Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits of the Archean, Noranda District, Quebec

Gibson, H., and Galley, A., 2007, Volcanogenic massive sulphide deposits of the Archean, Noranda District, Quebec, in Goodfellow, W. D., ed., MineralDeposits of Canada: A Synthesis of Major Deposit-types, District Metallogeny, the Evolution of Geological Provinces, and Exploration Methods, SpecialPublication No. 5, Mineral Deposits Division, Geological Association of Canada, p. 533-552.

VOLCANOGENIC MASSIVE SULPHIDE DEPOSITS OF THE ARCHEAN,

NORANDA DISTRICT, QUEBEC

HAROLD L. GIBSON1 AND ALAN G. GALLEY2,1

1. Mineral Exploration Research Centre, Department of Earth Sciences,Laurentian University, Sudbury, Ontario, Canada P3E 2C6

2. Geological Survey of Canada601 Booth Street, Ottawa, Canada, K1S 5B6

Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

Abstract

The Noranda mining district is one of Canada’s nation builders, having been the key for opening up northernQuebec for economic expansion and regional development. Over an 85-year period, 20 economic volcanogenic mas-sive sulphide (VMS) deposits have been discovered by prospecting, geological, geophysical and lithogeochemical tech-niques. Besides VMS deposits, the Noranda District is also host to 19 orogenic Au deposits and several intrusion-hostedCu-Mo deposits and occurrences. VMS deposits of the Noranda District occur in the Noranda formation of the ArcheanBlake River Group of the Abitibi Subprovince. The majority of deposits are hosted within the Noranda Cauldron, anasymmetric volcanic depression filled with effusive basalt and basaltic andesite flows and subordinate rhyolite flow-dome complexes. The Noranda Cauldron is floored by a large, multiphase subvolcanic intrusive complex that is hypoth-esized to be the heat engine responsible for development of much of the VMS and porphyry mineralization in the dis-trict. The VMS deposits are hosted by two distinct lithofacies, flow and volcaniclastic, where volcaniclastic includesprimary pyroclastic deposits, and those that are re-deposited and syneruptive. Of the 20 past producing VMS deposits,17 are hosted by flows (8 with mafic and 9 with felsic flows) whereas volcaniclastic rocks host the Horne, Bouchard-Hebert and Corbet deposits. The largest massive sulphide deposits occur within the felsic volcaniclastic strata at themargins of or directly overlying the Noranda Cauldron.

The Noranda VMS deposits typify the bimodal-mafic type, where the majority of the host stratigraphy is composedof a mafic volcanic flow succession in which discrete felsic dome complexes are situated over major synvolcanic faults.These fault systems are also defined within the Noranda Cauldron by discrete dyke swarms originating from the under-lying subvolcanic intrusive complex. The inferred primitive rifted arc environment typical of this deposit-type is bestcharacterized by a large volcanic edifice within the present-day Kermadec and Tonga-Fiji suprasubduction tectoniczone of the western Pacific.

Résumé

Le district minier de Rouyn-Noranda est l’une des régions édificatrices du Canada; elle a constitué une des clés del’expansion économique et du développement régional du Québec septentrional. Pendant un intervalle de 85 ans, 20gisements rentables de SMV ont été découverts par des méthodes de prospection géologiques, géophysiques et litho-géochimiques. En plus des gisements de SMV, le district de Rouyn-Noranda recèle également 19 gisements d’Auorogéniques et plusieurs gisements de Cu-Mo porphyres. Les gisements de SMV du district de Rouyn-Noranda sesituent dans les roches du sous-groupe archéen de Blake River de la sous-province d’Abitibi. La majorité des gisementsont été découverts dans la subsidence en chaudron de Noranda, une dépression volcanique asymétrique principalementcomblée de coulées d’andésite basaltique et de complexes de rhyolite secondaires sur un grand complexe intrusif sub-volcanique soupçonné d’être le moteur thermique ayant engendré la formation d’une bonne partie des minéralisationsen SMV et porphyres dans le district. Dans le district de Rouyn-Noranda, on trouve les gisements de SMV dans deuxtypes de lithofaciès distincts, des faciès de coulées et volcanoclastiques dont les roches volcanoclastiques sont princi-palement constituées de dépôts pyroclastiques et des faciès dont les roches ont été redéposées et sont synéruptives.Parmi les 20 gisements de SMV ayant été exploités par le passé, 17 se trouvaient dans des coulées (8 dans des couléesmafiques et 9 dans des coulées felsiques), alors que les roches volcanoclastiques n’en renfermaient que 3 – les gise-ments de Horne, de Bouchard-Hebert et de Corbet. Les plus importants gisements de sulfures massifs se présentent dansles strates volcanoclastiques aux marges du chaudron de Noranda ou directement sur celui-ci.

