eftwffn taf `jhs, p`rtjgjp`tjkn str`tfoy, `nc taf cf-

sjon kd taf tfncfr. Jn taf g`sf kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno taf kpfn prkgfcurf `nc taf

ajoa mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf hkno taf stìfakmcfrs h`cf jt pkssjemf dkr mm ijncs kd pk-

tfntj`m usfrs kd taf eujmcjno (fhpmkyffs, stucfnts nc prkdfssjkn`ms) tk p`rtjgjp`tf

`s p`rtjgjp`nts jn taf cjsgussjkn èkut ` nfw d`gumty eujmcjno. Jn tajs sfnsf p`r-

tjgjp`tjkn h`cf jt pkssjemf tk rf`ga taf `jhs kd stjhum`tjno ykuno t`mfnt, cfe`tf`nc rfsf`rga. Akwfvfr, tajs `msk grf`tfc ajoa fxpfgt`tjkns èkut taf qu`mjty kd taf

prkgfss `nc grjtjg`m vjfws kd taf kutgkhf. Jn tajs g`sf taf gkhhjssjknjno ekcy

cfmfo`tfc taf djn`m cfgjsjkn tk ` bury p`nfm. Jn taf tarff tfncfr g`sfs taf puemjg

gkhhjssjknjno ekcy gknsumtfc ` bury p`nfm eut rft`jnfc djn`m gkntrkm. af tarff

tfncfr g`sfs wfrf ga`r`gtfrjsfc `s pròh`tjg, cfhkgr`tjg, `nc pkmjtjg`m jn tfrhs

kd tafjr pktfntj`m djt kd taf `jhs wjta taf p`rtjgjp`tjkn str`tfoy `nc cfsjon kd taf

tfncfr prkgfcurf. Jn taf pròh`tjg Wgakkm g`sf nc taf cfhkgr`tjg Gjty A`mm g`sf,

taf prkbfgt tf`h gknsgjkusmy cfsjonfc ` p`rtjgjp`tjkn str`tfoy `nc `ssjonfc spf-

gjdjg rkmfs `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs tk cjddfrfnt stìfakmcfr orkups. Jn ekta g`sfs tajs

str`tfoy `ppf`rfc tk a`vf effn suggfssdum, `mtakuoa jt rfh`jns cjddjgumt tk fxpmjg-jtmy `ccrfss taf suggfss kd ` cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd taf cfsjon kd taf prkgfcurf. Ktafr

fx`hpmfs kd Cutga g`sfs (f.o. Akuefn, 5<<?9 v`n Offms & Irjfns, 5<<:) jncjg`tf

ta`t taf suggfss kd ` p`rtjgjp`tjkn str`tfoy cfpfncs kn akw huga taf prfdfrfngfs

kd taf ktafr stìfakmcfr orkups `rf jn mjnf wjta taf bury p`nfm.

af mfo`m kemjo`tjkns `nc fxjstjno oujcfmjnfs prkvjcfc gmjfnts wjta ` strugturf

wjtajn wajga tafy cftfrhjnfc taf pm`yjno djfmc `nc rumfs kd taf o`hf. Akwfvfr, J

dkunc ta`t fvfn dkr taf fxpfrjfngfc prkbfgt tf`h hfhefrs kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno

g`sf jt w`s cjddjgumt tk hìf `n fstjh`tjkn kd taf fddfgts kd ` gfrt`jn rumf. ajs

hf`ns ta`t gmjfnts wjmm djnc kut knmy curjno taf tfncfr prkgfss jd taf rumfs sug-

gfssdummy prfvfntfc cfvj`tjkns drkh taf `gtu`m `jhs kd taf prkbfgt. Jn ` sfnsf ` g`mm



566,

dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn js tafrfdkrf `mw`ys ` oufss, `nc jt js knmy `dtfr taf suehjssjkn

cf`cmjnf ta`t gmjfnt efgkhfs `w`rf kd taf rfspknsf kd taf h`rift. afn kddjgj`mmy

taf hkhfnt a`s p`ssfc tk hìf `cbusthfnts. J dkunc ta`t taf prkpkrtjkn`mjty

kd taf djn`ngj`m, tfganjg`m `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m rfqujrfhfnts jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf

strknomy rfm`tfc tk taf gmjfnt‚s nffc dkr gkntrkm kvfr taf pktfntj`m qu`mjty (sff

Ga`ptfr 4.?.3). Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc taf D`gumty Eujmcjno taf gmjfnt dfmt tafya`c tk ck bustjgf tk taf m`rof `hkunt kd rf`gtjkns tk tafjr g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn.

af prkgfcurf kd `n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn prkvjcfc rkkh dkr jngrf`sjno jnsjoats jn

krcfr tk rfspfgt taf rfspknsf kn taf g`mm dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn. af strjgt mfo`m gkntfxt

kd tfncfrs ckfs nkt `mmkw dkr taf s`hf dmfxjejmjty. af pfrgfjvfc sjhpmjgjty `nc

st`tjg ga`r`gtfr kd taf mfo`m gkntfxt `ppf`rs tk fxgmucf taf nffc kd jngrf`sjno jn-

sjoats nc ga`nofs kd taf fnvjrknhfnt jn tjhf curjno taf tfncfr. af rfspknsfs kd

taf h`rift `nc jntfr`gtjkn wjta taf p`rtjgjp`nts `ddfgtfc ekta taf gkursf `nc taf

kutgkhf kd taf tfncfr prkgfss, s js sakwn jn Djourf 4.4 jn Ga`ptfr 4.?.3. af g-

tu`m tfncfr prkbfgt g`n taus jncffc ef sffn `s ` cfsjon ta`t n`tur`mmy jngkrpkr`tfs

`mm ga`nofs ta`t kggur curjno taf prkgfss jn tjhf. Cfgjsjkn hìfrs h`y dffm ta`ttafy sakumc kefy taf m`w, eut wa`t tafy sff `nc mf`rn curjno taf tfncfr prkgfss

h`y ga`nof tafjr jntfntjkns `nc pm`gf tafh jn gkndmjgt wjta taf mfo`m prjngjpmfs

kd prkgurfhfnt m`w. af prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno g`n jngrf`sf taf `hkunt kd df`r

`nc gkonjtjvf cjsskn`ngf `hkno taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. af rfsumts suoofst ta`t taf

n`turf kd sfnsfhìjno jn djncjno ` h`tga prfvfnts gmjfnts drkh efjno tr`nsp`rfnt

èkut tafjr cfgjsjkns. Jt `msk hìfs jt cjddjgumt tk cfsjon prkgfcurfs ta`t dumdjm taf

prkpkrtjkn`mjty prjngjpmf kd prkgurfhfnt m`w.

E`sfc kn tafsf rfsumts J gkngmucf ta`t taf dkmmkwjno suggfss d`gtkrs gkntrje-

utf tk taf prkgfss kd sf`rgajno dkr ` h`tga eftwffn `jhs, `hejtjkns, nffcs, `nc

kppkrtunjtjfs2

Fnsurjno ` djt eftwffn taf `jhs kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss `nc taf cfsjon kd taf

tfncfr.

Fnsurjno djt eftwffn taf pksjtjkn nc typf kd taf stìfakmcfrs nc tafjr rkmf

jn taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss.

1.5.3 _rjtjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss

af tajrc sfnsfhìjno prkgfss ta`t g`n ef jcfntjdjfc jn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss js

taf prkgfss kd wrjtjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss (sff Ga`ptfr 6.5.7 ajs prkgfss js e`sfc

kn taf gkngfpts kd ‑sfnsfwrjoatjno‚, ‑sfnsfojvjno‚ `nc ‑dr`hjno‚ `s cfsgrjefc ey

E`mkoun ft `m. (5<<1) `nc Ef`ga `nc Gknnkmmy (5<<6). ajs prkgfss fnt`jms taf

wrjtjno kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt ey taf gmjfnt curjno ` prkbfgt. Jn

ofnfr`m ` cjstjngtjkn w`s h`cf eftwffn taf prfp`r`tjkn kd taf tfncfr jn wajga

taf erjfd, prkgfcurf, stìfakmcfrs jnvkmvfhfnt nc cfgjsjkn prkgfss w`s cfsjonfc,

`nc taf fxfgutjkn kd taf tfncfr jn wajga taf cfsjon w`s `ppmjfc. af h`jn sjtu-

`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t J cjstjnoujsafc `s jndmufngjno taf prkgfss kd wrjtjno `

cfgjsjkn prkgfss `rf tjhf, jntujtjkn `nc fxpfrtjsf.

Kesfrv`tjkns sakwfc ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs a`vf tk cf`m wjta mkt kd ungfrt`jn-

ty cuf tk jngkhpmftf uncfrst`ncjno, m`gi kd jndkrh`tjkn, `nc gkndmjgtjno `mtfrn`-

tjvfs curjno ` tfncfr prkgfss, wajga hìfs jt nfgfss`ry tk `mmkw dkr dmfxjejmjty jn

7.

3.



564

taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Jn `mm g`sfs taf prkgfcurf kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss (rfstrjgtfc

kr kpfn) cftfrhjnfc taf nuhefr kd pa`sfs jn cfgjsjkn hìjno, eut nkt taf jntfr-

prft`tjkn kd tafsf pa`sfs. af gkhpftjtjkn w`s `n kpfn prkgfcurf, wajga hf`nt

ta`t tafrf w`s nk prf-sfmfgtjkn kd taf suehjssjkns. ajs w`s jn gkntr`st tk taf rf-

strjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf kd taf ktafr g`sfs, wajga gknsjstfc kd ` sfmfgtjkn `nc `n

`w`rc pa`sf. Zft ekta prkgfcurfs sakwfc sjhjm`r cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs.Jn taf prfp`r`tjkn pa`sf hkst kd taf wkri w`s cknf ey taf prkbfgt tf`hs. @s

sakwn jn Ga`ptfr 4.6.5 jn `mm g`sfs fxtfrn`m `cvjskrs wfrf ajrfc dkr tafjr spfgjdjg

fxpfrtjsf. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc taf Gjty A`mm taf h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nts ef-

g`hf ` ijnc kd hfcj`tkr eftwffn taf stffrjno gkhhjttff, taf stìfakmcfrs, taf

prkbfgt tf`h `nc taf bury p`nfm. Jn taf \rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf, taf

prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt w`s g`rrjfc kut ey st`dd hfhefrs. Dkr tafh jt w`s cjddjgumt tk

r`jsf taf `w`rfnfss kd taf rfspknsjemf kddjgfrs dkr taf tfncfr. Curjno taf sfmfgtjkn

`nc tfncfr pa`sf taf hfhefrs kd taf prkbfgt tf`hs suppkrtfc taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs

jn gafgijno taf rfqujrfhfnts `nc strugturjno taf jndkrh`tjkn. Jn ckjno sk tafy

jhpmjgjtmy jndmufngfc taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. af c`t` kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sfcjspm`yfc cjsgussjkn ekut taf mfvfm nc ijnc kd fxpfrtjsf ta`t wkumc ef rfqujrfc

dkr gfrt`jn `ssfsshfnt t`sis (sff Ga`ptfr ?.3.3). af bucofhfnt kd taf spfgj`mjsfc

st`dd hfhefrs ekut sust`jnèjmjty nc gkngfpts kd taf jcf`s cjddfrfc dkr uninkwn

rf`skns drkh taf bucofhfnts kd taf bury hfhefrs èkut tafsf jssufs. af wkri

kd taf prkbfgt tf`h `nc suppkrtjno gkhhjttff cjc mf`c tk ` strugturf ta`t w`s

usfc curjno taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss. Kn taf jssuf kd sust`jnèjmjty taf Wgakkm `nc

\rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sfs jncjg`tfc ta`t wjtakut ` p`nfm hfhefr wjta

tajs ijnc kd fxpfrtjsf, tajs jssuf cjc nkt rfgfjvf ` mkt kd `ttfntjkn curjno taf prkg-

fss. ajs nktjkn kd jnvkmvjno spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf jn taf bury p`nfm gkumc ef fxtfncfc

tk ktafr spfgjdjg `rf`s kd `ttfntjkn `ccrfssfc jn taf tfncfr erjfd.Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w js gurrfntmy jntfrprftfc `s prfsgrjejno ` r`tjkn`m

cfgjsjkn `pprk`ga. af djncjnos kd taf g`sfs ck nkt dummy gkndjrh tajs r`tjkn`m

`nc sfqufntj`m prkgfss eut ck sakw ta`t taf tfncfr prkgfcurf prkvjcfc ` strug-

turf dkr cfgjsjkn hìfrs tk wrjtf tafjr kwn cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Kn ` ofnfr`m mfvfm

taf djncjnos kd taf fxfgutjkn pa`sf rfsfhemf taf sjx stòfs kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkg-

fss `s cfsgrjefc ey I`zfhj`n `nc Uônn (5<<:)2 suehjssjkn gafgi, cftfrhjn`tjkn

kd krcfr kd wkri, gakjgf `nc prfmjhjn`ry bucofhfnts, prfsfnt`tjkn kd jntfrfstjno

gkntrjeutjkns, r`nijno, `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno wjta `rgajtfgtur`m grjtjgjsh. Jn `mm

g`sfs pfrgfptjkn nc bucofhfnt w`s nffcfc tk hìf sfnsf kd taf prkpks`ms nc tk

r`ni taf `mtfrn`tjvfs jn krcfr tk hìf ` gakjgf. Jt w`s usu`mmy curjno taf bucof-hfnt pa`sf ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs st`rtfc wjta taf cfvfmkphfnt kd dr`hf kd rfdfr-

fngf e`sfc kn taf `jh kd taf `ssfsshfnt `nc taf ckguhfnts tk ef `ssfssfc. ajs

jhpmjfs ta`t prfp`r`tjkns dkr `n `ssfsshfnt dr`hf g`n ef h`cf, eut taf cfdjnjtf

`ssfsshfnt dr`hf g`nnkt ef cfvfmkpfc jn taf esfngf kd taf gtu`m suehjssjkns. Jn

tajs sfnsf ssfsshfnt gkumc ef gkhp`rfc tk taf prkgfss kd qu`mjt`tjvf c`t` n`mysjs2

taf strugturf kd `n`mysjs `rjsfs drkh taf c`t`. ajs js gkntr`ry tk hkst qu`ntjt`-

tjvf rfsf`rga ta`t typjg`mmy gknsjsts kd tfstjno `ssuhptjkns ta`t `mrf`cy oujcfc taf

prkgfss kd gkmmfgtjno c`t`. \rkgurfhfnt m`w `ssuhfs ` qu`ntjt`tjvf prkgfss, wajmf

hy djncjnos suoofst ` qu`mjt`tjvf prkgfss.



56?,

Jn `mm g`sfs taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` wfrf skhfakw usfc tk eujmc ` dr`hf kd rfdfr-

fngf eftwffn taf stìfakmcfrs. af djncjnos èkut taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd taf

tfncfr g`sfs wfrf usfc tk cfsjon taf prkor`h kd taf bury hfftjno kd taf D`gumty

Eujmcjno g`sf. ajs oujcfc taf bury hfhefrs suggfssdummy tarkuoa `n jtfr`tjvf

prkgfss kd jnjtj`mjz`tjkn, pfrgfptjkn, jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnt, orkup cfgjsjkn hì-

jno, `nc gknsfnsus eujmcjno kn `n jncjvjcu`m `nc orkup mfvfm jn krcfr tk hìftafjr djn`m gakjgfs `s sakwn jn Djourf 4.?. Curjno taf cjddfrfnt pa`sfs kd taf cfgj-

sjkn prkgfss bucofhfnts wfrf cbustfc cuf tk fxtfrn`m jndmufngfs suga s kpjnjkns

kd ktafr hfhefrs kd ` orkup, ga`nofs jn taf gkntfxt suga `s tjhf prfssurf, kr

pfrskn`m d`gtkrs suga s hkkcs nc fhktjkns. Gknsfqufntmy, cfgjsjkn hìjno w`s

` cyn`hjg, jngrfhfnt`m `nc gygmjg prkgfss e`sfc kn sfvfr`m ijncs kd v`muf bucof-

hfnts. Jn fvfry pa`sf kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss ` orkup kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs wfnt

tarkuoa tafjr kwn wrjtjno prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno.

af dr`hf kd rfdfrfngfs kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs `ppf`rfc tk ef jndmufngfc ey

taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf orkup hfhefrs, taf gkntfnt kd taf suehjssjkns `nc taf

cfsjon kd taf tfncfrjno prkgfcurf. @ gkndmjgt `rksf jd taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` cjc nkth`tga taf jngrf`sjno jnsjoats kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. ajs hf`nt dkr fx`hpmf jn

taf Gjty A`mm g`sf ta`t `rouhfnts wfrf usfc curjno taf `w`rc pa`sf tk hktjv`tf

taf cfgjsjkns ta`t wfrf nkt p`rt kd taf kddjgj`m `w`rc grjtfrj`. Fspfgj`mmy jn taf

\rkvjngj`m Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf g`sf taf dr`hfs sa`rfc ey taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn

taf prfp`r`tjkn pa`sfc `nc taf rf`mjs`tjkn pa`sf wfrf nkt `mjonfc. ajs gùsfc

sfrjkus cjddjgumtjfs jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf `nc fvfntu`mmy mfc tk g`ngfmm`tjkn kd taf

tfncfr. @msk jn taf g`sf kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno taf gknnfgtjkn eftwffn taf utakr

kd taf `jhs `nc `hejtjkns jn taf tfncfr erjfd `nc taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss `ppf`rfc

tk ef tfnukus. afrfdkrf J gkngmucf ta`t jn mjnf wjta D`gtkr 6 jn Ga`ptfr 6.5.7 jt

js jhpkrt`nt tk `mjon taf cfgjsjkn dr`hfs tarkuoakut taf prkgfss `nc tk ktafr `g-tkr orkups. @t taf s`hf tjhf taf kesfrv`tjkns kd `mm g`sfs sakw ta`t jt js fspfgj`mmy

cjddjgumt tk jnvkmvf taf hfhefrs kd taf bury p`nfm jn taf cfsjon prkgfss kd tfncfr

efgùsf kd tafjr eusy sgafcumfs.

@mm g`sfs nffcfc ` sfmfgtjkn pa`sf tk rfcugf taf nuhefr kd prkpks`ms ta`t

wkumc ef durtafr `n`mysfc ey taf bury p`nfm, `mtakuoa taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf

cjc nkt fxpmjgjtmy cjstjnoujsa twk pa`sfs jn taf prkgfcurf. Hy jntfrprft`tjkn kd

taf c`t` suoofsts ta`t tajs rfcugtjkn prkgfss g`n ef ga`r`gtfrjsfc ey ‑sfmfgtjkn ey

pksjtjvf jhprfssjkn‚ `s òrffc upkn ey sfvfr`m kd taf bury hfhefrs. Jn taf `w`rc

pa`sf taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` prkgfss kd ‑sfmfgtjkn ey gkh-

p`rjskn‚ e`sfc cjsgussjkn `hkno taf p`nfm hfhefrs. afsf str`tfojfs rfsfhemf tafrfgkonjtjkn-e`sfc cfgjsjkn tafkry kd Imfjn (0::?) jn djfmc kd n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkn

hìjno, eut tafy msk sakw sjons kd taf usf kd d`st nc druo`m afurjstjgs jn krcfr tk

mjhjt taf tjhf spfnt kn f`ga suehjssjkn (Ojofrfnzfr & Wfmtfn, 5<<09 vfrsiy &

Iànfh`n, 0:?3). Drkh ` psygakmkojg`m pfrspfgtjvf fxpfrt cfgjsjkn hìjno g`n

ef fxpm`jnfc ey taf usf kd jhpmjgjt p`ttfrns ta`t `rf rfgkonjsfc `nc `ppmjfc jntuj-

tjvfmy curjno fv`mu`tjkn kd ` prkpks`m. Jntujtjkn js ` gkhpmfx jntfrpm`y kd gkonj-

tjvf `nc `ddfgtjvf prkgfssfs kpfr`tjno efmkw gknsgjkus `w`rfnfss ta`t jhprkvfs

wjta fxpfrjfngf jn ` spfgjdjg ckh`jn.



561

af sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt rfqujrfs ` gkhejn`tjkn kd vfry spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf

ta`t js usu`mmy nkt `v`jmèmf wjtajn taf kro`njs`tjkn kd ` puemjg gmjfnt. ajs hf`nt

dkr taf g`sfs jn taf rfsf`rga ta`t taf h`bkrjty kd hfhefrs kd taf bury p`nfm `nc

taf prkbfgt tf`h wfrf ajrfc fxtfrn`mmy. @ gkhp`rjskn kd taf tfncfr g`sfs `nc taf

gkhpftjtjkn g`sf jncjg`tfs ta`t taf str`tfojfs kd jndkrh`tjkn pfrgfptjkn jn taf sf-

mfgtjkn prkgfss ‑djrst jncjvjcu`mmy, ta`n ` cjsgussjkn‚ vfrsus ‑pfrgfptjkn `s p`rt kd `cjsgussjkn‚ h`y ef ` rfsumt kd taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd taf bury hfhefrs. Fxpfrts

`mrf`cy a`vf ` dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf wjta wajga tafy pfrgfjvf taf cfsjons. afy `rf

èmf tk usf tafjr inkwmfcof `nc fxpfrjfngf jn `n fddjgjfnt w`y (Hjfo, 5<<0) `nc

trust tafjr ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs nkt tk kvfrmkki ajoa qu`mjty suehjssjkns kr hìf

jnv`mjc bucofhfnts. afrfdkrf dkr taf fxpfrts taf djrst str`tfoy kd ‑jncjvjcu`m pfr-

gfptjkn djrst‚ sffhfc `pprkprj`tf. Mfss fxpfrjfngfc bury hfhefrs, suga `s taf

hfhefrs kd taf Wgakkm ek`rc, sffhfc tk a`vf efnfdjtfc drkh ` ‑sa`rfc pfrgfp-

tjkn curjno cjsgussjkn‚ str`tfoy tk eujmc ` dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf. af c`t` kd taf

tfncfr g`sfs jncjg`tfc ta`t taf fxpfrtjsf kd skhf p`nfm prfvfntfc taf ktafr hfh-

efrs drkh hìjno ej`sfc cfgjsjkns wafn usjno afurjstjgs. Jn tajs sfnsf taf buryhfhefrs kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno `mrf`cy `ginkwmfcofc f`ga ktafr‚s fxpfrtjsf,

wajmf taf hfhefrs kd taf `w`rc gkhhjttff djrst a`c tk eujmc `n `thkspafrf kd

trust. af cfgjsjkn t`si `nc cfgjsjkn prkgfss sakumc tafrfdkrf ef `mjonfc wjta taf

mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs (D`gtkr 4). Ey fcug`tjno cfgjsjkn hì-

frs (D`gtkr ?) tafy g`n eujmc up tafjr kwn dr`hf kd rfdfrfngf wajga gkumc fnèmf

tafh tk spfì taf m`nouòf kd taf `rgajtfgtur`m fxpfrts jnvkmvfc jn taf sfmfgtjkn

prkgfss (Euggj`rfmmj, 0::39 Bknfs & Mjvnf-`r`nc`ga, 5<<1). @mjonjno cfgjsjkn

dr`hfs wjta ktafr cfgjsjkn hìfrs g`n msk ef gknsjcfrfc s w`y tk fcug`tf f`ga

ktafr. Zft, taf rfsumts `msk jncjg`tf ta`t tafsf d`gtkrs èkut `mjonhfnt `nc fcug`-

tjkn rf a`rc tk jhpmfhfnt efgùsf kd taf cyn`hjg ga`r`gtfr kd taf cfgjsjkn prkg-fss `nc taf rfm`tjvfmy eusy sgafcumfs kd taf fxpfrts `nc rfspknsjemf kddjgfrs ta`t

`rf jnvkmvfc jn taf tfncfr.

@ gkngfpt cfsjon gkhprjsfs pfr cfdjnjtjkn ` mkt kd ungfrt`jntjfs `nc jncjs-

tjngtnfss. Jn `mm g`sfs cfgjsjkn hìfrs gmf`rmy usfc tajs jncjstjngtnfss tk tafjr kwn

efnfdjt curjno cfgjsjkn hìjno. afy trjfc tk jndmufngf sfnsfhìjno (sfnsfojv-

jno) `nc sa`pf tafjr uncfrst`ncjno kd taf wkrmc (sfnsfwrjoatjno) (E`mkoun, ft

`m., 5<<1). afy skhftjhfs rfbfgtfc prkpks`ms dkr ` pkssjemf eucoft kvfrrun kr

gknstrugtjvf jnstèjmjty, eut `msk strfssfc taf jnjtj`m stòf kd taf prkbfgt tk fnm`rof

tafjr cfgjsjkn sp`gf jn ktafr sjtu`tjkns. af c`t` sakwfc ta`t taf pfrgfptjkn kd

taf prkpks`ms kr jntfr`gtjkn wjta tafjr cfsjonfrs gkumc mf`c tk fhktjkn`m rfspknsfsta`t jndmufngf taf gkursf kd taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf

knf kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs `gtu`mmy st`tfc ta`t ”jt w`s mkvf `t djrst sjoat‘ . Jn taf

Wgakkm g`sf taf pfrskn`mjty `nc gkhpftfngfs cjspm`yfc ey taf `rgajtfgt sffhfc

tk ef hkst jhpkrt`nt jn taf djn`m cfgjsjkn. ajs mfc tk ` gakjgf dkr taf ”hkstgknvjngjno p`rty ‘ `nc ` ”gmjgi wjta taf `rgajtfgt ‘ wajmf jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf cfgj-

sjkn hìfrs `jhfc dkr taf ”hkst `ppf`mjno cfsjon‘. af fxpfrt hfhefrs bustjdjfc

tafjr cfgjsjkn ey puttjno tafjr djncjnos jntk ` duturf pfrspfgtjvf (taf pktfntj`m kd

taf kddfr) wajmf taf nkn-`rgajtfgts `ppf`rfc tk par`sf tafjr fhktjkn`m rfspknsfs

jn cjrfgt rfm`tjkn tk tafjr h`tga wjta taf wjnnfr. afjr ckh`jn spfgjdjg inkwm-



56:,

fcof fnèmfc tafh tk efttfr gkntrkm tafjr fhktjkns `nc usf jntujtjvf bucofhfnts,

wajga js jn mjnf wjta D`gtkr 1.

Jn `mm g`sfs taf wjnnfr kd taf tfncfr w`s taf cfsjon djrh wajga taf gmjfnt ef-

mjfvfc wkumc dumdjm tafjr nffcs efst, `nc wkumc prkvjcf tafh wjta taf rjoat `rgaj-

tfgtur`m v`muf dkr taf prkbfgt. Jn ekta taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc taf Gjty A`mm eujmcjno

trust eftwffn taf stìfakmcfrs w`s knf kd taf h`jn hktjvfs curjno ` tfncfr prk-gfcurf. Jnstf`c kd ` systfh`tjg `nc r`tjkn`m prkgfss kd fv`mu`tjno `mtfrn`tjvfs, taf

gkursf kd taf prkgfss w`s ckhjn`tfc ey taf `rouhfnts, pfrspfgtjvfs `nc v`mufs

kd taf burkrs ta`t djttfc taf jntujtjvf bucofhfnt prkgfss efst. Eujmcjno trust w`s

p`rt kd taf sfnsfhìjno prkgfss ta`t w`s nffcfc tk hìf cfgjsjkn ekut taf efst

`rgajtfgt dkr taf bke. af rf`skn way `n `rgajtfgt w`s trustfc kr nkt efg`hf gmf`r

knmy `dtfr ` gkndrknt`tjkn wjta taf g`ncjc`tfs, wajga js `msk knf kd taf ga`r`gtfr-

jstjgs kd sfnsfhìjno (_fjgi, ft `m., 5<<6). af cfgjsjkn prkgfss curjno `rgajtfgt

sfmfgtjkns tafrfdkrf gkndmjgts wjta taf `ssuhptjkn jn prkgurfhfnt m`w ta`t gkh-

pfms gmjfnts tk `nnkungf tafjr cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` jn `cv`ngf.

Jn `mm g`sfs hfhefrs kd ` bury p`nfm rf`gafc ` gknsfnsus ey sfvfr`m rkuncs kdr`nijno, cjsgussjkn `nc/kr vktjno. af gknsfnsus prkvfc nkt tk ef taf s`hf `s `n

`vfròf kd kpjnjkn eut r`tafr taf rfsumt kd ` nfoktj`tjkn prkgfss, wajga js jn mjnf

wjta taf rfsumts kd Wvfnsskn (5<<1) èkut bury prkgfssfs jn cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns.

Jn `mm g`sfs cfgjsjkn hìfrs nffcfc tjhf tk jntfrprft taf grjtfrj`, taf `ssjonhfnt

`nc taf erjfd ta`t w`s hkstmy eujmt ey ktafrs nkt efmknojno tk taf bury p`nfm. af

kesfrv`tjkns gkndjrh ta`t fxpfrts wfrf efttfr `t sffjno sjonjdjg`ngf kd jndkrh`-

tjkn, jcfntjdyjno jhpkrt`nt gufs dkr rjsis, fstjh`tjno gknsfqufngfs `nc bucojno

ùtknkhkusmy (Auttkn & Imfjn, 0:::). Fxpfrts `msk dfmt taf nffc tk cjsguss `nc

a`rhknjsf tafjr prfdfrfngfs wjta ktafr hfhefrs kd taf orkup, wajga gkntrjeutfs

tk mfojtjhjz`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn tk taf p`rtjgjp`nts `nc skgjfty. Durtafr `n`mysjskd taf Gjty A`mm g`sf sakwfc ta`t taf fxpfrts `ccrfssfc hkrf `spfgts kd cfsjon

qu`mjty ta`t taf usfr orkups `nc gjtjzfns. Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf `nc taf Gjty A`mm taf

n`rr`tjvfs `nc `ccjtjkn`m e`giorkunc jndkrh`tjkn ta`t taf `rgajtfgts prkvjcfc

jn taf `w`rc pa`sf prkvfc tk suppkrt taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss `hkno taf hfhefrs

kd taf orkup. Cfgjsjkn hìfrs wfrf èmf tk gafgi tafjr `ssuhptjkns wjta taf cf-

sjonfr kd taf prkpks`m. ajs js jn mjnf wjta taf st`tfhfnts kd _fjgi (0::6) `nc

Tjc`jmmft (5<<1) èkut n`rr`tjvfs suppkrtjno taf sfnsfhìjno prkgfss `nc D`gtkr

: jn Ga`ptfr 6.5.7. af djncjnos durtafr suoofst ta`t taf knokjno cjsgussjkns ef-

twffn taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs èkut taf grjtfrj` `nc tafjr jhpmjg`tjkns dkr ` gfrt`jn

prkpks`m jngrf`sfc taf `pprfgj`tjkn kd ktafr jntfrfsts `s wfmm `s taf pfrgfptjkn kdtaf suehjssjkns. Cjsgussjkn `msk sffhfc tk jngrf`sf s`tjsd`gtjkn `nc `ggfpt`ngf

kd taf prkgfss `nc kd taf cfgjsjkn jtsfmd. Efgùsf taf prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno js

kpfnmy cjspm`yfc curjno cjsgussjkns J gkngmucf ta`t cjsgussjkns gkntrjeutf tk taf

tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss jn tfncfr sjtu`tjkns, wajga js jn mjnf wjta

D`gtkr 0<.

E`sfc kn taf rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga J gkngmucf ta`t taf dkmmkwjno d`gtkrs wjmm

gkntrjeutf tk suggfssdummy wrjtjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss jn taf sfmfgtjkn kd rgajtfgts

ey puemjg gmjfnts2



54<

@mjonjno taf dr`hf kd rfdfrfngfs kd taf `gtkrs curjno prfp`r`tjkn kd taf tfn-

cfr prkgfss jn krcfr tk rf`ga ` cfgjsjkn `t taf fnc kd taf prkgfss ta`t djts taf

`hejtjkns `nc `jhs kd taf gmjfnt kro`njs`tjkn.

@mjonjno taf typf kd fxpfrtjsf nffcfc dkr taf v`rjkus cfgjsjkn t`sis curjno taf

sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd `n `rgajtfgt wjta taf n`turf `nc gkntfnt kd taf cfgjsjkn

t`si.

Fcug`tjno cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn rf`cjno `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjons drkh ` gmjfnt

pfrspfgtjvf.

Jnvkmvjno (fxtfrn`m) fxpfrts jn taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno èkut cfsjon

qu`mjty efgùsf tafy a`vf ckh`jn spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf `nc `rf efttfr `t gkntrkm-

mjno prkcugt fhktjkns `nc usjno jntujtjkn ta`n nkvjgfs.

Jngmucjno ` pfrskn`m fxpm`n`tjkn ey taf `rgajtfgt tk jhprkvf taf gmjfnts‚ un-

cfrst`ncjno kd taf prkpks`m.

Grf`tjno rkkh `nc dmfxjejmjty jn taf cfgjsjkn hìjno prkgfss dkr cjsgussjkn`nc nfoktj`tjkn `hkno taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs.

1.5.6 @oorfo`tjno cjddfrfnt ijncs kd v`muf bucofhfnts

af dkurta prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno s fxpm`jnfc jn Ga`ptfr 6.5.3 rfm`tfs tk taf o-

orfo`tjkn kd cjddfrfnt ijncs kd v`muf bucofhfnts jn krcfr tk rf`ga ` djn`m cfgjsjkn

èkut cfsjon qu`mjty. Wjhkn (0::?), Ftzjknj (0:11), `nc Wnfmmfn (0:1?) `ccrfss

taf cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs ta`t gkhf tk pm`y jn cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn tajs prkgfss taf

mfo`m `nc skgj`m r`tjkn`mjty kd cfgjsjkn hìjno gm`sa wafn ` psfuck-r`tjkn mjty js

grf`tfc ey qu`ntjdjg`tjkn kd qu`mjt`tjvf bucofhfnts. Kn taf knf a`nc, taf gakjgfdkr ` wjnnfr curjno ` tfncfr js e`sfc kn taf strugturf ta`t js prkvjcfc ey taf prf-

`nnkungfc grjtfrj`, eut kn taf ktafr a`nc, jt js p`rt kd ` prkgfss kd jngrf`sjno

jnsjoat `nc sfnsfhìjno jn wajga v`muf bucofhfnts `rf jhpmjgjtmy òorfo`tfc.

Wtrugturf, systfh, `nc fxpfrtjsf wfrf dkunc tk ef taf hkst jhpkrt`nt sjtu`tjkn`m

ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t jndmufngf taf prkgfss kd òorfo`tjno cjddfrfnt ijncs kd v`muf

bucofhfnts.

af tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri suoofsts ta`t pfkpmf usf dkur e`sjg mfvfms kd qu`mjty

`ssfsshfnt2 uncfr-pfrdkrh`ngf, e`sjg pfrdkrh`ngf, `ccfc v`muf, `nc fxgfmmfngf.

ajs sg`mf gkumc knmy jhpmjgjtmy ef rftrjfvfc drkh taf c`t` kd taf g`sfs. af gur-

rfnt aèjt js tk usf or`cfs kr qu`ntjt`tjvf sg`mfs jn r`nijno `nc hf`surjno prfd-frfngfs. afsf sg`mfs jnvjtf g`mgum`tjkns wajmf tafy wfrf nkt jntfncfc dkr ta`t.

af kemjo`tjkn tk nnkungf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` nc tafjr rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf jhpmjfs

ta`t tafrf `rf cjddfrfnt `spfgts kd cfsjon qu`mjty (wajga J g`mm cfsjon qu`mjtjfs) kn

wajga taf bucofhfnt kd taf prkpks`ms js e`sfc (sff Djourf 6.3). Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf

taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` nc tafjr rfm`tjvf wfjoat wfrf jnput dkr cfgjsjkn h`trjx ta`t

w`s usfc curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd taf gmjfnt. ajs hftakc g`n ef gkhp`rfc

tk ` humtj-grjtfrj` `n`mysjs (HG@) kr sjtu`tjkns `s cfsgrjefc jn prkspfgt tafkry

(Iànfh`n & vfrsiy, 0:?:). Jn taf Wgakkm g`sf, h`trjx grjtfrj` wjta cjddfrfnt

hf`surfhfnt sg`mfs wfrf trf`tfc s fqu`m jnput dkr taf r`nijno, wajmf kesfrv`tjkns

sakwfc ta`t `spfgts wfrf trf`tfc cjddfrfntmy curjno taf cjsgussjkns eftwffn taf

6.

4.

?.

1.

:.

0<.



540,

cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Kesfrv`tjkns cjspm`yfc ta`t taf rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf grjtf-

rj` w`s jngkrpkr`tfc jn taf h`trjx safft jhpmjgjtmy wajmf tajs jnput a`c jhpkrt`nt

jhpmjg`tjkns kn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. ajs cfhknstr`tfs taf jnv`mjcjty kd taf cf-

gjsjkn jn twk w`ys2 taf mjhjtfc pkwfr kd taf cfgjsjkn efgùsf kd taf suhh`tjkn

kd unfqu`m hf`surfhfnts kn `n krcjn`m sg`mf (cf Ifyzfr, 0::1), `nc taf untruf

jhòf kd taf rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf grjtfrj`.af h`trjx cjc strfnotafn taf strugturf kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. ajs strugturf

w`s usfc tk st`rt taf dr`hjno prkgfss kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn taf efojnnjno

kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss `nc tk fv`mu`tf taf cfgjsjkn `t taf fnc kd taf prkgfss. Jt

w`s `msk usfc tk gkntjnuf taf cjsgussjkn kn ` hkrf ofnfr`m mfvfm `dtfr ` pktfntj`m

cf`cmkgi `nc djnc ` e`m`ngf eftwffn taf sfmfgtjkn kd taf djrhs jn taf sfmfgtjkn

pa`sf nc taf pfrskn`m jntfrfsts kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. af Wgakkm cfgjsjkn hì-

frs wfrf nkt `w`rf kd taf fddfgt ta`t taf òorfo`tjkn systfh wkumc a`vf kn tafjr

cfgjsjkn prkgfss. afrfdkrf tafy jhpmjgjtmy `ppmjfc ` systfh wajga afmpfc tafh

tk strugturf taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss, eut cjc nkt rfdmfgt taf truf `rouhfnt`tjkn cur-

jno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. afy hjxfc up taf rkmf kd taf `ssfsshfnt systfh `nc tafcfgjsjkn hftakc. J gkngmucf ta`t taf v`mjcjty kd `n `ssfsshfnt mjfs jn taf djt wjta

taf cfgjsjkn t`si, nkt jn taf kebfgtjvjty kd taf systfh. af `ssfsshfnt systfh `nc

òorfo`tjkn strugturf sakumc tafrfdkrf ef h`cf fxpmjgjt jn taf prfp`r`tjkn pa`sf

(D`gtkr 00). ajs hf`ns ta`t taf `ssfsshfnt systfh sakumc ef p`rt kd taf tfncfr

cfsjon, eut sakumc nkt cftfrhjnf taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss `nc jts kutgkhf. af cfgj-

sjkn prkgfss sakumc ef t`jmkrfc tk taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf `gtkrs `nc taf prkbfgt

`s p`rt kd taf tfncfr cfsjon.

Jn `n`mysjno taf c`t`, ` gmf`r cjddfrfngf w`s fxpksfc eftwffn `n jncjvjcu`m

bucofhfnt, ` bucofhfnt kd ` orkup, `nc ` cfgjsjkn èkut taf wjnnjno mfvfm kd cf-

sjon qu`mjty. Cfgjsjkns jn ` tfncfr sjtu`tjkn `rf jntfntjkns dkr `gtjkn ta`t jngmucf`n fmfhfnt kd gakjgf (Akcoijnskn & Wt`reugi, 5<<1`)2 ` wjnnfr js gaksfn drkh

`mm g`ncjc`tfs ta`t suehjttfc prkpks`ms dkr ` eujmcjno prkbfgt. af rfsumts kd taf

g`sfs sakwfc ta`t v`muf bucofhfnts nc cfgjsjkns jngmucf gkhp`rjskns kd mtfrn`-

tjvfs kn ` akmjstjg `s wfmm `s kn ` sfp`r`tfc mfvfm. ajs js jn mjnf wjta taf rfm`tjkns

`s sakwn jn Djourf 6.3. @oorfo`tjkn js nffcfc tk gkhf drkh jncjvjcu`m bucof-

hfnts tk orkup bucofhfnts `nc drkh dròhfntfc cfsjon qu`mjtjfs tk akmjstjg cf-

sjon qu`mjty. af cfgjsjkn t`si curjno ` tfncfr js `n jmm-cfdjnfc str`tfojg prkemfh

wjta hkr`m, `fstaftjg `nc pkmjtjg`m bucofhfnt`m `spfgts (C`nf & \r`tt, 5<<?). Jn

mjnf wjta Cfshft (5<<5), taf rfsumts suoofst ta`t ` bucofhfnt prkvjcfs jndkrh`-

tjkn èkut taf hf`njno `nc taf duturf pktfntj`m kd ` cfsjon kebfgt, taf mfvfm kdpmf`surf dkr taf jncjvjcu`m, `nc taf pktfntj`m efnfdjts kr a`rh dkr rf`gajno `jhs

kd taf kebfgt jn rfm`tjkn tk ktafr kebfgts. @ bucofhfnt curjno taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss

kd `rgajtfgts usu`mmy gkhprjsfs hkrf suebfgtjvf ta`n kebfgtjvf `ssfsshfnts èkut

taf qu`mjty kd ` cfsjon prkpks`m. ajs `ssfsshfnt jndkrh`tjkn js usfc `s jnput dkr

cfgjsjkn hìjno. af jnvkmvfhfnt kd fxpfrts wjta tafjr rfm`tjvfmy jncfpfncfnt

dr`hfs kd rfdfrfngf fnèmfs ` bury p`nfm tk orkunc ` cfgjsjkn kn ` sjnomf akmjstjg

`nc jntujtjvf bucofhfnt èkut taf prkpks`ms. afsf bucofhfnts `rf r`nifc jn kr-

cfr tk sfmfgt ` wjnnfr.



