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Volkan Topalli, PhDDepartment of Criminal Justice & Criminology

The Andrew Young School of Policy StudiesGeorgia State University

Tackling Doping in Sport, Global ConferenceMarch 13-14, 2013

London

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Criminology is concerned with understanding why people break the law and how to prevent them from breaking the law.

Sport anti-doping bodies are concerned with understanding why athletes break the rules and preventing them from breaking the rules.

How are athletes and offenders different? What can criminology teach us about prevention?

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ATHLETE: “I have a medical condition I wish I didn't have to use testosterone but I have no choice…If anyone else has a better way I would like to talk to you maybe you can help me. Nothing will stop me from playing baseball again not lies or a medical condition. I am going to play baseball again even if I have die trying." – Jose Canseco after being suspended from the Mexican Baseball League this past year.

OFFENDER: “I got no choice man. I got to do this. I got to eat, got to have money in my pocket, got keep myself right. Its dog-eat-dog out there man. It's a competition. Who’s gonna look the best? Who’s gonna be the smartest? The toughest? Ain’t nothing would keep me from robbing people, man. Nothing. This is how I’m gonna take care of myself. This is how I’m gonna win.” – Young Cool, a 25 year-old burglar and drug dealer.

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ATHLETE: “I’m nowhere close to using steroids (17 years old, have been lifting for about 14 months now), but I always like to envision my future, LOL. Honestly, the only thing that would stop me from using steroids (in 5+ years, once I've reached my natural peak) is the acne. Right now I think I’m past my peak acne (knocks on wood) but it can get kinda bad sometimes, and my face is often greasy.” Anonymous youth bodybuilder, Online youth discussion board on avoiding acne.

OFFENDER: “Why I’m doing this? Why not? I’m young now. I got to get it while I can. Ain’t no tomorrow. That’s bullshit to think about tomorrow. You got to get yours now man. If you wait on it, you might wake up and find yourself dead, or old, or crippled. When I go out to sling dope, or rob somebody, or steal a car, I ain’t thinking about nothing but today, because tomorrow is too far off man. I want that cash in hand now. The reward is for today not tomorrow.” L’il Cool, 19 year old street offender.

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Similarities • expectations of getting caught• assessments of the legitimacy of breaking the rules• winner-take-all mentality

Differences• character, work ethic, and morals• perceptions of the public

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Prevention Deterrence• Deterrability (the susceptibility to sanctions)

o Situational Deterrabilityo Dispositional Deterrabilityo Dispositional X Situational Deterrability => Risk

Sensitivity

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What are the calculations that athletes make when they contemplate breaking the rules? • Calculating Risks vs. Rewards

What is a governing body (e.g., USADA, WADA) contemplating in response to the athlete’s calculations?• Sanctions

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Formal Sanctions• Criminal Justice System vs. Pro- and Amateur

Athlete systems Informal Sanctions• Sources: Communities, families, organizations• Can be

o Pro-transgressiveo Counter-transgressiveo Non-sanctioning

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Example #1 - Counter-transgressive informal sanction: The athlete is considering the use of steroids before an athletic event. He informs his coach, who strongly discourages such behavior as dishonorable and disrespectful to the game. The coach, an obvious role-model, communicates to the athlete that he will lose significant respect for the athlete for choosing such a path.

Question: is there a difference in the deterrent effect if the coach says that use could result in getting caught vs. use will result in the loss of respect?

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Example #2 – Pro-transgressive informal sanction: The athlete is considering the use of steroids before an athletic event. He informs his father, who has supported his endeavors since he was a child. The father encourages this behavior, explaining to his son that he was raised to “be a winner”, that others are trying to game the system and if he does not he is giving them an advantage over him, that winning is everything, and that if he does not do everything he can to win by “following the rules” and “playing it safe” he will not prevail and will fall into obscurity, losing potential opportunities in the future.

Question: does is matter if the father argues for transgressing by emphasizing winning or by emphasizing that others are cheating too?

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Example #3 – Non-sanctioning communication: The athlete is considering the use of steroids before an athletic event. He informs his college room-mate, who is neither an athlete nor close to him. Regardless of whether the room-mate communicates a pro-transgressive or counter-transgressive message to the athlete, the athlete will not alter his planned behavior. The room-mate holds no social capital with the athlete and thus has no effect on his behavior. This is also true if the athlete indicates that he has the opportunity to take steroids to improve his performance but is anticipating turning down the opportunity. Again, the room-mate’s advocacy or disapproval will be inconsequential. The athlete does not see him as a significant or important other.

Question: is this all about the room-mate’s status or is this about how he conveys the message? Can such individuals be co-opted to increase informal sanctions by sending the right message?

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Different cultures view cheating differently. Cross-cultural differences and similarities with regard

to sanctions and deterrence are therefore critical to understand if we are to have level international competition.

If we acknowledge that the meaning of sanctions - both formal and informal - is different across cultures we run into the following problem: How do you create a deterrence system that provides universal deterrence?

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What is the goal of deterrence and how can it play a role in reducing or eliminating doping behavior?• Increasing Risk Sensitivity, • Enhancing and structuring Informal Social Control

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What do you do when the culture of competition advocates for outcomes that trump risk?

When people are told that they must win at all costs? When they are indoctrinated into a culture of sacrifice?

When they are focused on the “here and now” Can we or should we delegitimize “winning at all costs”

without damaging the competitive nature of sport?