La minéralisation en sulfures massifs de Noranda caractérise les gisements de SMV de type bimodal, dans lesquelsla majorité de la stratigraphie hôte se compose d’une succession de coulées volcaniques mafiques où des complexes enforme de dômes felsiques discrets sont présents au-dessus des failles synvolcaniques majeures. Ces réseaux de faillessont également définis à l’intérieur du chaudron de Noranda par la présence d’essaims de filons intrusifs émanant ducomplexe subvolcanique intrusif sous-jacent. L’environnement primitif type d’arc de divergence des gisements de cegenre est au mieux caractérisé par l’actuel grand édifice volcanique présent dans la région tectonique de la zone supra-subduction de Kermadec et Tonga-Fidji dans le Pacifique occidental.

Introduction

The Noranda District contains the most thoroughly stud-ied and documented volcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS)deposits of any Archean volcanic complex. Over an 85-year

period, 20 economic VMS deposits have been discovered byprospecting, geological, geophysical and lithogeochemcialtechniques. Research conducted on these well preserved,ancient deposits has, and will continue to make, a significantcontribution to our understanding of VMS deposits and the

Harold L. Gibson amd Alan G. Galley

534

development of genetic and exploration models for thisdeposit-type (Gibson et al., 2000). The Noranda District isalso host to 19 small, orogenic Au deposits whose total com-bined production is eclipsed by the almost 10 million ounces(Moz) of Au produced by the Horne VMS deposit (Gibson etal., 2000). Other types of mineralization in the NorandaDistrict include the intrusion-hosted Don-Rouyn Cu-Modeposit and St. Jude Cu-Mo occurrence. In this paper, wedescribe the geological setting and characteristics of VMSdeposits in the Noranda District as well as the explorationhistory of this historic and influential base and preciousmetal district.

Regional and District Geology

The Archean Abitibi Subprovince is host to 83 VMSdeposits with an aggregate geological tonnage of approxi-mately 730 Mt (million tonnes) that represent an in-groundmetal content of approximately 9.8 Mt Cu, 22.7 Mt Zn and37 Moz of Au (Gibson et al., 2005; Franklin et al., 2005). Sixof the deposits contain >20 Mt and two of these, the 53.7 MtHorne and the 69.2 Mt LaRonde deposits, account for almost20 Moz of Au. Abitibi VMS deposits range in age from2696-2701 Ma (e.g., Noranda and Doyon-Bousquet-LaRonde) to 2730Ma (Matagami Lake, Normetal), and areclustered within 13 districts comprised of one (e.g.,Quevillon and Normetal) to 20 deposits (e.g., Noranda).

VMS deposits of the Noranda District occur in theArchean Blake River Group of the Abitibi Subprovince,Superior province (Percival, 2007). Stratigraphic subdivi-sion and nomenclature for subunits within the Blake RiverGroup are undergoing revision as summarized in Table 1 andillustrated in Fig. 1. In this paper we use the most recentstratigraphic nomenclature for the Blake River Group inQuebec as outlined in Table 1. Geochronological data (Table1) indicate that volcanism, which constructed the BlakeRiver Group, spanned approximately 8 Ma (2696 to 2704Ma). Errors associated with the individual ages indicate thatthere is considerable overlap in the age of the different for-mations that comprise the Blake River Group. This overlapin age plus the absence of unconformities or thick epiclasticsedimentary successions between or within formations sug-gest that volcanism was located distal from subaerial orabove storm-wave base landmasses, and that volcanism wascontinuous and not punctuated by a pronounced hiatus.

The structural style of the Blake River Group in theNoranda District is not uniform as illustrated in Fig. 1.North-south structural shortening within the more centralDuprat-Montbray and Noranda formations is accommo-dated by broad, generally northeast-trending, open folds andnorth-south to north-northwest trending, east dipping,reverse faults that result in the generally east-facing andshallow east-dipping strata that characterize the Noranda for-

NC

Kewagama Group <2686 MaCadillac Group <2687 MaBlake River Group

85

Bousquet formation

Reneault-Dufresnoy formation

Noranda formation

Rouyn-Pelletier formation

Duprat Montbray formation

Hebecourt formation

Subvolcanic Plutons

LPF

PDF

PDF

CLF

CLF

Km

0 10

HFBF

AF

FPIC (F)

HCF10

20

45

50

40

80Ni

Ma

80

45

40Y

Mb

Fc

80

An V

WaF

OE

CA

8080

B-H

80

80

708060DeD

Q

H

75Ad

30

CBM

40

N

75

80

PF

G

PF

IX

FPIC(P)

X

X

X

80

DU

IB LR

Faults

Fold axes

Bedding

VMS deposits

NORANDA

U.S.A.