545

Curjno taf `n`mysjs kd taf c`t`, twk w`ys dkr taf orkup tk gkhf drkh jncj-

vjcu`m bucofhfnts tk ` gkhhkn bucofhfnt wfrf cjstjnoujsafc2 cjsgussjkn `nc

suhh`tjkn. Jn taf cjsgussjkn `pprk`ga taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf jncjvjcu`m

bucofhfnts `rf cjsgussfc djrst, `nc tafn knf bucofhfnt dkr taf orkup js cfdjnfc.

ajs `pprk`ga w`s h`jnmy usfc jn `mm g`sfs. Akwfvfr, jt w`s usfc jn gkhejn`tjkn

wjta vktjno kr jncjvjcu`m prfdfrfngf st`tfhfnts. afsf hftakcs efmkno tk ` sfg-knc pprk`ga kd gkhejnjno jncjvjcu`m st`tfhfnts wjtakut jntfr`gtjkn. Ekta tafsf

systfhs rf ginkwmfcofc jn g`sf m`w nc usfc ey bucofs jn g`sf m`w s taf gknsfn-

sus hkcfm `nc taf jncjvjcu`m `ssfsskrs hkcfm (v`n _jbno``rcfn & Ga`k-Cujvjs,

5<0<`). Jn `mm tfncfr g`sfs taf djn`m cfgjsjkn w`s e`sfc kn ` cjsgussjkn, wajmf jn

taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf vktjno cftfrhjnfc taf djn`m wjnnfrs. Ekta hftakcs g`n

ef rfo`rcfc `s jntfr-suebfgtjvf. @ cfgjsjkn èkut cfsjon qu`mjty g`n tafrfdkrf ef

gknsjcfrfc `s `n jntfr-suebfgtjvf gknsfnsus `hkno taf hfhefrs kd ` orkup kd

cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Jntfr-suebfgtjvjty gkntrjeutfs tk taf prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno kd

taf hfhefrs kd ` orkup. J suoofst ta`t ekta hftakcs - cjsgussjkn `nc òorfo`-

tjkn - `rf nffcfc tk strugturf taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. af h`jn efnfdjts kd cjsgus-sjkns `ppf`rfc tk ef ta`t hkrf jndkrh`tjkn w`s put kn taf tèmf `nc cjsgussjkns

gkntrjeutfc tk cfgjsjkn `ggfpt`ngf. @t taf s`hf tjhf tafrf w`s hkrf prfssurf tk

gkndkrh wjta taf ktafr hfhefrs kd taf orkup, hkrf ckhjn`tjkn kd knf kr twk

orkup hfhefrs, `nc ajoafr mjifmjakkc kd orkup tajni (Ukeejns & Bucof, 5<<1).

af jncjvjcu`m `nc jncfpfncfnt òorfo`tjkn hftakc fmjhjn`tfs skgj`m jndmufngfs

`nc js tafrfdkrf kdtfn pfrgfjvfc ey skgjfty s hkrf ggur`tf jn gurrfnt tfncfr pr`g-

tjgf. \rkeèmy tajs pfrgfptjkn gkntrjeutfs orf`tmy tk taf pktfntj`m gm`sa kd mfo`m

`nc psygakmkojg`m r`tjkn`mjtjfs.

@n jhpkrt`nt gkntrjeutjkn tk tr`nsp`rfngy `nc kebfgtjvjty jn taf tfncfr sys-

tfh js prkvjcfc ey puemjsajno kd taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` `nc taf `ssfsshfnt systfhjn taf g`mms dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn `nc prkpks`ms. Mfo`mmy taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc grj-

tfrj` `rf gknsjcfrfc tk ef taf gkhpmftf e`sjs dkr cfgjsjkns èkut taf sfmfgtjkn kd

taf p`rtjgjp`nt wjta taf efst kddfr. Akwfvfr, jn `mm g`sfs taf c`t` sakwfc ` sajdt jn

prjkrjtjfs wjtajn taf v`muf systfh, `nc taus jn taf rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf kd taf grj-

tfrj`, curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. Grjtfrj` ta`t a`c nkt effn `nnkungfc fxpmjgjtmy

efdkrfa`nc skhftjhfs efg`hf jhpkrt`nt, kr fvfn cfgjsjvf, jn djn`m cfgjsjkn hì-

jno. ajs jmmustr`tfs ta`t drkh ` efa`vjkur`m pfrspfgtjvf `gtkrs rfm`tf taf sfmfgtjkn

cfgjsjkn tk taf gkursf kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss `nc jnvkmvf ftajg`m kr pkmjtjg`m gkn-

sjcfr`tjkns jn rf`gajno cfgjsjkn. Jn taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss gkhpfns`tjkn str`tfoy

js usfc tk rfskmvf jntfrn`m gkndmjgts eftwffn bucofhfnts (Ako`rta, 0:11). @ gkh-pfns`tkry hkcfm dkr v`muf bucofhfnt grf`tfs rkkh dkr gkhpfns`tjkn kn ` gfrt`jn

`spfgt ey kvfr`gajfvfhfnt kn `nktafr `spfgt. ajs js skhftajno ta`t kggurrfc

qujtf kdtfn jn taf g`sfs, fvfn jn g`sfs kd uncfr pfrdkrh`ngf. Jn taf Gjty A`mm g`sf

jt w`s dkr fx`hpmf ‑mkvf `t djrst sjoat‚ wajmf tafy wfrf `w`rf kd taf d`gt ta`t taf

prkpks`m wkumc prkeèmy fxgffc taf eucoft. Drkh mfo`m `nc r`tjkn`m pfrspfgtjvf

`n uncfr pfrdkrhjno prkpks`m js usu`mmy fxgmucfc drkh durtafr `ssfsshfnt efgùsf

gkhpfns`tjkn js nkt cffhfc pkssjemf. af rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga sakwfc ta`t jn

`rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs taf ssuhptjkn ta`t taf efst kddfr js nkn-gkhpfns`-

tkry suh kd oorfo`tfc sgkrfs usu`mmy ckfs nkt ppmy. ajs hf`ns ta`t jn mjnf wjta



547,

D`gtkr 05 `mmkwjno gkhpfns`tjkn jn òorfo`tjno v`muf bucofhfnts wjmm jngrf`sf

taf v`mjcjty kd taf `ssfsshfnt.

E`sfc kn taf rfsumts dkr òorfo`tjno v`muf bucofhfnts J gkngmucf ta`t taf dkm-

mkwjno suggfss d`gtkrs wjmm gkntrjeutf tk taf suggfss kd ` tfncfr jn `rgajtfgturf2

Hìjno taf `ssfsshfnt strugturf `nc òorfo`tjkn systfh kd v`muf bucofhfnts

fxpmjgjt jn taf prfp`r`tjkn prkgfss.

@mmkwjno gkhpfns`tjkn jn òorfo`tjno v`muf bucofhfnts èkut cfsjon

qu`mjty.

1.5.4 Bustjdyjno ò`jnst cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs

af djdta prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno cf`ms wjta taf bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn `t taf

fnc kd taf prkgfss ò`jnst taf cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs ta`t `rf prfsfnt curjno sfmfg-

tjkn prkgfss dkr n rgajtfgt. @ gmjfnt a`s tk bustjdy tafjr djn`m cfgjsjkn tk tafjr kwn

kro`njs`tjkn, tk taf puemjg, tk skgjfty, `nc tk taf `rgajtfgts ta`t bkjnfc taf tfncfr.

afsf humtjpmf rfspknsjejmjtjfs `rf cfsgrjefc ey Ekvfns (0::<)2 taf h`ny a`ncs

hìf jt cjddjgumt tk jcfntjdy knf sjnomf pfrskn rfspknsjemf dkr ` tfncfr cfgjsjkn,

`s `msk fxpm`jnfc jn taf ekki kd Akcoijnskn `nc Wt`reugi (5<<1e). Jn bustjdyjno

` cfgjsjkn ` cfgjsjkn hìfr js sjhumt`nfkusmy gkndrkntfc wjta taf mfo`m strugturf

kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfcurf `nc taf psygakmkojg`m cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno.

af sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd suppkrt, trust `nc gkntrkm wfrf dkunc tk ef kd

jndmufngf tk taf prkgfss kd bustjdyjno ò`jnst cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs.

@mtakuoa prfvjkus rfsumts jncjg`tf ta`t fxpfrts jncffc pfrdkrh hkrf gknsjst-

fntmy kn v`muf bucofhfnts jn ofnfr`m (Afiifrt & v`n _jfrjnofn, 0::4), taf qufs-

tjkn rfh`jns wak sakumc ef gknsjcfrfc `n fxpfrt. Kn ` akmjstjg mfvfm hkst kd tafcfgjsjkn hìfrs jn taf g`sfs `ppf`rfc rf`sknèmy g`pèmf kd hìjno cfgjsjkns,

fvfn jd tafy dfmt jnsfgurf èkut tafjr cfgjsjkn t`sis. afy bust dkmmkwfc tafjr jn-

tujtjkn, wajga g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s `n `pprkprj`tf str`tfoy dkr jmm-cfdjnfc cfgj-

sjkns jn sjtu`tjkns wjta ` m`gi kd jndkrh`tjkn (C`nf & \r`tt, 5<<?). af nffc dkr

gkntrkm `nc uncfrst`ncjno kd taf sjtu`tjkn js strknomy dfmt ey cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn

ungfrt`jn sjtu`tjkns. Wk fx`gtmy jn tafjr pfrgfjvfc strfnota kd taf cfgjsjkns - taf

usf kd tafjr jntujtjkn - ` wfìnfss kggurrfc jn taf nffc tk bustjdy tafjr cfgjsjkns

tk tafjr ùcjfngf.

Jn taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn burjfs a`vf sakwn tafjr èjmjty tk fxprfss tafjr

prfdfrfngfs wjtakut r`jsjno gknsjcfrèmf rfsjst`ngf kd taf stìfakmcfrs. afy usfc` bury rfpkrt tk rfdmfgt erjfdmy kn `mm prkpks`ms `nc `ccrfss taf prkgfss kd cfgj-

sjkn hìjno. Jn tajs sjtu`tjkn taf grfcjejmjty kd taf burkr grf`tfc trust èkut taf

cfgjsjkn. Fxpfrtjsf js akwfvfr kdtfn mjhjtfc tk ckh`jns. @ eujmcjno prkbfgt jn `

puemjg gkntfxt gkhprjsfs kd sfvfr`m ckh`jns, wajga hf`ns ` pmftakr` kd `rf`s kd

fxpfrtjsf. af jnvkmvfhfnt kd fxtfrn`m cvjskry fxpfrts ga`nofs taf pkwfr e`m`ngf

`nc gumturf wjtajn `n kro`njs`tjkn kr tf`h (Ijfsfr & _fmmstfjn, 5<<1). Jt `msk jn-

grf`sfs taf cjddjgumty kd fxpm`jnjno ` cfgjsjkn `nc tafrfdkrf taf tr`nsp`rfngy kd `

tfncfr cfgjsjkn. af g`sfs gkndjrh taf trfnc ta`t bury p`nfms ck nkt knmy gknsjst

kd `rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn`ms eut kdtfn jngmucf nuhfrkus stìfakmcfrs wjta cjd-

dfrfnt e`giorkuncs. Wtìfakmcfrs g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s fxpfrts kn tafjr spfgjdjg

00.

05.



543

djfmc eut hjoat nffc suppkrt kn rf`cjno `nc fxprfssjno tafjr prfdfrfngfs jn ` m`n-

ouòf ìjn tk ta`t kd `ginkwmfcofc fxpfrts jn taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf. _jtakut

str`tfojg `jhs `nc sujtèmf hf`ns stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt gkumc hfrfmy jngrf`sf

ungfrt`jnty curjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss `nc cfgrf`sf taf suppkrt kd ` cfgjsjkn.

afrfdkrf cfgjsjkn hìfrs nffc tk ef sfmfgtfc e`sfc kn tafjr gkhpftfngfs, kr ef-

jno fcug`tfc jn pfrdkrhjno tafjr t`sis, wajga js jn mjnf wjta D`gtkr 07 ekut g`rf-dummy `ccrfssjno taf rkmfs `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs `nc taf mfvfm

kd trust `hkno taf stìfakmcfrs.

@mmkg`tjno sfrvjgfs dkr m`rof `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon prkbfgts a`s tr`cjtjkn`mmy effn

cknf tarkuoa jcf`s gkhpftjtjkns, (jnvjtfc) prkbfgt gkhpftjtjkns, kr prjv`tf `r-

r`nofhfnts. H`jn ga`r`gtfrjstjg kd puemjgmy gkhpftjno dkr cfsjon bkes js ta`t taf

‑`w`rc cfgjsjkn‚ js tìfn ey ` p`nfm kd fxpfrts drkh taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc kn taf

e`sjs kd `n `nknyhkus vjsu`m rfprfsfnt`tjkn kd taf duturf eujmcjno. ajs p`nfm kd

fxpfrts w`s `mmkg`tfc ` gfrt`jn `hkunt kd trust `nc pkwfr tk dumdjm taf nffcs kd

taf p`rtjgjp`nts, taf prkdfssjkn `nc kd skgjfty dkr ` bustjdjg`tjkn kd tafjr cfgjsjkn.

afjr ckh`jn spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf fnèmfs bury hfhefrs tk h`tga taf nffcs kd `gmjfnt tk taf pktfntj`m qu`mjtjfs kd taf prkpks`ms kn `n èstr`gt mfvfm wjtajn ` mjh-

jtfc tjhf `nc jndkrh`tjkn dr`hf (sff `msk sfgtjkn 1.5.3). ajs w`s gkndjrhfc jn

taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf wafrf ` rfspfgtfc p`nfm kd fxpfrts fv`mu`tfc 744 jcf`s

jn twk c`ys tjhf. af c`t` akwfvfr `msk suoofst ta`t fxpfrt bucofhfnt ckfs nkt

ou`r`ntff ta`t v`muf bucofhfnts rf nkt jndmufngfc ey pfrskn`m jntfrfsts, str`tfojg

jssufs, kr (jr)rfmfv`nt fhktjkns. Jn `mm g`sfs taf hkrf fxpfrjfngfc bury hfhefrs

sffhfc hkrf `w`rf kd taf vktjno efa`vjkur `nc prfdfrfngfs kd ktafr hfhefrs

ta`n taf mfss fxpfrjfngfc hfhefrs. afsf ijncs kd str`tfojg jssufs wfrf gkndjrhfc

jn taf jntfrvjfws wjta taf bury hfhefrs kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf, h`jnmy ey

taf cfsjonfrs wak `msk wfrf p`rtnfrs jn `rgajtfgtur`m djrhs `nc kdtfn `gtfc `s bury hfhefrs. Jn tajs gkntfxt, tafy t`mifc èkut taf e`m`ngf eftwffn gmjfnts `nc

prkdfssjkn`ms jn ` bury `nc taf rjoat hkhfnt tk fxprfss ` prfdfrfngf jn taf orkup

tk gknvjngf ktafrs. af rfsumts `msk sakw ta`t fxpfrtjsf gkntrjeutfc tk taf d`gt

ta`t mkno tfrh jntfrfsts `ppf`rfc tk ef hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n pfrskn`m cjddfrfngfs,

wajga prkeèmy wkumc efnfdjt taf qu`mjty kd taf cfgjsjkn. Jn `n fxpfrt tf`h hfh-

efrs g`n trust taf èjmjtjfs `nc jntfntjkns kd tafjr dkmmkw tf`h hfhefrs (W`m`s, ft

`m., 5<<3).

af rfsumts kd taf g`sfs jncjg`tf ta`t bury p`nfms jn Cutga `rgajtfgt sfmfg-

tjkns `rf nkt gkhpksfc nkr dummy `gt `s fxpfrt tf`hs. Zft, fspfgj`mmy jn taf grjtjg`m

dffce`gi `nc mf`rnjno gurvf kd bury hfhefrs `nc taf jssuf kd eujmcjno trust tafgkngfpt kd fxpfrt tf`h a`s ` mkt kd kddfr jn taf gkntfxt kd cfsjon tfncfrs. E`sfc

kn tafsf jnsjoats `nc jn mjnf wjta D`gtkr 03 J st`tf ta`t taf pfrdkrh`ngf kd bury

p`nfms gkumc ef jhprkvfc ey g`rfdummy ccrfssjno taf rkmfs nc gkhpksjtjkn kd taf

bury hfhefrs jn taf tfncfr cfsjon `nc tr`jnjno taf bury p`nfm curjno taf prfp`r`-

tjkn kd taf tfncfr. ajs wkumc hìf jt pkssjemf dkr ` puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcy

tk gkntrkm taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss.

\rkgurfhfnt m`w kddfrs gurrfnt gmjfnts nfw ijnc kd strugturf ta`t g`n ef usfc

tk bustjdy tafjr cfgjsjkns eut nkt rfqujrf gmjfnts tk hktjv`tf tafjr cfgjsjkn gkntfnt

wjsf. Gkhp`rfc tk taf cfsjon tr`cjtjkn taf mfo`m strugturf js r`tafr r`tjkn`mjstjg

`nc qu`ntjt`tjvf, eut tafsf ijncs kd cfgjsjkn hktjv`tjkns `rf stjmm prfdfrrfc drkh



546,

` skgjft`m pfrspfgtjvf (Wjngm`jr & @sai`n`sy, 5<<6). Efsjcfs cfgjsjkns èkut cf-

sjon qu`mjty ckfs nkt knmy jngmucf `n `ssfsshfnt èkut taf prkpks`m, eut `msk taf

pkssjemf jhpmjg`tjkns kd ` cfgjsjkn, taf fhktjkns ta`t `rf dfmt `nc taf bustjdjg`tjkn

prkgfss tk taf gjtjzfns, fhpmkyffs `nc ktafr stìfakmcfrs. @ qu`ntjt`tjvf cfgj-

sjkn hktjv`tjkn akwfvfr d`jms tk jngmucf taf ‑stkry‚ efajnc taf v`muf bucofhfnts

`nc taf prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno ta`t ` gmjfnt wfnt tarkuoa tk rf`ga tafjr cfgjsjknèkut cfsjon qu`mjty. af nuhefrs ck nkt g`rry `ny hfssòf ekut taf gkndmjgtjno

`jhs `nc pkssjejmjtjfs. ajs grf`tfs ` m`gi kd trust jn taf gmjfnt ekcy `s ` gkhhjs-

sjknfr. _jtakut trust cfgjsjkn ckfs nkt djnc suppkrt hkno taf stìfakmcfrs. Jn

taf g`sfs kd taf Gjty A`mm `nc taf Wgakkm knmy ` mjhjtfc hktjv`tjkn w`s prkvjcfc

tk taf tfncfrfrs èkut tafjr pfrdkrh`ngfs. af gmjfnts kd taf tfncfr g`sfs cjc nkt

fvfn tajni kd wrjtjno ` bury rfpkrt suga `s prkvjcfc jn taf g`sf kd taf D`gumty

Eujmcjno. Jn tajs tafy `ppf`rfc tk a`vf jonkrfc taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn. af

Wgakkm g`sf sakwfc akw taf strugturf kd ` cfgjsjkn suppkrt tkkm cftfrhjnfc taf

hktjv`tjkn dkr taf djn`m cfgjsjkn. ajs jhprkvfc taf tr`nsp`rfngy kd taf cfgjsjkn

prkgfss tk skhf fxtfnt. Akwfvfr, taf djn`m cfgjsjkn w`s e`sfc kn ` cjsgussjkn jn wajga taf kutput kd taf systfh pm`yfc ` rkmf eut cjc nkt orkunc taf cfgjsjkn.

afrfdkrf taf h`trjx safft cjc nkt trumy bustjdy taf cfgjsjkn tk taf rgajtfgt ekut

tafjr kddfr. ajs gkndjrhs D`gtkr 06.

E`sfc kn taf rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga jn rfm`tjkn tk taf prkgfss kd bustjdyjno `

cfgjsjkn o`jnst cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs J gkngmucf ta`t taf dkmmkwjno suggfss d`gtkrs

wjmm gkntrjeutf tk ` suggfssdum `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss2

@ccrfssjno taf rkmfs `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs kd taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs gùtjkusmy jn

taf cfsjon kd taf tfncfr dkr jngrf`sjno taf trust eftwffn taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs

`nc erk`cfnjno taf suppkrt dkr taf cfgjsjkn `hkno taf stìfakmcfrs.

Gkhpksjno, tr`jnjno nc oujcjno taf bury p`nfm g`rfdummy tk efnfdjt kptjh`mmy

drkh taf fxpfrtjsf `v`jmèmf jn taf p`nfm.

Vsjno ` cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfh tk strugturf taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss eut nkt us-

jno taf kutput kd tajs systfh tk hfrfmy bustjdy ` cfgjsjkn tk taf tfncfrfrs `nc

taf ktafr stìfakmcfrs.

1.7 Ufgkhhfnc`tjkns

Jn tajs sfgtjkn sfvfr`m rfgkhhfnc`tjkns rf h`cf dkr tfncfr cfsjon dkr taf prkg-

fss kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn uncfr Furkpf`n tfncfrjno rfoum`tjkns. af rfgkhhfn-c`tjkns `rf e`sfc kn taf jnsjoats `nc suggfss d`gtkrs kd taf tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri,

taf rfsumts kd taf fhpjrjg`m g`sfs, nc taf djncjnos kd taf v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp. af

djrst sfgtjkn `ccrfssfs taf rfgkhhfnc`tjkns ta`t cjrfgtmy rfm`tf tk taf sfnsfhì-

jno prkgfssfs. Jn taf sfgknc p`rt kd tajs sfgtjkn J hìf suoofstjkn ekut cjddfr-

fnt jntfrprft`tjkn kd taf gurrfnt rfoum`tjkns ta`t gkumc ga`nof taf gkntfhpkr`ry

Cutga pr`gtjgf.

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544

1.7.0 Ufgkhhfnc`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd ` tfncfr

Jn mjnf wjta taf fhpjrjg`m rfsumts taf p`rtjgjp`nts kd taf v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp `g-

inkwmfcofc ta`t taf prfp`r`tjkn `nc cfsjon prkgfss kd ` tfncfr hjoat ef fvfn

hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n taf `gtu`m tfncfr prkgfss. Djourf 1.0 sakws tarff jngrfhfn-

t`m stfps ta`t ` gmjfnts nffcs tk tìf jn taf prfp`r`tjkn kd taf tfncfr. afsf jntfr-

rfm`tfc `nc jtfr`tjvf `gtjvjtjfs sakumc rfsumts jn ` tfncfr cfsjon. _afn taf tfncfrjs h`cf puemjg, taf jhpmfhfnt`tjkn prkgfss kd taf tfncfr a`s st`rtfc.

Jn ` cjddfrfnt rkmf ta`n gurrfntmy `ppmjfc jn Cutga tfncfr pr`gtjgf, `rgajtfgts

gkumc `msk afmp jn taf prkgfss kd `n`mysjno taf `jhs `nc `hejtjkns kd taf gmjfnt

`nc hìjno fstjh`tjkns èkut h`rift sjtu`tjkns jn `rgajtfgturf. Jn taf prkgfss kd

h`tgajno suppmy `nc cfh`nc, `rgajtfgts kr spfgj`mjsfc gknsumt`nts gkumc suppkrt

gmjfnts jn fstjh`tjno taf fddfgts kd gfrt`jn rfqujrfhfnts, suga `s taf ijnc kd rfdfr-

fngf prkbfgts kr taf afjoats kd taf djn`ngj`m rfqujrfhfnts jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf.

af rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga sakwfc ta`t taf suggfss d`gtkrs nffc tk ef g`rfdummy

gknsjcfrfc jn taf prfp`r`tjkn pa`sf `nc ou`rcfc jn taf jhpmfhfnt`tjkn pa`sf

kd taf tfncfr. af jhpkrt`ngf kd jntfr`gtjkn wjta taf tfncfrfrs `nc cjsgussjkn

`hkno taf bury hfhefrs gkumc rfqujrf ` sajdt jn taf gurrfnt jntfrprft`tjkn kd ke-

bfgtjvjty, fqu`m trf`thfnt, `nc tr`nsp`rfngy. af òorfo`tjkn prkgfss kd taf cjddfr-

fnt v`muf bucofhfnts ta`t `rf h`cf curjno ` sfmfgtjkn prkgfss js h`jnmy orkuncfc

kn hìjno v`mjc ssfsshfnt kd ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf prkpks`m ta`t js kddfrfc ey taf

`rgajtfgt.

@ssfssjno cfsjon qu`mjty `nc taf `ddfgtjvf rfspknsf ta`t `ggkhp`ny bucof-

hfnts ekut cfsjon qu`mjty hf`n ta`t cfgjsjkn wjmm nfvfr ef kebfgtjvf ey n`turf.

Jn bustjdyjno taf djn`m cfgjsjkn fxpfgt`tjkns a`vf tk ef dumdjmmfc drkh cjddfrfnt

r`tjkn`mjtjfs. af rfgkhhfnc`tjkns ta`t rfm`tf tk tr`jnjno, `mjonhfnt kd cfgjsjkn

dr`hfs, `nc fcug`tjkn jhpmy ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs wkumc a`vf tk ef hkrf `gtjvfmy

jnvkmvfc jn taf prfp`r`tjkns kd taf tfncfr nc jnvfst jn spfgjdjg tr`jnjno gtjvjtjfs.

ajs wkumc rfqujrf ` ga`nof kd taf gurrfnt pr`gtjgf efgùsf kd pkssjemf gkndmjgts

eftwffn taf rfm`tjvfmy eusy sgafcumfs kd taf fxpfrts `nc rfspknsjemf kddjgfrs ta`t

`rf gurrfntmy jnvkmvfc.

WSF\ 02 _A@S;

@n`mysf taf prkbfgt

WSF\ 52 _AK;

@ssjon taf `gtkrs

WSF\ 72 AK_;

Cfsjon ` tfncfr

•

• \rkbfgt jhs

• Sfganjg`m nc mfo`m gkntfxt

• Wkgj m nc pkmjtjg`m gkntfxt

• \rkbfgt h`nòfhfnt

• \rkbfgt tf`h

• Wtffrjno gkhhjttff

• Bury p`nfm

• Sfncfr erjfd nc hejtjkn

• \rkgurfhfnt prkgfcurf

• Wtìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt

• Cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs

Djourf 1.0 Sarff jngrfhfnt`m stfps kd tfncfr cfsjon jn taf prfp`r`tjkn pa`sf



54?,

af rfsumts kd tajs stucy mf`c tk taf dkmmkwjno kvfrvjfw kd djdtffn rfgkhhfn-

c`tjkns dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts ey puemjg gmjfnts uncfr Furkpf`n tfncfrjno

rfoum`tjkns2


tfntj`mmy gkndmjgtjno bucofhfnts.

@ccrfssjno taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf `rgajtfgt `s ` pfrskn, taf prkpksfc cf-

sjon, `s wfmm `s taf djrh ta`t tafy rfprfsfnt jn taf cfgjsjkn grjtfrj` kd taf

tfncfr cfsjon.

Fnsurjno ` djt eftwffn taf `jhs kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss `nc taf cfsjon kd taf

tfncfr.



@mjonjno taf dr`hf kd rfdfrfngfs kd taf `gtkrs curjno prfp`r`tjkn kd taf tfn-

cfr prkgfss jn krcfr tk rf`ga ` cfgjsjkn `t taf fnc kd taf prkgfss ta`t djts taf`hejtjkns `nc `jhs kd taf gmjfnt kro`njs`tjkn.



t`si.

Fcug`tjno cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn rf`cjno `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjons drkh ` gmjfnt

pfrspfgtjvf.

Jnvkmvjno (fxtfrn`m) fxpfrts jn taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno èkut cfsjon

qu`mjty efgùsf tafy a`vf ckh`jn spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf `nc `rf efttfr `t gkntrkm-

mjno prkcugt fhktjkns `nc usjno jntujtjkn ta`n nkvjgfs.

Jngmucjno ` pfrskn`m fxpm`n`tjkn ey taf `rgajtfgt tk jhprkvf taf gmjfnts‚ un-

cfrst`ncjno kd taf prkpks`m.

Grf`tjno rkkh `nc dmfxjejmjty jn taf cfgjsjkn hìjno prkgfss dkr cjsgussjkn

`nc nfoktj`tjkn `hkno taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs.

Hìjno taf `ssfsshfnt strugturf `nc òorfo`tjkn systfh kd v`muf bucofhfnts

fxpmjgjt jn taf prfp`r`tjkn prkgfss.

@mmkwjno dkr gkhpfns`tjkn jn òorfo`tjno v`muf bucofhfnts èkut cfsjon

qu`mjty.


taf cfsjon kd taf tfncfr tk jngrf`sf taf trust eftwffn taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs nc

erk`cfn taf suppkrt dkr taf cfgjsjkn `hkno taf stìfakmcfrs.

Gkhpksjno, tr`jnjno nc oujcjno taf bury p`nfm g`rfdummy tk efnfdjt kptjh`mmy

drkh taf fxpfrtjsf `v`jmèmf jn taf p`nfm.

Vsjno ` cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfh tk strugturf `nc suppkrt taf cfgjsjkn prkg-

fss eut nkt usjno taf kutput kd tajs systfh tk hfrfmy bustjdy ` cfgjsjkn tk taf

tfncfrfrs `nc taf ktafr stìfakmcfrs.

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541

1.7.5 Wuoofstjkn dkr ga`nof jn Cutga tfncfr pr`gtjgf

af rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga ojvf rf`skn tk suoofst ` ga`nof kd taf gurrfnt jhpmjg`-

tjkns kd taf tfncfr rfoum`tjkns jn taf Nftafrm`ncs. Jn hy kpjnjkn taf gkhpksjtjkn

kd taf bury p`nfm sakumc ef taf s`hf jn taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf, taf bury

sakumc a`vf cfgjsjvf rjoats, `nc taf rkmfs `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs kd taf bury hfhefrs

sakumc cjddfr pfr pa`sf kd taf tfncfr. ajs suoofstjkn js e`sfc kn taf prjngjpmfta`t gmjfnts sakumc mft ok kd `spfgts tafy `rf nkt g`pèmf kd `nc gkntrkm taf jssufs

ta`t g`n ef prfp`rfc `nc f`sjmy suppkrtfc. af gkngfpt js e`sfc kn taf sakrtmjst-

jno prjngjpmf ta`t taf Cutga Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt usfc untjm ` dfw yf`rs

òk tk `ssjst taf Hjnjstrjfs jn sfmfgtjno `rgajtfgts. Jn ofnfr`m jt w`s dkunc ta`t

gmjfnts djnc jt a`rc tk sfmfgt ` hjnjhuh kd djvf `rgajtfgts ta`t wjmm ef g`pèmf tk

dumdjm taf rfqujrfhfnts dkr taf bke wjtakut fnsurjno tafhsfmvfs kd pktfntj`m qu`m-

jty ey sfttjno une`m`ngfc sujtèjmjty rfqujrfhfnts. Gmjfnts `ppf`r tk m`gi ckh`jn

spfgjdjg inkwmfcof ekut rgajtfgturf s wfmm s ckh`jn spfgjdjg inkwmfcof ekut

prkgurfhfnt m`w, gkhpftjtjkns `nc prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt jn tajs `rf`. Zft, taf usf

kd n jncfpfncfnt fxpfrt p`nfm, s js gkhhkn jn taf gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn, mjhjts

taf `hkunt kd gkntrkm dkr ` gmjfnt kvfr taf djn`m cfgjsjkn. afrfdkrf gmjfnts prfdfr

tk nkt tk usf bury p`nfms `nc sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc gkhhjttffs gurrfntmy ck nkt

gknsjst kd ` h`bkrjty kd fxpfrts. Wtjmm ckh`jn spfgjdjg fxpfrtjsf js nffcfc tk hìf

bucofhfnts èkut `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon qu`mjty jn taf gkntfxt kd FV prkgurfhfnt

m`w `nc tk grf`tf trust eftwffn taf `rgajtfgt `nc taf gmjfnt.

J tajni ta`t dkr `ny tfncfr jn wajga `n `rgajtfgt js sfmfgtfc taf dkmmkwjno prk-

gfcurf sakumc ef `ppmjfc2

@ssjon ` cjvfrsf bury p`nfm ta`t jngmucfs taf rfspknsjemf kddjgfr(s) `nc ktafr

rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcy s wfmm s fxpfrts jn spfgjdjgckh`jns ta`t rfm`tf tk taf `ssjonhfnt (f.o. ure`n pm`nnfrs, `rgajtfgts, sus-

t`jnèjmjty fxpfrts, ajstkrj`ns ftg).

@ssjon cfgjsjvf rjoats tk taf bury p`nfm jn ekta taf sfmfgtjkn `nc taf `w`rc

pa`sf.

Fnsurf ta`t bury hfhefrs trust `nc suppkrt f`ga ktafr efdkrf, curjno, `nc

`dtfr taf tfncfr. ajs prkgfss gkumc ef suppkrtfc ey cftfrhjnjno rkmfs nc rf-

spknsjejmjtjfs `hkno taf bury hfhefrs efdkrfa`nc dkr taf cjddfrfnt pa`sfs.

af efnfdjts kd `ssjonjno ` humtjcjsgjpmjn`ry bury cfgjsjvf rjoats jn ekta taf

sfmfgtjkn pa`sf nc taf w`rc pa`sf rf ta`t 0) taf pktfntj`m tfncfrfrs g`n ef qu`mjtygafgifc ey taf ckh`jn spfgjdjg fxpfrts jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf, `nc 5) gmjfnts g`n

stjmm jndmufngf taf djn`m cfgjsjkn jn taf w`rc pa`sf eut wjta taf suppkrt kd ckh`jn

spfgjdjg fxpfrts. af fxpfrts ta`t `rf jnvkmvfc jn taf prkgfss gkumc hknjtkr taf

fddfgts kd tfncfrjno cfgjsjkns dkr taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc. afy g`n òrff ` gfrt`jn

gkcf kd gkncugt `hkno f`ga ktafr ta`t wkumc jngrf`sf fqu`mjty kd ga`ngfs dkr

ykuno `nc rfm`tjvfmy mfss fstèmjsafc djrhs. Fspfgj`mmy curjno taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf

taf `hkunt kd jndkrh`tjkn ta`t nffcs tk ef prkgfssfc js gknsjcfrèmf. Ckh`jn

spfgjdjg fxpfrts wjmm ef efttfr `t `ssfssjno taf rfqufsts dkr jnvjt`tjkn efttfr ta`n

nkn prkdfssjkn`m gmjfnts kr tafjr suppkrt st`dd, fvfn jd `n kpfn prkgfcurf kr

rfstrjgtfc tfncfr prkgfcurf wjta rfm`tjvfmy mkw tfganjg`m, djn`ngj`m kr kro`njs`tjkn

@.

E.

G.



54:,

sujtèjmjty rfqujrfhfnts wkumc r`jsf taf nuhefr kd pktfntj`m tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs.

k `mjon taf ckguhfnt`tjkn tk taf ga`r`gtfr kd taf fxpfrt bucofhfnts, taf dkrh`t

kd taf rfqufsts dkr jnvjt`tjkn hjoat nffc `cbusthfnts, dkr fx`hpmf ey `ccjno

hkrf vjsu`m h`tfrj`m, pkssjemf kn ` pkstfr dkrh`t `s js gustkh`ry jn taf cfsjon

gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn.

Jd gmjfnts wkumc dkgus hkrf kn taf tfganjg`m `nc/kr prkdfssjkn`m èjmjty kd tafg`ncjc`tfs jn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss `nc mfss kn taf djn`ngj`m `nc kro`njs`tjkn-

`m gkhpftfngfs, unrf`mjsfc cfsjons gkumc `msk ef usfc `s rfdfrfngfs. af fxpfrts

wkumc ef`r taf rfspknsjejmjty tk prktfgt taf jntfrfsts kd taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc jn

taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf. Ey `nnkungjno taf n`hfs kd taf p`nfm hfhefrs, pktfntj`m

g`ncjc`tfs wkumc inkw wa`t tk fxpfgt drkh tafjr dfmmkw prkdfssjkn`ms curjno

taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss. ajs suoofstjkn hffts taf prjngjpmf kd tr`nsp`rfngy, fqu`m

trf`thfnt, prkpkrtjkn`mjty, `nc kebfgtjvjty dkr ekta taf tfncfr prjngjpmfs `nc taf

gkhpftjtjkn tr`cjtjkn.

Jn taf `w`rc pa`sf gmjfnts a`vf tk sfmfgt knf wjnnfr kut kd ` hjnjhuh kd djvf

gkhp`rèmf tfncfrfrs ta`t a`vf effn sfmfgtfc ey taf fxpfrts jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf.Gmjfnts `nc rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf gkhhjssjknjno ekcy sakumc ef jngmucfc jn taf

bury p`nfm jn taf sfnsf ta`t ‑taf knf wak p`ys taf pjpfr g`n g`mm taf tunf‚ jn taf

djn`m cfgjsjkn pa`sf. J suoofst iffpjno taf gkhpksjtjkn kd taf bury p`nfm sjhjm`r

tk taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf eut swjtgajno taf rkmfs `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs eftwffn taf ck-

h`jn spfgjdjg fxpfrts. af fxpfrts g`n `ssjst taf gmjfnts jn gakksjno eftwffn taf

`mtfrn`tjvfs `nc wrjtjno ` rfpkrt tk hktjv`tf taf `w`rc cfgjsjkn jn taf m`nouòf

kd taf `rgajtfgts. af gmjfnts efnfdjt drkh ` mf`rnjno prkgfss wjtajn taf tfncfr

prkgfss `nc wjmm ef èmf tk prfp`rf tafhsfmvfs kn tafjr cfgjsjkn t`si jn taf `w`rc

pa`sf. af fxpfrts gkumc `msk suppkrt ktafr stìfakmcfrs ta`t `rf jnvkmvfc jn taf

cfgjsjkn prkgfss jn rf`cjno `nc `ssfssjno taf prkpks`ms kd taf tfncfrfrs.ajs prkgfcurf wkumc efnfdjt drkh ` prktfgtfc `nc pkssjemf puemjgmy `chjn-

jstr`tfc c`tè`sf kr ktafr ijnc kd rfdfrfngf systfh jn wajga gmjfnts g`n gafgi taf

djn`ngj`m, tfganjg`m `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m jndkrh`tjkn (` ijnc kd cjojt`m ‑p`sspkrt‚)

jd rfqujrfc curjno ` tfncfr. ajs wkumc suest`ntj`mmy cfgrf`sf taf `chjnjstr`tjvf

wkrimk`c kd tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs `nc gkhhjssjknjno ekcjfs. Ey suehjttjno tafjr rf-

qufst dkr jnvjt`tjkn tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs sakumc utkh`tjg`mmy mmkw gmjfnts tk ket`jn

` gfrtjdjg`tf kd tafjr sujtèjmjty ta`t js e`sfc kn taf rfqujrfhfnts dkr ta`t spfgjdjg

tfncfr. Wuga ` c`tè`sf systfh wkumc akwfvfr hf`n ta`t gmjfnts `nc `rgajtfgts

a`vf tk rfo`jn trust jn f`ga ktafr.

af suoofstfc ga`nof jn taf jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd gurrfnt tfncfr rfoum`tjkns wkumc rfqujrf ` suest`ntj`mmy ajoafr jnvkmvfhfnt kd taf ckh`jn fxpfrts `nc ktafr

p`nfm hfhefrs jn taf prfp`r`tjkn pa`sf kd taf tfncfr. ajs gkumc mf`c tk ` ajoafr

cfh`nc dkr fxpfrts nffc tk ef fcug`tfc `nc tr`jnfc. Efjno ` bury hfhefr gkumc

fvfn efgkhf ` prkdfssjkn kr cfcjg`tfc t`si dkr skhf fxpfrts. Jn hy kpjnjkn taf

fcug`tjkn`m nc tr`jnjno gtjvjtjfs gkumc ef kddfrfc ey `n jncfpfncfnt humtjcjsgj-

pmjn`ry inkwmfcof gfntrf ta`t dkgusfs kn sfmfgtjno cfsjon sfrvjgfs, jngmucjno cf-

vfmkphfnt gkhpftjtjkns `nc jntfor`tfc `nc puemjg-prjv`tf p`rtnfrsajp prkbfgts.

Jn tajs inkwmfcof gfntrf prkdfssjkn`ms drkh taf ckh`jns kd rgajtfgturf, prkgurf-

hfnt, prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt, `nc prkgfss h`nòfhfnt sakumc gkmmèkr`tf tk prk-

vjcf taf sfrvjgfs `nc d`gjmjtjfs ta`t puemjg gmjfnts nffc tk sfmfgt `rgajtfgts uncfrFurkpf`n tfncfrjno rfoum`tjkns.



5?<

1.3 Ufdmfgtjkn kn taf rfsf`rga `pprk`ga

1.3.0 Ufsf`rga tr`cjtjkn

\ròh`tjsh js gknsjcfrfc n jhpkrt`nt ga`r`gtfrjstjg kd rfsf`rga jn kro`njs`tjkn`m

`nc n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkn hìjno (Okrf, ft `m., 5<<4). Efgùsf kd taf prkbfgt-

e`sfc ga`r`gtfr kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs stucjfc, tajs stucy g`n ef pksjtjknfc

eftwffn kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno ”h jnmy mkkijno t skgj`m prkgfssfs wajga

`rf af`vjmy gknstr`jnfc ey kro`njs`tjkn`m ok`ms `nc nkrhs‘ (Okrf, ft `m., 5<<4, p.

:5:), `nc n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkn hìjno, wajga ”rfdmfgts kn gkonjtjvf prkgfssfs tk

hìf cfgjsjkn hìfrs hkrf fddfgtjvf‘ (Mjpsajtz, ft `m., 5<<4, p. :01). af `jh kd

taf rfsf`rga js tk fnèmf taf `gtkrs wjtajn `n kro`njs`tjkn (nkt knmy taf fxpfrts)

tk `ppmy taf rfsumts ey kddfrjno ` pr`gtjg`m uncfrst`ncjno kd cfgjsjkn hìjno jn

taf gkntfxt kd rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns. ajs rfsf`rga rfspkncs tk taf nffc dkr jntfrcjs-

gjpmjn`ry `pprk`gafs tk `ppmy fxjstjno inkwmfcof drkh taf hkrf tr`cjtjkn`m djfmcs

kd sgjfngf, suga `s gkonjtjvf `nc skgj`m psygakmkoy, tk taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf.

Akwfvfr, tajs ckfs nkt hf`n ta`t dumm uncfrst`ncjno a`s effn rf`gafc. af tkpjg

a`s effn `pprk`gafc afrf drkh ` skgj`m psygakmkojg`m r`tjkn`mjty, wajga mf`vfs kut

taf purfmy mfo`m, tfganjg`m nc fgknkhjg`m r`tjkn`mjty (Wnfmmfn, 0:1?). af rf`s kd

str`tfojg h`nòfhfnt, prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt, kro`njs`tjkn sgjfngf, kro`njs`tjkn`m

`ntarkpkmkoy, skgjkmkoy, puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn, `nc eusjnfss `chjnjstr`tjkn a`vf

h`jnmy effn mfdt kut jn taf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf tafkrftjg`m dr`hf dkr pròh`tjg

rf`skns. af djn`m rfsumts suoofst ta`t curjno hy `n`mysjs taf jndmufngf kd pkwfr,

pkmjtjgs `nc str`tfojg cfgjsjkn hìjno a`s nkt yft effn dummy fxpmkrfc. Durtafr

`n`mysjs kd taf c`t` `nc `ccjtjkn`m c`t` gkmmfgtjkn gkumc prkvjcf hkrf jnsjoats kn

tafsf jhp`gt d`gtkrs `nc taf uncfrmyjno hfga`njshs. af s`hf `ppmjfs dkr jssufs

mjif taf `fstaftjgs `nc v`muf kd cfsjon kr taf gkngfpts kd suebfgtjvjty, tr`nsp`rfngy,

`nc jntforjty, wajga `mm gkumc ef durtafr fmèkr`tfc kn ` tafkrftjg`m mfvfm.

1.3.5 Ufsf`rga hftakcs

af rfsf`rga js fntjrfmy e`sfc kn rf`m mjdf g`sf stucjfs. af hftakc kd g`sf stucy

rfsf`rga js p`rt kd `n knokjno cfe`tf jn sgjfngf èkut taf rjokur kd qu`mjt`tjvf

rfsf`rga c`t` jn tfrhs kd rfmjèjmjty, ofnfr`mjsèjmjty `nc v`mjcjty kd taf rfsumts.

Wfvfr`m sgakm`rs `ttfhpt tk grf`tf `w`rfnfss `hkno ‑tr`cjtjkn`m‚ rfsf`rgafrs èkut

taf rfmfv`ngf kd ckjno g`sf stucjfs (f.o. Dmyvebfro, 5<<39 Ofrrjno, 5<<39 Zjn,

5<<:). @mtakuoa taf jhpkrt`ngf kd mèkr`tkry fxpfrjhfnts, survfys `nc sjhum`-tjkns w`s `ginkwmfcofc curjno taf cfsjon kd tajs rfsf`rga, taf usf kd g`sf stuc-

jfs prkvfc tk ef taf hkst `pprkprj`tf `pprk`ga dkr taf fxpmkr`tjvf `nc sfnsjtjvf

n`turf kd tajs rfsf`rga tafhf. rj`noum`tjkn kd taf cjddfrfnt rfsf`rga hftakcs

strfnotafnfc taf `n`mysjs kd gkhpmfxjtjfs uncfrmyjno taf efa`vjkur `s sakwn ey

taf `gtkrs. @ggkrcjno tk Mjpsajtz, Imfjn, Kr`s`nu `nc W`m`s (5<<0, p. 737) ”djfmc

kesfrv`tjkns rf grjtjg`m tk N`tur mjstjg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (NCH) rfsf`rga efgùsf

rf`m-wkrmc cfgjsjkns rf fhefccfc jn `nc gkntrjeutf tk knokjno t`sis‘. afy suo-

ofst fv`mu`tjno stucjfs jn n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkn hìjno jn tfrhs kd grfcjejmjty `nc



5?0,

tr`nsdfrèjmjty. Jn tajs sfgtjkn J cjsguss taf grfcjejmjty kd taf rfsf`rga9 taf tr`nsdfr-

èjmjty js cjsgussfc jn sfgtjkn 1.6.3 jn tfrhs kd taf ofnfr`mjs`tjkn kd taf rfsf`rga

rfsumts.

Jn tfrhs kd grfcjejmjty tajs stucy sakws ta`t kesfrv`tjkns kpfn up ` pkssjejm-

jty tk gkmmfgt sgjfntjdjg jnsjoats ta`t wkumc - `mtakuoa gkhhknmy inkwn jn taf

djfmc - ktafrwjsf ef nfomfgtfc, suga `s fhktjkns, str`tfojg efa`vjkur `nc ekcym`nouòf. Jntfrvjfws prkvjcfc n jndkrh`tjvf skurgf dkr jntfrprft`tjkn kd str`tfojg

`gtjkns `nc duturf rfm`tfc gkntfxtu`m d`gtkrs jndmufngjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs.

\`rtjgjp`tkry rfsf`rga fna`ngfc ekta tafsf efnfdjts, eut grf`tfc ` cjddfrfnt ijnc

kd gkhpmfxjty curjno `n`mysjs kd taf c`t` cuf tk `n jnjtj`m m`gi kd cjst`ngf drkh

taf c`t`. af systfh`tjg `nc n`rr`tjvf `pprk`ga kd fv`mu`tjno g`sfs kddfrs ekta

sgjfntjdjg `nc pr`gtjg`m efnfdjts dkr taf prkdfssjkn. af kesfrv`tjkn ta`t puemjg

gmjfnts `ppf`r nkt tk ef `s puemjg `s taf tfrh wkumc suoofst g`n ef tr`gfc e`gi tk

taf ungfrt`jntjfs `nc m`gi kd gm`rjty èkut taf `ssfsshfnt kd cfsjon qu`mjty, wajga

jn taf pfrgfptjkn kd gmjfnts gkndmjgts wjta mfo`m `nc r`tjkn`m fxpfgt`tjkns. \uemjg

gmjfnts `mrf`cy dffm pr`y dkr taf `rgajtfgtur`m gkhhunjty `nc tafy ck nkt w`nttk fnm`rof tafjr vumnfrèjmjty. af gmjfnts ta`t wfrf wjmmjno tk p`rtjgjp`tf jn tajs

rfsf`rga `jhfc `t dumdjmmjno taf prjngjpmf kd tr`nsp`rfngy tk taf orf`tfst cforff

pkssjemf. ajs gkumc jhpmy ta`t ktafr gmjfnts hjoat a`vf hkrf tk ajcf. Or`ntjno

hf `ggfss `s ` rfsf`rgafr tk cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs rfqujrfc taf s`hf ijnc kd trust `nc

`hejtjkn ta`t js fxpfgtfc drkh p`rtjgjp`nts jn ` tfncfr. Jt js `msk taf s`hf ijnc kd

trust `nc `hejtjkn nffcfc tk `gt `s ` prkdfssjkn`m gmjfnt curjno taf sfmfgtjkn kd

`n `rgajtfgt jn taf gkntfxt kd Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt rfoum`tjkns. Akpfdummy tajs

stucy wjmm gkntrjeutf tk kpfnjno up taf hjst gkvfrjno taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss dkr

`rgajtfgts `nc grf`tf ` ijnc kd kpfnnfss `nc `w`rfnfss èkut taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

kd `ssfsshfnt prkgfssfs jn cfsjon. \uemjg gmjfnts wak djnc tafhsfmvfs jn ` sjhjm`rsjtu`tjkn h`y dffm strfnotafnfc ey rf`cjno ekut taf fxpfrjfngfs kd ktafrs nc taf

sgjfntjdjg fxpm`n`tjkn kd taf pafnkhfn` ta`t g`n kggur.

1.3.7 G`sf sfmfgtjkn

Jn `nswfrjno taf rfsf`rga qufstjkns J usfc dkur cjddfrfnt g`sfs2 tarff tfncfr g`s-

fs `nc knf gkhpftjtjkn g`sf. af kro`njs`tjkn kd `n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn js nkt

taf s`hf `s taf cfsjon kd ` prkgurfhfnt prkgfss tk sfmfgt `n `rgajtfgt. Akwfvfr,

taf gkhejn`tjkn kd sfvfr`m tfncfr g`sfs `nc `n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn `ppf`rfc tk ef

qujtf suggfssdum dkr taf purpksf kd tajs rfsf`rga. af h`jn cjddfrfngfs eftwffn tafD`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf `nc taf rfstrjgtfc tfncfr g`sfs g`n ef rfm`tfc tk cjddfrfngfs

jn taf mfo`m jhp`gt kd taf cfgjsjkn, taf `jh kd taf cfgjsjkn, `nc taf fxpfrtjsf mfvfm

kd taf gmjfnt.

af gkhhjssjknjno ekcy jn taf g`sf kd taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`n ef gknsjcfrfc

`s ` vfry inkwmfcofèmf `nc gknsjcfrèmf rfnkwnfc gmjfnt. ajs grf`tfc sfvfr`m

kppkrtunjtjfs dkr gkmmèkr`tjkn `nc puemjgjty, suga `s taf fxajejtjkn jn taf Cutga

@rgajtfgturf Jnstjtutf `nc taf jnvkmvfhfnt kd taf Cutga Hjnjstfr kd Fcug`tjkn,

Gumturf `nc Wgjfngf `t taf kpfnjno kd taf gkhpftjtjkn. af duturf usfrs kd taf

eujmcjno gkumc ef hkrf f`sjmy jnvkmvfc jn taf `ssfsshfnt prkgfss `nc rfmfv`ngf kd

taf gkhpftjtjkn w`s ofnfr`mmy `ginkwmfcofc `hkno taf fhpmkyffs `nc stucfnts.af ckwnsjcf kd tajs hfcj` ttfntjkn js ta`t taf gmjfnt a`c tk cf`m wjta tajs fxfh-



5?5

pm`ry dungtjkn ta`t jngrf`sfc taf `hkunt kd prfssurf kn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. Zft

J `ssuhf ta`t tajs ijnc kd prfssurf g`n ef gkhp`rfc tk taf prfssurf ta`t js dfmt ey

puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcjfs curjno ` tfncfr prkgfss dkr `ny puemjg eujmcjno.

Jn taf D`gumty Eujmcjno g`sf nk gkntr`gt w`s `w`rcfc `nc knmy ` rfm`tjvfmy

sh`mm `hkunt kd hknfy w`s `mmkg`tfc. afrfdkrf nk mfo`m kemjo`tjkns wfrf h`cf

`nc cuf tk taf sh`mmfr jhp`gt kd cfgjsjkns, mfss prfssurf drkh kutsjcf hjoat a`vfeffn dfmt. ajs m`gi kd mfo`m kemjo`tjkns g`n ef gknsjcfrfc `s ` wfìnfss kd tajs

g`sf eut js prkeèmy msk taf h`jn cv`ntòf. Efgùsf taf mkwfr jhp`gt kd taf mfo`m

cjhfnsjkn kn taf efa`vjkur`m cjhfnsjkn jn taf gkhpftjtjkn g`sf, taf `gtkrs wfrf

pfrhjttfc tk dkmmkw tafjr prkdfssjkn`m tr`cjtjkn, tk `gt drffmy `t tafjr kwn cjsgrf-

tjkn, nc tk mft hf jn s rfsf`rgafr. af rfsumts suoofst ta`t skhf gtkrs nc p`r-

tjgjp`nts jn taf gkhpftjtjkn g`sf hjoat a`vf put mfss fddkrt jntk taf gkhpftjtjkn

efgùsf kd taf mjhjtfc jhp`gt kd taf gknsfqufngfs kd tafjr `gtjkns. af `dtfrh`ta

kd taf djrf gùsfc ` gfrt`jn ijnc kd a`stf `nc cyn`hjsh ta`t nkrh`mmy wkumc nkt

kr jn ` mfssfr h`ttfr kggur. Jn hy kpjnjkn taf rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga sakw ta`t `

mjhjtfc tjhf dr`hf ckfs nkt ùtkh`tjg`mmy mf`c tk pkkr cfgjsjkn qu`mjty. Jn gur-rfnt pr`gtjgf skhf gmjfnts st`rt ` tfncfr prkgfcurf wajmf tafy hjoat a`vf efttfr

kro`njsfc ` gkhpftjtjkn kr sjhjm`r tr`bfgtkry djrst. af kddjgj`m `jh kd taf D`gumty

Eujmcjno g`sf w`s nkt tk sfmfgt `n `rgajtfgt dkr ` duturf eujmcjno eut tk gkmmfgt

jcf`s, tk stjhum`tf cfe`tf, `nc tk jnspjrf ykuno t`mfnt. af djn`m cfgjsjkn èkut

taf cjstrjeutjkn kd taf prjzf hknfy rfdmfgtfc tafsf `jhs jn ta`t ` sjnomf prkpks`m

eut humtjpmf wjnnfrs wfrf gaksfn. Akwfvfr, rf`gajno ` gknsfnsus èkut sfvfr`m

wjnnfrs hjoat ef f`sjfr ta`n sfmfgtjno ` p`rtjgum`r knf. ajs gkumc ef ` tkpjg dkr

duturf rfsf`rga.

1.3.3 Ofnfr`mjs`tjkn kd taf rfsumts @mm kd taf g`sf stucjfs jn tajs rfsf`rga `ccrfssfc `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon eut wfrf

tìfn drkh cjddfrfnt gkntfxts. _ajmf taf sjtu`tjkn w`s vfry spfgjdjg, taf gm`sa kd

r`tjkn`mjtjfs `nc taf djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs ta`t wfrf jcfntjdjfc `rf mjifmy tk

`ppmy tk ktafr sjtu`tjkns jn kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno `s wfmm. Jn sjtu`tjkns

wafrf taf prkeèmf kutgkhf ckfs nkt hfft taf gkhhkn fxpfgt`tjkns, taf nffc tk

bustjdy ` cfgjsjkn gkumc gùsf gkonjtjvf cjsskn`ngf. af djncjnos kd tajs rfsf`rga

gkumc tafrfdkrf ef gkhp`rfc tk ktafr ajoa-stìfs str`tfojg cfgjsjkn hìjno sft-

tjnos ta`t mmkw dkr cfmjefr`tjkn ekut kptjkns, suga s cfgjsjkns ekut pkrtdkmjk

kd rf`m fst`tf kr prkbfgts jn nfw prkcugt cfvfmkphfnt. Jn ure`n cfvfmkphfnts tafcjsgussjkn eftwffn `w`rcjno gknstrugtjkn wkris `nc cfsjon sfrvjgfs gùsfs taf

s`hf humtj-cjhfnsjkn`m gkndmjgts `s dkunc jn tajs rfsf`rga. Akwfvfr, `ppmjg`tjkn

kd taf djncjnos jn ktafr sjtu`tjkns wkumc rfqujrf `ccjtjkn`m rfsf`rga.

\uemjg gmjfnts rfprfsfnt tafjr usfrs, gjtjzfns, vjsjtkrs, `nc fhpmkyffs. @s cfgj-

sjkn hìfrs tafy g`n ef afmc pfrskn`mmy `ggkuntèmf dkr tafjr cfgjsjkns. Efgùsf

` cfgjsjkn èkut taf sfmfgtjkn kd `n `rgajtfgt a`s sjonjdjg`nt jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf

gkhhunjty, J dkunc ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs nkt knmy `jh dkr taf efst mtfrn`tjvf eut

`msk dkr taf `mtfrn`tjvf ta`t wkumc rfgfjvf strknofst suppkrt drkh taf stìfakmc-

frs. ajs gknsjcfr`tjkn rfqujrfc `n jntfnsjvf `n`mysjs kd hf`njnos `nc pktfntj`m

gknsfqufngfs dkr taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs. af rfsumts sakw ta`t taf rfspknsjejmjtjfskd puemjg gmjfnts wfrf humtjd`gftfc `nc gkndmjgtjno ey n`turf, wajga hf`ns ta`t



5?7,

tafrf w`s nk gkrrfgt nswfr. Cfgjsjkn hìfrs akwfvfr usfc tajs ungfrt`jn ga`r`g-

tfr kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss tk dkmmkw tafjr jntujtjkn `nc rf`ga `n jntfr-suebfgtjvf

gknsfnsus. Wuga ` cfgjsjkn h`cf sfnsf dkr taf `mm taksf jnvkmvfc, eut w`s, unmfss

prkpfrmy fxpm`jnfc, skhftjhfs a`rc tk ggfpt ey ktafrs. af prkgfss kd sfnsfhì-

jno knmy jnvkmvfc taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs tafhsfmvfs `nc nkt taf ktafr stìfakmcfrs

wak cjc nkt `gtjvfmy tìf p`rt jn taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. \rkgurfhfnt m`w, kn tafktafr a`nc, `roufs drkh taf gkngfpt kd d`jr gkhpftjtjkn `nc fqu`m trf`thfnt kd

`mm h`rift p`rtjfs. @n `w`rc cfgjsjkn tafrfdkrf a`s tk hìf sfnsf kn ` mfvfm kd

taf gkhhkn prjngjpmfs kd fqu`m trf`thfnt, kebfgtjvjty, tr`nsp`rfngy `nc prkpkr-

tjkn`mjty. @n jhpkrt`nt pr`gtjg`m jhpmjg`tjkn kd tajs rfsf`rga js tk fxpmkrf kptjkns

dkr akw ekta mfo`m `nc psygakmkojg`m r`tjkn`mjtjfs g`n ef rfgkngjmfc jn ` cfgjsjkn

prkgfcurf.

af dkgus kd tajs rfsf`rga m`y kn bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno èkut `rgaj-

tfgtur`m cfsjon qu`mjty `s jt js fhefccfc jn Cutga gumturf. Cutga gumturf tr`cj-

tjkn`mmy tfncs tk sakw orf`t jntfrfst jn cfsjon qu`mjty. Okvfrnhfnt pkmjgy rfoum`-

tjkns `nc taf kddjgf kd taf Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt sjonjdjg`ntmy gkntrjeutftk tajs cfvfmkphfnt (sff `msk Ga`ptfr 3.5.0). af fxpfrts jn taf v`mjc`tjkn wkri-

sakp gkndjrhfc taf kvfr`mm `n`mysjs kd cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs jn taf Cutga sjtu`tjkn.

Jn tfrhs kd tr`nsdfrèjmjty tafrf js rf`skn tk efmjfvf ta`t taf djncjnos wjmm akmc jn

ktafr sfttjnos wjta gkhp`rèmf fmfhfnts jn ktafr gkuntrjfs efgùsf kd taf jntfr-

n`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfr kd `rgajtfgturf. J `ssuhf ta`t taf rfsumts gkumc ef usfdum dkr

ktafr sjtu`tjkns jn wajga ` tr`nsdfr drkh ` euyfr tk ` sfmmfr kr ` sfmfgtjkn prkgfss

tìfs pm`gf, suga `s taf prkgurfhfnt kd sfrvjgfs, wkris `nc cfmjvfrjfs jn ofnfr`m

`nc taf purga`sf kd ktafr ijncs kd prkcugts. Hkrf spfgjdjg`mmy J wkumc mjif tk

`ccrfss skhf fx`hpmfs kd rfm`tjvfmy sg`rgf rfsf`rga ta`t rfm`tf tk taf `ssfsshfnts

kd rfsf`rga or`nts (f.o. M`hknt, 5<<:9 M`nodfmct, 5<<0), taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd bucofs (f.o. \ksnfr, 5<<1), taf fv`mu`tjkn kd stucfnt wkri jn cfsjon fcug`tjkn

(f.o. M`ns & Tkmifr, 5<<1), taf rfgrujthfnt prkgfss `t unjvfrsjtjfs (f.o. v`n cfn

Erjni, 5<<:), `nc p`rtnfr sfmfgtjkn jn eusjnfss (f.o. Fmse`ga & Ir`hfr, 5<<7).

Jn `mm tafsf g`sfs tafrf w`s ` gknsjcfrèmf tjhf cjddfrfngf eftwffn taf kddjgj`m rf-

qufst dkr prkpks`ms `nc taf fv`mu`tjkn kd taf `mtfrn`tjvfs. Efgùsf jn c`jmy mjdf taf

mfo`m gkntfxt kd sfmfgtjkn `nc `ssfsshfnt prkgfssfs `rf nkt `s strjgt `s jn prkgurf-

hfnt, taf jnvjt`tjkn dr`hf `nc taf fv`mu`tjkn dr`hf `rf usu`mmy nkt `s fxpmjgjtmy

gkhp`rfc tk f`ga ktafr `s jn tfncfr sjtu`tjkns. ajs hìfs jt pkssjemf tk `cbust tk

prkgfssfs kd jngrf`sjno jnsjoat `nc sfnsfhìjno `nc rf`gt `ggkrcjno tk taf `ddfg-

tjvf rfspknsf ta`t ggkhp`njfs bucofhfnt. _afnfvfr skhftajno kr skhfekcy js`ssfssfc, taf `ssfsshfnt systfh sakumc djt taf cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs `nc taf cfgjsjkn

t`si. Jd tafrf js nk òrffhfnt kn taf v`muf kd taf kutgkhf kd taf systfh, taf `s-

sfsshfnt wjmm `mw`ys ef skhfwa`t `rejtr`ry.

1.3.6 Wgjfntjdjg rfmfv`ngf

af eujmt fnvjrknhfnt gkngfrns us `mm. Gkhpftjtjkns nc tfncfrs gkntrjeutf mkt

tk cfe`tf `nc fcug`tjkn jn taf `rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn `nc efyknc. afrfdkrf jt

js vfry jhpkrt`nt tk fnsurf taf fmfhfnt kd cfe`tf jn gurrfnt prkgurfhfnt pr`g-

tjgf. Cjs`ddfgtjkn wjta taf gurrfnt prkgurfhfnt systfh pkjskns taf rfm`tjknsajpeftwffn gmjfnts, tafjr (mfo`m) `cvjskrs `nc taf cfsjon prkdfssjkn. Cjddfrfngf kd



5?3

pfrgfptjkns `ppf`rs tk tr`p ekta p`rtjfs jn ` vfry ungkhdkrtèmf sjtu`tjkn. Wk d`r

nk nfgfssjty js dfmt dkr taf p`rtjfs tk ga`nof tafjr `ttjtucf kr efa`vjkur. @ tjoat

djn`ngj`m sjtu`tjkn gkumc ef `n jhpftus dkr ga`nof eut hjoat `s f`sjmy mf`c tk `n

fxòofr`tfc gkngfrn dkr gksts `t taf fxpfnsf kd qu`mjty. ajs rfsf`rga sakumc ef

gknsjcfrfc wjtajn taf mjhjt`tjkns kd taf Cutga puemjg sfgtkr efdkrf taf djn`ngj`m

grjsjs. @ rfcugfc v`jmèjmjty kd duncs wjmm prkeèmy gùsf cfgrf`sf kd taf nuhefrkd tfncfrs `nc `n jngrf`sf kd taf nuhefr kd g`ncjc`tfs jntfrfstfc jn f`ga tfncfr.

ajs gkumc hf`n hkrf rfqufsts dkr p`rtjgjp`tjkn pfr tfncfr `nc taus hkrf jndkr-

h`tjkn tk ef `ssfssfc jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf kd taf tfncfr prkgfss. Hkrf g`rfdum

cfgjsjkn hìjno gkumc ef efnfdjgj`m drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd fddjgjfngy `nc fddfg-

tjvfnfss eut jt gkumc `msk c`hòf taf unjquf `nc fhktjkn crjvfn ga`r`gtfr kd taf

`rgajtfgtur`m prkdfssjkn. Jn `ny sjtu`tjkn hkrf prkdfssjkn`mjsh js rfqujrfc drkh

gmjfnts.

@p`rt drkh hknfy, inkwmfcof, okvfrnhfnt`m rfoum`tjkns, `nc jntrjnsjg hktj-

v`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs `rf jhpkrt`nt crjvfrs dkr ga`nof. Fspfgj`mmy mkg`m ù-

takrjtjfs `rf sakrt kn inkwmfcof `nc spfgjdjg fxpfrjfngf kd tfncfrjno ` cfsjongkntr`gt. Vnjvfrsjtjfs pm`y `n jhpkrt`nt rkmf jn prkvjcjno sgjfntjdjg inkwmfcof

`nc ` grjtjg`m vkjgf. Hktjv`tjkn g`n ef stjhum`tfc ey (djn`ngj`m) suppkrt drkh

okvfrnhfnt m ekcjfs kr prkdfssjkn`m sskgj`tjkns. afrf js n fxpmjgjt nffc dkr taf

fstèmjsahfnt kd `n jncfpfncfnt inkwmfcof gfntrf kn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns `nc

rfm`tfc jssufs jn taf gknstrugtjkn jncustry. Wuga ` inkwmfcof gfntrf sakumc eujmc

fxpfrtjsf `nc `w`rfnfss kn pròh`tjg jssufs, suga `s taf mfvfm kd rfqujrfhfnt `nc

sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj`, dkrh`t kd taf tfncfr erjfd kr taf sfmfgtjkn kd bury hfhefrs. Jt

sakumc msk gknnfgt taf cjddfrfnt pm`yfrs jn taf djfmc, stjhum`tf cfe`tf, nc sft kut

pkmjgy tk fnsurf qu`mjty jhprkvfhfnts jn taf djfmc. Efgùsf kd taf jndmufngf kd

gknsumt`nts kn cfgjsjkn hìjno, gmjfnts, tafjr rfprfsfnt`tjvfs `nc fxtfrn`mmy ajrfc`cvjskrs sakumc ef `gtjvfmy jnvkmvfc jn cfvfmkpjno `nc fxga`nojno inkwmfcof

`nc fxpfrjfngfs. ajs rfqujrfs ` gknsjcfrèmf `hkunt kd `w`rfnfss, tr`nsp`rfngy,

kpfnnfss, `nc jntforjty kd taf `gtkrs. af VI prkvjcfs `n fx`hpmf kd `w`rfnfss

prkgfssfs tarkuoa taf kemjo`tjkn tk `ppmy taf Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr dkr `mm

puemjg-prjv`tf p`rtnfrsajp dkr sgakkm eujmcjnos `nc tarkuoa taf fstèmjsahfnt kd

taf Kddjgf kd Okvfrnhfnt Gkhhfrgf `nc taf Gkhhjssjkn dkr @rgajtfgturf `nc

taf Eujmt Fnvjrknhfnt. Jntfrnsajps kr wkrisakp prkor`hhfs gkumc ojvf usfrs,

cfsjonfrs, `cvjskrs, h`nòfrs, `nc ktafr stìfakmcfrs taf kppkrtunjty tk try kut

`nktafr pfrskn‚s sakfs dkr ` pfrjkc kd tjhf `nc dffm taf `ggkhp`nyjno rkmfs `nc

rfspknsjejmjtjfs. af EN@ a`s `nnkungfc ta`t jt prfdfrs ` qu`mjty systfh dkr tfn-cfr prkgfcurfs jn `rgajtfgturf (@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m, 5<<:`). Wuga ` ‑qu`mjty mèfm‚

wkumc grf`tf skhf orjp `nc gfrt`jnty dkr hkst p`rtjfs, eut gkumc `msk grf`tf dur-

tafr jndmfxjejmjty kd taf systfh `nc jntfrcfpfncfngf wjta `n jnstjtutf kvfrmkkijno

taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. Jn tajs stòf taf nffc dkr gtkrs tk tìf kn tafjr rfspknsjejmj-

tjfs tk `gt `s grjtjg`m prkdfssjkn`ms `ppf`rs tk ef hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n taf nffc dkr

`nktafr hkcfm, systfh, oujcfmjnf kr hftakc.

Jn rfsf`rga tafrf js stjmm taf `hejtjkus strjvf dkr ` pfrdfgt wkrmc jn wajga cfgj-

sjkns `rf ‑fvjcfngf e`sfc‚ tk rfcugf ungfrt`jnty, pkwfr struoomfs, frrkrs `nc cfm`ys

(f.o. Hkrrfmm, 5<<1). af jcf` pfrsjsts `hkno gfrt`jn orkups kd fnojnffrs, psy-

gakmkojsts `nc ktafr cjsgjpmjnfs ta`t taf wkrmc wkumc ef efttfr pm`gf jd wf gkumc



5?6,

prfcjgt `nc kebfgtjdy fvfry `gtjvjty `rkunc us. Jn tajs gkntfxt wf sakumc nktf ta`t

wf `rf jng`pèmf kd trumy kvfrsffjno `mm gknsfqufngfs kd kur `gtjkns. @msk hkrf

pkpum`r mjtfr`turf `ginkwmfcofs taf gkhpmfxjty kd v`mufs jn cfgjsjkn hìjno.

\jrsjo (0:::) dkr fx`hpmf st`tfs ta`t taf cu`mjsh eftwffn gm`ssjg`m (qu`ntjt`tjvf)

`nc rkh`ntjg (qu`mjt`tjvf) `ppr`js`m systfhs jn puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn js bust tkk

gkhpmfx tk bucof èkut qu`mjty jn taf rfm`tjkn eftwffn suebfgt nc kebfgt. \jrsjo‚ssf`rga dkr qu`mjty fncs `t ` pajmkskpajg`m mfvfm. af qufstjkn js waftafr wf `gtu-

`mmy `jh dkr ` mfvfm kd sgjfngf jn taf djfmc kd h`nòfhfnt `nc cfsjon ta`t fnèmfs

us tk `ppmy bustjdjfc inkwmfcof nc prfcjgt efa`vjkur. M`w ckfs nkt `ppf`r tk jh

dkr ta`t. Drkh taf efa`vjkur`m pfrspfgtjvf wf gkumc strjvf dkr tr`nsp`rfnt cfgjsjkn

hìjno ta`t g`n ef `ggfptfc jn ktafr r`tjkn`mjtjfs. ajs stucy g`n ef gknsjcfrfc

`s ` gkntrjeutjkn tk tajs ijnc kd tr`nsp`rfngy.

1.6 Duturf rfsf`rga

Fvfry rfsf`rgafr js w`rf kd taf d`gt ta`t rfsf`rga prkbfgt kdtfn r`jsfs hkrf qufs-tjkns ta`n jt `nswfrs. Knf gkumc s`y ta`t jn sgjfngf qufstjkns `rf hkrf jhpkrt`nt

ta`n `nswfrs, eut jt js taf kdtfn `nswfrs ta`t prkvjcf okkc st`rtjno pkjnts dkr nfw

jcf`s. af rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga jnspjrfc hf tk gknsjcfr rfsf`rga cjrfgtjkns ta`t

rfm`tf tk duturf rfsf`rga jn taf `rf` kd n`tur`mjstjg `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn

hìjno `nc ` hkrf strugturfc `pprk`ga dkr gkmmfgtjno c`t` èkut sfmfgtjkn prkg-

fssfs jn taf eujmc fnvjrknhfnt.

Vntjm nkw nk systfh`tjg c`t` gkmmfgtjkn a`s tìfn pm`gf kn taf mkg`m kr

Furkpf`n mfvfm èkut taf nuhefr kd (cfsjon) tfncfrs, tafjr p`rtjgjp`nts, wjnnfrs,

`ppmjfc grjtfrj`, ft gftfr`. Wuga ` c`tè`sf wkumc fnèmf taf jcfntjdjg`tjkn kd sug-

gfss `nc d`jmurf d`gtkrs, wajga gkumc ef kd h`bkr jhpkrt`ngf dkr `rgajtfgts `s wfmm`s dkr gmjfnts. Bust rfgfntmy sjhjm`r jnjtj`tjvfs a`vf st`rtfc jn taf Nftafrm`ncs `nc

ktafr gkuntrjfs (f.o. H`nzknj, ft m., 5<<:9 Rafno, 5<<1), eut tafsf jnjtj`tjvfs rf

nkt yft fhefccfc jn `n jntfrn`tjkn`m sgjfntjdjg gumturf. Cutga `rgajtfgts tfnc tk

pkjnt tk ktafr Furkpf`n gkuntrjfs dkr suggfssdum pkmjgjfs jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns

wajmf taf Cutga sjtu`tjkn tfncs tk a`vf ` pksjtjvf rfput`tjkn jn ktafr gkuntrjfs.

Drkh mfo`m nc/kr prkdfssjkn`m pfrspfgtjvf nk gkhp`rjskns a`vf yft effn g`rrjfc

kut kn taf cjddfrfngfs `nc sjhjm`rjtjfs eftwffn Furkpf`n gkuntrjfs, mft `mknf ef-

twffn taf @hfrjg`n, @ustr`mj`n, @sj`n, `nc ktafr cfsjon gumturfs. af fxpfrts jn

taf v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp suoofstfc ta`t taf `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs jn prjv`tf

cfvfmkphfnts ck nkt sffh `s prkemfh`tjg `s jn taf puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn. Duturfrfsf`rga gkumc fxpmkrf taf cjddfrfngfs eftwffn sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs jn taf prjv`tf

`nc taf puemjg sfgtkr, eftwffn cfvfmkphfnt gkhpftjtjkns `nc cfsjon gkhpftj-

tjkns, `nc eftwffn taf cjddfrfnt prkgurfhfnt prkgfcurfs. Kn ` h`nòfrj`m mfvfm

taf v`mjcjty kd eucofts, pm`nnjno `nc qu`mjty fstjh`tjkns jn taf jnjtj`m pa`sf kd

` prkbfgt `nc taf gkngfpt kd v`muf dkr hknfy wkumc `msk efnfdjt drkh systfh`tjg

c`t` gkmmfgtjkn. af gurrfnt trfnc kd gkngfrn dkr mjdf gygmf gksts nc sust`jnèjmjty

kddfrs orf`t kppkrtunjty tk mjni usf `nc rf`mjz`tjkn tk jnjtj`mjz`tjkn nc cfsjon kd

eujmcjno. H`yef tajs js taf tjhf tk `nswfr tk taf g`mms kd nuhfrkus rfsf`rgafrs jn

prfvjkus puemjg`tjkns dkr systfh`tjg pkst kggup`ngy `nc prkbfgt fv`mu`tjkns (f.o.

Ekrc`ss, 5<<79 Orffn & Hkss, 0::1).



5?4

@ggkrcjno tk Mjpsajtz ft `m. (5<<4, p. 73?) taf umtjh`tf tafkrftjg`m ga`mmfnof

dkr taf djfmc kd N`tur`mjstjg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno js ”tk spfgjdy taf mjni eftwffn taf

n`turf kd taf t`si, pfrskn, `nc fnvjrknhfnt kn taf knf a`nc `nc taf v`rjkus psy-

gakmkojg`m prkgfssfs nc str`tfojfs jnvkmvfc jn n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkns kn taf ktafr‘.

Dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts tafrf `rf v`rjkus ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf t`si, pfrskn

`nc fnvjrknhfnt ta`t g`n ef durtafr fxpmkrfc jn cfgjsjkn hìjno, dkr fx`hpmf eymèkr`tkry fxpfrjhfnts `nc sjhum`tjkns. Eut `msk drkh `n kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn

rfsf`rga pfrspfgtjvf hkrf `ttfntjkn gkumc ef ojvfn tk taf gknstr`jnts jhpksfc ey

taf gkntfxt, cjstrjeutfc jndkrh`tjkn `nc cjddfrfngfs jn pkwfr `nc jntfrfsts, `s

st`tfc ey Okrf ft `m. (5<<4). Kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf gkntfxt kd `

tfncfr r`jsfs jhpkrt`nt jssufs èkut taf jndmufngf kn taf cfgjsjkn, suga `s cjddfr-

fnt pkwfr mfvfms kd `gtkrs, cfgjsjkn hftakcs (suga `s Cfmpaj, kr HG@‚s), skurgfs

kd jndkrh`tjkn (vfre`m, tfxtu`m `nc vjsu`m), rkmfs `nc pkwfr mfvfms kd fxtfrn`m `c-

vjskrs, gkhpksjtjkn kd bury p`nfms, `nc taf jndmufngf kd tr`jnjno `nc fcug`tjkn

kn taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf jn `rgajtfgturf. \kwfr `nc p`rtjgjp`tjkn jssufs gkumc ef

mjnifc tk kro`njs`tjkn`m `ntarkpkmkojg`m kr ftankor`pajg`m stucjfs, kr tk hkrf sk-gj`m tafkrjfs suga `s cjsgkursf. Knf kd taf hkst prfssjno jssufs jn pr`gtjgf `t taf

hkhfnt js tk djnc ` w`y ta`t skmvfs taf prkemfh kd taf rjoat `hkunt kd rf`gtjkns

tk g`mm dkr tfncfrs jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf. af gurrfnt pfrgfptjkn js ta`t sfmfgtjkn

rfqujrfhfnts `rf sft tkk ajoa, eut dkr gmjfnts tajs js ` w`y tk mjhjt taf nuhefr

kd rf`gtjkns. Ey mkwfrjno taf rfqujrfhfnts taf nuhefr kd (ykuno) p`rtjgjp`nts

wkumc mjifmy jngrf`sf, eut taf ga`ngfs tk ef sfmfgtfc cfgrf`sf pfr p`rty. af fx-

ga`nof kd fxpfrjfngf jn tajs h`ttfr gkumc prkvjcf jnput dkr ` sft kd fxpfrjhfnts

kr hkcfmmjno kd taf sjtu`tjkn.

Jn rfm`tjkn tk prkcugt fxpfrjfngf jt wkumc ef vfry jntfrfstjno tk inkw hkrf

èkut taf cjhfnsjkns kd gkhpmfxjty `nc `rkus`m jn rfm`tjkn tk eujmcjno ga`r`gtfr-jstjgs ta`t gkntrjeutf tk taf wkw-d`gtkr `nc ktafr ijncs kd fhktjkn`m rfspknsfs

tk cjddfrfnt stìfakmcfrs jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. @ccjtjkn`mmy taf rfmfv`ngf kd

dungtjkn`mjty gkhp`rfc tk `fstaftjgs gkumc ef `n`mysfc curjno cjddfrfnt pa`sfs kd

taf eujmcjno prkbfgt, jngmucjno taf tfncfr pa`sf. Djncjnos kd suga stucjfs g`n a`vf

jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt, taf dkrh`t kd taf prkgf-

curf, `nc taf cfvfmkphfnt kd taf tfncfr erjfd, wajga g`nnkt ef cfrjvfc jn cft`jm

drkh taf gurrfnt rfsumts. Jn ` duturf stòf tafsf jnsjoats gkumc ef jngkrpkr`tfc

jn `g`cfhjg `nc prkdfssjkn`m fcug`tjkn. Fxpfrjhfnt`m kr djfmc stucjfs gkumc `msk

fxpmkrf taf sjhjm`rjtjfs kd sfmfgtjno `rgajtfgts wjta taf sfmfgtjkn kd bke g`ncjc`tfs,

taf `mmkg`tjkn kd duncs jn rfsf`rga, `rt kr ktafr cfsjon rfm`tfc cjsgjpmjnfs `nc taf`ssfsshfnt kd stucfnt wkri jn fcug`tjkn`m sfttjnos. af djncjnos kd tajs stucy suo-

ofst ta`t gmjfnts ck nkt sffh tk ef `w`rf kd taf pkssjejmjtjfs `nc jhpmjg`tjkns kd

tafjr cfgjsjkns. Duturf rfsf`rga gkumc jnvfstjo`tf jd fcug`tjkn nc spfgjdjg suppkrt

(psygakmkojg`m, mfo`m, kr h`nòfrj`m) jn taf jnjtj`m stòf kd ` prkbfgt wkumc ga`nof

prfdfrfngfs kd gmjfnts dkr gfrt`jn tfncfr prkgfcurfs, `nc jd fcug`tjkn`m suppkrt

wkumc jngrf`sf taf pkwfr kd taf cfgjsjkns. @gtjkn rfsf`rga gkumc ef `n `pprkprj-

`tf tfganjquf dkr tajs.

af rfsumts suoofst ta`t taf pfrdkrh`ngf kd ` bury p`nfm wkumc jhprkvf jd gmj-

fnts `ppmjfc taf gkngfpt kd taf fxpfrt tf`h. Dkr taf bury tk `gt `s `n fxpfrt tf`h,

tafy wkumc a`vf tk eujmt gkhhkn uncfrst`ncjno, dkrhum`tf pm`ns kn taf hkst



5??,

fddfgtjvf gkursf kd `gtjkn, fxfgutf pm`ns ey gkkrcjn`tfc tf`h pfrdkrh`ngf `nc

mf`rn ey fv`mu`tjkn jn krcfr tk pfrdkrh wfmm (Eurif, ft m., 5<<4). af ga`jr kd taf

bury p`nfm sakumc skmjgjt jcf`s `nc kesfrv`tjkns kd tf`h hfhefrs, stjhum`tf `nc

fnèmf `mm ijnc kd dffce`gi `nc ojvf sjtu`tjkn`m upc`tfs (W`m`s, ft `m., 5<<3). Bury

hfhefrs nffc ` sjhjm`r `ngakr pkjnt, wajga gkumc ef prkvjcfc ey taf gkhpftj-

tjkn erjfd `nc rfoum`tjkns `nc f`rmjfr jnvkmvfhfnt jn taf cfsjon kd taf tfncfr. Jntaf gurrfnt sjtu`tjkn fvfry gmjfnt gkhpksfs ` nfw tf`h kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs ta`t

js t`jmkrfc tk taf `ssjonhfnt. Vsjno gkntjnujno tf`hs `nc hkrf gkmmfgtjvf prfp`-

r`tjkns hjoat jhprkvf taf pfrdkrh`ngf kd burjfs. Jn Wg`ncjn`vj` bury hfhefrs

`rf sjonjdjg`ntmy hkrf jnvkmvfc jn taf prfp`r`tjkn prkgfss kd ` gkhpftjtjkn ta`n

jn ktafr Furkpf`n gkuntrjfs, `nc tafy spfnc hkrf tjhf kn `ssfssjno taf fntrjfs

`nc nfoktj`tjno èkut ` wjnnfr (I`zfhj`n & Uônn, 5<<:). Fspfgj`mmy jn tfrhs

kd mf`rnjno, grjtjg`m dffce`gi, rkkh dkr jntujtjkn, `nc rfdmfgtjkn kn taf cfgjsjkn

prkgfss wkumc efnfdjt drkh hkrf tjhf sprf`c `grkss sfvfr`m hfftjnos. Duturf rf-

sf`rga gkumc `msk `ccrfss taf jhpmjg`tjkns kd jnvkmvjno stìfakmcfrs wjta cjddfr-

fnt mfvfms `nc `rf`s kd fxpfrtjsf. Efgùsf taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt surrkuncs us `mmfvfryekcy a`s skhf fxpfrjfngf jn hìjno bucofhfnts èkut eujmcjnos. af g`sfs

jn tajs rfsf`rga suoofst ta`t taf prkgfcurf tk sfmfgt `n `rgajtfgt gkumc ef `cbustfc

tk taf mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf kd jncjvjcu`m cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Eut cfgjsjkns `rf kdtfn

h`cf jn orkups, `nc usfrs, cfsjonfrs, gmjfnts, `nc ktafr stìfakmcfrs spfì r`tafr

cjddfrfnt ‑m`nouòfs‚ (Euggj`rfmmj, 5<<7). Gknnfgtfc tk taf cjddfrfnt pfrspfgtjvfs

kd jncjvjcu`m bucofhfnts `rf taf jssufs kd gkhhunjg`tjno prfdfrfngfs `nc kpjn-

jkns. Wk d`r taf qufstjkn èkut taf rfqujrfc mfvfm kd fxpfrtjsf dkr cfgjsjkn hìjno

rfh`jns un`nswfrfc. Akw sakumc cfgjsjkn prkgfss `nc tfncfr prkgfcurfs tìf

jncjvjcu`m cjddfrfngfs jntk `ggkunt wjtakut hìjno taf `ssfsshfnts jnv`mjc kr

unnfgfss`ry gkhpmjg`tfc; Akw g`n hfhefrs kd ` bury p`nfm suppkrt f`ga ktafrjn cfgjsjkn hìjno; Jn hy kpjnjkn taf gkngfpt kd fxpfrt tf`hs jn prkgurfhfnt

sjtu`tjkns wkumc kpfn up `n jntfrfstjno djfmc kd rfsf`rga dkr sgakm`rs jn kro`njs`-

tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno.

af pktfntj`m gkndmjgt kd auh`n efa`vjkur wjta taf ofnfr`m prjngjpmfs jn taf

FV Cjrfgtjvf gkumc ef durtafr fxpmkrfc drkh ` mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf. Jt hjoat `msk ef

jntfrfstjno tk `n`mysf taf prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno kd bucofs wafn tafy cf`m

wjta prkgurfhfnt g`sfs. Kn ` hkrf ofnfr`m mfvfm jt wkumc ef jntfrfstjno tk hknj-

tkr taf fddfgt kd mfojsm`tjkn kn prfdfrfngfs dkr gfrt`jn prkgfcurfs kr `w`rc hfga`-

njshs. ajs hjoat tfst _jnstkn Gaurgajmm‚s ssfrtjkn ta`t ”wf sa`pf kur eujmcjnos

`nc `dtfrw`rcs kur eujmcjnos sa`pf us‘, wajga gkumc `msk rfdfr tk taf sa`pjno kdm`w. Ufmfv`ngf kd suga rfsf`rga g`n `msk ef dkunc jn taf gkntfxt kd jnnkv`tjkn nc

stjhum`tjkn kd ykuno t`mfnt jn cfsjon nc taf fddfgt kd prkgurfhfnt kn taf n`tjkn-

`m gumturf. Jn taf s`hf mjnf kd rf`sknjno js taf cjsgussjkn èkut taf usf kd cfgjsjkn

suppkrt systfhs jn rfm`tjkn tk tr`nsp`rfngy `nc mfojtjhjz`tjkn kd taf prkgfss. Jn

tr`cjtjkn`m cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns jt js `ggfptfc ta`t taf n`hfs kd taf bury hfhefrs

`rf puemjsafc efdkrfa`nc r`tafr ta`n `n fx`gt prkgfcurf `nc prfcfdjnfc grjtfrj`

kd cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn g`sf kd `n fxpfrjfngfc `nc wfmm-inkwn bury, taf n`hfs

`gtu`mmy prkvjcf ` ajnt dkr p`rtjgjp`tjno `rgajtfgts tk cfgjcf jd tafy st`nc ` ga`ngf

jn taf gkhpftjtjkn. r`cjtjkn`mmy p`rtjgjp`nts trust taf bury hfhefrs jn hìjno



5?1

skunc cfgjsjkns `nc ` gknsjstfnt bury rfpkrt. Gmjfnts gurrfntmy afsjt`tf tk wrjtf `

rfpkrt èkut tafjr djncjnos. Jnstf`c tafy usf taf kutput kd ` cfgjsjkn suppkrt sys-

tfh tk bustjdy taf cfgjsjkn. Duturf rfsf`rga wjmm a`vf tk jnvfstjo`tf taf jndmufngf

kd cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfhs kn tr`nsp`rfngy nc hktjv`tjkn kd cfgjsjkn. af rf-

gfnt jngrf`sf kd taf nuhefr kd m`wsujts jncjg`tfs ` hkrf burjstjg `pprk`ga kd cf`m-

jno wjta cjsòrffhfnts èkut taf cfgjsjkn `s h`cf ey taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjtjfsjn taf puemjg sfgtkr. Hkrf rfsf`rga kn taf hktjvfs kd cfgjsjkn hìfrs jn rfm`tjkn

tk taf mfo`m pfrspfgtjvf gkumc gkntrjeutf tk prfvfntjno ` durtafr pkm`rjz`tjkn kd

p`rtjfs ta`t `rf jnvkmvfc jn grf`tjno ` eujmt fnvjrknhfnt ta`t efnfdjts `mm kd us.