Montreal

Quebec

QUEBEC

ONTARIO44

o

68o

52o

INDEX MAP

FIGURE 1. Stratigraphic subdivision and structure of the Blake River Group showing the location of the Noranda Cauldron and VMS deposits (modified afterGoutier et al., 2006; Peloquin, 2005). (PDF = Porcupine Destor fault, PF = Parfouru fault, LPF = La Pause fault, CLF = Cadillac Larder Lake fault, HCF =Hunter Creek fault, BF = Beauchastel fault, HF = Horne fault, AF = Andesite fault, NC = inferred structural margin of the Noranda Cauldron. FPIC(F) sig-nifies the Flavrian segment of the Flavrian-Powell Intrusive Complex, whereas FPIC(P) signifies the faulted-off Powell segment of the subvolcanic intrusivecomplex. Refer to Table 2 for abbreviations used to denote VMS deposits and significant occurrences.

535

mation. In the more peripheral Hebecourt, Rouyn-Pelletier,and Reneault-Dufresnoy formations, structural shortening isaccommodated by steep faults and steep, isoclinal, west-verging folds whose fold axes strike parallel to the adjacentDestor-Porcupine and Cadillac-Larder Lake faults thatbound the Blake River Group (Fig. 1). This deformation pro-duced steeply dipping strata that parallel the major boundingfaults within these formations. In general, deformationwithin the Hebecourt, Rouyn-Pelletier, and Reneault-Dufresnoy formations decreases with increasing distancefrom the bounding faults. However, the change to shallowdipping strata within the Noranda and Duprat-Montbray for-mations is abrupt and occurs across steeply dipping faults.

It is uncertain if the different formations illustrated in Fig.1 represent individual, overlapping volcanoes that evolvedseparately during discrete episodes of volcanism, and collec-tively define the Blake River Group in Quebec or if the for-mations collectively define a single volcano? Given theuncertainties regarding the extent and distribution of the for-mations due to their overlap in age, and the absence ofbounding unconformities, both interpretations are reason-able. In this regard, Spence and deRosen-Spence (1975),deRosen-Spence (1976), Dimroth et al., (1982), Gibson(1990) and Peloquin et al., (1990) interpreted VMS depositsof the Noranda District to have formed a large, 7 to 9 km-thick, shield-like, bimodal, volcanic edifice comprised ofone or more volcanoes dominated by basaltic and rhyoliticflows with subordinate, localized deposits of volcaniclasticrocks referred to as the Noranda Volcanic Complex (NVC)(Fig. 2A). The NVC consists of distinct fault blocks or sec-tors that now include the Noranda formation and portions ofthe Reneault-Dufresnoy, Rouyn-Pelletier and Duprat-Montbray formations (Fig. 1; Table 1; Gibson andWatkinson, 1990; Peloquin et al., 1990). Spence (1967),deRosen-Spence (1976), Gibson (1990) and Peloquin et al.(1990) subdivided what are now the Noranda and Reneault-Dufresnoy formations of the NVC into five conformablecycles. Cycles I through V young to the east (Fig. 2A), witheach cycle consisting of an andesitic basalt to basaltic lowerunit (Fig. 3A) and a rhyolitic (Fig. 3B) or a rhyolitic withlesser basaltic andesite upper unit. VMS deposits, subeco-nomic deposits, and occurrences are associated with theupper, rhyolitic part of the cycles. Ages for the different for-

mations suggest that the entire NVC may haveformed in as little as 3 Ma (Table 1).

A 15 x 20 km area of synvolcanic subsidence,referred to as the Noranda Cauldron, is inter-preted to occur within the centre of the Norandaformation of the NVC (deRosen-Spence, 1976;Dimroth et al. 1982; Gibson, 1990) (Fig. 2B).The interpreted structural margins of the caul-dron are defined by the Hunter Creek and HorneCreek faults to the north and south, respectively,and by the western margin of the FlavrianPowell Intrusive Complex (FPIC), and thed’Alembert shear and the synvolcanicd’Alembert Pluton to the west and east, respec-tively (Fig. 2A; Lichtblau and Dimroth, 1980;Dimroth et al., 1982; Gibson and Watkinson,1990). The Noranda Cauldron is centred on a