510

Ufdfrfngfs

@mmjnskn, I. (0::?). Ofttjno tafrf ey cfsjon9 @n `rgajtfgts‚ oujcf tk cfsjon `nc prkbfgt h`n-òfhfnt . Kxdkrc2 @rgajtfgtur`m \rfss.

@mmpkrt, O., Tfrnkn, \., & Mjncsfy, O. (0:4<). @ stucy kd T`mufs . Nfw Zkri2 AkuoatknHjddmjn.

@hèjmf, . H. (0::4). Grf`tjvjty jn Gkntfxt - upc`tf tk Saf skgj`m \sygakmkoy kd Grf`tjvjty .Ekumcfr2 _fstvjfw \rfss.

@hèjmf, . H. (0::?). Hktjv`tjno Grf`tjvjty jn Kro`njz`tjkns. G`mjdkrnj` H`nòfhfntUfvjfw , 35-65.

@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m (5<<:`). FV @`nefstfcjnofncò - puemjfif kpcr`gatfn `rgajtfgtuur & prkbfgtkntwjiifmjno (FV tfncfr c`y - puemjg gkntr`gts jn `rgajtfgturf `nc prkbfgt cfvfmkp-hfnt). @hstfrc`h2 @rgajtfgtuur Mki``m. @hstfrc`h2 @rgajtfgtuur Mki``m.

@rgajtfgtuur Mki``m (5<<:e). Ikhp`s Mjoat Djrst fcjtjkn. Uftrjfvfc 03 Cfgfhefr 5<<:,drkh www.`rgajtfgtuurkpcr`gatfn.nm.

@rifs, A. U. (0:1:). \rjngjpmfs jn Bucohfnt/Cfgjsjkn Hìjno Ufsf`rga \frtjnfnt tk

Mfo`m \rkgffcjnos. Efa`vjkr`m Wgjfngfs `nc taf M`w, ?(3), 35:-364.

@rifstfjbn, H., cfn Afjbfr, @., T`ncf \uttf, A., & Tkmifr, M. (5<<:). ajni t`ni - fnvj-

sjknjno taf ‑d`gumty kd taf duturf‚. Jn V Cfmdt - d`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf (Fc.), Eujmcjno dkr Ekuwiuncf - Kpfn tk Jcf`s (pp. 43-?0). Cfmdt2 V Cfmdt - d`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf.

@rnstfjn, W. U. (0:4:). @ m`ccfr kd gjtjzfn p`rtjgjp`tjkn. Bkurn`m kd taf @hfrjg`n Jnstjtutfkd \m`nnfrs, 76(3), 504-553.

@rrkwshjta, W. (5<<6). Saf m`w kd puemjg `nc utjmjtjfs prkgurfhfnt (sfgknc fc.). Mknckn2Mknckn2

Wwfft & H`xwfmm.

@tfmjfr Ifhpf ajmm (5<<1). N``r ffn Njfuwf @`nefstfcjnosgumtuur - Furkpffs @`nefstfcfnv`n @rgajtfgtfncjfnstfn jn Nfcfrm`nc (Sk ` nfw tfncfr gumturf jn taf Nftafrm`ncs) .

Ukttfrc`h2 @tfmjfr Ifhpf ajmm @rgajtfgts `nc \m`nnfrs.

@tfmjfr Ujbisekuwhffstfr (5<<1). Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt Uftrjfvfc 55 B`nu`ry

5<0<, drkh www.rjbisekuwhffstfr.nm.

E`mkoun, B., \yf, @., & Akcoijnskn, O. \. (5<<1). Gkonjtjvfmy sijmmfc kro`njz`tjkn`m cfgj-

sjkn hìjno2 hìjno sfnsf kd cfgjcjno. Jn O. Akcoijnskn & _. A. Wt`reugi (Fcs.),

Saf Kxdkrc A`ncekki kd Kro`njz`tjkn`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 577-53:). Nfw Zkri2Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Eàrtkmk, A. H. O. (5<<5). T`muf ey Cfsjon2 ` qu`mjt`tjvf `pprk`ga. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf

T`muf tarkuoa Cfsjon, Uf`cjno.

E`yfs, . (0?47). @n fss`y tkw`rcs skmvjno ` prkemfh jn taf ckgtrjnf kd ga`ngfs.

\ajmkskpajg`m Sr`ns`gtjkns (67), 7?<-301.

Ef`ga, M. U. (0::<). Jhòf tafkry2 Cfgjsjkn hìjno jn pfrskn`m `nc kro`njz`tjkn`m gkntfxts .Gajgafstfr2 _jmfy.

Ef`ga, M. U., & Gknnkmmy, . (5<<6). Saf psygakmkoy kd cfgjsjkn hìjno . akus`nc Kìs2

Wòf \uemjsafrs, Jng.



515

Efgatfm, U., & Rfjsfm, B. (0:1?). Kesfrv`tjkn2 af wkrmc uncfr ` om`ss. Jn U. Efgatfm, U.

H`r`ns & _. Hjgafmskn (Fcs.), Jntrkcugtjkn2 Fnvjrknhfnt`m Cfsjon Ufsf`rga. Nfw

Zkri2 T`n Nkstr`nc Ufjnakmc Gkhp`ny.

Efan, U. C., & Tùpfm, B. _. (0:15). Pujgi `n`mysjs dkr eusy cfgjsjkn hìfrs. Nfw Zkri2

E`sjg Ekkis.

Efmm, \. @., Orffnf, . G., Djsafr, B. C., & Eùh, @. (0::4). Fnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy (3tafc.). Dkrt _krta2 A`rgkurt Er`gf Gkmmfof \uemjsafrs.

Efnfcjit, H. (5<<?). Jntrkcugtjkn. Jn _. W. Wùncfrs (Fc.), Bucojno `rgajtfgtur`m v`muf .Hjnnfskt`2 Vnjvfrsjty kd Hjnnfskt` \rfss.

Efrnkummj, C. (0?71). Wpfgjhfn tafkrj`f nkv`f cf hfnsur` skrtjs. gkhfnt`rjj `g`cfhj`sgjfnj`ruh jhpfrj`mfs pftrkmjt`n`f (6), 0?6-0:5.

Efst, U., & cf T`mfngf, O. (0:::). Eujmcjno jn T`muf - \rf-Cfsjon T`mufs . Mknckn2

@rnkmc.

Eftsga, . (5<<6). \rfdfrfngf afkry2 @n @ddfgt-E`sfc @pprk`ga tk Ufgurrfnt Cfgjsjkn

Hìjno. Jn . A. Eftsga, W. (Fc.), Saf Ukutjnfs kd Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 7:-44).

Hàwà, NB2 M`wrfngf Frmeùh @sskgj`tfs.

Ejttfrh`nn, H. W. (5<<:). Jntfmmjofnt Cfsjon Kebfgts (JCK) - @ gkonjtjvf `pprk`ga dkr pfrdkrh`ngf e`sfc cfsjon. Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy, Cfmdt.

Emù, B. (0:13). @rgajtfgts `nc Djrhs . G`herjcof, H@2 af HJ \rfss.

EN@ (5<<:). Uftrjfvfc 54 Nkvfhefr 5<<: drkh www.en`.nm.

Ekgih`, A. (5<<:). Njfuwf `rgajtfgt js skgj``m eftrkiifn fn cfnit kro`njsga (Nfw `r-

gajtfgt js skgj`mmy jnvkmvfc `nc tajnis kro`njg`mmy). Cf Tkmisir`nt, p. 06. Uftrjfvfc 04

H`rga 5<<:, drkh www.vkmisir`nt.nm.Ekm`nc, U. B. b., & Gkmmkpy, D. (5<<3). H`nòjno `s Cfsjonjno . Wt`ndkrc2 Wt`ndkrc

Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Ekrc`ss, E. (5<<7). Mf`rnjno hkrf drkh kur eujmcjnos - kr bust dkrofttjno mfss; EujmcjnoUfsf`rga & Jndkrh`tjkn, 70(6), 3<4-300.

Ekucfwjbn, F. G., & Erkfiaujzfn, U. \. T. (5<<?). Ekuwfn js tf`hwkri - prìtjbi ojcs vkkrsuggfsvkm s`hfnwfrifn jn cf ekuw (Eujmcjno js tf`hwkri). Okuc`2 Ufojfr``c Ekuw &

\WJEkuw.

Ekucfwjbn, F. G., & Erkfiaujzfn, U. \. T. (5<<:). Om`safmcfr ekuwfn - Cjmfhh`‚s fn

tr`nsp`r`ntjf tjbcfns aft ekuwprkgfs (Grjst`m Gmf`r Gknstrugtjkn - Cjmfhh`s `nc tr`ns- p`rfngy curjno taf gknstrugtjkn prkgfss). Okuc`2 Ufojfr``c Ekuw.

Ekvfns, H. @. \. (0::<). Tfr`ntwkkrcfmjbiafjc fn kro`njs`tjf. Efsgakuwjnofn kvfr ``nspr`-ifmjbiafjc, jnstjtutjknffm eurofrsga`p fn `hetfmjbif knofakkrz``hafjc. (Ufspknsjejmjty (Ufspknsjejmjty`nc kro`njs`tjkn). Rwkmmf2 _.F.B. bffni _jmmjni.

Ekwfrs, I. W., Ufofar, O., E`mta`z`rc, G., & \`rifr, I. (0::<). Jntujtjkn jn taf Gkntfxt

kd Cjsgkvfry. Gkonjtjvf \sygakmkoy, 55, ?5-00<.

Ekztfpf, W. (5<<?`). kw`rc ` dr`hfwkri kd prkcugt cfvfmkphfnt dkr omke`m h`rifts2 `

usfr-v`muf-e`sfc `pprk`ga. Cfsjon Wtucjfs, 51(6), 607-677.

Ekztfpf, W. (5<<?e). Vsfr T`muf2 Gkhpftjno afkrjfs `nc Hkcfms. Jntfrn`tjkn`m Bkurn`mkd Cfsjon, 0(5), 6?-46.



517

EUF Omke`m (5<<:). Uftrjfvfc drkh attp2//www.erff`h.kro.

Erfncfrs, D. (5<<1). Tjtruvjus, cf @rgajtfgtur`m Mjerj Q Uftrjfvfc 00 H`rga 5<<1 drkh

attp2//www.vjtruvjus.ef.

Erfnnfr, \., nnfr, G. @., & Gafsm`, G. @. (0::4). Fxpfrtjsf jn Nursjno \r`gtjgf2 G`rjno,Gmjnjg`m bucofhfnt, `nc Ftajgs . Nfw Zkri2 Wprjnofr.

Erkwn, O., & Ojddkrc, U. (5<<0). @rgajtfgts prfcjgt m`y fv`mu`tjkns kd m`rof gkntfhpkr`ry

eujmcjnos2 waksf gkngfptu`m prkpfrtjfs; Bkurn`m kd Fnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy, 50(0),

:7-::.

Erunsskn, N. (0:1:). Saf Kro`njz`tjkn kd Aypkgr`gy2 S`mi, Cfgjsjkns `nc @gtjkns jnKro`njz`tjkns . Gajgafstfr VI2 _jmfy.

Erunsskn, N. (5<<?). Saf Gknsfqufngfs kd Cfgjsjkn-Hìjno . Kxdkrc2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty

\rfss.

Erunswji, F. (0:3?). Wystfh`tjg `nc rfprfsfnt`tjvf cfsjon kd psygakmkojg`m fxpfrjhfnts, wjtarfsumts jn paysjg`m `nc skgj`m pfrgfptjkn. Efrifmfy G@2 Vnjvfrsjty kd G`mjdkrnj` \rfss.

Erynfr, O. G. (5<<?). \uemjg Kro`njz`tjkns `nc \uemjg \kmjgjfs. Jn E. O. \ftfrs & B.

\jfrrf (Fcs.), A`ncekki kd \uemjg @chjnjstr`tjkn (pp. 01:-0:1). Mknckn2 Wòf

\uemjg`tjkns.

Euggj`rfmmj, M. (0::3). Cfsjonfrs Fnojnffrjno . G`herjcof2 HJ \rfss.

Euggj`rfmmj, M. (5<<7). Fnojnffrjno \ajmkskpay . Cfmdt2 CV\.

Eujbs, @. (5<<:). \uemjg N`turfs - Wkgj`m rfprfsfnt`tjkn kd n`turf `nc mkg`m pr`gtjgfs. Vnpuemjsafc \aC, _òfnjnofn Vnjvfrsjty, _òfnjnofn.

Euncfrskn, B. (5<<7). Ufgkonjzjno Vtjmjzjno Fxpfrtjsf jn _kri Orkups2 @ Wt`ts

Ga`r`gtfrjstjgs \frspfgtjvf. @chjnjstr`tjvf Wgjfngf Pu`rtfrmy, 31, 66?-6:0.

Eurif, G. W., Wtòm, I., W`m`s, F., \jfrgf, M., & Ifnc`mm, C. (5<<4). Vncfrst`ncjno tf`h

`c`pt`tjkn2 ` gkngfptu`m `n`mysjs `nc hkcfm. Bkurn`m kd @ppmjfc \sygakmkoy, :0(4),

001:-05<?.

Eurif, M. @., & Hjmmfr, H. I. (0:::). ìjno taf Hystfry Kut kd Jntujtjvf Cfgjsjkn-

Hìjno. @g`cfhy kd H`nòfhfnt Fxfgutjvf, 07(3), :0-::.

G`jrns, O., & Effga, N. (0:::). Vsfr jnvkmvfhfnt jn kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno.

H`nòfhfnt Cfgjsjkn, 7?(0), 03-57.

G`ntfr, C. (0:??). Saf psygakmkoy kd pm`gf . Mknckn2 @rgajtfgtur`m \rfss.

G`rcfmmjnk, \., Mfjrjnofr, U., & Gmfhfnts-Grkkhf, C. (5<<:). Fxpmkrjno taf Ukmf kd

Cfsjon Pu`mjty jn taf Eujmcjno Wgakkms dkr taf Duturf \rkor`hhf. @rgajtfgtur`mFnojnffrjno `nc Cfsjon H`nòfhfnt, 6, 53:-545.

Ga`jifn, W., & rkpf, Z. (0:::). Cu`m-\rkgfss Safkrjfs jn Wkgj`m \sygakmkoy . Nfw Zkri2

Oujmdkrc \rfss.

Ga`k-Cujvjs, H. @. E. (5<<1). Pujgisg`n gknt`gthkhfntfn jn ``nefstfcjnosprkgfcurfs(Pujgi sg`n jntfr`gtjkn hkhfnts jn tfncfr prkgfcurfs) . Cfn A`ò2 Jnstjtuut vkkrCfn A`ò2 Jnstjtuut vkkr

Ekuwrfgat.



513

Ga`k-Cujvjs, H. @. E. (5<<:). G`pjt` sfmfgt` ujt cf ofsgajfcfnjs v`n aft prjv``trfga-

tfmjbi ekuwrfgat (Fx`hpmfs drkh taf ajstkry kd prjv`tf eujmcjno m`w). Jn U. _. H.

Imujtfnefro (Fc.), 3< b``r Jnstjtuut vkkr Ekuwrfgat (pp. :-6?). Cfn A`ò2 JnstjtuutCfn A`ò2 Jnstjtuut

vkkr Ekuwrfgat.

Ga`k-Cujvjs, H. @. E., Iknjno, U., Wpfiijni, C., & Wùfrwfjn, M. (5<<?). EN@ _frih`p

Furkpffs @`nefstfcfn vkkr Kpcr`gatofvfrs (Oujcfmjnfs Furkpf`n Sfncfrjno dkr Gmjfnts). @hstfrc`h2 EN@.

Ga`sf, _. O., & Wjhkn, A. @. (0:?7). \frgfptjkn jn gafss. Gkonjtjvf \sygakmkoy, 3,

66-10.

Gafuno, D. I. ., Iufn, B. M. D., & Wijthkrf, H. (5<<5). Humtj-grjtfrj` fv`mu`tjkn hkcfm

dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgtur`m gknsumt`nts. Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt `nc Fgknkhjgs,5<, 64:-61<.

Garjstj`nskn, H. I., D`ri`s, H. ., Wutgmjddf, I. H., & _fjgi, I. F. (5<<:). Mf`rnjno

arkuoa U`rf Fvfnts2 Wjonjdjg`nt Jntfrruptjkns `t taf E`mtjhkrf & Kajk U`jmrk`c

Husfuh. Kro`njz`tjkn Wgjfngf, 5<(6), 134‗14<.

Gjty kd @hstfrc`h (5<<:). Uftrjfvfc : H`y 5<<: drkh www.j`hstfrc`h.gkh.

Gm`ri, . (0::6). H`nòjno Gknsumt`nts - Gknsumt`ngy `s taf H`nòfhfnt kd Jhprfssjkns .Eugijnoa`h2 Kpfn Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Gmfhfnts-Grkkhf, C. (5<<6). Cfsjonjno taf jntfrjkr fnvjrknhfnt dkr pfkpmf. @rgajtfgtur`mFnojnffrjno `nc Cfsjon H`nòfhfnt, 0(0), 36-66.

Gkafn, H. C., H`rga, B. O., & Kmskn, B. \. (0:?5). af O`reòf G`n Hkcfm kd

Kro`njz`tjkn`m Gakjgf. @chjnjstr`tjvf Wgjfngf Pu`rtfrmy (0?), 0-56.

Gkafn, H. W., Drffh`n, B. ., & _kmd, W. (0::4). Hft`-Ufgkonjtjkn jn jhf Wtrfssfs

Cfgjsjkn Hìjno. Auh`n D`gtkrs, 71(5), 5<4-50:.

Gkmc, E. (0::7). Pu`mjty jn @rgajtfgturf. Jn E. D`rhfr & A. Mkuw (Fcs.), Gkhp`njkn tkgkntfhpkr`ry `rgajtfgtur`m takuoat. Mknckn2 Ukutmfcof.

Gkmmjns, \. (0:?0). @rgajtfgtur`m Bucofhfnt . Hkntrf`m2 HgOjmm-Puffn‚s Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Gkmmyfr, O. W. (5<<3). Gkhpftjno Omke`mmy jn @rgajtfgturf Gkhpftjtjkns . Gajgafstfr,

Fnom`nc2 _jmfy @g`cfhjg.

Gknstrugtjkn Jncustry Gkungjm (5<<:). Uftrjfvfc 55 Nkvfhefr 5<<:, drkh attp2//www.

cqj.kro.ui.

Gkxf, _., A`rtuno, N. D., Akgaefro, A., Mfwjs, E. B., H`jstfr, C. A., H`ttkx, U. D., ft`m. (0:1?). Wuggfss str`tfojfs dkr cfsjon prkdfssjkn`ms - supfrpksjtjknjno dkr @rgajtfgturf &Fnojnffrjno Djrhs . Nfw Zkri2 HgOr`w-Ajmm Ekki Gkhp`ny.

Grfswfmm, B. _. (0::3). Ufsf`rga cfsjon9 qu`mjt`tjvf `nc qu`ntjt`tjvf `pprk`gafs. akus`nc

Kìs2 Wòf.

Grksey, N., Ifmmfy, B. H., & Wga`fdfr, \. (0:14). Gjtjzfns \`nfms2 @ Nfw @pprk`ga tk

Gjtjzfn \`rtjgjp`tjkn. \uemjg @chjnjstr`tjkn Ufvjfw, 34(5), 0?<-0?1.

GUK_, & E`m`ngf `nc Ufsumts (5<<:). Cfgjsjkn Wuppkrt Wystfh ejb aft Mfjcr``c

@`nefstfcfn, rftrjfvfc drkh www.mfjcr``c``nefstfcfn.nm.

Gyfrt, U. H., & H`rga, B. O. (0:47). @ efa`vjkr`m tafkry kd taf djrh. Fnomfwkkc GmjddsNB2 \rfntjgf-A`mm.



516

C`ìf, C., C`wmfy, C. C., & @ntakny, _. \. (5<<3). Dkrh`m C`t` Vsf jn Wtr`tfojg

\m`nnjno2 @n kro`njz`tjkn`m djfmc fxpfrjhfnt. Bkurn`m kd H`nòfrj`m Jssuf, 04(5),

575-53?.

C`h`sjk, @. U. (0::3). Cfsg`rtfs‚ Frrkrs2 Fhktjkn, Uf`skn `nc Auh`n Er`jn. Nfw Zkri2

A`rpfr Gkmmjns.

C`h`sjk, @. U. (0:::). Saf Dffmjnos kd _a`t A`ppfns2 Ekcy, Fhktjkn `nc taf Hìjno kdGknsgjkusnfss . Mknckn2 Tjntòf.

C`nf, F., & \r`tt, H. (5<<?). Fxpmkrjno jntujtjkn `nc jts rkmf jn h`nòfrj`m cfgjsjkn

hìjno. @g`cfhy kd H`nòfhfnt Ufvjfw, 75(0), 77-63.

C`vjfs, H., Wt`nikv, M., & Ukefrts, U. C. (0::1). Fhktjkn`m Jntfmmjofngf2 Jn Wf`rga kd `n

Fmusjvf Gknstrugt. Bkurn`m kd \frskn`mjty `nc Wkgj`m \sygakmko y, ?6(3), ::1-0<06.

C`y, F., & E`risc`mf, A. G. (0::5). Akw Djrhs Wfmfgt \rkdfssjkn`m Wfrvjgfs. Jncustrj`m H`riftjno H`nòfhfnt, 50(5), 16-:0.

cf Orkkt, @. C. (0:34). Sakuoat `nc Gakjgf jn Gafss . Nfw Zkri2 Hkutkn.Nfw Zkri2 Hkutkn.

cf A``n, A., & A`òsh`, J. (0:11). @rgajtfgtfn `ms Ujv`mfn (@rgajtfgts `s Ujv`ms). N``rcfn2

Hfumfnakdd/M`ncsakdd.

cf Bkno, . H., & v`n cfr Tkkrct, C. B. H. (Fcs.). (5<<5).(5<<5). _`ys tk stucy `nc rfsf`rga `r-gajtfgtur`m, ure`n `nc tfganjg`m cfsjon. Cfmdt2 Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

cf Bknof, B. H. (5<<:). M`ncsg`pf @rgajtfgturf eftwffn \kmjtjgs `nc Wgjfngf - @n jntfor`-tjvf pfrspfgtjvf kn m`ncsg`pf pm`nnjno `nc cfsjon jn taf nftwkri skgjfty . _òfnjnofn2 _òfnjnofn2

Vjtofvfrjb Emùwcrui.

cf Ifyzfr, _. (0::1). Hftfn ofwjit & ofwkofn - ffn auhkrjstjsgaf fn irjtjsgaf ijbi kp hftfn

fn aft vfrwfrifn v`n hfftrfsumt`tfn (Hf`surfhfnt wfjoafc up) . Erussfm2 Hjnjstfrjf v`ncf Tm``hsf Ofhffnsga`p.

Cf`n, B. _. B., & Wa rdh`n, H. \. (0::7). af Ufm tjknsajp eftwffn \rkgfcur`maf Ufm`tjknsajp eftwffn \rkgfcur`m

U`tjkn`mjty `nc \kmjtjg`m Efa`vjkr jn Wtr`tfojg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno. Cfgjsjkn Wgjfngfs,53(4), 0<4:-0<17.

Cfshft, \. (5<<5). Cfsjonjno fhktjkns. Vnpuemjsafc \aC, Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy,

Cfmdt.

Cfshft, \., & Afiifrt, \. (5<<?). Dr`hfwkri kd \rkcugt Fxpfrjfngf. Jntfrn`tjkn`m Bkurn`mkd Cfsjon, 0(0), 6?-44.

Cfshft, \., \krgfmjbn, U., & v`n Cjbi, H. E. (5<<?). Fhktjkn`m cfsjon9 `ppmjg`tjkn kd ` Fhktjkn`m cfsjon9 `ppmjg`tjkn kd `rfsf`rga-e`sfc cfsjon pprk`ga. Inkwmfcof Sfgankmkoy `nc \kmjgy, 5<(7), 030-066.

Cfvjnf-_rjoat, A., akhskn, C. W., & @ustjn, W. @. (5<<7). H`tgajno v`mufs `nc v`mufjn gknstrugtjkn `nc cfsjon. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf Grkssjno Ekunc`rjfs - af T`muf

kd Jntfrcjsgjpmjn`ry Ufsf`rga, \rkgffcjnos kd taf ajrc Gkndfrfngf kd taf F\VI

(Fnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy jn taf VI) Nftwkri.

Cfvmjn, I., & N`s`r, B. M. (0:1:). af efùty `nc taf ef`st2 skhf prfmjhjn`ry gkhp`rj-

skns kd ‑ajoa‚ vfrsus ‑pkpum`r‚ rfsjcfntj`m `rgajtfgturf `nc puemjg vfrsus `rgajtfgt buco-

hfnts kd s`hf. Bkurn`m kd Fnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy, :(3), 777-733.

Cfwumd, O., & v`n Hffm, B. (5<<3). Wfnsf `nc nknsfnsf kd hf`surjno cfsjon qu mjty.Wfnsf `nc nknsfnsf kd hf`surjno cfsjon qu`mjty.

Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga & Jndkrh`tjkn, 75(7), 53?-56<.



514

Cjftz, ., & Wtfrn, \. G. (Fcs.). (5<<1). \`nfm kn \uemjg \`rtjgjp`tjkn jn Fnvjrknhfnt`m @ssfsshfnt `nc Cfgjsjkn Hìjno . _`sajnotkn, C.G.2 af N`tjkn`m @g`cfhjfs \rfss.

Cjbistfraujs, @. (5<<?). Aft smjhhf knefwustf - Cfnifn hft ofvkfm (Saf sh`rt ungknsgjkus-nfss, tajnijno wjta ` dffmjno). @hstfrc`h2 Vjtofvfrjb Efrt Eìifr.

Cjbistfraujs, @., Eks, H. _., Nkrcorffn, H. D., & T`n E``rfn, U. E. (5<<4). KnKn

Hìjno taf Ujoat Gakjgf2 af Cfmjefr`tjkn _jtakut @ttfntjkn Fddfgt. Wgjfngf, 700,0<<6-0<<?.

Cjbistr`, . (5<<0). @rgajtfgtknjsgaf iw`mjtfjt (@rgajtfgtur`m Pu`mjty). Ukttfrc`h2 <0<.

Cjbistr`, ., Ujbisofekuwfncjfnst, & Hjnjstfrjf v`n TUKH (0:16). @rgajtfgtknjsgafiw`mjtfjt9 ffn nktjtjf kvfr `rgajtfgtuurefmfjc (@rgajtfgtur`m Pu`mjty - ` hfhk èkut taf

pkmjgy). ‑s-Or`vfnaòf2 Ujbisofekuwfncjfnst.

Ckrff, @. (0::4). Ofhffntfmjbi ``nefstfcfn - ffn kncfrzkfi n``r cf s`hfnwfrijno tussfncjfnstfn, ofhffntfwfrifn fn ``nnfhfrs jn cf orknc-, wfo- fn w`tfrekuw (Sfncfrjno `thunjgjp`mjtjfs). Vnpuemjsafc \aC, Vnjvfrsjty kd wfntf, Fnsgafcf.Vnpuemjsafc \aC, Vnjvfrsjty kd wfntf, Fnsgafcf.

Crfsgamfr, H. (5<<1). @n`mysjs kd prjgf gkrrfgtjkn `w`rc hfga`njshs `ppmjfc jn taf Cutgagknstrugtjkn jncustry. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf 7rc Jntfrn`tjkn`m \uemjg \rkgurfhfnt

Gkndfrfngf, @hstfrc`h.

Crfsgamfr, H. (5<<:). D`jr gkhpftjtjkn - Akw tk `ppmy taf ‑Fgknkhjg`mmy Hkst @cv`ntòfkusSfncfr‚ (FH@S) `w`rc hfga`njsh jn taf Cutga gknstrugtjkn jncustry. Vnpuemjsafc

\aC, Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy, Cfmdt.

Crfsgamfr, H., Efafsatj, U. H., & cf Ujccfr, A. @. B. (5<<6). @n `n`mysjs kd T`mufCftfrhjn`tjkn jn taf Eujmcjno `nc Gknstrugtjkn Jncustry. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf GJE

Afmsjnij Bkjnt Wyhpksjuh, Afmsjnij.

Crfydus, A. M., & Crfydus, W. F. (0:14). Hjnc kvfr H`gajnf . Nfw Zkri2 Drff \rfss.

Fcfmfneks, B., & Imjbn, F.-A. (5<<6). H`nòjno Wtìfakmcfr Jnvkmvfhfnt jn CfgjsjknH`nòjno Wtìfakmcfr Jnvkmvfhfnt jn Cfgjsjkn

Hìjno2 @ gkhpr`tjvf @n`mysjs kd Wjx Jntfr`gtjvf \rkgfssfs jn taf Nftafrm`ncs. Bkurn`mkd \uemjg @chjnjstr`tjkn Ufsf`rga `nc Safkry, 04, 30?-334.

Fchkncskn, @. G., & HgH`nus, W. F. (5<<?). Hftakckmkojg`m djt jn kro`njz`tjkn`m djfmc

rfsf`rga @g`cfhy kd H`nòfhfnt Ufvjfw, 75(3), 0066‗00?:.

Fcw`rcs, _. (0:40). Efa`vjkr`m Cfgjsjkn afkry. @nnu`m Ufvjfw kd \sygakmkoy (05),

3?7-3:1.

Fjsfna`rct, I. H. (0:1:). Eujmcjno afkrjfs drkh G`sf Wtucy Ufsf`rga. @g`cfhy kd

H`nòfhfnt Ufvjfw, 03(3), 675-66<.

Fjsfna`rct, I. H., & Or`fenfr, H. F. (5<<?). afkry Eujmcjno drkh G`sfs2 Kppkrtunjtjfs

`nc Ga`mmfnofs. @g`cfhy kd H`nòfhfnt Bkurn`m, 6<(0), 56-75.

Fmfy, B. (5<<3). Cfsjon qu`mjty jn eujmcjnos Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga `nc Jndkrh`tjkn, 75(7),

566-54<.

Fmmswkrta, \. G., & Wgafrfr, I. U. (5<<7). @ppr`js`m prkgfssfs jn fhktjkn. Jn U. B.

C`vjcskn, I. U. Wgafrfr & A. A. Okmcshjta (Fcs.), A`ncekki kd `ddfgtjvf sgjfngfs(pp. 6?5-6:6). Nfw Zkri2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.



51?

Fmse`ga, I. C., & Ir`hfr, U. H. (5<<7). @ssfssjno Grf`tjvjty jn Akmmywkkc \jtga

Hfftjnos2 Fvjcfngf dkr ` Cu`m-\rkgfss Hkcfm kd Grf`tjvjty Bucofhfnts. Saf @g`cfhykd H`nòfhfnt Bkurn`m, 34(7), 517-7<0.

Fhhjtt, W., W`ncfr, C., & Garjstkddfrsfn, I. (5<<6, Bumy 5<<6). Saf T`muf Vnjvfrsf2Cfdjnjno ` v`muf e`sfc `pprk`ga tk mf`n gknstrugtjkn. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf JOMG-07,

Wycnfy, @ustr`mj`.Fpstfjn, W. (0::3). Jntfor`tjkn kd taf gkonjtjvf `nc taf psygakcyn`hjg ungknsgjkus.

@hfrjg`n \sygakmkojst, 3:, ?<:-?53.

Fpstfjn, W., Mjpskn, @., Akmstfjn, G., & Aua, F. (0::5). Jrr`tjkn`m rf`gtjkns tk nfo`-Jrr`tjkn`m rf`gtjkns tk nfo`-

tjvf kutgkhfs2 Fvjcfngf dkr twk gkngfptu`m systfhs. Bkurn`m kd \frskn`mjty `nc Wkgj`m\sygakmkoy, 45, 751-77:.

Fpstfjn, W., \`gjnj, U., Cfnfs-U`b, T., & Afjr, A. (0::4). Jncjvjcu`m Cjddfrfngfs jn

Jntujtjvf-Fxpfrjfntj`m `nc @n`mytjg`m-U`tjkn`m ajnijno Wtymfs. Bkurn`m kd \frskn`mjty`nc Wkgj`m \sygakmkoy, ?0, 7:<-3<6.

Frnst, E., & Ijfsfr, @. (5<<5). Jn sf`rga kd fxpm`n`tjkns dkr taf gknsumtjno fxpmksjkn.Jn M. Fnow`mm & Wàmjn-@ncfrsskn (Fcs.), Saf Fxp`nsjkn kd H`nòfhfnt Inkwmfcof2G`rrjfrs, Dmkws, `nc Wkurgfs . Wt`ndkrc G@2 Wt`ndkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Fssfrs, H. B. B. H. (5<<:). @`nefstfcjnosrfgat vkkr kvfrafcfn (\rkgurfhfnt M`w dkrOkvfrnhfnt). ‑s Or`vfnaòf2 Uffc Eusjnfss Jndkrh`tjkn ev - Fmsfvjfr Kvfrafjc.‑s Or`vfnaòf2 Uffc Eusjnfss Jndkrh`tjkn ev - Fmsfvjfr Kvfrafjc.

Ftzjknj, @. (0:11). Saf hkr`m cjhfnsjkn - tkw`rcs ` nfw fgknkhjgs . Nfw Zkri2 af drff

prfss.

Cjrfgtjvf 5<<3/01/FG (Gkungjm kd taf Furkpf`n Vnjkn 5<<3).

Fvfrs, @. @. H. (0::6). @rgajtfgtuurwfcstrjbcfn (Cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns). Ekuwrfgat,

75(0<), 153-174.

Fvfrs, @. @. H. (5<<1). Vjtsgarjbvfn v`n prjbsvròfn vkkr ekuwiuncjof cjfnstfn

(Kro`njsjno cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns dkr sfrvjgfs jn `rgajtfgturf) Wuggfsvkm ``nefstfcfn2

Furkdkruh.

Fvfrs, @. @. H. (5<0<). Furkpfsf sfmfgtjf v`n `rgajtfgtfn, nkkcz`ì tkt ffncujcjoafjc;

(Furkpf`n sfmfgtjkn kd rgajtfgts, nffc dkr unjvkg`m pkmjgy). Sjbcsgarjdt vkkr Ekuwrfgat,7(55), 034-065.

Fwfnstfjn, E., & _aytf, B. (5<<?). Efyknc _krcs2 @fstaftjg Inkwmfcof `nc Inkwjno jn

Kro`njz`tjkns. Kro`njz`tjkn Wtucjfs, 51, 41:-?<1.

D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf - V Cfmdt (5<<:). Eujmcjno dkr Ekuwiuncf - Kpfn tk Jcf`s . Cfmdt2V Cfmdt.

D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf (5<<1). Kpfn Jntfrn`tjkn`m Jcf`s Gkhpftjtjkn Eujmcjno dkr

Ekuwiuncf, drkh www.eujmcjnodkrekuwiuncf.nm.

D`wgftt, _., Fmmjnoa`h, J., & \m`tt, W. (5<<1). Ufgkngjmjno taf @rgajtfgtur`m \rfdfrfngfs

kd @rgajtfgts `nc taf \uemjg - af Krcfrfc \rfdfrfngf Hkcfm. Fnvjrknhfnt `ncEfa`vjkr, 3<(6), 6::-401.

Dfmch`n, C. (5<<7). af mjhjts kd m`w2 g`n m`ws rfoum`tf puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn; Jn E. O.

\ftfrs & B. \jfrrf (Fcs.), A`ncekki kd \uemjg @chjnjstr`tjkn (pp. 5?:-5:5). Mknckn2

Wòf \uemjg`tjkns.



511

Dfmch`n, H. W., & H`rga, B. O. (0:10). Jndkrh`tjkn jn Kro`njz`tjkns `s Wjon`m `nc

Wyhekm. @chjnjstr`tjvf Wgjfngf Pu`rtfrmy (54), 0?0-014.

Djsafr, \., Ukeskn, W., & kcc, W. (5<<?). af cjspks`m kd puemjg sfgtkr sjtfs ey ”cfvfmkp-

hfnt gkhpftjtjkn‘. \rkpfrty H`nòfhfnt, 56(3), 710-7::.

Dmyvebfro, E. (5<<3). Djvf Hjsuncfrst`ncjnos @ekut G`sf-Wtucy Ufsf`rga. Jn G. Wf`mf, O.

Okek, B. D. Ouerjuh & C. Wjmvfrh`n (Fcs.), Pu`mjt`tjvf Ufsf`rga \r`gtjgf (pp. 35<-373). Mknckn `nc akus`nc Kìs, G@2 Wòf.

Dkktf, N., H`tskn, F., _fjss, M., & _fnofr, F. (5<<5). Mfvfròjno Orkup Inkwmfcof dkr

Ajoa-\frdkrh`ngf Cfgjsjkn-Hìjno. Kro`njz`tjkn`m Cyn`hjgs, 70(5), 51<-5:6.

Drjbc`, N. A. (0:14). Saf Fhktjkns . G`herjcof2 G`herjcof Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

O`nn, C. H., W`mtfr, @. B., & _aytf, B. I. (5<<7). Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr `s ` tkkm dkr

tajnijno. Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga & Jndkrh`tjkn, 70(6), 701-777.

O`nn, C. H., & _aytf, B. I. (5<<7). Fcjtkrj`m2 Cfsjon qu`mjty, jts hf`surfhfnt `nc h`n-

òfhfnt jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga & Jndkrh`tjkn, 70(6), 703-70?.

Offrtsf, H. (5<0<). @`nefstfcjnofn `rgajtfgtuurkpcr`gatfn jn 5<<: (fncfrs dkr `rgaj- @`nefstfcjnofn `rgajtfgtuurkpcr`gatfn jn 5<<: (fncfrs dkr `rgaj-

tfgtur`m cfsjon sfrvjgfs jn 5<<:). Uftrjfvfc 00 B`nu`ry 5<0<, drkh www.kntwfrpwfc-

strjbcfn.nm.

Offrtsf, H., `mh`n, E., & B`nsfn, G. (5<<:). @`nefstfcjno v`n `rgajtfgtuurkpcr`gatfn

sjncs aft E@K (fncfrs dkr `rgajtfgtur`m sfrvjgfs sjngf taf E@K). Wtfunpunt

@rgajtfgtuurkpcr`gatfn & Kntwfrpwfcstrjbcfn.

Ofanfr, F. (5<<1). Inkwmjnomy tìjno rjsi - Jnvfsthfnt cfgjsjkn hìjno jn rf`m fst`tf cfvfm-kphfnt . Cfmdt2 Feurkn @g`cfhjg \uemjsafrs.

Ofkrof, F., & Ga`ttkp`cay`y, \. (5<<1). Orkup gkhpksjtjkn `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno. JnO. Akcoijnskn & _. A. Wt`reugi (Fcs.), Saf Kxdkrc A`ncekki kd Kro`njz`tjkn`mCfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 740-7?:). Nfw Zkri2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Ofrrjno, B. (5<<3). _a`t js ` g`sf stucy `nc wa`t js jt okkc dkr; @hfrjg`n \kmjtjg`m WgjfngfUfvjfw, :1(5), 730-763.

Ofrrjtsf, I. (5<<1). Gkntrkmmjno gksts `nc qu`mjty jn taf f`rmy pa`sfs kd taf `ggkhhkc`tjkn prkgfss . Cfmdt2 TWWC.

Ojddkrc, U. (5<<5). Fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy2 prjngjpmfs `nc pr`gtjgf . Gkmfvjmmf, _@2

Kptjh`m ekkis.

Ojddkrc, U., Ajnf, C. _., Hummfr-Gmfhh, _., Ufynkmcs, C. @. B., & Wa`w, I. . (5<<<).Cfgkcjno Hkcfrn @rgajtfgturf - @ Mfns Hkcfm @pprk`ga dkr Vncfrst`ncjno taf

@fstaftjg Cjddfrfngfs kd @rgajtfgts `nc M`ypfrskns. Fnvjrknhfnt `nc efa`vjkr, 75(5),

047-01?.

Ojddkrc, U., Ajnf, C. _., Hummfr-Gmfhh, _., & Wa`w, I. . (5<<5). _ay `rgajtfgt `nc

m`ypfrskns bucof eujmcjnos cjddfrfntmy2 gkonjtjvf prkpfrtjfs nc paysjg`m e`sfs. Bkurn`mkd @rgajtfgtur`m `nc \m`nnjno Ufsf`rga, 0:(5), 070-031.

Ojofrfnzfr, O. (0::0). Akw tk hìf gkonjtjvf jmmusjkns cjs`ppf`r2 efyknc afurjstjgs `nc

ej`sfs. Jn _. Wtrkfef & H. Afwstknf (Fcs.), Furkpf`n Ufvjfw kd Wkgj`m \sygakmkoy -Tkmuhf 5 (pp. 17-006). Gajgafstfr2 _jmfy.

Ojofrfnzfr, O. (5<<?). Out dffmjnos. Saf jntfmmjofngf kd taf ungknsgjkus . Nfw Zkri2 Tjijno.



51:

Ojofrfnzfr, O., & Wfmtfn, U. (5<<0). Ekuncfc r`tjkn`mjty - taf `c`ptjvf tkkmijt . G`herjcof,

H`ss`gausftts2 HJ \rfss.

Ojofrfnzfr, O., kcc, \. H., & @EG rfsf`rga orkup (0:::). Wjhpmf afurjstjgs ta`t hìf ussh`rt . Nfw Zkri2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Ojumj`nj, H. T., & Wgkpfmmjtj, H. (5<<:). Fhpjrjg`m rfsf`rga jn fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakm-

koy2 \`st, prfsfnt, `nc duturf. Bkurn`m kd Fnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy, 5:(7), 7?6-714.

Om`cwfmm, H. (5<<6). Emjni - taf \kwfr kd Sajnijno wjtakut Sajnijno . Mknckn2 \fnoujn

Ekkis Mtc.

Omuni, V., & Kmjf, U. (5<<1). Cf smfutfm tkt suggfs - Gumtuur, s`hfnwfrijno fn jnnkv`tjf jncf ekuw (Saf ify tk suggfss). Okuc`2 Ufojfr``c Ekuw & \WJEkuw.

Omusefro, B. (Fc.). (0::5). @ cfg`cf kd UJE@ Wtucfnt Gkhpftjtjkns . Mknckn2 @g`cfhy

Orkup Mtc.

Okrf, B., E`nis, @., Hjmmw`rc, M., & Iyrjìjcku, K. (5<<4). N`tur`mjstjg Cfgjsjkn

Hìjno `nc Kro`njz`tjkns2 Ufvjfwjno \ròh`tjg Wgjfngf. Kro`njz`tjkn Wtucjfs,5?(?), :56-:35.

Orffn, W. C., & Hkss, O. _. (0::1). T`muf h`nòfhfnt `nc pkst-kggup`ngy fv`mu`tjkn2

gmksjno taf mkkp. D`gjmjtjfs, 04(0/5), 73-7:.

Ork`t, M. (0:15). Hf`njno jn pkst-hkcfrn `rgajtfgturf2 @n fx`hjn`tjkn usjno taf hum-

tjpmf skrtjno t`si. Bkurn`m kd Fnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy, 5(0), 7-55.

Ork`t, M., & _`no, C. (5<<5). @rgajtfgtur`m rfsf`rga hftakcs . Nfw Zkri2 Bkan _jmfy &

Wkns.

Outh`n, U. (0:11). @rgajtfgtur`m \r`gtjgf - ` grjtjg`m vjfw . Nfw Zkri2 \rjngftkn

@rgajtfgtur`m \rfss.A`gih`n, B. U. (5<<7). Mf`rnjno hkrf ey grkssjno mfvfms2 fvjcfngf drkh jrpm`nfs, akspj-

t`ms, `nc krgafstr`s. Bkurn`m kd Kro`njz`tjkn`m Efa`vjkr, 53, :<6-:55.

Aàn, H., M`wskn, U., & Mff, Z. O. (0::5). af fddfgts kd tjhf prfssurf `nc jndkrh`tjkn

mk`c kn cfgjsjkn qu`mjty. \sygakmkoy `nc H`riftjno, :(6), 746-7?1.

A`hfm, U. (0::<). Kvfr aft cfnifn v`n cf `rgajtfgt9 ffn gkonjtjfd psygakmkojsgaf efsgarjbvjnov`n aft kntwfrpprkgfs ejb `rgajtfgtfn (Kn cfsjonjno ey `rgajtfgts9 ` gkonjtjvf psygakmkojg`mcfsgrjptjkn kd taf `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon prkgfss). @hstfrc`h2 @A@ Ekkis/ Vnjvfrsjty kd

@hstfrc`h.

A`rrjskn, F. D. (0:::). Saf H`nòfrj`m Cfgjsjkn-Hìjno \rkgfss . Ekstkn2 AkuoatknHjddmjn.

Afjberkgi, D. (5<<1, 6 @uoust). @`nefstfcjnosrfofms vfr`rhfn `rgajtfgtuur @`nefstfcjnosrfofms vfr`rhfn `rgajtfgtuur . Gkekuw , rf-

trjfvfc drkh www.gkekuw.nm.

Afiifrt, \. (5<<4). Cfsjon `fstaftjgs2 \rjngjpmfs kd pmf`surf jn prkcugt cfsjon.Cfsjon `fstaftjgs2 \rjngjpmfs kd pmf`surf jn prkcugt cfsjon. \sygakmkoyWgjfngf, 31(5), 06?-0?5.

Afiifrt, \., & v`n _jfrjnofn, \. G. _. (0::7). Kkrcffm kvfr iunst - Iw`mjtfjtsefkkrcfmjnofnjn cf effmcfncf iunst (Ufsf`rga rfpkrt). @hstfrc`h2 Vnjvfrsjty kd @hstfrc`h.

Afiifrt, \., & v`n _jfrjnofn, \. G. _. (0::4). Efùty jn taf fyf kd fxpfrt `nc nknfx-Efùty jn taf fyf kd fxpfrt `nc nknfx-

pfrt efakmcfrs2 @ stucy jn taf `ppr`js`m kd `rt. @hfrjg`n Bkurn`m kd psygakmkoy, 0<:(7),71:-3<?.



5:<

Auee`rc, \. (0::4). Gkndmjgtjno jntfrprft`tjkns kd `rgajtfgturf2 `n fhpjrjg`m jnvfstjo`-

tjkn. Bkurn`m kd Fnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy, 04, ?6-:5.

Afrzefro, D., Hùsnfr, E., & Wnycfrh`n, E. (0:6:). Saf Hktjv`tjkn tk _kri . Nfw Zkri2

_jmfy.

Afynfn, A. (Fc.). (5<<0). Kvfrafjcskpcr`gatfn `rgajtfgtuur. Wtr`tfojfén vkkr iw`mjtfjt

(\rkgurfhfnt jn `rgajtfgturf. Wtr`tfojfs dkr qu`mjty). Erussfm2 \kmjtfj`.

Ajbcr`, . @. (5<<?). Sr`nsp`r`ntjf & ckfmofrjgatf gkhpftjtjf - Aft fddjgjfnt sfmfgtfrfn v`n ffnh`ritp`rtjb kp e`sjs v`n ffn hffrvkucjof kntwjiifm/kntwfrpkpcr`gat w``rejb cf sfmfgtjfzk`ms kp prjbs `ms iw`mjtfjt vjnct (Sr`nsp`rfngy & purpksfdum gkhpftjtjkn). VnpuemjsafcVnpuemjsafc

HWg, Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy, Cfmdt.

Akcoijnskn, O., & Wt`reugi, _. A. (5<<1`). Kro`njz`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno2 h`ppjno

tfrr`jns kn cjddfrfnt pm`nfts. Jn O. Akcoijnskn & _. A. Wt`reugi (Fcs.), Saf KxdkrcA`ncekki kd Kro`njz`tjkn`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 0-5:). Kxdkrc2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty

\rfss.

Akcoijnskn, O., & Wt`reugi, _. A. (Fcs.). (5<<1e). Saf Kxdkrc A`ncekki kdKro`njz`tjkn`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno . Kxdkrc2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Akcoijnskn, O., & _rjoat, O. (5<<4). Nfjtafr Gkhpmftjno taf \r`gtjgf urn, nkr

Fnrjgajno taf \rkgfss r`cjtjkn2 Wfgknc`ry Hjsjntfrprft`tjkns kd ` G`sf @n`mysjs

Ufgknsjcfrfc. Kro`njz`tjkn Wtucjfs, 5? , 01:6-0:<0.

Ako`rta, U. H. (0:11). Bucofhfnt `nc Gakjgf - Saf psygakmko y kd cfgjsjkn (5 fc.).

Gajgafstfr2 Bkan _jmfy & Wkns.

Ako`rta, U. H. (5<<5). Cfgjcjno `n`mytjg`mmy kr trustjno ykur jntujtjkn; af `cv`ntòfs

`nc cjs`cv`ntòfs kd `n`mytjg `nc jntujtjvf takuoat. Vnpuemjsafc Ga`ptfr. JGUF@

`nc \khpfu Dèr` Vnjvfrsjty.Ako`rta, U. H. (5<<6). Cfgjcjno `n`mytjg`mmy kr trustjno ykur jntujtjkn; af `cv`n-

tòfs `nc cjs`cv`ntòfs kd `n`mytjg `nc jntujtjvf takuoat. Jn . A. Eftsga, W. (Fc.),

Saf Ukutjnfs kd Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 4?-15). Hàwà, NB2 M`wrfngf Frmeùh

@sskgj`tfs.

Ako`rta, U. H., & Wgakfhìfr, \. (5<<6). Efyknc Emjni2 @ Ga`mmfnof tk Efa`vjkr`m

Cfgjsjkn Hìjno. Bkurn`m kd Efa`vjkr`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno, 01, 7<6-7<:.

Akuefn, D. (5<<?, 57 Bumy). Kpcr`gatofvfr vjnct zjbn `rgajtfgt (Gmjfnt djncs jts `rgajtfgt).Djn`ngjffm Còem`c, p. 6, rftrjfvfc drkh www.dc.nm.

Akwfs, Z., & Ojddkrc, U. (5<<:). Wtèmf kr Cyn`hjg T`muf Jhpkrt`ngf;2 af Jntfr`gtjknEftwffn Cfgjsjkn-Hìjno jn Fnvjrknhfnt`m Jssufs T`muf Fnckrsfhfnt Mfvfm `nc

Wjtu`tjkn`m Cjddfrfngfs kn. Fnvjrknhfnt `nc Efa`vjkr, 30(3), 63:-615.

Auee`rc, \. (0::4). Gkndmjgtjno jntfrprft`tjkns kd `rgajtfgturf2 `n fhpjrjg`m jnvfstjo`-

tjkn. Bkurn`m kd Fnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy, 04(5), ?6-:5.

Auttkn, U. B. E., & Imfjn, O. (0:::). Fxpfrt Cfgjsjkn hìjno.Fxpfrt Cfgjsjkn hìjno. Wystfhs Fnojnffrjno, 5(0),

75-36.

JGK\ (5<<4). @rgajWfmfgt®2 ffn njfuwf hftakcf vkkr `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjfs (@rgajWfmfgt2

nfw hftakc dkr `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns). Ukttfrc`h, rftrjfvfc drkh www.jgkp.nm.



5:0

Jvkry, G. (5<<6). af gumt kd gustkhfr rfspknsjvfnfss2 js cfsjon jnnkv`tjkn taf prjgf kd `

gmjfnt-dkgusfc gknstrugtjkn jncustry; Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt `nc Fgknkhjgs, 57(1),

140-1?<.

B`giskn, \. (0:17). \rjngjpmfs `nc prkemfhs kd p`rtjgjp`nt kesfrv`tjkn. Ofkor`djsi` @nn`mfr, 46(E 0), 7:-34.

B`giskn, . (0::?). Wurvfy - H`nòfhfnt Gknsumt`ngy2 Orkwta `nc Ufvfnufs Wffh tk efVnstkppèmf. Djn`ngj`m Sjhfs .

B`gkesfn, ., & Akdfm, M. (5<<5). @fstaftjg bucohfnts kd nkvfm or`pajg p`ttfrns2 `n`mysfs

kd jncjvjcu`m bucohfnts. \frgfptu`m `nc Hktkr Wijmms, :6(7), ?66-?44.

B`njs, J. M. (0:15). Orkuptajni2 \sygakmkojg`m stucjfs kd pkmjgy cfgjsjkns `nc dj`sgks . Ekstkn2Ekstkn2

Akuoatkn Huddmjn.

B`nsfn, @., Ikmih`n, W., Iujbpfrs, \., \rjfs, D., v`n Uffuwjbi, ., _jttfvffn, E., ft `m.

(5<<?). Ounnfn kp w``rcf (T`muf e`sfc gkntr`gt `mmkg`tjkn). Okuc`2 \WJEkuw.

B`nsfn, G. F. G. (5<<:). Mfjcr``c @`nefstfcfn (\rkgurfhfnt Oujcf). Okuc`2 Ufojfr``c

Ekuw.

B`nsfn, U., Oôssmjno, ., Hfris, J., & Ofurts, B. (5<<6). Saf Pu`mjty kd Kro`njz`tjkn`mCfgjsjkn-hìjno2 Gkmmfgtjno Cfgjsjkn Hìfrs‚ \frgfptjkn. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf FOKW

Gkmmkqujuh, Efrmjn, Ofrh`ny.

Bfngis, G. (Fc.). (0:1?). Saf @rgajtfgturf kd Cfhkgr`gy - taf \akfnjx hunjgjp`m okvfrnhfntgfntfr cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn. Mknckn2 @g`cfhy Orkups Mtc.

Bknfs, G., & Mjvnf-`r`nc`ga, U. (5<<1). Cfsjonjno ` dr`hf2 raftkrjg`m str`tfojfs kd `r-

gajtfgts. Bkurn`m kd Kro`njz`tjkn`m Efa`vjkr, 5:, 0<?6‗0<::.

Iànfh`n, C. (5<<7). @ \frspfgtjvf kn Bucohfnt `nc Gakjgf - H`ppjno EkuncfcU`tjkn`mjty. @hfrjg`n \sygakmkojst, 61(:), 4:?-?5<.

Iànfh`n, C., Wmkvjg, \., & vfrsiy, @. (0:15). Bucofhfnt uncfr Vngfrt`jnty9 Afurjstjgs`nc Ej`sfs . G`herjcof2 G`herjcof Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Iànfh`n, C., & vfrsiy, @. (0:?:). \rkspfgt afkry2 `n `n`mysjs kd cfgjsjkn uncfr rjsi.

Fgknkhftrjg`, 3?(5), 547-5:0.

Iànfh`n, C., & vfrsiy, @. (0:13). Gakjgfs, v`mufs `nc dr`hfs. @hfrjg`n \sygakmkojst(7:), 730-76<.

Iàtrj, N., & No, A. @. (5<<<). af Ukmf kd Jntujtjkn jn Wtr`tfojg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno.af Ukmf kd Jntujtjkn jn Wtr`tfojg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno.

Auh`n Ufm`tjkns, 67(0), 6?-14.I`nk, N. (0:13). @ttr`gtjvf qu`mjty nc hust-ef qu`mjty. Saf Bkurn`m kd taf B`p`nfsf Wkgjfty

dkr Pu`mjty Gkntrkm (@prjm), 7:-31.

I`pm`n, W. (0:1?). @fstaftjgs, @ddfgt, `nc Gkonjtjkn2 Fnvjrknhfnt`m \rfdfrfngf drkh `n

Fvkmutjkn`ry \frspfgtjvf. Fnvjrknhfnt `nc Efa`vjkr, 0:(0), 7-75.

I`rh`nkv, C. (5<<:). Dffmjno taf M`ncsg`pf2 Wjx \sygakmkojg`m Wtucjfs jntk M`ncsg`pfFxpfrjfngf. Vnpuemjsafc \aC, _òfnjnofn Vnjvfrsjty, _òfnjnofn.

I`zfhj`n, U., & Uônn, H. (5<<:). Djnnjsa `rgajtfgtur`m gkhpftjtjkns2 strugturf, grjtfrj``nc bucofhfnt prkgfss. Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga & Jndkrh`tjkn, 7?(5), 0?4-014.



5:5

Ifmmy, B. (5<<?). Hìjno gmjfnt v`mufs fxpmjgjt jn v`muf h`nòfhfnt wkrisakps.

Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt `nc Fgknkhjgs, 56(3), 376-335.

Ifmmy, B., H`mf, W., & Orà`h, C. (5<<3). T`muf H`nòfhfnt kd Gknstrugtjkn \rkbfgts .Kxdkrc2 Em`giwfmm \uemjsajno.

Ifnnjspkrt`m Furkpfsf @`nefstfcjno (5<<:). Uftrjfvfc 03 H`y 5<<: drkh attp2//www.

furkpfsf``nefstfcjnofn.fu.

Ifrstfn, U. @. F. H., _kmtjno, @., tfr Efiif, H. O. @., & Erfoh`n, @. O. (5<<:).

Ufjswjbzfr Ofejfcskntwjiifmjno 5<<: - ffn prìtjsgaf rkutfefsgarjbvjno vkkr h`ritp`r-tjbfn fn kvfrafcfn (Oujcfekki Vre`n @rf` Cfvfmkphfnt 5<<:) . Cfn A`ò2 Hjnjstfrjf

v`n Tkmisaujsvfstjno, Uujhtfmjbif Krcfnjno fn Hjmjfuefaffr.

Ia mjc, A. H., & Afm`ncfr, H. O. (5<<4). Gustkhfr Fhktjkn m Nffcs jn \rkcugtGustkhfr Fhktjkn`m Nffcs jn \rkcugt

Cfsjon. Gkngurrfnt Fnojnffrjno, 03(7), 0:?-5<4.

Ijfsfr, @., & _fmmstfjn, I. (5<<1). Ck @gtjvjtjfs kd Gknsumt`nts `nc H`nòfhfnt

Wgjfntjsts @ddfgt Cfgjsjkn Hìjno ey H`nòfrs; Jn O. Akcoijnskn & _. A. Wt`reugi

(Fcs.), Saf Kxdkrc A`ncekki kd Kro`njz`tjkn`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 3:6-604). Nfw Zkri2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Ijno, W. (0:17). Gk-Cfsjon2 @ \rkgfss kd Cfsjon \`rtjgjp`tjkn. Nfw Zkri2 T`n Nkstr`nc

Ufjnakmc.

Imfjn, O. (0::7). @ rfgkonjtjkn-prjhfc cfgjsjkn (U\C) hkcfm kd r`pjc cfgjsjkn hìjno.

Jn O. Imfjn, B. Kr`s`nu, U. G`mcfrwkkc & G. F. Rs`heki (Fcs.), Cfgjsjkn Hìjno jn @gtjkn2 Hkcfms `nc Hftakcs (pp. 071-03?). Nkrwkkc2 @emfx.

Imfjn, O. (0::?). af gurrfnt st`tus kd taf n`tur`mjstjg cfgjsjkn hìjno dr`hfwkri. Jn U.

W. Dmjn, Fcu`rck9 Wtrue, Hjga`fm9 H`rtjn, Mynnf (Fc.), Cfgjsjkn hìjno uncfr strfss

- fhfrojno tafhfs `nc `ppmjg`tjkns . @mcfrsakt2 @sao`tf.Imfjn, O. (0::1). Wkurgfs kd pkwfr - akw pfkpmf hìf cfgjsjkns . G`herjcof, H`ss`gausftts2

af HJ \rfss.

Imfjn, O. (5<<3). Saf \kwfr kd Jntujtjkn - Akw tk usf ykur out dffmjnos tk hìf efttfr cfgj-sjkns `t wkri . Nfw Zkri2 Gurrfngy Ckuemfc`y.

Ikfnfn, J. (5<<:, 56 Wfptfhefr). @`nefstfcjnosimjh``t jn e&u stui ounstjofr c`n jn

oww (fncfr sjtu`tjkn jn utjmjtjfs mfss nfo`tjvf ta`n jn jndr`strugturf). Gkekuw , rf-

trjfvfc drkh www.gkekuw.nm.

Ikkmwjbi, B., Ofr`fcts, U., & Ga`k-Cujvjs, H. @. E. (5<<6). \rfqu`mjdjg`tjkn kd gkntr`g-

tkrs e`sfc kn p`st pfrdkrh`ngf . Cfmdt2 Ifnnjsgfntruh Ekuwprkgfsjnnkv`tjf.Irfjnfr, I. (5<<4). @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns - @ g`sf-stucy . Gkpfnaòfn2 Gfntfr dkr

H`nòfhfnt Wtucjfs kd taf Eujmcjno \rkgfss.

Irfjnfr, I. (5<<?`). Gknstrugtjno taf gmjfnt jn `rgajtfgtur`m gkhpftjtjkn - `n ftankor`pajgstucy kd rfvf`mfc str`tfojfs . \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf FOKW 5<<?.

Irfjnfr, I. (5<<?e). Wtr`tfojg Gakjgfs jn Vninkwèmf _krmcs . Gkpfnaòfn2 Gfntfr dkr

H`nòfhfnt Wtucjfs kd taf Eujmcjno \rkgfss.

Irfjnfr, I. (5<<1). @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns - Fhpjrjg`m Kesfrv`tjkns `nc Wtr`tfojgJhpmjg`tjkns dkr @rgajtfgtur`m Djrhs . \`pfr prfsfntfc t taf @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns

Nkrcjg Wyhpksjuh.



5:7

Irkfsf, U. B., Hfjbfr, D., & Tjssgafr, A. (5<<1). Cf tkfp`ssjno v`n Furkpfsf ``nefstfcjnos-rfofms ejb `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjfs (Jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd prkgurfhfnt rumfs `t `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns) .

Cfmdt2 Kncfrzkfisjnstjtuut KE.

Iuer, H. (5<<5). H`nòfhfnt Gknsumtjno2 @ oujcf tk taf prkdfssjkn. Ofnfv`2 Jntfrn`tjkn`m

Mèkur Kddjgf.

M`hknt, H. (5<<:). Akw prkdfsskrs tajni - jnsjcf taf gurjkus wkrmc kd `g`cfhjg bucohfnt .G`herjcof, H`ss`gausftts2 A`rv`rc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

M`no, B. (0:1?). Grf`tjno `rgajtfgtur`m tafkry. Saf rkmf kd efa`vjkr`m sgjfngfs jn fnvjrknhfn-t`m cfsjon. Nfw Zkri2 T`n Nkstr`nc Ufjnakmc Gkhp`ny.

M`nodfmct, M. (5<<0). af Cfgjsjkn-Hìjno Gknstr`jnts `nc \rkgfssfs kd Or`nt \ffr

Ufvjfw, `nc afjr Fddfgts kn taf Ufvjfw Kutgkhf. Wkgj`m Wtucjfs kd Wgjfngf, 70(4),

15<-130.

M`nomfy, @., Hjntzefro, A., \jtgafr, \., \ks`c`, F., & W`jnt-H`g`ry, B. (0::6). Kpfnjno

Vp Cfgjsjkn-Hìjno2 af vjfw drkh taf Em`gi Wtkkm. Kro`njz`tjkn Wgjfngf, 4(7),

54<-5?:.

M`ns, _., & Tkmifr, M. (5<<1). Fxpmkrjno taf `ssfsshfnt kd ` bury p`nfm jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjonfcug`tjkn `nc pr`gtjgf \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf JGFUJ 5<<1. Jntfrn`tjkn`m Gkndfrfngf

kd Fcug`tjkn, Ufsf`rga `nc Jnnkv`tjkn, H`crjc.

M`rskn, H. W. (0::3). @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns `nc Cjsgursjvf Fvfnts. Safkry `ncWkgjfty, 57(3), 34:-6<3.

M`z`rus, U. W. (0::<). Fhktjkn `nc @c`pt`tjkn. Kxdkrc2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Mf C`ntfg, G. @., & Z-Mufn Ck, F. (5<<:). af hfga`njshs kd v`muf tr`nsdfr jn cfsjon

hfftjnos. Cfsjon Wtucjfs, 7<(5), 00:-07?.

Mfrnfr, W., & Ifmtnfr, C. (5<<<). Df`r, `nofr `nc rjsi. Bkurn`m kd \frskn`mjty `nc Wkgj`m\sygakmkoy, 10(0), 034-06:.

Mfrnfr, W., & jfcfns, R. (5<<4). \krtr`jt kd taf `nory cfgjsjkn hìfr. Akw `ppr`js`m tfn-

cfngjfs sa`pf `nofr‚s jndmufngf kn gkonjtjkn. Bkurn`m kd Efa`vjkr`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno,0:(5), 006-07?.

Mjpsajtz, U., Imfjn, O., & G`rrkmm, B. W. (5<<4). N`tur`mjstjg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno `nc

Kro`njz`tjkn`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno2 Fxpmkrjno taf Jntfrsfgtjkns. Kro`njz`tjkn Wtucjfs,5?(?), :0?-:57.

Mjpsajtz, U., Imfjn, O., Kr`s`nu, B., & W`m`s, F. (5<<0). ìjno stkgi kd N`tur`mjstjg

Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (Dkgus `rtjgmf). Bkurn`m kd Efa`vjkr`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno, 03(6),770-765.

Mjpst`ct, A. (5<<6, 0? nc 01 Nkvfhefr). Saf Gkhpftjtjkn jn taf Ufojkn‚s \`st, taf Ufojknjn taf Gkhpftjtjkns Duturf. \`pfr prfsfntfc t taf af \kmjtjgs kd Cfsjon2 Gkhpftjtjkns

dkr \uemjg \rkbfgts, Nfw Zkri.

Mkf, F. (5<<<). Saf T`muf kd @rgajtfgturf2 Gkntfxt `nc Gurrfnt Sajnijno . Mknckn2 UJE@

Duturf Wtucjfs.

Mkvf, \. F. C., C`vjs, \. U., Fcw`rcs, C. B., & E`gg`rjnj, C. (5<<1). Vngfrt`jnty `vkjc-

`ngf2 puemjg sfgtkr gmjfnts `nc prkgurfhfnt sfmfgtjkn. Jntfrn`tjkn`m Bkurn`m kd \uemjg

Wfgtkr H`nòfhfnt, 50(?), ?67-??4.



5:3

Mye``rt, B. (5<<1, 57 @uoust). Dkutbf2 rgajtfgt hò tkga njft Vtrfgatsf ejemjktaffi eku-

wfn (Wmjp-up2 `rgajtfgt js nkt `mmkwfc tk cfsjon mjer`ry `dtfr `mm). cf Tkmisir`nt, p. 0,

rftrjfvfc drkh www.vkmisir`nt.nm.

H``ncò, E. (5<<?). Ftfn hft ffn `ggkunt`ntsvfrim`rjno (A`vjno cjnnfr wjta `n djn`n-

gj`m st`tfhfnt). Cf @rgajtfgt (Bunf), 7<-76.

H``ncò, E. (5<<1). Ekuwiuncf - pkrtr`jt kd taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf kd Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjtykd Sfgankmkoy 0:?<-5<<1 . Cfmdt2 V Cfmdt, d`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf.Cfmdt2 V Cfmdt, d`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf.

H``rmfvfmc, H., Tkmifr, M., & v`n cfr Tkkrct, . B. H. (5<<:). Hf`surjno fhpmkyff s`t-Hf`surjno fhpmkyff s`t-

jsd`gtjkn jn nfw kddjgfs ‗ taf _KCJ tkkmijt. Bkurn`m kd D`gjmjtjfs H`nòfhfnt, ?(7),

010 - 0:?.

H`ghjmm`n, W. (5<<6). Efttfr cfsjonfc eujmcjno2 jhprkvjno taf v`mu`tjkn kd jnt`nojemfs (Wuhh`ry). G`herjcof2 Fgmjpsf Ufsf`rga Gknsumt`nts.

H`ghjmm`n, W. (5<<4). @ccfc v`muf kd okkc cfsjon. Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga & Jndkrh`tjkn,73(7), 56?-5?0.

H`ghjmm`n, W. (Fc.). (5<<3). Cfsjonjno Efttfr Eujmcjnos . Mknckn2 Wpkn \rfss.

H`nzknj, E. (5<0<). @ Gkntfnt @n`mysjs kd 76 Zf`rs kd Grkss-Cjsgjpmjn`ry Ufsf`rga kn @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns . \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf Gknstrugtjkn H`ttfrs Gkndfrfngf.

H`nzknj, E., Hkrrjs, \., & Whyta, A. (5<<:). Fqujppjno prkbfgt tf`hs tk wjn tfncfrs2 `njnsjoat jntk Jt`mj`n `rgajtfgturf prkbfgts. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf 56ta @nnu`m @UGKH

Gkndfrfngf, Nkttjnoa`h, VI.

H`r`ns, U. _., & Wprfgifmhfyfr, I. D. (0:15). Hf`surjno Kvfr`mm @rgajtfgtur`m Pu`mjty2

@ Gkhpknfnt kd Eujmcjno Fv`mu`tjkn. Fnvjrknhfnt `nc efa`vjkr, 03(4), 465-4?<.

H`rga, B. O. (0::?). Vncfrst`ncjno akw cfgjsjkns a`ppfn jn kro`njz`tjkns. Jn R. Wa`pjr`(Fc.), Kro`njz`tjkn`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno . G`herjcof VI2 G`herjcof Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

H`rga, B. O., & Wjhkn, A. @. (0:61). Kro`njz`tjkns . Nfw Zkri2 Bkan _jmfy.

H`rius, . @. (5<<7). Mfsskns drkh taf Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr. Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga &Jndkrh`tjkn, 70(6), 7::-3<6.

Hjfo, A. @. (5<<0). Saf skgj`m psygakmkoy kd fxpfrjfngf - G`sf stucjfs jn rfsf`rga, prkdfssjkn`mckh`jns, `nc fxpfrt rkmfs . Hàwà2 Frmeùh.

Hjfo, A. @. (5<<4). Wystfh fxpfrts `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno jn tr`nscjsgjpmjn`ry prkbfgts.

Jntfrn`tjkn`m Bkurn`m kd Wust`jnèjmjty jn Ajoafr Fcug`tjkn, ?(7), 730-760.

Hjmms, O. U., @ustjn, W. @., akhskn, C. W., & Cfvjnf-_rjoat, A. (5<<:). @ppmyjno `Vnjvfrs`m Gkntfnt `nc Wtrugturf kd T`mufs jn Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt. Bkurn`m kdEusjnfss Ftajgs, :<(5), 3?7-6<0.

Hjntzefro, A., @amstr`nc, E., & M`hpfm, B. (0::1). Wtr`tfoy W`d`rj2 @ oujcfc tkur tarkuoataf _jmcs kd Wtr`tfojg H`nòfhfnt . Nfw Zkri2 Drff \rfss.

Hkkrf, O. F. (0:<7). \rjngjp` Ftajg` . G`herjcof2 G`herjcof Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Hkrrfmm, I. (5<<1). af N`rr`tjvf kd ‑Fvjcfngf E`sfc‚ H`nòfhfnt2 @ pkmfhjg. Bkurn`mkd H`nòfhfnt Wtucjfs, 36(7), 407-476.



5:6

Hksjfr, I. M., & Djsgafr, V. H. (5<<:). Ckfs @ddfgt H`ttfr jn N`tur`mjstjg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno; \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf NCH:, taf Njnta Jntfrn`tjkn`m Gkndfrfngf kn N`tur`mjstjg

Cfgjsjkn Hìjno, Mknckn.

Hur`h`tsu, U., & A`nkga, Z. (5<<6). Fhktjkns `s ` Hfga`njsh dkr Ekuncfcmy U`tjkn`m

@ofnts2 af D`st `nc Druo`m _`y. Bkurn`m kd Fgknkhjg \sygakmkoy, 54(5), 5<0-550.

Nèj, U. M. (5<<7). Fxpmkrjno taf dr`hjno fddfgts kd fhktjkn2 Ck cjsgrftf fhktjkns cjd-dfrfntj`mmy jndmufngf jndkrh`tjkn `ggfssjejmjty, jndkrh`tjkn sffijno `nc pkmjgy prfdfr-

fngf. Gkhhunjg`tjkn Ufsf`rga, 7<(5), 553-53?.

N`s`r, B. M. (0::3). Vre`n Cfsjon @fstaftjgs2 taf fv`mu`tjvf qu`mjtjfs kd eujmcjno fxtfrj-

krs. Fnvjrknhfnt `nc Efa`vjkr, 54(7), 7??-3<0.

N`s`r, B. M. (0:::). Cfsjon ey Gkhpftjtjkn2 Hìjno Cfsjon Gkhpftjtjkns _kri G`herjcof

Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

N`s`r, B. M., & I`no, B. (0:1:). @ \kst-Bury Fv`mu`tjkn2 af Kajk Wt`tf Vnjvfrsjty Cfsjon @ \kst-Bury Fv`mu`tjkn2 af Kajk Wt`tf Vnjvfrsjty Cfsjon

Gkhpftjtjkn dkr ` Gfntfr dkr taf Tjsu`m @rts. Fnvjrknhfnt `nc efa`vjkr, 50(3),

343-313.

N`s`r, B. M., & \urgfmm, @. . (0::<). Efùty `nc taf ef`st fxtfncfc2 inkwmfcof, strugturf`nc fv`mu`tjkn kd akusfs ey ùstr`mj`n `rgajtfgts `nc nkn-`rgajtfgts. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t

taf J@\W, @ni`r`, urify.

Nfwgkhef, U. (5<<7). Drkh gmjfnt tk prkbfgt stìfakmcfrs2 ` stìfakmcfr h`ppjno `p-

prk`ga. Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt `nc Fgknkhjgs, 50(1), 130-131.

Njfuwfnaujs, B. A. (0:?4). Mfojtjh`tjf fn afurjstjfi v`n aft rfgatfrmjbi kkrcffm

(Mfojtjh`tjkn `nc afurjstjg kd taf mfo`m bucofhfnt). Ufgatsofmffrcf Hò`zjbn Safhjs ,3:3-606.

Nkrh`n, C. @. (5<<5). Saf cfsjon kd fvfryc`y tajnos . Nfw Zkri2 E`sjg Ekkis.

Nkwff, T. (5<<1). @rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjf kp e`sjs v`n prkgfsiw`mjtfjt - cf kntwjiifmjno v`n ffnsfmfgtjf-jnstruhfnt vkkr Furkpfsf ``nefstfcjnofn (@rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn e`sfc kn prkgfss qu`-mjtjfs). Vnpuemjsafc HWg, Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy, Cfmdt.Vnpuemjsafc HWg, Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy, Cfmdt.

Knt`rjk @sskgj`tjkn kd @rgajtfgts (5<<1). Akw tk Djnc, Wfmfgt `nc Fnoòf `n @rgajtfgt

Vsjno Pu`mjty E`sfc Wfmfgtjkn (PEW) Uftrjfvfc 0 Cfgfhefr 5<<:, drkh www.k``.

kn.g`.

Kr`s`nu, B., & Wtrùga, E. (0::3). Sfhpkr`m d`gtkrs jn `vj`tjkn cfgjsjkn hìjno \`pfr prf-

sfntfc `t taf Auh`n D`gtkrs `nc Froknkhjgs Wkgjfty Hfftjno.

Ksokkc, G. F., Wugj, O. B., & `nnfneùh, \. A. (0:6?). Saf hf`surfhfnt kd hf`njno .Vre`n`2 Vnjvfrsjty kd Jmmjnkjs \rfss.

Kvfrafjc.nm (5<<:). Uftrjfvfc : H`y 5<<:, drkh www.kvfrafjc.nm.

\`rskns, H. B. (0:1?). Akw wf uncfrst`nc `rt2 ` gkonjtjvf cfvfmkphfnt`m `ggkunt kd `fstaftjgfxpfrjfngf . G`herjcof2 G`herjcof Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

\`tjbn, _. (5<<<). Sjps v`n cf rjbisekuwhffstfr ejb cf sfmfgtjf v`n `rgajtfgtfn jn aft i`-cfr v`n cf Furkpfsf ``nefstfcjno (Sjps kd taf Gajfd Okvfrnhfnt @rgajtfgt) . Ukttfrc`h2Ukttfrc`h2

Vjtofvfrjb <0<.

\ùmus, \. E., & Czjnckmft, H. . (0::7). Wkgj`m jndmufngf prkgfssfs jn orkup er`jnstkrh-Wkgj`m jndmufngf prkgfssfs jn orkup er`jnstkrh-

jno. Bkurn`m kd \frskn`mjty `nc Wkgj`m \sygakmkoy, 43(3), 6?6-614.



5:4

\ftfrs, F., T`stdb`mm, C., O`rmjno, ., & Wmkvjg, \. (5<<4). af rkmfs kd `ddfgt jn cfgjsjkn

hìjno. Bkurn`m kd Efa`vjkr`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno, 0:(5), ?:-16.

\ajmjp, C. (0::4). Fss`y2 af pr`gtjg`m d`jmurf kd `rgajtfgtur`m psygakmkoy. Bkurn`m kdFnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy, 04(7), 5??-513.

\ajmmjps, W., H`rtjn, B., C`jnty, @. U. B., & \rjgf, @. C. D. (5<<?). Vngfrt`jnty jn efst

v`muf cfgjsjkn hìjno. Bkurn`m kd Djn`ngj`m H`nòfhfnt jn \rkpfrty `nc Gknstrugtjkn,05(5), 47-?5.

\ajmmjps, W., H`rtjn, B., C`jnty, @. U. B., & \rjgf, @. C. D. (5<<1). @n`mysjs kd taf qu`m-

jty `ttrjeutfs usfc jn fstèmjsajno efst v`muf tfncfrs jn taf VI skgj`m akusjno sfgtkr.

Fnojnffrjno, Gknstrugtjkn `nc @rgajtfgtur`m H`nòfhfnt, 06(3), 7<?-75<.

\ajmmjps, ., H`nnjx, F., Nf`mf, H., & Orufndfmc, C. (5<<3). Cjvfrsf Orkups `nc

Jndkrh`tjkn Wa`rjno2 taf Fddfgts kd Gknorufnt jfs. Bkurn`m kd Fxpfrjhfnt`m Wkgj`m\sygakmkoy, 3<, 3:?-60<.

\J@NKk-vìorkfp @`nefstfcjnosrfgat (5<<:). @dwjbzjnosefrjgatfn fn hktjvfrjnospmjgat

(Ufbfgtjkn nktjdjg`tjkns `nc hktjv`tjkn cuty). Cfn A`ò2 \J@NKk FxpfrtjsfgfntruhCfn A`ò2 \J@NKk Fxpfrtjsfgfntruh @`nefstfcfn.

\jbn`gifr Akrcjbi, F. A., v`n cfr Efnc, O. _., & v`n Nkuauys, B. D. (5<<:).

@`nefstfcjnosrfgat9 a`ncekfi v`n aft Furkpfsf fn aft Nfcfrm`ncsf ``nefstfcjnosrfgat(\rkgurfhfnt M`w - A`ncekki kd Furkpf`n `nc Cutga prkgurfhfnt m`w) (3 fc.). afaf

Aòuf2 WCV Vjtofvfrjb.

\jrsjo, U. H. (0:::). Rfn `nc taf @rt kd Hktkrgygmf H`jntfn`ngf - @n Jnqujry jntk T`mufs (56ta @nnjvfrs`ry fc.). Nfw Zkri2 Pujmm _jmmj`h Hkrrkw.

\mkus, W. (0::7). Saf psygakmkoy kd bucohfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno . Nfw Zkri2 HgOr`w-

Ajmm Jng.\knopfno, B., & Mjstkn, B. (5<<7). fnWfH2 ` humtjgrjtfrj` `nc humtjcfgjsjkn-hìfrs‚

hkcfm jn tfncfr fv`mu`tjkn. Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt `nc Fgknkhjgs, 50(0), 50-7<.

\ksnfr, U. @. (5<<1). Akw bucofs tajni . G`herjcof, H`ss`gausftts2 A`rv`rc Vnjvfrsjty

\rfss.

\kstfm, C. B. (5<<0, 05 Kgtkefr). Ffn okfcf `rgajtfgt affdt offn puntfn nkcjo (@ okkc

`rgajtfgt ckfs nkt nffc pkjnts). Tkmisir`nt . Uftrjfvfc drkh www.vkmisir`nt.nm.

\r`s`c, W. (5<<3`). Gm`rjdyjno jntfntjkns2 taf Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkr. Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga& Jndkrh`tjkn, 75(4), 631-660.

\r`s`c, W. (5<<3e). Jngmusjvf h`ps. Jn W. H`ghjmm`n (Fc.), Cfsjonjno Efttfr Eujmcjnos (pp.0?6-013). Mknckn VI2 Wpkn \rfss.

\rfjsfr, _. D. F., Uèjnkwjtz, A. R., & _ajtf, F. (0:11). \kst-kggup`ngy fv`mu`tjkn. Nfw

Zkri2 T`n Nkstr`nc Ufjnakmc.

\rjns, H. (5<<:). @rgajtfgtur`m v`muf. Jn W. Fhhjtt, H. \rjns & @. Cfn Kttfr

(Fcs.), @rgajtfgtur`m h`nòfhfnt - Jntfrn`tjkn`m rfsf`rga `nc pr`gtjgf . Gajgafstfr2

_jmfy-Em`giwfmm.

\rkvjngf kd Vtrfgat (5<<:). Uftrjfvfc : H`y 5<<:, drkh www.prkvjngjf-utrfgat.nm.

\umt`r, H. (0::4). @ gkngfptu`m dr`hfwkri dkr v`muf jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. \`pfr prf-

sfntfc `t taf J@\W, Wtkgiakmh.



5:?

\urgfmm, @. . (0:14). Fnvjrknhfnt`m \frgfptjkn `nc @ddfgt2 @ Wgafh` Cjsgrfp`ngy

Hkcfm. Fnvjrknhfnt `nc efa`vjkr, 01(7), 7-7<.

Ufojfr``c-Ekuw (5<<6). Kpcr`gatofvfrs ``n aft wkkrc (Gmjfnts spfì). Okuc`2 Ufojfr``cOkuc`2 Ufojfr``c

Ekuw.

Ufnjfr, E., & Tkmifr, M. (5<<1). Saf @rgajtfgt `s ` Wystfh Jntfor`tkr; \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf

53ta @nnu`m @UGKH Gkndfrfngf, G`rcjdd, VI.

Ukeejns, W. \., & Bucof, . @. (5<<1). Fssfntj`ms kd Kro`njz`tjkn`m Efa`vjkr (njnta fc.).

Vppfr W`ccmf Ujvfr2 \f`rskn \rfntjgf A`mm Jng.

Ukejnskn, J. H. (Fc.). (0:?5). Cfgjsjkn-Hìjno jn Vre`n \m`nnjno - `n jntrkcugtjkn tknfw hftakckmkojfs . Efvfrmy Ajmms/Mknckn2 Wòf \uemjg`tjkns.

Ukif`ga, H. (0:?7). Saf N`turf kd Auh`n T`mufs . Nfw Zkri2 Drff \rfss.

Uônn, H. (5<<1). @rgajtfgtur`m \kmjgjfs `nc taf Cjmfhh`s kd @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns .\`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns Nkrcjg Wyhpksjuh.

Uônn, H. (5<0<). Fxpfrtjsf `nc bucohfnt jn `rgajtfgtur`m gkhpftjtjkns - @ tafkry dkr `ssfss-jno `rgajtfgturf qu`mjty . \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf Gknstrugtjkn H`ttfrs Gkndfrfngf.

Ukkzfneuro, N. D. H., & Ffifms, B. (0::6). \rkcugt Cfsjon2 Dunc`hfnt`ms `nc Hftakcs .Gajgafstfr2 _jmfy.

Uksfn, H., W`m`s, F., Mykns, U., & Djkrf, W. H. (5<<1). Fxpfrtjsf `nc n`tur`mjstjg cfgj-

sjkn hìjno2 hfga`njshs kd fddfgtjvf cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jn O. Akcoijnskn & _. A.

Wt`reugi (Fcs.), Saf Kxdkrc A`ncekki kd Kro`njz`tjkn`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 500-

57<). Nfw Zkri2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Uujtfr, A., Ekfr, N.-J., Eujbs, W., Tfrsfnc``m, B., cf Erujn, @., Irkfsf, F., ft `m. (5<<:).

Dfjtfnkncfrzkfi vkkrw``rcfn jn cf ``nefstfcjnosprìtjbi (Jnqujry rfqujrfhfnt jn prkgu-rfhfnt pr`gtjgf). Vtrfgat2 Efrfnsgakt.Vtrfgat2 Efrfnsgakt.

Uunfskn, O., & Wijthkrf, H. (0:::). fncfrjno tafkry rfvjsjtfc. Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt`nc Fgknkhjgs, 0?(7), 516-5:4.

Uussfmm, B. @., _`rc, M. H., & \r`tt, O. (0:10). @ddfgtjvf qu`mjty `ttrjeutfc tk fnvjrkn-

hfnts2 @ d`gtkr `n`mytjg stucy. Fnvjrknhfnt `nc efa`vjkr, 07(7), 56:-511.

Uussk, B. F., & Wgakfhìfr, \. A. (5<<5). Cfgjsjkns - Ofttjno jt Ujoat taf djrst Sjhf . Nfw

Zkri2 Gurrfngy Ckuemfc`y/U`nckh Akusf Jng.

W`cmfr-Whjta, F., & Wp`rrkw, \. U. (5<<1). Jntujtjkn jn Kro`njz`tjkn`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno.

Jn O. Akcoijnskn & _. A. Wt`reugi (Fcs.), Saf Kxdkrc A`ncekki kd Kro`njz`tjkn`mCfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 7<6-753). Nfw Zkri2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Wò`myn, M. E. (5<<6). Saf \kmjtjg`m Dèrjg kd Cfsjon Gkhpftjtjkns. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf

af \kmjtjgs kd Cfsjon2 Gkhpftjtjkns dkr \uemjg \rkbfgts, Nfw Zkri.

W`m`s, F., Eurif, G. W., & Wtòm, I. G. (5<<3). Cfvfmkpjno tf`hs `nc tf`h mf`cfrs2 str`t-

fojfs `nc prjngjpmfs. Jn C. C`y, W. B. R`gg`rk & W. H. A`mpjn (Fcs.), Mf`cfr cf-vfmkphfnt dkr tr`nsdkrhjno kro`njz`tjkns2 orkwjno mf`cfrs dkr tkhkrrkw (pp. 756-766).

Hàwà, Nfw Zkri2 M`wrfngf Frmeùh @sskgj`tfs Jng.



5:1

W`m`s, F., Uksfn, H. @., Eurif, G. W., Okkcwjn, O. D., & Djkrf, W. (5<<4). af Hìjno

kd ` Crf`h f`h2 _afn fxpfrt tf`hs ck efst. Jn I. @. Frjgsskn, N. Ga`rnfss, \.

B. Dfmtkvjga & U. U. Akddh`n (Fcs.), G`herjcof A`ncekki kd Fxpfrtjsf `nc Fxpfrt\frdkrh`ngf . Nfw Zkri2 G`herjcof Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Wàngafz, H., \r`ts, D., @ofmm, N., & Krh`zè`m, O. (5<<6). Humtj-Grjtfrj` Fv`mu`tjkn

dkr T`muf H`nòfhfnt jn Gjvjm Fnojnffrjno. Bkurn`m kd H`nòfhfnt jn Fnojnffrjno,50(7), 070-07?.

W`nofr, B. (0::4). Saf gkhpmf`t kesfrvfr; @ djfmc rfsf`rga oujcf tk kesfrv`tjkn . Mknckn2 af

D`mhfr \rfss.

W`nkdd, A. (5<<4). Humtjpmf vjfws kd p`rtjgjp`tkry cfsjon. HFSV Bkurn`m kd taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf, 57(5), 070-037.

Wùncfrs, _. W. (5<<?). Drkh `stf tk Bucohfnt2 Humtjpmf Grjtfrj` jn taf Fv`mu`tjkn

kd @rgajtfgturf. Jn _. W. Wùncfrs (Fc.), Bucojno `rgajtfgtur`m v`muf (pp. 05:-03:).

Hjnnfskt`2 Vnjvfrsjty kd Hjnnfskt` \rfss.

Wgajddfrstfjn, A. N. B., & Afiifrt, \. (Fcs.). (5<<1).(5<<1). \rkcugt fxpfrjfngf . @hstfrc`h2Fmsfvjfr.

Wgaôn, C. @. (0::0). Saf Ufdmfgtjvf \r`gtjtjknfr2 Akw \rkdfssjkn`ms Sajni jn @gtjkn.

@mcfrsakt VI2 @vfeury.

Wgaw`rtz, W. A., & Ekfanif, I. (5<<3). Fv`mu`tjno taf Wtrugturf kd Auh`n T`mufs wjta

Gkndjrh`tkry D`gtkr @n`mysjs. Bkurn`m kd Ufsf`rga jn \frskn`mjty, 71, 57<-566.

Wfntfr Nkvfh (5<<:). Jnnkv`tjkn Jntfmmjofngf2 Tfrifnnjno Grf`tjfvf Jncustrjf (Jnnkv`tjknJntfmmjofngf2 fnqujrjfs kd taf grf`tjvf jncustry). Cfn A`ò2 Wfntfr Nkvfh.

Wa`pjrk, W., & Wpfngf, H. . (0::?). H`nòfrj`m Jntujtjkn2 @ gkngfptu`m `nc Kpfr`tjkn`m

Dr`hfwkri. Eusjnfss Akrjzkns, 3<(0), 47-41.

Wjmvfrefrofr, B. (5<0<). Jn kr Kut - Dkmmkwjno ` gkntrkvfrsj`m `rgajtfgtur`m prkbfgt trakuoatarff c`ys kd bury sfssjkns . \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf Gknstrugtjkn H`ttfrs.

Wjmvfrh`n, C. (5<<?). @ vfry sakrt, d`jrmy jntfrfstjno `nc rf`sknèmy gaf`p ekki èkut qu`mj-t`tjvf rfsf`rga. Mks @nofmfs2 Wòf.

Wjhkn, A. @. (0:1?). Hìjno h`nòfhfnt cfgjsjkns2 taf rkmf kd jntujtjkn `nc fhktjkn.

@g`cfhy kd H`nòfhfnt Fxfgutjvf , 0(0), 6?-43.

Wjhkn, A. @. (0::?). @chjnjstr`tjvf Efa`vjkr2 @ Wtucy kd Cfgjsjkn-Hìjno \rkgfssfs jnWtr`tfojg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno \rkgfssfs jn @chjnjstr`tjvf Kro`njz`tjkns. (3ta fc.). Nfw

Zkri2 H`gHjmm`n.

Wjngm`jr, H., & @sai`n`sy, N. H. (5<<6). Jntujtjkn2 Hyta kr ` Cfgjsjkn-hìjno tkkm;

H`nòfhfnt Mf`rnjno, 74(7), 767-7?<.

Wmùoatfr, F. W. (5<<3). CPJ2 taf cyn`hjgs kd cfsjon v`mufs `nc `ssfsshfnt. EujmcjnoUfsf`rga & Jndkrh`tjkn, 75(7), 536-534.

Wnfmmfn, J. . H. (0:1?). Ekfjfnc fn ofekfjc - `hejv`mfntjfs fn `hejtjfs jn cf efstuur-siuncf (D`sgjn`tjno `nc Ga`jnfc - `hejv`mfngf `nc `hejtjkns jn puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn).

@mpafn ``n cfn Ujbn2 W`hskn A.C. bffni _jmmjni.



5::

Wnjfzfi, B. @., \`fsf, \. _., & Wwjtzfr JJJ, D. W. (0::<). af fddfgt kd gakksjno kn gkn-af fddfgt kd gakksjno kn gkn-

djcfngf jn gakjgf. Kro`njz`tjkn`m Efa`vjkr `nc Auh`n Cfgjsjkn \rkgfssfs, 34(5),

543-515.

Wk`nf, F., & Njgakmskn, N. (5<<1). Jncjvjcu`m Cjddfrfngfs `nc Cfgjsjkn Hìjno. Jn

O. Akcoijnskn & _. A. Wt`reugi (Fcs.), Saf Kxdkrc A`ncekki kd Kro`njz`tjkn`m

Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 735-74<). Nfw Zkri2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.Wpfjfr, G., T`m`gjga, B. W., & Tfssfy, J. (0:::). af jndmufngf kd t`si af jndmufngf kd t`si jntfrruptjkn kn jn-

cjvjcu`m cfgjsjkn hìjno2 `n jndkrh`tjkn kvfrmk`c pfrspfgtjvf. Cfgjsjkn Wgjfngfs, 7< ,77?-76:.

Wpkrrkno, B., & Erôganfr, B. (5<<:). \uemjg \rkgurfhfnt Jngfntjvfs dkr Wust`jnèmf Cfsjon

Wfrvjgfs2 Wwfcjsa Fxpfrjfngfs. @rgajtfgtur`m Fnojnffrjno `nc Cfsjon H`nòfhfnt, 6,

53-76.

Wprfjrfofn, \. C. (0:?:). Cfsjon Gkhpftjtjkns . Nfw Zkri2 HgOr`w-Ajmm Ekki Gkhp`ny.

Wprfjrfofn, \. C. (5<<1). Saf Tjftn`h Tftfr`ns Hfhkrj`m Cfsjon Gkhpftjtjkn. \`pfr prf-

sfntfc t taf @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns Nkrcjg Wyhpksjuh, Wtkgiakmh.

Wtìf, U. (0::6). Saf `rt kd g`sf rfsf`rga. akus`nc Kìs, G@2 Wòf \uemjg`tjkns.

Wt`nkvjga, I. F., & _fst, U. D. (5<<<). Jncjvjcu`m cjddfrfngfs jn Uf`sknjno2 Jhpmjg`tjkns

dkr taf U`tjkn`mjty Cfe`tf; Efa`vjkr`m `nc Er`jn Wgjfngfs, 56(6), 436-446.

Wt`ssfr, O., & jtus, _. (0:16). \kkmjno kd Vnsa`rfc Jndkrh`tjkn jn Orkup Cfgjsjkn

Hìjno2 Ej`sfc Jndkrh`tjkn W`hpmjno Curjno Cjsgussjkns. Bkurn`m kd \frskn`mjty `ncWkgj`m \sygakmkoy, 31, 034?-03?1.

Wtjgatjno @`nefstfcjnosjnstjtuut Ekuwfnc Nfcfrm`nc (5<<:). Ufsumt`tfn ``nefstf-

cjnosrfojstr`tjf ffrstf afmdt 5<<1 (Ufsumts tfncfr rfojstr`tjkn djrst a`md kd taf yf`r

5<<1), Uftrfjvfc 56 Dferu`ry 5<<:, drkh attp2//www.``nefstfcjnosjnstjtuut.nm/kvfrzjgat-st`tjstjfifn.

Wtjgatjno Ekuwrfsf`rga (0:1<). @rgajtfgtuurwfcstrjbcfn n`cfr efififn (@ gmksfr mkki `t @rgajtfgtur`m Cfsjon Gkhpftjtjkns ). Cfvfntfr2 Imuwfr fganjsgaf Ekfifn ET.

Wtjgatjno Eurfù @rgajtfgtfnrfojstfr (5<<?). B``rvfrsmò 5<<? (@nnu`m Ufpkrt 5<<?). Cfn

A`ò2 Wtjgatjno Eurfù @rgajtfgtfnrfojstfr.

Wtjgatjno Eurfù @rgajtfgtfnrfojstfr (5<<:). _`t ckft aft WE@; (_a`t ckfs taf WE@ ck;)(_a`t ckfs taf WE@ ck;)

Uftrjfvfc 5? Nkvfhefr 5<<:, drkh attp2//www.`rgajtfgtfnrfojstfr.nm/.

Wtrkfef, _., & Cjfam, H. (0::3). _ay Orkups `rf mfss Fddfgtjvf ta`n tafjr Hfhefrs2 Kn

\rkcugtjvjty Mkssfs jn Jcf`-ofnfr`tjno Orkups. Furkpf`n Ufvjfw kd Wkgj`m \sygakmkoy,6(03?:-5??Q), 5?0 - 7<7.

Wtrkno, B. (0:?4). \`rtjgjp`tjno jn `rgajtfgtur`m gkhpftjtjkns2 @ oujcf dkr gkhpftjtkrs, prk-hktkrs `nc `ssfsskrs . Mknckn2 af @rgajtfgtur`m \rfss Mtc.

Wtrkno, B. (0::4). _jnnjno ey Cfsjon - @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns . Kxdkrc2 Euttfrwkrta

@rgajtfgturf.

Wucbjg, C. (5<<6). Gkhpftjtjkns2 taf \jtd`mms `nc taf \ktfntj`ms. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf af

\kmjtjgs kd Cfsjon2 Gkhpftjtjkns dkr \uemjg \rkbfgts, Nfw Zkri.



7<<

Wutgmjddf, I. H., & _fjgi, I. F. (5<<1). Jndkrh`tjkn kvfrmk`c rfvjsjtfc. Jn O. Akcoijnskn

& _. A. Wt`reugi (Fcs.), Saf Kxdkrc A`ncekki kd Kro`njz`tjkn`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 64-?6). Nfw Zkri2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Wvfnsskn, G. (5<<1). Wpfìjno kd @rgajtfgturf - ` stucy kd taf bury‚s `ssfsshfnt jn taf jn-vjtfc gkhpftjtjkn kd `n fcug`tjkn`m gfntrf jn Aòdkrs, Wwfcfn . \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf

@rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns Nkrcjg Wyhpksjuh, Wtkgiakmh.Wvfnsskn, G. (5<0<). Kn Pu`mjty @ssfsshfnt jn `n @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkn. \`pfr prf-

sfntfc `t taf Gknstrugtjkn H`ttfrs Gkndfrfngf, Gkpfnaòfn.

ftmkgi, \. (0:17). @ggkuntèjmjty `nc taf Gkhpmfxjty kd akuoat. Bkurn`m kd \frskn`mjty`nc Wkgj`m \sygakmkoy, 36, ?3-17.

ftmkgi, \. (0::5). af Jhp`gt kd @ggkuntèjmjty kn Bucofhfnt `nc Gakjgf2 kw`rc `

Wkgj`m Gkntjnofngy Hkcfm. @cv`ngfs jn Fxpfrjhfnt`m Wkgj`m \sygakmkoy, 56, 770-7?4.

funjssfn, M. (5<<:). Ffn `ncfrf ijbi kp cf prìtjbi (@nktafr mkki `t pr`gtjgf). Cf @rgajtfgt, 3<(3), 33-3:.

akhpskn, C. D. (0:1<). Hkr`m rfspknsjejmjty kd puemjg kddjgj`ms2 af prkemfh kd h`ny

a`ncs. Saf @hfrjg`n \kmjtjg`m Wgjfngf Ufvjfw, ?3, :<6-:04.

akhskn, C. W., @ustjn, W. @., Cfvjnf-_rjoat, A., & Hjmms, O. U. (5<<7). H`nòjno

v`muf `nc qu`mjty jn cfsjon. Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga & Jndkrh`tjkn, 70(6), 773-736.

ayssfn, H. A., Fhhjtt, W., Eknif, W., & Ijri-Garjstkddfrsfn, @. (5<0<). D`gjmjt`tjno D`gjmjt`tjno

Gmjfnt T`muf Grf`tjkn jn taf Gkngfptu`m Cfsjon \a`sf kd Gknstrugtjkn \rkbfgts2 @

_krisakp @pprk`ga. @rgajtfgtur`m Fnojnffrjno `nc Cfsjon H`nòfhfnt, 4, 01-7<.

khefsj, \. (5<<4). Okkc tajnijno `nc pkkr v`muf2 kn taf skgj`mjz`tjkn kd inkwmfcof jn

gknstrugtjkn. Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga & Jndkrh`tjkn, 73(7), 5?5-514.

vfrsiy, @., & Iànfh`n, C. (0:?3). Bucofhfnt uncfr ungfrt`jnty2 afurjstjgs `nc ej`sfs

Wgjfngf (016), 0053-0070.

vfrsiy, @., & Iànfh`n, C. (0:10). af dr`hjno kd cfgjsjkns `nc taf psygakmkoy kd

gakjgf. Wgjfngf (550), 0053-0070.

T`m`cfz, B. B. (0:13). Cjvfrojno hf`njnos kd cfvfmkphfnt `hkno `rgajtfgts `nc tarff

ktafr prkdfssjkn`m orkups. Bkurn`m kd Fnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy, 3(7), 557-551.

v`n G`hpfn, B., & Afncrjisf, B. (0::?). Ikhp`s - a`ncmfjcjno fn vkkreffmchkcfmmfn ejbaft ujtsgarjbvfn v`n prjbsvròfn fn hffrvkucjof kpcr`gatfn kp aft ofejfc v`n `rgajtfg-tuur, stfcfekuw fn m`ncsga`ps`rgajtfgtuur (‑Ikhp`s‚ - Oujcfmjnfs `nc hkcfms dkr cfsjon

gkhpftjtjkns) . Ukttfrc`h2 Vjtofvfrjb <0<.Ukttfrc`h2 Vjtofvfrjb <0<.

v`n cfn Erjni, H. (5<<:). Efajnc taf Wgfnfs kd Wgjfngf. Ofncfr pr`gtjgfs jn taf rfgrujthfnt`nc sfmfgtjkn kd prkdfsskrs jn taf Nftafrm`ncs. Vnpuemjsafc \aC, U`cekuc Vnjvfrsjty

Njbhfofn, Njbhfofn.

T`n cfn Ckeefmstffn, @. @. B. D. (5<<3). Saf Wust`jnèmf Kddjgf. @n fxpmkr`tjkn kd taf pk-tfntj`m dkr d`gtkr 5< fnvjrknhfnt`m jhprkvfhfnt kd kddjgf `ggkhhkc`tjkn Vnpuemjsafc

\aC, Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy, Cfmdt.

v`n cfn Auri, U. (5<<1). Ufsumt`tfn Efcrjbdsvfrofmjbifnc kncfrzkfi (ETK) 5<<1 (Ufsumts

Djrh Gkhp`rjskn 5<<1). EN@EM@C (:), 0<-00.



7<0

v`n cfn Auri, U. (5<<:). Ufncfhfntfn `rgajtfgtfner`ngaf kncfr crui (Ufturns `rgaj-

tfgturf sfgtkr uncfr prfssurf). EN@EM@C (0), 0<-00.

v`n cfr \km, M., Erkuwfr, B., B`nsfn, G., Hfnsjni, B., & Offrtsf, H. (5<<:). Furkp` fn cf`rgajtfgtfn - Wt`nc v`n zìfn jn cf cjsgussjf kvfr Furkpfsf ``nefstfcjnofn v`n `rgajtfg-tfncjfnstfn (Furkpf `nc taf `rgajtfgts - taf st`tf kd `dd`jrs). Cfn A`ò2 Hjnjstfrjf v`n

TUKH/@tfmjfr Ujbisekuwhffstfr & @rgajtfgtuur Mki``m.v`n cfr Tkkrct, C. B. H., & v`n _fofn, A. E. U. (5<<6). @rgajtfgturf jn Vsf2 `n jntrk-

cugtjkn tk taf prkor`hhjno, cfsjon `nc fv`mu`tjkn kd eujmcjnos . Kxdkrc2 @rgajtfgtur`m

\rfss.

v`n Fmckni, B. (5<<1). \rkbfgtkntwjiifmjno fn cf `rgajtfgt (\rkbfgt cfvfmkphfnt `nc taf

`rgajtfgt) A`ncekfi prkbfgtkntwjiifmjno (pp. 75<-75:)2 Uffc Eusjnfss.

v`n Offms, @. A. \., & Irjfns, B. (5<<:). Tkkrcr`gat kntwfrp st`csi`ntkkrTkkrcr`gat kntwfrp st`csi`ntkkr

(Ufgkhhfnc`tjkn cfsjon Gjty a`mm), Mfttfr tk taf Gjty Gkungjm . Ukttfrc`h2 Fxfgutjvf

Ek`rc Gjty kd Ukttfrc`h.

v`n A`rcfvfmt, J. C., & Wgaônù, _. D. (5<<:, 7< Kgtkefr). @rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjf `ms pkm-cfrkpmkssjno (@rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn `s pkmcfr skmutjkn). Gkekuw , rftrjfvfc drkh attp2//

www.gkekuw.nm.

v`n Mkkn, \. \., Afurifns, F., & Erkniakrst, W. (5<<1). Saf Vre`n Cfgjsjkn Ukkh - @nVre`n H`nòfhfnt Jnstruhfnt . @hstfrc`h2 Vjtofvfrjb JKW \rfss. @hstfrc`h2 Vjtofvfrjb JKW \rfss.

v`n Ukheuroa, A. C. (5<<6). Kp wfo n``r ffn njfuw ``nefstfcjnosrfgatfmjbi i`cfr jnNfcfrm`nc. Ffn prkfvf v`n ffn wft vkkr aft vfrstrfiifn v`n kvfrafjcskpcr`gatfn. (Skw`rcs (Skw`rcs` nfw prkgurfhfnt dr`hf jn taf Nftafrm`ncs). Cfvfntfr2 Imuwfr.

v`n Ukssuh, A., & cf _jmct, U. (0::4). Ujbisaujsvfstjno jn kntwjiifmjno (Okvfrnhfnt`m

Uf`m Fst`tf jn cfvfmkphfnt). Ukttfrc`h2 N@J \uemjsafrs.v`n _fzfh`fm, B. F. (5<<1). Saf Gkhpmfxjty kd Gkhpftjtjkns . \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf

@rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns Nkrcjg Wyhpksjuh, Wtkgiakmh.

v`n _jbno``rcfn, H. @., & Ga`k-Cujvjs, H. @. E. (5<0<`). Cffm 0? Ekuw-fn @`nefstfcjnosrfgat (Eujmcjno `nc \rkgurfhfnt M`w \`rt 0?) (4 fc.). Rutpafn2 Vjtofvfrjb

\`rjs.

v`n _jbno``rcfn, H. @., & Ga`k-Cujvjs, H. @. E. (5<0<e). Cffm 01 Ekuw- fn @`nefstfcjnosrfgat (Eujmcjno `nc \rkgurfhfnt M`w \`rt 01) (4 fc.). Rutpafn2 Vjtofvfrjb

\`rjs.

Tfrou, T. (5<<1). Uftrjfvfc 5< Bunf 5<<1 drkhUftrjfvfc 5< Bunf 5<<1 drkh attp2//www.eujmcjnodkrekuwiuncf.nm/grf`tjvfdfstjv`m/.

Tjc`jmmft, E. (5<<1). _afn ‑cfgjsjkn kutgkhfs‚ `rf nkt taf kutgkhfs kd cfgjsjkns. Jn

O. Akcoijnskn & _. A. Wt`reugi (Fcs.), Saf Kxdkrc A`ncekki kd Kro`njz`tjkn`mCfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 301-374). Nfw Zkri2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Tjsgafr, B., & \rfjsfr, _. D. F. (5<<3). @ssfssjno Eujmcjno \frdkrh`ngfs . Mknckn2

Euttfrwkrta-Afjnfh`nn.

Tjssfr, C. (5<<:). Cf rfgatfrmjbif efsmjssjno (jn JF-zìfn) (af cfgjsjkn kd taf bucof).

Ekfi:.nm, E:101: (04 Wfptfhefr 5<<:).



7<5

Tjtruvjus, \., & Hkro`n, H. A. (0:4<). Tjtruvjus2 taf tfn ekkis kn `rgajtfgturf (H. A.

Hkro`n, r`ns.). Nfw Zkri,2 Ckvfr \uemjg`tjkns.Nfw Zkri,2 Ckvfr \uemjg`tjkns.`tjkns.

Tkofms, U., Hkkjerkfi, H., & cf Trjfs, N. (5<<1). Er`ngafkncfrzkfi EN@ 5<<? (Er`ngaUfsf`rga EN@ 5<<?). @hstfrc`h2 EN@ - Wtr`tus.

Tkmifr, M., & Ga`k-Cujvjs, H. @. E. (5<0<). \ktfntj`m gkndmjgts wjta prkgurfhfnt m`w

curjno `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf GJE _krmc Gknorfss 5<0<, W`mdkrcPu`ys - VI.

Tkmifr, M., & cf Bknof, A. (5<<?). Hftakckmkojg`m rfdmfgtjkns kn g`sf-rfsf`rga dkr p`rt-nfr sfmfgtjkn jn `rgajtfgturf. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf ajrc Wgkttjsa Gkndfrfngf dkr

\kstor`cu`tf Ufsf`rgafrs kd taf Eujmt `nc N`tur`m Fnvjrknhfnt (\UkEF), Om`sokw.

Tkmifr, M., & Afjntz, B. (5<<?). Nfoktj`tjno cfsjon gkmmèkr`tjkn jn `rgajtfgturf2 ` g`sfstucy kd ` Furkpf`n cfsjon tfncfr. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf 5<<? Gknstrugtjkn Ufsf`rga

Gknorfss, Or`nc Eà`h` Jsm`nc, Eà`h`s.

Tkmifr, M., & Mùgaf, I. (5<<1). Cfsjonjno ` cfgjsjkn hìjno dr`hfwkri dkr bucojno cfsjon

qu`mjty. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf 53ta FOKW (Furkpf`n Orkup kd Kro`njs`tjkn Wtucjfs)gkmmkqujuh, @hstfrc`h.

Tkmifr, M., Mùgaf, I., Afjntz, B. M., & cf Bknof, A. (5<<1). Cfgjcjno èkut cfsjon qu`m-Cfgjcjno ekut cfsjon qu`m-

jty2 cfsjon pfrgfptjkn curjno ` Furkpf`n tfncfrjno prkgfcurf. Cfsjon Wtucjfs, 5:(3),

71?-3<:.

Tkmm``rc, \. (5<<:`). Ikhp`s Mjoat2 ``nefstfcjnosmfjcr``c nu knmjnf (Ikhp`s Mjoat2 tfn-

cfr h`nu`m nkw knmjnf) Uftrjfvfc 06 Cfgfhefr 5<<:, drkh www.`rgajnfc.nm.

Tkmm``rc, \. (5<<:e). ‑_f zjttfn okfc kp cf Bumj`n`m``n, vkkr`m offn jgknfn fn mfvf cf

b`rfn zfvfntjo‚ (‑Kur gurrfnt `ggkhhkc`tjkn kn taf Bumj`n`m``n dungtjkns wfmm, p`r-

tjgum`rmy nk jgkns `nc mkno mjvf taf sfvfntjfs‚). Uftrjfvfc 06 H`rga 5<<:, drkh www.`rgajnfc.nm.

vkn Nfuh`nn, B., & Hkrofnstfrn, K. (0:3?). Safkry kd o`hfs `nc fgknkhjg efa`vjkr .\rjngftkn2 \rjngftkn Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

vkn _jntfrdfmct, C., & Fcw`rcs, _. (0:14). Cfgjsjkn `n`mysjs `nc efa`vjkr`m rfsf`rga.

G`herjcof VI2 G`herjcof Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.

Trkkh, T. A., & Bòk, @. O. (0:11). Saf nfw mf`cfrsajp, h`nòjno p`rtjgjp`tjkn jn kro`nj-z`tjkns . Fnomfwkkc Gmjdds, Nfw Bfrsfy2 \rfntjgf A`mm.

_`mcfn, C., Efrofr, G., Emùta, U., Ekofr, C., Ekmstfr, G., Eurgajmm, O., ft `m. (0::7).(0::7).

I`nk‚s Hftakcs dkr Vncfrst`ncjno Gustkhfr-cfdjnfc Pu`mjty. Gfntfr dkr Pu`mjty H`nòfhfnt Bkurn`m, 3(5), 0-7?.

_`ncàm, W. (5<<3). T`muf g`rrjfrs jn ` gknstrugtjkn prkbfgt - akw cjddfrfnt `rf tafy; \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf 05ta @nnu`m Gkndfrfngf kn Mf`n Gknstrugtjkn Afmsjnoñr,

C`nh`ri.

_`ncàm, W. (5<<6). T`muf jn Eujmcjno. Vnpuemjsafc \aC, @mekro Vnjvfrsjty, Cfnh`ri,

@`mekro.

_`tt, C. B., I`yjs, E., & _jmmfy, I. (5<0<). af rfm`tjvf jhpkrt`ngf kd tfncfr fv`mu`tjkn

`nc gkntr`gtkr sfmfgtjkn grjtfrj`. Jntfrn`tjkn`m Bkurn`m kd \rkbfgt H`nòfhfnt, 51(0),

60-4<.



7<7

_femfr, ., umfr, W., & Irufofr, U. (5<<0). _a`t Js ` Okkc \uemjg \`rtjgjp`tjkn \rkgfss; _a`t Js ` Okkc \uemjg \`rtjgjp`tjkn \rkgfss;

Djvf \frspfgtjvfs drkh taf \uemjg. Fnvjrknhfnt`m H`nòfhfnt, 5?(7), 376-36<.

_fjgi, I. F. (0:4:). Saf skgj`m psygakmkoy kd kro`njzjno . Nfw Zkri2 HgOr`w Ajmm.

_fjgi, I. F. (0::6). Wfnsfhìjno jn Kro`njz`tjkns . akus`nc Kìs G@2 Wòf

\uemjg`tjkns.

_fjgi, I. F., & Wutgmjddf, I. H. (5<<0). H`nòjno taf Vnfxpfgtfc . W`n Dr`ngjsgk, G@2

Bkssfy-E`ss.

_fjgi, I. F., Wutgmjddf, I. H., & Kestdfmc, C. (0:::). Kro`njzjno dkr ajoa rfmjèjmjty2

\rkgfssfs kd gkmmfgtjvf hjncdumnfss Ufsf`rga jn Kro`njz`tjkn`m Efa`vjkr, 50, 10-057.

_fjgi, I. F., Wutgmjddf, I. H., & Kestdfmc, C. (5<<6). Kro`njzjno `nc taf \rkgfss kd

Wfnsfhìjno. Kro`njz`tjkn Wgjfngf, 04(3), 3<:-350.

_fjbnfn, ., & Efrckwsij, R. (5<<:). Aft tkt`mf jnikkpvkmuhf v`n Nfcfrm`ncsf kvfra-fcfn (Skt`m \urga`sjno Tkmuhf kd taf Cutga Okvfrnhfnt). Rkftfrhffr2 Jnstjtuut vkkr

Kncfrzkfi v`n Kvfrafjcsujto`vfn (JKK ev).

_fjss, A. H., & Grkp`nz`nk, U. (0::4). @ddfgtjvf Fvfnts afkry2 @ tafkrftjg`m cjsgus- @ddfgtjvf Fvfnts afkry2 @ tafkrftjg`m cjsgus-

sjkn kd taf strugturf, gùsf `nc gknsfqufngfs kd `ddfgtjvf fxpfrjfngfs `t wkri. Jn E.

H. Wt`w & M. M. Guhhhjnos (Fcs.), Ufsf`rga jn Kro`njz`tjkn`m Efa`vjkr (Tkm. 01,

pp. 0?-0:). Orffnwjga2 B@J \rfss.

_fnctf, U. (5<<3). Wgakknafjcsefkkrcfmjnofn v`n ofekuwfn, systfh`tjsgaf vfrsgajmmfn tussfnmfifn fn `rgajtfgtfn (Wystfh`tjg cjddfrfngfs eftwffn `rgajtfgts `nc nkvjgfs jn bucojno taf`fstaftjgs kd eujmcjnos). Vnpuemjsafc HWg, Vnjvfrsjtfjt v`n @hstfrc`h, @hstfrc`h.

_aytf, B. I., & O`nn, C. H. (5<<7). Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkrs2 wkri jn prkorfss.Cfsjon Pu`mjty Jncjg`tkrs2 wkri jn prkorfss.

Eujmcjno Ufsf`rga & Jndkrh`tjkn, 70(6), 71?-7:1.

_aytf, B. I., O`nn, C. H., & W`mtfr, @. B. (5<<3). Eujmcjno jncjg`tkrs kd cfsjon qu`m-

jty. Jn W. H`gHjmm`n (Fc.), Cfsjonjno Efttfr Eujmcjnos (pp. 0:6-5<6). Mknckn2 Wpkn

\rfss.

_jfrzejgij, @. \. (0::?). Kn taf Ukmf kd Jntujtjkn jn Cfgjsjkn Hìjno `nc Wkhf _`ys

kd Humtjgrjtfrj` @jc kd Jntujtjkn. Bkurn`m kd Humtj-Grjtfrj` Cfgjsjkn @n`mysjs , 4(5),

46-?4.

_jmskn, H. @. (0::4). af Wkgj`mjz`tjkn kd @rgajtfgtur`m \rfdfrfngf. Bkurn`m kdFnvjrknhfnt`m \sygakmkoy, 04(0), 77-33.

_jmskn, . C., & Wgakkmfr, B. _. (0::0). ajnijno tkk huga2 Jntrkspfgtjkn g`n rfcugf

taf qu`mjty kd prfdfrfngfs `nc cfgjsjkns. Bkurn`m kd \frskn`mjty `nc Wkgj`m \sygakmkoy,4<, 010-0:5.

_kno, G. A., Akmt, O. C., & Gkkpfr, \. @. (5<<<). Mkwfst prjgf kd v`muf; Jnvfstjo`tjkn

kd VI gknstrugtjkn gmjfnts‚ tfncfr sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt `ncFgknkhjgs, 01(?), ?4?-??3.

_krmc r`cf Kro`njz`tjkn (5<<:). Uftrjfvfc 06 Kgtkefr 5<<:, drkh www.wtk.kro.

_rjoat, O., & Okkcwjn, \. (5<<1). Wtrugturjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss2 `n fv`mu`tjkn kd

hftakcs. Jn O. Akcoijnskn & _. A. Wt`reugi (Fcs.), Saf Kxdkrc A`ncekki kdKro`njz`tjkn`m Cfgjsjkn Hìjno (pp. 673-660). Nfw Zkri2 Kxdkrc Vnjvfrsjty \rfss.



7<3

_rjoat, \. G., & Ofrky, O. C. (0::0). Fxpfrjfngf, Bucofhfnt `nc Jntujtjkn2 Pu`mjt`tjvf

C`t`-o`tafrjno Hftakcs `s @jcs tk Wtr`tfojg \m`nnjno. Mf`cfrsajp & Kro`njz`tjknCfvfmkphfnt Bkurn`m, 05(7), 5-75.

_umz, D. (0:14). af gkngfpt kd p`rtjgjp`tjkn. Cfsjon Wtucjfs, ?(7), 067-045.

Z`nfv`, @. (5<<1). Akw Eujmcjnos ‑Wurprjsf‚2 af rfnkv`tjkns kd taf @mtf @um` jn Tjfnn`.

Wgjfngf Wtucjfs, 50(0), 1-51.

Zjn, U. I. (5<<:). G`sf Wtucy Ufsf`rga2 Cfsjon `nc Hftakcs (3 fc. Tkm. 6). Efvfrmy Ajmm,

G`m.2 Wòf \uemjg`tjkns.

Rafno, M. (5<<1). @n kvfrvjfw kd tr`bfgtkrjfs kd ga`nof kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns `grkss Furkpf .\`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf @rgajtfgtur`m Gkhpftjtjkns Nkrcjg Wyhpksjuh, Wtkgiakmh.

Rs`heki, G. F. (0::?). N`tur`mjstjg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno2 _afrf `rf wf nkw; Jn G. F.

Rs`heki & O. @. Imfjn (Fcs.), N`tur`mjstjg Cfgjsjkn Hìjno . Hàwà NB2 M`wrfngf

Frmeùh.



7<6

Tkmifr, M. (5<0<e). Cfsjonjno ` cfsjon gkhpftjtjkn2 taf gmjfnt pfrspfgtjvf. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t

taf Cfsjon Ufsf`rga Wkgjfty 5<0< - Cfsjon & Gkhpmfxjty, Hkntrf`m - G`n`c`.

Tkmifr, M. (5<0<`). @rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn2 r`tjkn`m kr jntujtjvf cfgjsjkn-hìjno. \`pfr prf-sfntfc `t taf @UGKH rfsf`rga wkrisakp kn cfgjsjkn-hìjno `grkss mfvfms, tjhf `nc

sp`gf2 fxpmkrjno tafkrjfs, hftakcs `nc pr`gtjgfs, H`ngafstfr - VI.

Tkmifr, M., & Ga`k-Cujvjs, H. @. E. (5<0<). \ktfntj`m gkndmjgts wjta prkgurfhfnt m`wcurjno `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf GJE _krmc Gknorfss 5<0<, W`mdkrc

Pu`ys - VI.

Tkmifr, M., & v`n Hffm, B. (5<0<). Cutga cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns2 mkst jn FV Cjrfgtjvfs; @rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns dkr puemjg gkhhjssjkns jn taf Nftafrm`ncs. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf

Gknstrugtjkns H`ttfr2 H`nòjno Gkhpmfxjtjfs, Cfgjsjkns nc @gtjkns jn taf Eujmcjno

\rkgfss, Gkpfnaòfn - Cfnh`ri.

Ga`k-Cujvjs, H. @. E., Ikkmwjbi, B., & Tkmifr, M. (5<<:). Cf ``nefstfcjno (fncfrjno).

Jn B. _. D. _`hfmjni (Fc.), Jnmfjcjno Ekuwh`nòfhfnt (Jntrkcugtjkn Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt) (pp. ?7-070). Cfmdt2 TWWC.Cfmdt2 TWWC.

D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf - V Cfmdt (5<<:). Eujmcjno dkr Ekuwiuncf - Kpfn tk Jcf`s . Cfmdt2

V Cfmdt.

Tkmifr, M. (5<<:). @rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjfs2 Zku nfvfr oft ` sfgknc ga`ngf tk hìf ` djrst jh-

prfssjkn. cf @rgajtfgt (@prjm), 74.

Tkmifr, M., & Afjntz, B. M. (5<<:). Iw`mjtfjt (Pu`mjty). Jn B. _. D. _`hfmjni (Fc.),

Jnmfjcjno Ekuwh`nòfhfnt (Jntrkcugtjkn Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt) (pp. 55:-540).

Cfmdt2 TWWC.

Tkmifr, M., & Mùgaf, I. (5<<:). Cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno ` tfncfrjno prkgfcurf2 g`sfCfgjsjkn hìjno curjno ` tfncfrjno prkgfcurf2 g`sf

stucjfs kd rfstrjgtfc Furkpf`n tfncfrs jn `rgajtfgturf. Gknstrugtjkn Jndkrh`tjknPu`rtfrmy, 00(5), 4<-46.

Tkmifr, M., Rjbmstr`, A., cf Bkno, \., & v`n Ckrst, H. (5<<:). @n`mysjs kd jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn @n`mysjs kd jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn

fntrjfs. Jn V Cfmdt - d`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf (Fc.), Eujmcjno dkr Ekuwiuncf - Kpfn tkJcf`s (pp. 67-61). Cfmdt2 V Cfmdt - d`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf.Cfmdt2 V Cfmdt - d`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf.

Dèfr, F., & Tkmifr, M. (5<<1). Kpcr`gatofvfr2 ffn furktfncfr mjoat or`ò! (Gmjfnt2 ` Furk(Gmjfnt2 ` Furk

tfncfr mjoat pmf`sf!). Uf`m Fst`tf Hò`zjnf, 40(4).

M`ns, _., & Tkmifr, M. (5<<1). Fxpmkrjno taf `ssfsshfnt kd ` bury p`nfm jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjonfcug`tjkn `nc pr`gtjgf \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf JGFUJ 5<<1. Jntfrn`tjkn`m Gkndfrfngf

kd Fcug`tjkn, Ufsf`rga `nc Jnnkv`tjkn, H`crjc - Wp`jn.

Tkmifr, M. (5<<1). F`rmy cfsjon h`nòfhfnt jn `rgajtfgturf2 p`rtnfr sfmfgtjkn `nc v`muf

bucofhfnt jn cfsjon. Jn W. C. \ryif & A. B. Whyta (Fcs.), Gkmmèkr`tjvf Ufm`tjknsajpsjn Gknstrugtjkn (pp. 0?:-0:4). Kxdkrc2 Em`giwfmm \uemjsajno.

Tkmifr, M., & Mùgaf, I. (5<<1`). Cfgjsjkn hìjno curjno ` tfncfrjno prkgfcurf2 g`sf stuc-jfs kd rfstrjgtfc Furkpf`n tfncfrs jn `rgajtfgturf. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf 53ta @nnu`m

@UGKH Gkndfrfngf, G`rcjdd - VI.

\uemjg`tjkns rfm`tfc tk tajs rfsf`rga



7<4

Tkmifr, M., & Mùgaf, I. (5<<1e). Cfsjonjno ` cfgjsjkn hìjno dr`hfwkri dkr bucojnocfsjon qu`mjty. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf 53ta FOKW (Furkpf`n Orkup kd Kro`njs`tjkn

Wtucjfs) gkmmkqujuh, @hstfrc`h.

Tkmifr, M., Mùgaf, I., Afjntz, B. M., & cf Bknof, A. (5<<1). Cfgjcjno èkut cfsjon qu`m-Cfgjcjno ekut cfsjon qu`m-

jty2 cfsjon pfrgfptjkn curjno ` Furkpf`n tfncfrjno prkgfcurf. Cfsjon Wtucjfs, 5:(3),

71?-3<:.Tkmifr, M., & cf Bknof, A. (5<<?). Hftakckmkojg`m rfdmfgtjkns kn g`sf-rfsf`rga dkr p`rt-

nfr sfmfgtjkn jn `rgajtfgturf. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf ajrc Wgkttjsa Gkndfrfngf dkr

\kstor`cu`tf Ufsf`rgafrs kd taf Eujmt `nc N`tur`m Fnvjrknhfnt (\UkEF), Om`sokw

- VI.

Tkmifr, M., & Afjntz, B. (5<<?). Nfoktj`tjno cfsjon gkmmèkr`tjkn jn `rgajtfgturf2 ` g`sfstucy kd ` Furkpf`n cfsjon tfncfr. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf 5<<? Gknstrugtjkn Ufsf`rga

Gknorfss, Or`nc Eà`h` Jsm`nc, Eà`h`s.

Tkmifr, M., & \rjns, H. (5<<4`). Grjtjg`m rfdmfgtjkns jn hf`surjno taf fddfgt kd stffrjno `gtjvj-tjfs jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf 55nc @nnu`m @UGKH Gkndfrfngf

5<<4, Ejrhjnoa`h - VI.

Tkmifr, M., & \rjns, H. (5<<4e). Mjnijno cfsjon h`nòfhfnt tk v`muf pfrgfptjkn jn `r-gajtfgtur`m eujmcjno cfsjon. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf Jntfrn`tjkn`m Eujmt & Auh`n

Fnvjrknhfnt Ufsf`rga _ffi - 4ta Jntfrn`tjkn`m \kstor`cu`tf Ufsf`rga Gkndfrfngf

-Cfmdt.

Tkmifr, M., & \rjns, H. (5<<4g). Hf`surjno taf fddfgt kd stffrjno tfganjqufs kn v`muf grf`tjknjn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf @nnu`m rfsf`rga gkndfrfngf kd taf rky`m

jnstjtutjkn kd ga`rtfrfc survfykrs (GKEU@), Mknckn - VI.

Tkmifr, M., & \rjns, H. (5<<6). Fxpmkrjno taf pkssjejmjtjfs kd gkrrfm`tjno h`nòfhfnt wjta

v`muf jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. \`pfr prfsfntfc `t taf Cfsjonjno T`muf2 Nfw Cjrfgtjknsjn @rgajtfgtur`m H`nòfhfnt GJE _<:4 @rgajtfgtur`m Cfsjon H`nòfhfnt, Mynoey

- Cfnh`ri.



7<?

Wuhh`ry

Cfgjcjno èkut Cfsjon Pu`mjty

T`muf bucofhfnts `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts

ey puemjg gmjfnts uncfr Furkpf`n tfncfrjno rfoum`tjkns

\aC afsjs kd Mffntbf Tkmifr

af sf`rga dkr `n `rgajtfgt g`n ef ga`r`gtfrjzfc `s `n jntfr`gtjvf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss

jn wajga ` gmjfnt trjfs tk djnc `n `rgajtfgt wak g`n vjsu`mjzf `nc jhpmfhfnt taf

gmjfnts‚ nffcs nc `hejtjkns efst. ajs prkgfss js nkt wjtakut prkemfhs. ”@rgajtfgt

sk`p kpfr`‘, ”Wmjp-up, `rgajtfgt g`nnkt eujmc mjer`ry `dtfr `mm‘, `nc ”\uemjg ckfs

nkt w`nt @ eut E tk eujmc tkwn kddjgf‘ `rf bust skhf nfwsp`pfr af`cmjnfs ta`t

a`vf ckhjn`tfc taf jhòf kd tfncfr prkgfcurfs jn wajga Cutga puemjg gmjfntssfmfgtfc `n `rgajtfgt taf p`st dfw yf`rs. Jt js taus ` ga`mmfnojno cfgjsjkn prkgfss

kd surprjsfs `nc undkrfsffn gjrguhst`ngfs jn wajga mfo`m `nc skgj`m kemjo`tjkns

a`vf tk ef gknsjcfrfc. af gurrfnt pr`gtjgf kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn ey puemjg gmjfnts

a`s jts rkkts jn tarff cjstjngt systfhs2 0) tfncfrjno dkr sfrvjgfs `nc wkris, 5) taf

sfmfgtjvf sf`rga tk jcfntjdy ` sujtèmf `rgajtfgt kr cfsjon tf`h, `nc 7) taf `rgaj-

tfgtur`m gkhpftjtjkn. Jt js tafsf cjvfrsf rkkts kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss ta`t `ppf`r

tk gùsf gkndmjgts eftwffn taf mfo`m r`tjkn`mjty `nc taf psygakmkojg`m r`tjkn`mjty

kd cfgjsjkn hìjno.

Jn tajs rfsf`rga J fxpmkrf taf krjojn kd tafsf prkemfhs `s gurrfntmy fxpfrjfngfc

ey puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnts jn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn jn krcfr tk prkpksf jhpmj-g`tjkns dkr duturf pr`gtjgf. Jn Ga`ptfr 0 taf rfsf`rga tkpjg, rfsf`rga dkgus, `nc

rfsf`rga `pprk`ga `rf jntrkcugfc. J `msk cfsgrjef taf inkwmfcof o`ps, sgjfntjdjg

ga`mmfnofs, `nc gkntrjeutjkn tk taf djfmc. ajs rfsf`rga dkgusfs kn taf gkhpmftf

prkgfss kd cfgjsjkn hìjno drkh taf pfrspfgtjvf kd puemjg gmjfnts wjmmjno tk sfmfgt

`n `rgajtfgt jn taf gkntfxt kd Furkpf`n Vnjkn prkgurfhfnt m`w. af `jh kd taf

rfsf`rga js tk cfsgrjef, uncfrst`nc, nc fxpm`jn taf cfsjon nc jhpmfhfnt`tjkn kd

prkgfcurfs ey hf`ns kd wajga taf qu`mjty kd cfsjon prkpks`ms js bucofc jn krcfr

tk w`rc gkntr`gt tk taf rgajtfgt wak wjmm cfmjvfr cfsjon sfrvjgfs dkr p`rtjgum`r

prkbfgt. af rfsf`rga qufstjkns jn taf stucy `rf2





_a`t `rf taf jhpmjg`tjkns dkr taf cfsjon kd prkgfcurfs dkr taf sfmfgtjkn kd

`rgajtfgts;

Jn Ga`ptfr 5 J `ccrfss taf gkngfpt kd cfsjon qu`mjty `grkss taf djfmcs kd `rgaj-

tfgtur`m cfsjon, fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy, prkcugt fxpfrjfngf, `nc v`muf h`n-

òfhfnt. E`sfc kn tafsf pfrspfgtjvfs J cfdjnf cfsjon qu`mjty `s `n kvfr`mm v`muf bucofhfnt kd `n jncjvjcu`m stìfakmcfr ta`t js e`sfc kn taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn

0.

5.

7.



7<1

taf pfrskn `nc `n (rfprfsfnt`tjkn kd `n) kebfgt jn taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt. @s ` rf-

sumt kd taf jntfr`gtjkn eftwffn taf jncjvjcu`m `nc taf prkcugt, ` v`muf bucofhfnt

js `mw`ys `ggkhp`njfc ey `n `ddfgtjvf rfspknsf `nc `n `ssfsshfnt èkut taf mfvfm

kd qu`mjty kr v`muf kd ` prkcugt.

Ga`ptfr 7 prkvjcfs `n kvfrvjfw kd taf psygakmkojg`m `spfgts ta`t sffh hkst

rfmfv`nt dkr bucofhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn hìjno jn taf gkntfxt kd sfmfgtjno `n `rgaj-tfgt. Jt fmèkr`tfs kn taf cfdjnjtjkn kd cfsjon qu`mjty `s ` v`muf bucofhfnt drkh

Ga`ptfr 5. af ga`ptfr st`rts wjta `n kvfrvjfw kd tarff ofnfr`tjkns kd cfgjsjkn

tafkry2 r`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hkcfms, efa`vjkur`m cfgjsjkn hkcfms, `nc n`tur`mjstjg

cfgjsjkn hìjno. af gurrfnt pr`gtjgf kd `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns `ppf`rs tk ef e`sfc

kn twk gkndmjgtjno hkcfms èkut cfgjsjkn hìjno2 taf mfo`m `nc taf psygakmkoj-

g`m hkcfm. af mfo`m hkcfm `ssuhfs ` r`tjkn`m `nc sfqufntj`m cfgjsjkn prkgfss jn

wajga `mtfrn`tjvfs `rf gkhp`rfc e`sfc kn prf-`nnkungfc grjtfrj`. af n`tur`mjstjg

cfgjsjkn hkcfm ttrjeutfs n jhpkrt`nt rkmf tk taf usf kd jntujtjkn nc ddfgt. af

krjojn kd taf gurrfnt prkemfhs jn pr`gtjgf gkumc gknsfqufntmy ef dkunc jn tafsf

cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs. J ckpt taf gkngfpt kd sfnsfhìjno s taf h`jn gkngfpt dkrcfgjsjkn hìjno tk fxpm`jn akw gmjfnts cf`m wjta tafsf cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs.

@n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn js nkt `n jskm`tfc fvfnt. \uemjg gmjfnts kpfr`tf jn ` gkn-

tfxt kd okvfrn`ngf nc a`vf tk gknsjcfr tajs kro`njs`tjkn`m strugturf jn tafjr cfgj-

sjkns. Ga`ptfr 3 `ccrfssfs dkur gkntfxtu`m fmfhfnts ta`t jn hy vjfw `rf fssfntj`m

tk uncfrst`nc taf fnvjrknhfnt jn wajga `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns tìf pm`gf2 taf pkmjtj-

g`m, gumtur`m, mfo`m `nc fgknkhjg`m gkntfxt. J dkunc ta`t taf gakjgfs h`cf curjno

taf prfp`r`tjkn pa`sf cftfrhjnf tk gknsjcfrèmf fxtfnt taf rfsumts nc pprkprj-

`tfnfss kd taf tfncfr, s wfmm s taf stymf kd taf rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. Fxjstjno hkc-

fms nc oujcfmjnfs g`n ef cjvjcfc jntk prkgurfhfnt hkcfms, gkhpftjtjkns hkcfms,

cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfhs, `nc prkbfgt h`nòfhfnt tkkms. Zft, fxjstjno inkwmfcofrfh`jns sg`ttfrfc `nc js nkt usfc `cfqu`tfmy ey taf gkntr`gtjno ùtakrjtjfs. Knmy

taf prkgurfhfnt hkcfms a`vf n kemjo`tkry n`turf nc gkumc gtu`mmy ef fndkrgfc.

Jt `ppf`rs ta`t jt js taf pfrgfptjkn kd tafsf mfo`m kemjo`tjkns r`tafr ta`n taf `gtu`m

prkgurfhfnt m`w ta`t prfvfnt sfmfgtjkn prkgfss e`sfc kn kpfn cj`mkouf eftwffn

taf gmjfnt `nc taf `rgajtfgts èkut cfsjon qu`mjty. afrf `rf nk kpfn cjsgussjkns

èkut taf cjddjgumtjfs fxpfrjfngfc ey gmjfnts `s wfmm `s `rgajtfgts. \rkdfssjkns tfnc

tk sf`rga dkr skmutjkns wjtajn tafjr kwn ckh`jns wajmf `n `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn js jn

d`gt ` humtjcjsgjpmjn`ry pafnkhfnkn ey n`turf. @ o`p fxjsts eftwffn taf fxjstjno

strugturfs prkvjcfc tk suppkrt cfgjsjkn hìjno dkr `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs

`nc `gtu`m cfgjsjkn hìjno kd puemjg gmjfnts.

Jn Ga`ptfr 6 J dkrhum`tf djdtffn pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkrs e`sfc kn taf jnsjoats

drkh tafkrjfs ekut ssfssjno cfsjon qu`mjty, v`muf bucofhfnts, nc cfgjsjkn hì-

jno. af tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri sakws ` strugturf kd djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs2

0) rf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si, 5) sf`rgajno dkr ` h`tga eftwffn `jhs, `hejtjkns,

nffcs `nc kppkrtunjtjfs, 7) wrjtjno taf cfgjsjkn prkgfss, 3) òorfo`tjno cjddfr-

fnt ijncs kd v`muf bucofhfnts, `nc 6) bustjdyjno ò`jnst cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs. k

`ggkunt dkr taf d`gt ta`t taf rfsf`rga djfmc kn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns js n`sgfnt `nc

nfjtafr fhpjrjg`m stucjfs nkr tafkrjfs fxjst ta`t ccrfss prkgfssfs kd cfgjsjkn hì-

jno jn tajs gkntfxt, taf g`sf stucy hftakc w`s gaksfn tk o`tafr fhpjrjg`m c`t` nc



7<:

v`mjc`tf tafsf pkssjemf suggfss d`gtkrs. J gkncugtfc tarff jnstruhfnt`m g`sfs jn taf

gkntfxt kd rfstrjgtfc tfncfrjno prkgfcurf2 Wgakkm, Gjty A`mm, nc \rkvjngj`m

Okvfrnhfnt Kddjgf. af g`sfs cjddfrfc jn taf sgkpf kd taf erjfd, taf typf kd tfn-

cfr, `nc taf ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. @ccjtjkn`mmy J pfrdkrhfc knf

g`sf èkut `n jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn dkr ` nfw D`gumty Eujmcjno. @ v`rjfty kd cjddfrfnt

dkrhs kd c`t` w`s gkmmfgtfc dkr f`ga g`sf tk `mmkw dkr trj`noum`tjkn eftwffn sfmd-rfpkrt, kesfrvfc efa`vjkur, `nc kddjgj`m bustjdjg`tjkns. af rfsumts kd taf rfsf`rga

wfrf suggfssdummy tfstfc jn ` wkrisakp wjta fxpfrts, jn wajga `msk jhpmjg`tjkns

wfrf cjsgussfc dkr taf cfsjon kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurfs.

af fhpjrjg`m g`sfs `s cfsgrjefc jn Ga`ptfr 4 `nc Ga`ptfr ? sakw ta`t taf

cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd sfmfgtjno `n `rgajtfgt js jncffc ` rfsumt kd taf jntfr`gtjno kd

taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs wjta taf `mtfrn`tjvfs kngf tafy `rf gkndrkntfc wjta tafh `nc

st`rt tk hìf sfnsf kd taf prkpksfc cfsjons. Jt js, tafrfdkrf, `mhkst jhpkssjemf dkr

gmjfnts tk cfsjon ` sfmfgtjkn prkgfcurf `nc `nnkungf taf grjtfrj` `nc wfjoatjno

d`gtkrs up drknt, `s rfqujrfc ey prkgurfhfnt m`w. Jn tajs rfspfgt taf r`tjkn`mjty kdtaf mfo`m rfqujrfhfnts gm`safs wjta taf psygakmkojg`m r`tjkn`mjty kd cfgjsjkn hì-

jno. Kn taf ktafr a`nc, ekta r`tjkn`mjtjfs strfnotafn f`ga ktafr ey prkvjcjno `

puemjg gmjfnt wjta taf strugturf `nc rkkh nffcfc dkr suggfssdum cfgjsjkn hìjno.

Jn Ga`ptfr 1 taf djvf sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs nc tafjr uncfrmyjno sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r-

`gtfrjstjgs rf fxpm`jnfc drkh taf tafkrftjg`m jnsjoats `nc fhpjrjg`m djncjnos. E`sfc

kn taf rfsumts rfgkhhfnc`tjkns `rf cknf dkr taf cfsjon kd ` tfncfr prkgfcurf.

af djrst sfnsfhìjno prkgfss kd rf`cjno taf cfgjsjkn t`si js e`sfc kn taf gkn-

gfpts kd ‑sfnsfrf`cjno‚ `nc ‑dr`hjno‚ `nc cf`ms wjta taf tr`nsm`tjkn kd taf `jhs kd

taf gmjfnt jntk taf tfncfr prkgfcurf. Efgùsf ` puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnt `gts

`s gmjfnt r`tafr ta`n gustkhfr, cjstjngtjvf cjhfnsjkns kd rgajtfgtur`m nc mfo`mm`nouòf a`s tk ef `n`mysfc ey taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs curjno taf prkgfss kd cfgj-

sjkn hìjno jn krcfr tk inkw wa`t tk fxpfgt. af cfvfmkphfnt kd taf erjfd `nc

taf `n`mysjs kd taf prkbfgt fnvjrknhfnt `rf jhpkrt`nt p`rts kd tajs sfnsfhìjno

prkgfss. af hkst jhpkrt`nt cjmfhh` ta`t gmjfnts d`gfc curjno tajs prkgfss w`s

` cjstjngtjkn eftwffn taf sf`rga dkr taf rjoat skmutjkn dkr tafjr cfsjon prkemfh,

`s suoofstfc ey taf tr`cjtjkn kd cfsjon gkhpftjtjkns, `nc taf sf`rga dkr taf rjoat

p`rtnfr jn cfsjonjno ` skmutjkn dkr tafjr `ggkhhkc`tjkn nffcs, `s suoofstfc ey

taf tfncfr prjngjpmfs. af rfsumts kd taf stucy suoofst ta`t gkhpmfxjty, ungfrt`jnty

`nc tjhf rf taf h`jn sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t jndmufngf taf prkgfss kd rf`c-

jno ` cfgjsjkn t`si.fncfrjno js ` w`y kd or`ntjno gkntr`gts dkr prkbfgts e`sfc kn taf prjngjpmf kd

`n kpfn h`rift. af sfgknc sfnsfhìjno prkgfss kd sf`rgajno dkr ` h`tga eftwffn`jhs, hejtjkns, nffcs nc kppkrtunjtjfs rfm`tfs tk taf d`gt ta`t curjno taf sfmfgtjkn

prkgfss taf v`mufs kd ` gmjfnt èkut `rgajtfgturf `rf gknnfgtfc tk taf kppkrtunj-

tjfs ta`t `rf kddfrfc ey taf `rgajtfgts. @mtakuoa Furkpf`n prkgurfhfnt m`w `jhs

`t kpfnjno taf h`rift `grkss taf FV hfhefr st`tfs, fxpfrjfngfs sakw ta`t Cutga

gmjfnts prfdfr tk wkri wjta Cutga rgajtfgts. af rfsumts jncjg`tf ta`t taf cfgjsjkn

hìfrs `ppmy fxjstjno inkwmfcof èkut taf `rgajtfgts jn krcfr tk grf`tf ` sfnsf kd

gkntrkm kvfr taf sjtu`tjkn `nc taf qu`mjty kd taf `rgajtfgts ta`t p`rtjgjp`tf jn taf

tfncfr. af ajoa cforff kd ungfrt`jnty js jngrf`sfc ey taf stìfakmcfrs ta`t a`vf



70<

tk ef jnvkmvfc jn cfgjsjkn hìjno. af rfsumts kd tajs stucy suoofst ta`t gkntrkm,

`ddfgt, nc tjhf rf taf h`jn sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t uncfrmjf taf h`tgajno

prkgfss kd `jhs, `hejtjkns, nffcs `nc kppkrtunjtjfs.

af tajrc sfnsfhìjno prkgfss ta`t J jcfntjdjfc js taf prkgfss kd wrjtjno taf cf-gjsjkn prkgfss . ajs prkgfss js e`sfc kn taf gkngfpts kd ‑sfnsfwrjoatjno‚, ‑sfnsfojv-

jno‚ nc ‑dr`hjno‚ nc fnt`jms taf wrjtjno kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss kd n rgajtfgt eytaf gmjfnt curjno ` prkbfgt. Kesfrv`tjkns sakwfc ta`t cfgjsjkn hìfrs a`vf tk cf`m

wjta ` mkt kd ungfrt`jnty curjno ` tfncfr prkgfss cuf tk jngkhpmftf uncfrst`nc-

jno, m`gi kd jndkrh`tjkn `nc gkndmjgtjno `mtfrn`tjvfs. Jn tafsf ijncs kd sjtu`tjkns

fxpfrt bucofhfnt `nc jntujtjvf cfgjsjkn hìjno r`tafr ta`n ` r`tjkn`m fv`mu`tjkn

kd `mtfrn`tjvfs `rf nffcfc tk rf`ga ` cfgjsjkn. Jn `mm g`sfs taf prkgfcurf kd taf

sfmfgtjkn prkgfss (rfstrjgtfc kr kpfn) cftfrhjnfc taf `hkunt kd pa`sfs jn cfgj-

sjkn hìjno eut nkt taf jntfrprft`tjkn kd tafsf pa`sfs. Ekta prkgfcurfs sakwfc

sjhjm`r jtfr`tjvf cfgjsjkn prkgfssfs kd ok`m sfttjno, pfrgfptjkn, jncjvjcu`m v`muf

bucofhfnt, orkup cfgjsjkn hìjno `nc fv`mu`tjkn. Jn ofnfr`m ` cjstjngtjkn gkumc

ef h`cf eftwffn taf prfp`r`tjkn kd taf tfncfr jn wajga taf erjfd, prkgfcurf,stìfakmcfr jnvkmvfhfnt `nc cfgjsjkn prkgfss w`s cfsjonfc, `nc taf fxfgutjkn kd

taf tfncfr jn wajga taf cfsjon w`s `ppmjfc. af h`jn sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs

ta`t J cjstjnoujsafc `s jndmufngjno taf prkgfss kd wrjtjno ` cfgjsjkn prkgfss `rf

tjhf, jntujtjkn, `nc fxpfrtjsf.

af dkurta prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno rfm`tfs tk taf òorfo`tjkn kd cjddfrfnt ijncskd v`muf bucofhfnts ta`t js nffcfc tk rf`ga ` djn`m cfgjsjkn èkut cfsjon qu`m-

jty. Jn tajs prkgfss taf mfo`m `nc skgj`m r`tjkn`mjty kd cfgjsjkn hìjno gm`sa wafn

` psfuck-r`tjkn`mjty js grf`tfc ey qu`ntjdjg`tjkn kd qu`mjt`tjvf bucofhfnts. af

gakjgf dkr ` wjnnfr curjno ` tfncfr js kn taf knf a`nc e`sfc kn taf strugturf ta`t

js prkvjcfc ey taf prf-`nnkungfc grjtfrj`, eut kn taf ktafr a`nc p`rt kd ` prkgfsskd jngrf`sjno jnsjoat `nc sfnsfhìjno jn wajga v`muf bucofhfnts `rf jhpmjgjtmy

òorfo`tfc. Wtrugturf, systfh, `nc fxpfrtjsf wfrf dkunc tk ef taf hkst jhpkrt`nt

sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs ta`t jndmufngf taf prkgfss kd oorfo`tjno cjddfrfnt ijncs

kd v`muf bucofhfnts.

af djdta prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno cf`ms wjta taf bustjdjg`tjkn kd taf cfgjsjkn

ò`jnst taf cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs `t taf fnc kd taf sfmfgtjkn prkgfss. @ gmjfnt a`c tk

bustjdy taf djn`m cfgjsjkn tk taf kwn kro`njs`tjkn, tk taf puemjg, tk skgjfty, `nc tk

taf `rgajtfgts ta`t bkjnfc taf tfncfr. Jn bustjdyjno ` cfgjsjkn ` cfgjsjkn hìfr js

sjhumt`nfkusmy gkndrkntfc wjta taf mfo`m strugturf kd taf cfgjsjkn prkgfcurf `nc

taf psygakmkojg`m cfgjsjkn prkgfss kd sfnsfhìjno. af sjtu`tjkns ga`r`gtfrjstjgskd suppkrt, trust `nc gkntrkm wfrf dkunc tk ef kd jndmufngf tk taf prkgfss kd bustj-

dyjno ò`jnst cjddfrfnt r`tjkn`mjtjfs.

E`sfc kn taf rfsumts kd taf rfsf`rga, djdtffn rfgkhhfnc`tjkns wfrf cfrjvfc dkr

taf sfmfgtjkn kd `rgajtfgts ey puemjg gmjfnts uncfr Furkpf`n tfncfrjno rfoum`tjkns.

afsf `rf e`sfc kn taf suggfss d`gtkrs jcfntjdjfc jn taf tafkrftjg`m dr`hfwkri jn

Ga`ptfr 6. @ dfw fx`hpmfs `rf2


tfntj`mmy gkndmjgtjno bucofhfnts wjtajn jtsfmd.

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t`si.

@mmkwjno gkhpfns`tjkn jn òorfo`tjno v`muf bucofhfnts èkut cfsjon

qu`mjty.


taf cfsjon kd taf tfncfr tk jngrf`sf taf trust eftwffn taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs nc

erk`cfn taf suppkrt dkr taf cfgjsjkn `hkno taf stìfakmcfrs.

af rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga ojvf rf`skn tk suoofst ` ga`nof kd taf gurrfnt jh-

pmjg`tjkns kd taf tfncfr rfoum`tjkns jn taf Nftafrm`ncs. Jn hy kpjnjkn taf gkh-

pksjtjkn kd taf bury p`nfm sakumc ef taf s`hf jn taf sfmfgtjkn `nc `w`rc pa`sf,

taf bury sakumc a`vf cfgjsjvf rjoats, `nc taf rkmfs `nc rfspknsjejmjtjfs kd taf buryhfhefrs sakumc cjddfr pfr pa`sf kd taf tfncfr. ajs hf`ns ta`t dkr `ny tfncfr jn

wajga `n `rgajtfgt js sfmfgtfc taf dkmmkwjno prkgfcurf sakumc ef `ppmjfc2

@ssjon ` cjvfrsf bury p`nfm ta`t jngmucfs taf rfspknsjemf kddjgfr(s) `nc ktafr

rfprfsfnt`tjvfs kd taf puemjg gkhhjssjknjno `s wfmm `s fxpfrts jn spfgjdjg ck-

h`jns ta`t rfm`tf tk taf `ssjonhfnt (f.o. ure`n pm`nnfrs, `rgajtfgts, sust`jn-

èjmjty fxpfrts, ajstkrj`ns ftg).

@ssjon cfgjsjvf rjoats tk taf bury p`nfm jn ekta taf sfmfgtjkn `nc taf `w`rc

pa`sf.

Fnsurf ta`t bury hfhefrs trust `nc suppkrt f`ga ktafr efdkrf, curjno `nc`dtfr taf tfncfr. ajs prkgfss gkumc ef suppkrtfc ey cftfrhjnjno rkmfs nc rf-

spknsjejmjtjfs `hkno taf bury hfhefrs efdkrfa`nc dkr taf cjddfrfnt pa`sfs.

af efnfdjts kd `ssjonjno cfgjsjvf rjoats tk ` humtjcjsgjpmjn`ry bury jn ekta

taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf `nc taf `w`rc pa`sf `rf ta`t 0) taf pktfntj`m tfncfrfrs g`n

ef qu`mjty gafgifc ey taf ckh`jn spfgjdjg fxpfrts jn taf sfmfgtjkn pa`sf, `nc 5)

gmjfnts g`n stjmm jndmufngf taf djn`m cfgjsjkn jn taf `w`rc pa`sf eut wjta taf sup-

pkrt kd ckh`jn spfgjdjg fxpfrts. af fxpfrts ta`t rf jnvkmvfc jn taf prkgfss gkumc

hknjtkr taf fddfgts kd tfncfrjno cfgjsjkns dkr taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc. af suoofstfc

prkgfcurf wkumc rfqujrf suest`ntj`mmy ajoafr jnvkmvfhfnt kd taf ckh`jn fxpfrts

`nc ktafr p`nfm hfhefrs jn taf prfp`r`tjkn pa`sf kd taf tfncfr, taf fstèmjsa-

hfnt kd ` spfgj`mjzfc humtj cjsgjpmjn`ry inkwmfcof gfntrf `nc taf cfvfmkphfnt

c`tè`sf wjta sujtèjmjty jndkrh`tjkn kd taf tfncfr g`ncjc`tfs.

Jn Ga`ptfr 1 J msk rfdmfgt kn taf rfsf`rga pprk`ga nc taf sgjfntjdjg rfmfv`ngf

kd taf stucy `nc hìf suoofstjkns dkr durtafr rfsf`rga. J tajni ta`t tajs rfsf`rga

`nswfrs tk taf nffc dkr jntfrcjsgjpmjn`ry `pprk`gafs tk `ppmy fxjstjno inkwmfcof

drkh taf hkrf tr`cjtjkn`m djfmcs kd sgjfngf, suga `s gkonjtjvf `nc skgj`m psygakm-

koy, tk taf djfmc kd `rgajtfgturf. rj`noum`tjkn kd taf cjddfrfnt rfsf`rga hftakcs

strfnotafnfc taf `n`mysjs kd gkhpmfxjtjfs uncfrmyjno taf efa`vjkur `s sakwn eytaf `gtkrs. Jn tfrhs kd grfcjejmjty tajs stucy sakws dkr jnst`ngf ta`t kesfrv`tjkns

•

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@.

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G.



705

kpfn up ` pkssjejmjty tk gkmmfgt sgjfntjdjg jnsjoats wajga wkumc - `mtakuoa gkh-

hknmy inkwn jn taf djfmc - ktafrwjsf ef nfomfgtfc, suga s fhktjkns, nc str`tfojg

efa`vjkur. af h`jn cjddfrfngfs eftwffn taf jcf`s gkhpftjtjkn `nc taf tfncfr

g`sfs rfm`tfc tk taf cjddfrfngfs jn taf mfo`m jhp`gt kd taf cfgjsjkn, taf `jh kd taf

cfgjsjkn `nc taf fxpfrtjsf mfvfm kd taf gmjfnt. Ofnfr`mjs`tjkns kd taf rfsf`rga g`n

ef dkunc jn gkhp`rèmf sfmfgtjkn prkgfssfs wajga `mmkw dkr cfmjefr`tjkns èkutkptjkns, suga s cfgjsjkns ekut rf`m fst`tf pkrtdkmjk, nfw prkcugt cfvfmkphfnt,

rfsf`rga duncs `mmkg`tjkns, stucfnt `ssfsshfnts, kr `w`rcjno gkntr`gts jn ktafr

sfgtkrs.

af stucy ajoamjoats sfvfr`m cjrfgtjkns dkr durtafr rfsf`rga. Ekta taf sgjfntjdjg

`nc taf prkdfssjkn`m djfmc wkumc efnfdjt orf`tmy kd ` hkrf strugtur`m c`t` gkmmfg-

tjkn kn tfncfrs jn `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon. af rfsumts jncjg`tf ta`t taf rkmf kd fxpfrt

tf`hs, taf str`tfojfs dkr wjnnjno, taf uncfrmyjno sjtu`tjkn`m ga`r`gtfrjstjgs kd taf

sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfs, `nc taf rkmf kd cfgjsjkn suppkrt systfhs cfsfrvf tk ef jn-

vfstjo`tfc durtafr. Duturf rfsf`rga gkumc `msk gkhp`rf cjddfrfnt sfgtkrs, cjddfrfnt

gmjfnt ga`r`gtfrjstjgs, `nc cjddfrfnt tfncfrjno prkgfcurfs `nc jngmucf hkrf tafk-rjfs drkh taf djfmcs kd str`tfojg h`nòfhfnt, puemjg `chjnjstr`tjkn, `nc prkgfss

h`nòfhfnt.

ajs rfsf`rga gkntrjeutfs tk inkwmfcof jn taf `rf`s kd `rgajtfgtur`m cfsjon,

taf psygakmkoy kd hìjno bucofhfnts, `nc kro`njs`tjkn`m cfgjsjkn hìjno. Jt js

tafrfdkrf kd jntfrfst tk puemjg gkhhjssjknjno gmjfnts, h`nòfhfnt gknsumt`nts,

`rgajtfgts, pkmjgy hìfrs `nc mfo`m `cvjskrs jn pr`gtjgf, eut `msk tk sgakm`rs jn taf

djfmc kd cfsjon h`nòfhfnt, prkcugt fxpfrjfngf, fnvjrknhfnt`m psygakmkoy, kr

cfgjsjkn hìjno. af h`jn ucjfngf kd tajs tafsjs js puemjg gkhhjssjknjno ekcjfs

ta`t a`vf tk kro`njsf ` tfncfr, tafjr `cvjskrs, `nc okvfrnhfnt`m ùtakrjtjfs ta`t

cfvfmkp `nc jhpmfhfnt rfoum`tjkns `nc pkmjgjfs, `nc sgakm`rs jn tajs (humtjcjsgj-pmjn`ry) `rf`. Efgùsf taf rfsf`rga sakws jnsjoats jntk taf gmjfnt pfrspfgtjvf ta`t

a`vf nfvfr effn stucjfc efdkrf `nc `rf usu`mmy nkt kpfn tk taf puemjg, J efmjfvf

ta`t taf rfsumts kd tajs rfsf`rga `msk kddfr `n jntfrfstjno stkry dkr taksf jntfrfstfc

jn cfgjsjkn hìjno dkr taf eujmt fnvjrknhfnt jn ofnfr`m.

Mffntbf Tkmifr

@uoust 5<0<



707

W`hfnv`ttjno

Efsmjssfn kvfr kntwfrpiw`mjtfjt

_``rcfkkrcfmfn fn efsmujtvkrhjno tjbcfns `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjfs v`n

puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfrs kncfr Furkpfsf ``nefstfcjnosrfofmofvjno

Cjssfrt`tjf v`n Mffntbf Tkmifr

Aft zkfifn n``r ffn `rgajtfgt i`n wkrcfn efsgarfvfn `ms ffn jntfr`gtjfd sfmfgtjf-

prkgfs w``rjn ffn kpcr`gatofvfr ffn rgajtfgt prkeffrt tf vjncfn cjf cf efakfdtfn

fn cf `hejtjfs v`n cf kpcr`gatofvfr aft efstf i`n vjsu`mjsfrfn fn rf`mjsfrfn. Cjt

prkgfs js njft zkncfr prkemfhfn. ”@rgajtfgtfnsk`p jn Cfmdt‘, ”Dkutbf, `rgajtfgt

hò tkga njft Vtrfgatsf ejemjktaffi ekuwfn‘, fn ”\uemjfi Ukttfrc`h wjm Wf`rga,

h``r KH@ ekuwt Wt`csi`ntkkr‘ zjbn fnifmf ir`ntfnikppfn cjf kvfraffrsfn jnaft effmc v`n ``nefstfcjnofn w``rjn Nfcfrm`ncsf puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfrs jn cf

`dofmkpfn b`rfn ffn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtffrcfn. Aft o``t c`n kki kh ffn ujtcòfnc

efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfs vkm vfrr`ssjnofn fn knvkkrzjfnf khst`ncjoafcfn w``rjn

``n vfrsgafjcfnf burjcjsgaf fn h``tsga`ppfmjbif vkkrw``rcfn hkft wkrcfn vkm-

c``n. Cf aujcjof prìtjbi v`n cf rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjf ckkr puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfrs

affdt wkrtfms jn crjf vfrsgajmmfncf systfhfn2 0) aft ``nefstfcfn v`n cjfnstfn fn

wfrifn, 5) aft zkfifn n``r ffn ofsgajitf `rgajtfgt kd kntwfrptf`h, fn 7) cf `r-

gajtfgtknjsgaf kntwfrpwfcstrjbc. Aft zjbn cfzf vfrsgajmmfn jn cf afrikhst v`n cf

sfmfgtjfprkgfcurf, cjf gkndmjgtfn tussfn cf burjcjsgaf r`tjkn`mjtfjt fn cf psygakmk-

ojsgaf r`tjkn`mjtfjt v`n aft efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfs mjbifn tf vfrkkrzìfn.Jn cjt kncfrzkfi vfrifn ji cf kkrsprkno v`n cfzf prkemfhfn zk`ms cjf ckkr

puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfrs hkhfntffm frv`rfn wkrcfn jn aft sfmfgtjfprkgfs. Jn

Akkdcstui 0 wkrcfn aft kncfrwfrp, cf dkgus v`n aft kncfrzkfi fn cf kncfr-

zkfis``npì ofëntrkcugffrc. Ji efsprffi c``r kki cf ifnnjsaj`tfn, cf wftfn-

sga`ppfmjbif ujtcòjnofn fn cf ejbcròf v`n aft kncfrzkfi ``n aft wfrivfmc. Aft

kncfrzkfi rjgat zjga kp aft vkmmfcjof efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfs v`nujt aft kkopunt

v`n ffn puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfr cjf ffn `rgajtfgt wjm sfmfgtfrfn jn aft i`cfr v`n

cf Furkpfsf ``nefstfcjnoswft- fn rfofmofvjno. Ckfm v`n aft kncfrzkfi js aft ef-

sgarjbvfn, eforjbpfn fn vfrim`rfn v`n aft kntwfrp fn cf jhpmfhfnt`tjf v`n prk-

gfcurfs w``rhff cf iw`mjtfjt v`n kntwfrpvkkrstfmmfn wkrcfn efkkrcffmc kh ffn`rgajtfgt vkkr ffn spfgjdjfi prkbfgt tf gkntr`gtfrfn. Kp e`sjs v`n cf rfsumt`tfn

afe ji ffn ``nt`m ``nefvfmjnofn vkkr tkfikhstjof `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjfprkgfcurfs

kpofstfmc. Cf kncfrzkfisvròfn jn cfzf stucjf zjbn2

Akf efsmjssfn ``nefstfcfncf cjfnstfn kvfr cf sfmfgtjf v`n ffn `rgajtfgt jn cf

gkntfxt v`n cf FV ``nefstfcjnoswftofvjno;

_fmif sjtu`tjknfmf ifnhfrifn zjbn v`n jnvmkfc kp aft prkgfs v`n efsmujtvkr-

hjno v`n cf puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfrs jn cjt vfre`nc;

_`t zjbn cf jhpmjg`tjfs vkkr aft kntwfrpfn v`n prkgfcurfs vkkr cf sfmfgtjf

v`n `rgajtfgtfn;

0.

5.

7.



703

Jn Akkdcstui 5 rjgat ji hjb kp aft gkngfpt v`n cf kntwfrpiw`mjtfjt v`nujt

cf ckhfjnfn v`n cf `rgajtfgtknjsgaf vkrhofvjno, khofvjnospsygakmkojf, prk-

cugtfhktjf fn v`muf h`nòfhfnt. Kp e`sjs v`n cfzf jnzjgatfn cfdjnjffr ji knt-

wfrpiw`mjtfjt `ms ffn `mkhv`ttfnc w``rcfkkrcffm v`n ffn jncjvjcufmf efm`noafe-

efncf, c`t js ofe`sffrc kp cf jntfr`gtjf tussfn ffn pfrskkn fn (cf rfprfsfnt`tjf

v`n) ffn kebfgt jn cf ofekuwcf khofvjno. @ms ofvkmo v`n cfzf jntfr`gtjf tussfnaft jncjvjcu fn aft prkcugt wkrct ffn w``rcfkkrcffm `mtjbc vfrofzfmc v`n ffn `d-

dfgtjfvf rf`gtjf fn ffn fv`mu`tjf kvfr aft njvfù v`n iw`mjtfjt kd cf w``rcf v`n ffn

prkcugt.

Akkdcstui 7 offdt ffn kvfrzjgat v`n cf psygakmkojsgaf `spfgtfn cjf aft hffst

rfmfv`nt zjbn vkkr cf efkkrcfmjno fn efsmujtvkrhjno jn aft i`cfr v`n cf `rgajtfg-

tfnsfmfgtjf. Aft ekuwt vkkrt kp cf cfdjnjtjf ujt Akkdcstui 5 v`n kntwfrpiw`mjtfjt

`ms ffn w``rcfkkrcffm. Aft akkdcstui efojnt hft ffn kvfrzjgat v`n crjf ofnfr`-

tjfs v`n efsmujtvkrhjnostafkrjfén2 r`tjknfmf efsmjssjnoshkcfmmfn, hkcfmmfn kvfr

efsmujtvkrhjnosofcrò fn n`tur`mjstjsgaf efsmujtvkrhjnosgkngfptfn. Cf aujcjof

prìtjbi v`n cf `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjf mjbit tf zjbn ofe`sffrc kp twff tfofnstrjbcjofhkcfmmfn kvfr efsmujtvkrhjno. Aft burjcjsgaf hkcfm o``t ujt v`n ffn r`tjknffm fn

mjnf`jr efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfs w``rjn mtfrn`tjfvfn wkrcfn vfrofmfifn kp e`sjs v`n

vkkr`d efifncofh`ìtf grjtfrj`. Aft n`tur`mjstjsgaf hkcfm cjgat ffn efm`norjbif

rkm tkf ``n aft oferuji v`n jntuëtjf fn ofvkfm. Cf kkrsprkno v`n cf aujcjof prk-

emfhfn jn cf ``nefstfcjnosprìtjbi i`n ofvkncfn wkrcfn jn cfzf vfrsgajmmfncf

r`tjkn`mjtfjtfn. Ji oferuji vkkr`m aft gkngfpt v`n ‑sfnsfhìjno‚ (eftfifnjsofvjno)

kh ujt tf mfoofn akf puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfrs tjbcfns cf efsmujtvkrhjno kho``n

hft cfzf vfrsgajmmfncf r`tjkn`mjtfjtfn.

Ffn `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjf js offn kp zjga zfmd st``ncf ofefurtfnjs. \uemjfif kp-

cr`gatofvfrs kpfrfrfn jn ffn efstuurmjbi i`cfr fn nfhfn cjt i`cfr knvfrhjbcfmjbihff jn aun efsmjssjnofn. Akkdcstui 3 efa`ncfmt vjfr gkntfxtufmf fmfhfntfn cjf jn

hjbn kofn fssfntjffm zjbn vkkr cf khofvjno w``rjn `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjfs pm``tsvjn-

cfn2 cf pkmjtjfif, gumturfmf, burjcjsgaf fn fgknkhjsgaf gkntfxt. Cf rfsumt`tfn v`n

cfzf gkntfxtufmf vfrifnnjno m`tfn zjfn c`t cf ifuzfs cjf ofh`ìt wkrcfn tjbcfns

cf vkkrefrfjcjnosd`sf jn efm`norjbif h`tf cf rfsumt`tfn fn aft suggfs v`n cf ``n-

efstfcjno efp`mfn, fvfn`ms cf stjbm v`n aft rgajtfgtknjsga kntwfrp c`t vkkrofstfmc

wkrct ckkr cf `rgajtfgtfn. Efst``ncf hkcfmmfn fn rjgatmjbnfn tfr kncfrstfunjno

v`n aft sfmfgtjfprkgfs iunnfn wkrcfn kncfrvfrcffmc jn ``nefstfcjnoshkcfmmfn,

wfcstrjbchkcfmmfn, efsmjssjnoskncfrstfunfncf systfhfn fn prkbfgth`nòfhfnt

tkkms. Aft mksst``ncf i`rìtfr v`n cfzf hkcfmmfn mfjct frtkf c`t efst``ncf ifnnjsvfrsnjppfrc emjbdt fn njft `cfqu``t oferujit wkrct ckkr cf ``nefstfcfncf cjfn-

stfn. @mmffn cf ``nefstfcjnoshkcfmmfn afeefn ffn vfrpmjgatfnc i`rìtfr fn c``r-

v`n i`n aft oferuji c``cwfrifmjbi wkrcfn `dofcwknofn. Hkhfntffm vjncfn fr

wfjnjo kpfn cjsgussjfs pm``ts kvfr cf hkfjmjbiafcfn cjf frv`rfn wkrcfn ckkr kp-

cr`gatofvfrs fn `rgajtfgtfn. Aft mjbit frkp c`t vkkr`m cf jntfrprft`tjf v`n cf wft-

tfmjbif vfrpmjgatjnofn js jn pm``ts v`n aft ``nefstfcjnosrfomfhfnt zfmd c`t frvkkr

zkrot c`t aft aujcjof sfmfgtjfprkgfs njft ofe`sffrc wkrct kp ffn kpfn cj`mkko tus-

sfn cf kpcr`gatofvfr fn cf rgajtfgtfn kvfr cf iw`mjtfjt v`n ffn kntwfrpvkkrstfm.

\rkdfssjkn`ms afeefn cf nfjojno kh n``r kpmkssjnofn tf zkfifn ejnnfn aun fj-

ofn ckhfjn, tfrwjbm cf `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjf jn dfjtf ffn humtjcjsgjpmjn`jr dfnkhffn



706

js. jbcfns `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjfs efst``t fr c``rckkr ffn imkkd tussfn cf efst``ncf

strugturfn cjf efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfssfn kncfrstfunfn fn cf c``cwfrifmjbif ef-

smujtvkrhjnosprkgfssfn v`n cf puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfrs.

Jn Akkdcstui 6 dkrhumffr ji vjbdtjfn hkofmjbif suggfsd`gtkrfn kp e`sjs v`n

cf jnzjgatfn ujt tafkrjfén kvfr aft hftfn v`n kntwfrpiw`mjtfjt, aft hìfn v`n w``rcfefkkrcfmjnofn fn cf ifnhfrifn v`n efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfssfn. Aft tafk-

rftjsgaf i`cfr js ofe`sffrc kp vjbd sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfn2 0) aft mfzfn v`n cf ef-

smujtvkrhjnost`ì, 5) aft zkfifn n``r ffn h`tga tussfn ckfmstfmmjnofn, `hejtjfs,

efakfdtfn fn hkofmjbiafcfn, 7) aft sgarjbvfn v`n aft efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfs, 3)

aft kptfmmfn v`n vfrsgajmmfncf skkrtfn v`n w``rcfkkrcfmfn, fn 6) rfgatv``rcjofn

v`n aft efsmujt n``r vfrsgajmmfncf r`tjkn`mjtfjtfn. Khc`t kncfrzkfi kp aft of-

ejfc v`n `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjfs sga``rs js, zkwfm jn fhpjrjsgaf stucjfs `ms ejnnfn

efsmujtvkrhjnostafkrjfén, afe ji frvkkr ofikzfn kh cf g`sf stucjf hftakcf tf

oferujifn vkkr aft vfrz`hfmfn v`n fhpjrjsgaf ofofvfns fn kh cf hkofmjbif sug-

gfsd`gtkrfn tf v`mjcfrfn. Ji afe crjf g`sf stucjfs ujtofvkfrc n``r njft-kpfne`rf``nefstfcjnofn2 ffn sgakkm, ffn ofhffntfaujs fn ffn prkvjngjfaujs. Cf g`sfs vfr-

sgajmcfn jn orkkttf, `rc fn ifnhfrifn v`n cf sfmfgtjfprkgfcurf. C``rn``st afe ji

ffn g`sf stucjf ujtofvkfrc n``r ffn jntfrn`tjkn`mf jcffénprjbsvr`ò vkkr ffn njfuw

d`gumtfjtsofekuw. Jn cfzf g`sfs afe ji vfrsgajmmfncf skkrtfn ofofvfns vfrz`hfmc

(hft efaump v`n jntfrvjfws, kesfrv`tjfs, ckguhfntfn) kh trj`noum`tjf hkofmjbi tf

hìfn tussfn zfmdr`ppkrtòf, w``rofnkhfn ofcrò, fn cf kddjgjémf ckguhfnt`tjf.

Cf rfsumt`tfn v`n aft kncfrzkfi zjbn hft suggfs oftfst jn ffn wkrisakp hft cfs-

iuncjofn. Jn cfzf wkrisakp zjbn kki cf hkofmjbif jhpmjg`tjfs efsprkifn vkkr aft

tkfikhstjof kntwfrp v`n sfmfgtjfprkgfcurfs.

Vjt cf fhpjrjsgaf c`t` `ms efsgarfvfn jn Akkdcstui 4 fn Akkdcstui ? emjbit

c`t aft efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfs v`n aft sfmfgtfrfn v`n ffn `rgajtfgt ffn ofvkmo js

v`n cf cjrfgtf gkndrknt`tjf v`n cf efsmujtvkrhfrs hft cf (kntwfrp)`mtfrn`tjfvfn.

Cjfntfnofvkmof wkrcfn cf efsmujtvkrhfrs ofgkndrkntffrc hft cf kptjfs fn knt-

cfiifn zjb cf eftfifnjs fn hkofmjbif jhpmjg`tjfs v`n cf vkkrofstfmcf kntwfrpfn.

Aft js ajfrckkr ejbn` knhkofmjbi vkkr puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfrs kh cf prkgfcurf,

grjtfrj` fn wfojnosd`gtkrfn vkkr`d ``n tf ikncjofn, zk`ms vfrfjst js jn cf ``nefstf-

cjnoswftofvjno. Jn cjt kpzjgat ektst cf r`tjkn`mjtfjt v`n cf wfttfmjbif vkkrsgarjd-

tfn hft cf psygakmkojsgaf r`tjkn`mjtfjt v`n cf efsmujtvkrhjno. @`n cf `ncfrf

i`nt vfrstfrifn cf r`tjkn`mjtfjtfn fmi``r ckkr cf kpcr`gatofvfr cf strugtuur fncf rujhtf ``n tf rfjifn cjf nkcjo js vkkr ffn suggfsvkm efsmujtvkrhjnostr`bfgt. Jn

Akkdcstui 1 wkrcfn cf vjbd sfnsfhìjno prkgfssfn fn aun kncfrmjoofncf sjtu`tj-

knfmf ifnhfrifn vfrim``rc ujt cf tafkrftjsgaf jnzjgatfn fn fhpjrjsgaf efvjncjn-

ofn. Ofe`sffrc kp cf rfsumt`tfn wkrcfn ``nefvfmjnofn ofc``n vkkr aft kntwfrp

v`n ffn ``nefstfcjnosprkgfcurf.

Aft ffrstf sfnsfhìjno prkgfs v`n aft mfzfn v`n cf efsmujtvkrhjnost`ì js of-

e`sffrc kp cf eforjppfn ‑sfnsfrf`cjno‚ fn ‑dr`hjno‚ fn rjgat zjga kp cf vfrt`mjno

v`n cf ckfmstfmmjnofn v`n cf kpcr`gatofvfr jn cf ``nefstfcjnosprkgfcurf. Khc`t

ffn puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfr ms ffn kpcr`gatofvfr dunoffrt jn pm``ts v`n ffn im`nt,

hkftfn vfrsgajmmfncf `spfgtfn v`n ekuwiuncjof fn burjcjsgaf t``m tjbcfns aft



704

prkgfs v`n cf efsmujtvkrhjno ckkr cf efsmujtvkrhfrs of`n`mysffrc wkrcfn kh

tf wftfn w`t zf iunnfn vfrw`gatfn. Cf kntwjiifmjno v`n aft prkor`hh` v`n

fjsfn fn cf `n`mysf v`n cf gkntfxt v`n aft prkbfgt zjbn c``rkh efm`norjbif kncfr-

cfmfn v`n aft sfnsfhìjno prkgfs. Aft efm`norjbistf cjmfhh` w``rhff gmjéntfn

ofgkndrkntffrc wkrcfn tjbcfns cjt prkgfs js aft kncfrsgafjcfn v`n 0) cf bujstf

kpmkssjno vkkr aun kntwfrpprkemffh ejnnfn cf wfcstrjbcgumtuur jn cf `rgajtfg-tuur fn 5) aft zkfifn n``r cf bujstf p`rtnfr jn aft kntwfrpfn v`n ffn kpmkssjno

vkkr aun aujsvfstjnosefakfdtf `ms kncfrcffm v`n cf ``nefstfcjnosefojnsfmfn. Cf

rfsumt`tfn v`n aft kncfrzkfi suoofrfrfn c`t gkhpmfxjtfjt, knzfifrafjc fn tjbc cf

efm`norjbistf sjtu`tjknfmf ifnhfrifn zjbn cjf aft prkgfs v`n aft mfzfn v`n cf ef-

smujtvkrhjnost`ì efënvmkfcfn.

@`nefstfcfn js ffn h`njfr kh gkntr`gtfn tf vfrmfnfn vkkr prkbfgtfn v`n pu-

emjfif kpcr`gatofvfrs. Aft js ofe`sffrc kp aft prjngjpf v`n cf kpfn h`rit. Aft

twffcf sfnsfhìjno prkgfs v`n aft zkfifn n``r ffn h`tga tussfn ckfmfn, `hejtjfs,efakfdtfn fn hkofmjbiafcfn affdt eftrfiijno kp aft dfjt c`t tjbcfns aft sfmfgtjfprk-

gfs cf w``rcfn v`n ffn gmjént kvfr `rgajtfgtuur ofikppfmc wkrcfn ``n cf hk-ofmjbiafcfn cjf ckkr cf `rgajtfgtfn wkrcfn ``nofekcfn. Akfwfm aft Furkpfsf

``nefstfcjnorfgat ofrjgat js kp kpfnstfmmjno v`n cf h`rit jn cf FV-mjcst`tfn,

mjbit aft frkp c`t Nfcfrm`ncsf kpcr`gatofvfrs jn cf aujcjof prìtjbi ffn vkkrifur

afeefn kh hft Nfcfrm`ncsf `rgajtfgtfn tf wfrifn. Cf rfsumt`tfn v`n cjt kncfr-

zkfi ofvfn ``n c`t efsmujtvkrhfrs efst``ncf ifnnjs kvfr cf `rgajtfgtfn tkfp`ssfn

tjbcfns aft sfmfgtjfprkgfs kh ffn ofvkfm v`n gkntrkmf tf grférfn kvfr cf sjtu`tjf

fn cf pktfntjémf iw`mjtfjt v`n cf cffmnfhfncf `rgajtfgtfn. Cf orktf h`tf v`n

knzfifrafjc wkrct vfrorkkt ckkr cf vfrsgajmmfncf efm`noafeefncfn cjf hkftfn

wkrcfn eftrkiifn ejb cf efsmujtvkrhjno. Cf rfsumt`tfn v`n cfzf stucjf suoofrfrfn

c`t gkntrkmf, jnvmkfc fn tjbc cf efm`norjbistf sjtu`tjknfmf ifnhfrifn zjbn cjf tfnorkncsmò mjoofn ``n cf ikppfmjno v`n cf ckfmstfmmjnofn, `hejtjfs, efakfdtfn fn

i`nsfn ejb puemjfif kpcr`gatofvfrs tjbcfns ffn `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjf.

Aft cfrcf sfnsfhìjno prkgfs c`t ji kncfrsgafjc js aft prkgfs v`n aft sgarjbvfnv`n aft efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfs . Cjt prkgfs js ofe`sffrc kp cf gkngfptfn v`n ‑sfnsf-

wrjoatjno‚, ‑sfnsfojvjno‚ fn ‑dr`hjno‚ fn akuct jn c`t cf sfmfgtjf v`n ffn `rgajtfgt

vkrhofofvfn (ofsgarfvfn) wkrct ckkr cf kpcr`gatofvfr tjbcfns cf ``nefstfcjno.

Cf kesfrv`tjfs wfiifn cf jncrui c`t cf efsmujtvkrhfrs ckkr knvkmmfcjof ifn-

njs, oferfi `n jndkrh`tjf fn tfofnstrjbcjof mtfrn`tjfvfn vffm knzfifrafjc frv`rfn

tjbcfns ffn ``nefstfcjnosprkgfcurf. Jn cjt skkrt sjtu`tjfs zjbn fxpfrtkkrcfmfn fn

jntuëtjfvf efsmujtvkrhjno jn pm``ts v`n ffn r`tjknfmf fv`mu`tjf v`n `mtfrn`tjfvfnnkcjo kh tkt ffn efsmujt tf ikhfn. Jn `mmf g`sfs efp``mcf cf ``nefstfcjnosprk-

gfcurf (njft-kpfne``r kd kpfne``r) aft ``nt`m d`sfn jn cf efsmujtvkrhjno, h``r

njft cf jntfrprft`tjf v`n cfzf d`sfn. Efjcf prkgfcurfs vfrtkkncfn vfrofmjbie`rf

jtfr`tjfvf efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfssfn v`n aft stfmmfn v`n ckfmfn, pfrgfptjf, jncj-

vjcufmf efkkrcfmjno, orkfpsefsmujtvkrhjno fn fv`mu`tjf v`n aft efsmujt. Kvfr aft

`mofhffn i`n fr ffn kncfrsgafjc wkrcfn ofh`ìt tussfn 0) cf vkkrefrfjcjno v`n

cf ``nefstfcjno w``rjn aft prkor`hh` v`n fjsfn, cf ``nefstfcjnosprkgfcurf, cf

eftrkiifnafjc v`n cf efm`noafeefncfn fn aft efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfs kntwkrpfn

wkrcfn, fn 5) cf ujtvkfrjno v`n cf ``nefstfcjno w``rjn aft kntwfrp wkrct tkfof-



70?

p`st. Cf efm`norjbistf sjtu`tjknfmf ifnhfrifn cjf aft sgarjbdprkgfs v`n aft efsmujt

efënvmkfcfn mjbifn tjbc, jntuëtjf fn cfsiuncjoafjc tf zjbn.

Aft vjfrcf prkgfs v`n sfnsfhìjno affdt tf hìfn hft aft kptfmmfn v`n vfr-sgajmmfncf skkrtfn v`n w``rcfkkrcfmfn c`t nkcjo js kh tkt ffn cfdjnjtjfvf efsmjssjno

kvfr cf iw`mjtfjt v`n cf `rgajtfgt tf ikhfn. Jn cjt prkgfs ektsfn cf burjcjsgaf fn

skgj`mf r`tjkn`mjtfjt v`n cf efsmujtvkrhjno khc`t ffn psfuck-r`tjkn`mjtfjt wkrctofgrféfrc ckkr aft iw`ntjdjgfrfn v`n cf iw`mjt`tjfvf ujtsprìfn. Cf ifuzf vkkr

ffn wjnn``r tjbcfns ffn ``nefstfcjno js fnfrzjbcs ofe`sffrc kp cf strugtuur cjf

wkrct ofmfvfrc ckkr cf vkkr`d efifncofh`ìtf grjtfrj`, h``r js ``n cf `ncfrf

i`nt kki kncfrcffm v`n ffn prkgfs v`n vkkrtsgarjbcfnc jnzjgat fn eftfifnjsof-

vjno w``rjn vfrsgajmmfncf w``rcfkkrcfmfn jhpmjgjft wkrcfn kpoftfmc. Wtrugtuur,

systffh, fn fxpfrtjsf mjbifn cf efm`norjbistf sjtu`tjknfmf ifnhfrifn tf zjbn cjf v`n

jnvmkfc zjbn kp aft kptfmmjnosprkgfs.

Aft vjbdcf prkgfs v`n sfnsfhìjno affdt eftrfiijno kp cf hktjvfrjno v`n aftefsmujt ``n aft fjncf v`n aft sfmfgtjfprkgfs n``r cf vfrsgajmmfncf r`tjkn`mjtfjtfn. Ffn

kpcr`gatofvfr hkft aft cfdjnjtjfvf efsmujt rfgatv``rcjofn n``r cf fjofn kro`njs`-tjf, aft puemjfi, cf s`hfnmfvjno fn cf cffmnfhfncf `rgajtfgtfn. Jn cf rfgatv``r-

cjojno v`n ffn efsmujt wkrct ffn efsmujtvkrhfr ofmjbitjbcjo ofgkndrkntffrc hft

cf burjcjsgaf strugtuur v`n cf efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfcurf fn aft psygakmkojsgaf

prkgfs v`n eftfifnjsofvjno. Cf sjtu`tjknfmf ifnhfrifn cr`òvmì, vfrtrkuwfn fn

gkntrkmf mjbifn v`n jnvmkfc tf zjbn kp aft prkgfs v`n aft rfgatv``rcjofn n``r cf

vfrsgajmmfncf r`tjkn`mjtfjtfn.

Kp e`sjs v`n cf rfsumt`tfn v`n aft kncfrzkfi wkrcfn vjbdtjfn puntfn vkkrof-

stfmc cjf fr``n iunnfn ejbcròfn c`t cf `rgajtfgtfnsfmfgtjf v`n ffn puemjfif kp-

cr`gatofvfr kncfr Furkpfsf `nefstfcjnosrfofmofvjno ffn suggfs wkrct. Cfzf zjbnofe`sffrc kp cf suggfsd`gtkrfn zk`ms ofëntrkcugffrc jn aft tafkrftjsgaf i`cfr v`n

Akkdcstui 6. Fnifmf vkkreffmcfn zjbn2

Aft tkfm`tfn v`n ffn akmjstjsga kkrcffm c`t pktfntjffm tfofnstrjbcjof ujtspr`-

ifn vfrfnjot jn aft kntwfrp v`n cf ``nefstfcjnoprkgfcurf.

Rkrofn c`t cf pksjtjf fn aft typf efm`noafeefncfn dofstfhc zjbn kp aun rkm

jn aft efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfs.

Aft ``np`ssfn v`n cf ``rc v`n cf fxpfrtjsf ``n cf ``rc fn jnakuc v`n cf ef-

smujtvkrhjnost`ì cjf nkcjo js vkkr cf sfmfgtjf v`n ffn `rgajtfgt.

Aft tkfm`tfn v`n gkhpfns`tjf jn aft kptfmmfn v`n cf w``rcfkkrcfmfn kvfr cf

iw`mjtfjt(fn) v`n cf kddfrtfs.

Aft vfrorktfn v`n aft vfrtrkuwfn tussfn cf efsmujtvkrhfrs fn aft cr`òvmì

v`n aft efsmujt kncfr cf efm`noafeefncfn ckkr jn aft kntwfrp v`n cf ``nef-

stfcjno cf rkmmfn fn vfr`ntwkkrcfmjbiafcfn v`n cf efsmujtvkrhfrs zkrovumcjo

tf `crfssfrfn.

Cf rfsumt`tfn v`n cjt kncfrzkfi ofvfn ``nmfjcjno tkt ffn wjbzjojnossuoofs-

tjf vkkr cf aujcjof ``nefstfcjnosprìtjbi jn Nfcfrm`nc. N``r hjbn hfnjno zku

cf s`hfnstfmmjno v`n cf sfmfgtjf - fn ounnjnogkhhjssjf ofmjbi hkftfn zjbn vkkrcf sfmfgtjf- fn cf ounnjnosd`sf, zku cfzf gkhhjssjf (`nnfx bury) efsmjssjnosrfgat

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701

hkftfn afeefn, fn zkucfn fr pfr d`sf vfrsgajmmfn iunnfn zjbn jn cf rkmmfn fn vfr-

`ntwkkrcfmjbiafcfn v`n cf burymfcfn. Cjt eftfifnt c`t vkkr fmif ``nefstfcjno

w``rejb ffn `rgajtfgt wkrct ofikzfn cf vkmofncf prkgfcurf v`n tkfp`ssjno zku

iunnfn zjbn2

_jbs ffn ofv`rjffrcf bury ``n w``rjn zkwfm cf vfr`ntwkkrcfmjbif efstuurcfr(s)

fn `ncfrf vfrtfofnwkkrcjofrs v`n cf ``nefstfcfncf cjfnst `ms ffn ``nt`m ck-hfjnspfgjdjfif cfsiuncjofn cjf ofrfm`tffrc zjbn ``n aft i`rìtfr v`n cf kp-

cr`gat (ejbv. stfcfnekuwiuncjofn, rgajtfgtfn, cuurz``hafjc fxpfrts, ajstk-

rjgj, fnzkvkkrt) zjttjno nfhfn.

Offd cf bury zkwfm jn cf sfmfgtjfd`sf `ms jn cf ounnjnosd`sf efsmjssjnosrfgat.

Rkro c`t cf burymfcfn fmi``r kncfrstfunfn fn vfrtrkuwfn, zkwfm vkkr, tjbcfns

`ms n` cf ``nefstfcjnosprkgfcurf. Cjt i`n efvkrcfrc wkrcfn ckkr v`n tf vk-

rfn cf rkmmfn, vfr`ntwkkrcfmjbiafcfn fn tìfn vkkr cf vfrsgajmmfncf d`sfn v`n

aft sfmfgtjfprkgfs ejnnfn cf bury v`st tf mfoofn.

Cf vkkrcfmfn v`n aft eftrfiifn v`n ckhfjnspfgjdjfif cfsiuncjofn vkkr kp-

cr`gatofvfrs js c`t 0) jn cf sfmfgtjfd`sf ffn iw`mjtfjtsgkntrkmf pm``tsvjnct v`n cf

pktfntjémf jnsgarjbvfrs ckkr cfsiuncjofn ujt aft eftrkiifn wfrivfmc, fn 5) c`t cf

kpcr`gatofvfrs jn cf ounnjnosd`sf hft cf kncfrstfunjno v`n ckhfjnspfgjdjfif

cfsiuncjofn jnvmkfc iunnfn ujtkfdfnfn kp cf ujtfjncfmjbif efsmjssjno. Cf cfs-

iuncjofn cjf eftrkiifn zjbn ejb aft prkgfs iunnfn tkfzjfn kp cf pktfntjémf ofvkm-

ofn v`n cf ``nefstfcjnosefsmjssjnofn kp aft wfrivfmc. Aft vkkrofstfmcf gkngfpt

zku ``nzjfnmjbi hffr eftrkiifnafjc v`n cf cfsiuncjofn fn `ncfrf p`nfmmfcfn

vfrfjsfn jn cf vkkrefrfjcfncf d`sf v`n cf ``nefstfcjno. Cf kprjgatjno v`n ffn

ofspfgj`mjsffrc humtjcjsgjpmjn`jr ifnnjsgfntruh fn cf kntwjiifmjno v`n ffn c`t`-e`sf hft jndkrh`tjf kvfr cf pktfntjémf ofsgajitafjc v`n cf jnsgarjbvfrs i`n cfzf

vfr`ncfrjno kncfrstfunfn.

Jn Akkdcstui 1 rfdmfgtffr ji kki kp cf ``npì fn wftfnsga`ppfmjbif rfmfv`ntjf

v`n aft kncfrzkfi fn wkrcfn suoofstjfs ofc``n vkkr tkfikhstjo kncfrzkfi. Ji

cfni c`t cjt kncfrzkfi ffn efm`norjbif ejbcròf mfvfrt ``n cf vr`ò n``r ffn jn-

tfrcjsgjpmjn`jrf efn`cfrjno v`n kncfrzkfi jn cjt wfrivfmc ckkr aft tkfp`ssfn v`n

efst``ncf ifnnjs ujt cf hffr dunc`hfntfmf ofejfcfn v`n cf wftfnsga`p zk`ms cf

gkonjtjfvf fn skgj`mf psygakmkojf. rj`noum`tjf v`n cf vfrsgajmmfncf hftakcfn v`n

kncfrzkfi vfrstfrit cf `n`mysf v`n cf gkhpmfxjtfjt cjf tfn orkncsmò mjot ``n aftofcrò v`n cf `gtkrfn. Jn cf zjn v`n cf eftrkuwe``rafjc v`n cjt kncfrzkfi emjbit

ejbvkkreffmc c`t aft kesfrvfrfn ffn hkofmjbiafjc ejfct kh wftfnsga`ppfmjbif jn-

zjgatfn tf vfrz`hfmfn kvfr ofcrò cjf ncfrs njft kpofhfrit zkucfn wkrcfn, zk`ms

cf rkm v`n fhktjfs fn str`tfojsga ofcrò. Cf efm`norjbistf vfrsgajmmfn tussfn cf

jcffénwfcstrjbc fn cf ``nefstfcjnosg`sfs jn cjt kncfrzkfi akucfn vfre`nc hft

vfrsgajmmfn jn cf burjcjsgaf ofvkmofn v`n aft efsmujt, aft ckfm v`n aft efsmujt fn

aft fxpfrtjsfnjvfù v`n cf kpcr`gatofvfr. Cf rfsumt`tfn v`n aft kncfrzkfi iun-

nfn wkrcfn ofofnfr`mjsffrc n``r vfrofmjbie`rf sfmfgtjfprkgfssfn w``rjn `mtfrn`-

tjfvfn wkrcfn `dofwkofn, zk`ms efsmujtfn kvfr ffn v`stokfcpkrtfdfujmmf, cf knt-

wjiifmjno v`n njfuwf prkcugtfn, tkfwjbzjnofn v`n kncfrzkfisofmcfn, sfmfgtfrfn

@.

E.

G.



70:

v`n wfrinfhfrs, fv`mu`tjfs v`n stucfntfnwfri, kd aft vfrmfnfn v`n kpcr`gatfn jn

`ncfrf (cjfnstfn)sfgtkrfn.

Rkwfm cf wftfnsga`p ms cf prìtjbi zku ofe``t zjbn ejb ffn hffr systfh`tjsgaf

h`njfr v`n c`t`vfrz`hfmjno kvfr ``nefstfcjnofn jn cf `rgajtfgtuur. Aft gkngfpt

v`n fxpfrt tf`hs, cf str`tfojfén vkkr aft wjnnfn v`n ``nefstfcjnofn, cf gkrrf-

m`tjfs fn fddfgtfn v`n cf sjtu`tjknfmf ifnhfrifn cjf v`n jnvmkfc zjbn kp cf sfnsf-hìjno prkgfssfn fn cf rkm v`n efsmjssjnoskncfrstfunfncf systfhfn jn cf efsmujt-

vkrhjno zkucfn jntfrfss`ntf kncfrwfrpfn iunnfn zjbn vkkr vfrcfr kncfrzkfi.

kfikhstjo kncfrzkfi zku kki vfrsgajmmfncf sfgtkrfn, vfrsgajmmfncf ifnhfrifn

v`n cf kpcr`gatofvfr fn vfrsgajmmfncf skkrtfn ``nefstfcjnosprkgfcurfs iunnfn

vfrofmjbifn. fvfns zkucfn hffr tafkrjfén tkfofp`st iunnfn wkrcfn kp aft of-

ejfc v`n str`tfojsga h`nòfhfnt, kpfne``r efstuur fn prkgfsh`nòfhfnt.

Cjt kncfrzkfi cr`òt ejb ``n ifnnjskntwjiifmjno kp aft ofejfc v`n cf `r-

gajtfgtknjsgaf vkrhofvjno, cf psygakmkojf v`n aft hìfn v`n efsmjssjnofn, fn

efsmujtvkrhjno ejnnfn kro`njs`tjfs. Aft js c``rckkr v`n efm`no vkkr cf ``nefstf-

cfncf cjfnst, gknsumt`nts, `rgajtfgtfn, efmfjcshìfrs fn burjcjsgaf `cvjsfurs ujtcf prìtjbi, h``r kki vkkr wftfnsga`ppfrs kp aft ofejfc v`n cfsjon h`nòfhfnt,

prkcugtfhktjf, khofvjnospsygakmkojf fn efsmujtvkrhjno. Cf efm`norjbistf ckfm-

orkfpfn v`n cjt prkfdsgarjdt zjbn cf kpcr`gatofvfncf kro`njs`tjfs cjf ffn ``nef-

stfcjno hkftfn kro`njsfrfn, aun `cvjsfurs, kvfrafjcsjnst`ntjfs cjf rfofmofvjno fn

efmfjc kntwjiifmfn fn ujtvkfrfn, fn (humtjcjsgjpmjn`jrf) wftfnsga`ppfrs kp aft

ofejfc v`n ``nefstfcjnofn fn wfcstrjbcfn jn cf ekuw. Khc`t aft kncfrzkfi jn-

zjgat offdt jn efsmujtvkrhjnosprkgfssfn v`nujt aft pfrspfgtjfd v`n cf kpcr`gatof-

vfr cjf njft ffrcfr zjbn kncfrzkgat fn hffst`m gatfr ofsmktfn cfurfn pm``tsvjncfn,

cfni ji c`t cf rfsumt`tfn v`n cjt kncfrzkfi kki jntfrfss`nt zjbn vkkr `ncfrfn cjf

jn aun wfrivfmc tf hìfn afeefn hft aft nfhfn v`n efsmjssjnofn cjf eftrfiijnoafeefn kp cf kntwjiifmjno v`n cf ofekuwcf khofvjno.

Mffntbf Tkmifr

@uoustus 5<0<



750

@ginkwmfcofhfnts

Wfvfr`m yf`rs òk J st`rtfc wrjtjno `n fpjmkouf èkut ‑mkvf, pkwfr, `nc pkmjtjgs‚ tk

`ccrfss taf struoomf kd puemjg gmjfnts jn taf djfmc kd rgajtfgturf. @s taf yf`rs wfnt @s taf yf`rs wfnt

ey J rf`mjsfc ta`t tafrf js `msk ` mkt kd pkwfr `nc pkmjtjgs jn taf `g`cfhjg wkrmc. Zft, J `msk fxpfrjfngfc ` mkt kd mkvf `nc p`ssjkn ta`t suppkrtfc hf tarkuoakut

tajs \aC. afn J takuoat èkut taf hkhfnt ta`t ` drjfnc o`vf hf taf ekki kd

@ntkjnf cf W`jnt-Fxupêry èkut taf Mjttmf \rjngf. Jn tajs ekki taf ùtakr tfmms

èkut ajs hfftjnos wjta taf Mjttmf \rjngf jn taf hjccmf kd taf cfsfrt. Curjno tafsf

hfftjnos taf prjngf cfsgrjefs ajs fxpfrjfngfs wajmf tr`vfmmjno tarkuoakut taf unj-

vfrsf `nc vjsjtjno cjddfrfnt `stfrkjcs. @t f`ga pm`nft taf prjngf hft nfw pfkpmf,

`nc tafy `mm tùoat ajh skhftajno nfw. @t knf kd tafsf pm`nfts ` gunnjno eut

t`hfc dkx tkmc ajh èkut knf kd taf ejoofst sfgrfts jn mjdf2 ”Jt js knmy taf af`rt

ta`t knf g`n sff rjoatmy efgùsf wa`t js fssfntj`m js jnvjsjemf tk taf fyf‘. J rf`mjsfc

ta`t dkr hf mkvf js hkrf jhpkrt`nt ta`n pkwfr `nc pkmjtjgs. J wkumc mjif tk usftajs puemjg`tjkn tk `ginkwmfcof skhf pfkpmf ta`t gkntrjeutfc tk tajs tafsjs.

J gknsjcfr hy \aC `s ` ga`mmfnojno `g`cfhjg bkurnfy `mkno sfvfr`m pm`nfts ta`t

J ekkifc wjta A`ns cf Bknof. Jn taf efojnnjno wf t`mifc ` mkt èkut si`tjno kn

tajn jgf nc taf ga`ngfs kd ofttjno wft. A`ns, ta`ni yku dkr s`df p`ssòf nc taf

d`jta yku put jn hy `g`cfhjg `nc pfrskn`m g`p`gjtjfs. Zku cjc nkt tf`ga hf akw

tk si`tf eut, hkrf jhpkrt`ntmy, akw tk survjvf kn taf jgf.

@dtfr knf `nc ` a`md yf`rs kd tr`vfmmjno J dfmt ` ejt mkst. @t ta`t hkhfnt J hft

Irjstjn` Mùgaf drkh taf cfp`rthfnt kd Jncustrj`m Cfsjon. J jhhfcj`tfmy dfmt `t

akhf t afr fhpjrjg`mmy nc psygakmkojg`mmy krjfntfc stfrkjc. Irjstjn`, ta`ni ykudkr hìjno hy bkurnfy sk huga f`sjfr. Zku wfrf tafrf `t taf rjoat hkhfnts `nc

afmpfc hf rf`mjsf ta`t jt js `gtu`mmy pkssjemf tk gknnfgt taf wkrmc kd cfsjon tk taf

wkrmc kd psygakmkoy.

Hy gkmmfòufs `t taf D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf jntrkcugfc hf tk taf wkrmc

kd ‑truf‚ `rgajtfgturf, `nc hy gkmmfòufs `t taf cfp`rthfnt kd Uf`m Fst`tf `nc

Akusjno tùoat hf akw tk cf`m wjta `mm ijncs kd `gtkrs jn tajs gurjkus `nc fxgjt-

jno wkrmc. Hy gkmmfòuf Bkan Afjntz w`s knf kd hy c`jmy supfrvjskrs. Bkan, ta`ni

yku dkr sa`rjno ykur jnsjoats drkh `n `rgajtfgtur`m pkjnt kd vjfw `nc sakwjno hf

`rkunc jn taf Fnomjsa m`nouòf.

af suppkrt kd hy dfmmkw \aC‚s, ekta jn Ekuwiuncf nc jn Jncustrj`m Cfsjon,`nc kd A`ns _`hfmjni `s taf ga`jr kd kur orkup surfmy f`sfc taf p`jn `nc skrrkw

ta`t J skhftjhfs fxpfrjfngfc. J wkumc mjif tk ta`ni Fsr` `nc Hknjquf dkr st`nc-

jno nfxt tk hf `s p`r`njhds curjno taf cfdfngf `nc taf trust tafy put jn hf `s `

rfsf`rgafr.

J rf`mmy fnbkyfc tr`vfmmjno `rkunc wjta taf gmjfnts, `rgajtfgts, `cvjskrs, `nc (jntfr-

n`tjkn`m) rfsf`rgafrs ta`t J hft curjno hy trjp. af nuhfrkus cjsgussjkns èkut

taf cjddjgumtjfs, pjtd`mms nc ga`mmfnofs kd sgjfngf, rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkns, cfsjon gkh-

pftjtjkns, kr ktafr rfm`tfc jssufs `mw`ys jnspjrfc hf cffpmy. Orf`t `pprfgj`tjkn

okfs kut tk `mm taf gknt`gt pfrskns ta`t h`cf jt pkssjemf tk pfrdkrh hy g`sf stuc-

jfs nc taf cfgjsjkn hìfrs nc rgajtfgts wakh J jntfrvjfwfc. J fspfgj`mmy wkumc



755

mjif tk ta`ni taf fxpfrts ta`t p`rtjgjp`tfc jn hy v`mjc`tjkn wkrisakp `nc _ytzf

\`tjbn dkr jngmucjno hf jn taf prkbfgt tf`h kd taf Eujmcjno dkr Ekuwiuncf gkh-

pftjtjkn. Kd gkursf `msk h`ny ta`nis tk hy gkhhjttff hfhefrs wak suebfgtfc

hy wkri tk ` djn`m tfst.

F`ga fngkuntfr mfdt hf skhftajno, eut jt `mm st`rtfc wjta hy p`rfnts. \`p` `nc

H`h`, yku prkvjcfc hf wjta taf rjoat fqujphfnt dkr tajs `g`cfhjg p`ta2 taf

nfvfr-fncjno gurjksjty, ` m`rof fnoòfhfnt wjta pfkpmf, ` gkntjnukus pfrsfvfr-

`ngf, taf d`jta ta`t fvfrytajno wjmm fvfntu`mmy ef jn pm`gf, nc taf pkwfr tk gakksf

hy kwn p`ta jn mjdf. J wkumc mjif tk ta`ni hy erktafr `nc `mm taf drjfncs, akusf-

h`tfs `nc gkmmfòufs wakh J hft curjno hy st`ys jn _òfnjnofn, Fjncakvfn,

Njfuwfofjn `nc Cfmdt dkr tafjr gkntjnukus suppkrt, rfm`xjno hkhfnts `nc jntfr-

fst sakwn jn hy rfsf`rga. @ spfgj`m ta`nis okfs kut tk Afrhfn B`n dkr taf or`paj-

g`m jnput kn taf sgafhfs jn hy tafsjs.

Jt js `mw`ys njgf tk sa`rf ykur c`jmy fxpfrjfngfs wjta skhfknf yku mkvf. Afni,

wjta `mm ykur mkvf `nc wjsckh yku `rf hy mjttmf wajtf prjngf. Zku dkmmkwfc hf

wjtakut `ny afsjt`tjkn tk fvfry gkrnfr kd hy hjnc, `nc tkki g`rf kd hf mjif taf

Mjttmf \rjngf tkki g`rf kd ajs rksf. Jt `mw`ys dffms okkc tk rfturn tk kur pm`nft `nc

tkoftafr hìf pm`ns dkr ` nfw bkurnfy.

Mffntbf Tkmifr

@uoust 5<0<



757

Gurrjgumuh Tjt`f

Mffntbf Tkmifr w`s ekrn jn 0:?1 jn @rnafh, taf Nftafrm`ncs. Waf gkhpmftfc sfg-Waf gkhpmftfc sfg-

knc`ry sgakkm (_òfnjnos Mygfuh, m`tfr \`nt`rjbn Wgakmfnofhffnsga`p) jn 0::4

`nc tafn hkvfc tk Fjncakvfn tk stucy fganjfi fn H``tsga`ppjb (fgankmkoy ncWkgjfty) `t taf cfp`rthfnt kd fgankmkoy H`nòfhfnt `t Fjncakvfn Vnjvfrsjty

kd fgankmkoy. Waf dkgusfc kn taf rfm`tjkn eftwffn pfkpmf `nc taf eujmt fnvjrkn-

hfnt drkh ` psygakmkojg`m pfrspfgtjvf. Jn Nkvfhefr 5<<5 saf or`cu`tfc wjta

cjstjngtjkn jn Auh`n fgankmkoy Jntfr`gtjkn `t taf V/f. Afr h`stfr tafsjs cf`mt

wjta cfsjon oujcfmjnfs dkr skgj`m jntfr`gtjkn kd p`tjfnts jn akspjt`ms. Curjno afr

stucjfs saf w`s `n `gtjvf hfhefr kd sfvfr`m stucfnt kro`njs`tjkns jn spkrts, husjg

`nc wjtajn taf unjvfrsjty. Waf `msk spfnt dkur hkntas `s ` vjsjtjno sgakm`r `t taf

D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf kd taf Vnjvfrsjty kd _jsgknsjn jn Hjmwùiff (VW@), w`s

`n jntfrn `t Hfsks Hfcjsga Gfntruh `nc @I@ jn Vtrfgat, nc ket`jnfc V/f

gfrtjdjg`tf jn fgankmkoy H`nòfhfnt.Jn taf efojnnjno kd 5<<7 saf st`rtfc wkrijno `s ` rfsf`rgafr `nc prkbfgt h`n-

òfr `t taf Gfntfr dkr \fkpmf `nc Eujmcjno (Gd\E) jn Cfmdt. Waf js ùtakr kd taf

_KCJ© kkmijt tk hf`surf s`tjsd`gtjkn `nc pfrdkrh`ngf kd taf eujmt fnvjrkn-

hfnt jn kddjgfs `nc kro`njsfc sfvfr`m wkrisakps `nc syhpksj` tk gknnfgt pfkpmf

drkh pr`gtjgf tk sgjfngf jn tajs djfmc. Jn 5<<6 saf bkjnfc taf orkup kd Cfsjon

`nc Gknstrugtjkn H`nòfhfnt kd taf cfp`rthfnt kd Uf`m Fst`tf `nc Akusjno

(D`gumty kd @rgajtfgturf, Cfmdt Vnjvfrsjty kd fgankmkoy) tk st`rt afr \aC prkbfgt

kn `rgajtfgt sfmfgtjkn jn taf gkntfxt kd FV tfncfrjno rfoum`tjkns. Vntjm 5<<1 saf

st`yfc gknnfgtfc tk taf Gd\E dkr knf c`y ` wffi. Waf a`s wrjttfn v`rjkus `rtjgmfs

wajga a`vf effn puemjsafc jn sgjfntjdjg `nc prkdfssjkn`m bkurn`ms `nc gkndfrfngfprkgffcjnos, `nc a`s effn ` spfìfr `t sfvfr`m (jntfr)n`tjkn`m gkndfrfngfs `nc

wkrisakps. Drkh Bunf 5<<1 tk H`y 5<<: saf w`s ` gkkrcjn`tkr kd taf Kpfn

Jntfrn`tjkn`m Jcf`s Gkhpftjtjkn ‑Eujmcjno dkr Ekuwiuncf‚ `nc p`rtjgjp`tfc jn

taf ajni a`ni tk o`tafr jcf`s dkr ` nfw d`gumty eujmcjno dkr @rgajtfgturf.

Mffntbf a`s `msk p`rtjgjp`tfc jn tf`gajno `nc supfrvjsjno or`cu`tf stucfnts, a`s

effn jnvkmvfc jn \aC tr`jnjno `gtjvjtjfs, taf Eujmcjno Er`jns jnjtj`tjvf, `nc taf

7V rfsf`rga `ssfsshfnt dkr @rgajtfgturf `nc taf Eujmt Fnvjrknhfnt jn 5<0<.

Volker 2010 - Deciding About Design Quality

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