northeast trending rift, the Old Waite Paleofissure (Fig. 2B),which is defined by a 1 km-wide, sheeted intrusive complexthat contains basaltic, rhyolitic, and composite dykes andsills (Gibson, 1990; Gibson and Watkinson, 1990). TheNoranda Cauldron also contains several younger and smallernested subsidence structures referred to as the Despina andDelbridge cauldrons (Fig. 2B; Gibson and Watkinson, 1990).Recently, Pearson (2005) and Pearson and Daigneault (2006)hypothesized that the Noranda Cauldron may be part of twoolder and larger calderas. The first is the New Senatorcaldera, which encompasses most of the Noranda formation,and the second and oldest the Misema caldera, whichencloses the entire Blake River Group (Pearson, 2005).

Within the Noranda Cauldron subsidence was passive,episodic, and is interpreted to have occurred in response tothe emplacement and partial evacuation of underlyingmagma chambers, now represented by comagmatic phasesof the 2697 to 2701 Ma synvolcanic FPIC (Goldie, 1979;Mortensen, 1987; 1993; Paradis et al., 1988; Galley and vanBreemen, 2002; Galley, 2003) (Figs. 2A-2B). The FPICoccupies the centre of this subsidence structure, where it wasemplaced within its own volcanic equivalents throughsequential emplacement of a series of sill complexes(Richard, 1999; Galley, 2003) and generated the convectivehydrothermal system responsible for cauldron-hosted VMSdeposits and associated hydrothermal alteration (Kennedy,1985; Gibson, 1990).

Mineral Deposits, Occurrences and Grade/TonnageStatistics

The Blake River Group in the Noranda District is host to20 past-producing VMS deposits and 10 subeconomic VMSdeposits and/or significant base metal occurrences (Table 2).The distribution of past-producers and subeconomic depositswithin the Noranda District is not uniform. Eighteen past-producing deposits and five subeconomic deposits occurwithin the Noranda formation (Cycles III and IV), one pastproducer and one subeconomic deposit occurs within theRouyn-Pelletier formation, one past producer occurs in theReneault-Dufresnoy formation (Cycle V), and four subeco-nomic deposits occur within the lowermost, Duprat-Montbray formation (Cycles I and II) (Fig. 2A; Table 2).Clearly, the Noranda formation has been the most favourable

Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits of the Archean, Noranda District, Quebec

oiratnOcebeuQ

Formations Age Ma Subgroups Age Ma

Bousquet2696.9+/-1 to 2698.6+/-1.5

Reneault-Dufresnoy

2696+/-1.1 to 2698+1.3/-0.7

Noranda 2698.5+/-2

Rouyn-Pelletier 2701

Duprat-Montbray

2697-2701 Misema2696.6+/-1.3 to 2701+/-2

Hebecourt 2701-2704 Garrison 2701-2704

Table 1. A Comparison of the Stratigraphic Subdivision and Geochronology of the Blake River Group in Ontario and Quebec

Upper Blake River Group 2696-2701

Lower Blake River Group 2701-2704

TABLE 1. A comparison of the stratigraphic subdivision and geochronology of the Blake RiverGroup in Quebec using informal formations with the subgroup stratigraphic terminology ofOntario (modified after Mortensen 1987; 1993; Tremblay et al., 1995; Mercier-Langevin etal., 2004; Lafrance et al., 2005; Ayer et al., 2005; Peloquin, 2005; Gauthier et al., 2006; Davidet al., 2006).


536

N

PowellPluton

A

A'

Rhyolite Dikes

VMS Deposits

FlavrianPluton

DufaultPluton

0 3

km

Cycle IV

Second Cauldron Cycle

First Cauldron Cycle

Horne Sequence

Rouyn- Pelletier Subgroup

Mine Sequence Cycle III

Horne Creek Fault

Beauchastel Fault

Hunter Creek Fault Cranston FaultNORANDA

U.S.A.

Montreal

Quebec

QUEBEC

ONTARIO

44o

68o

52o

INDEX MAP

McDougall/ DespinaFaults

AldermacSyenite

NORANDA CAULDRONA'A

FlavrianPluton

HorneBlock

AndesiteFault

?

?

Horne CreekFault

Hunter CreekFault

Old WaitePaleofissure

1km

1km

ApproximateScale


Amulet Upper member

Amulet Uppermember

Reneault-Dufresnoy formation

Noranda formation

Silicified Amulet Upper member

Cycles I and II

B-H

H

DeD

Cb

F A M

An

V

EO

An V

OE

N

FC

A

M

Cb

Q

H

DE

D

G

Q

Old waitePaleofissure

Ad

Post-volcanic Pluton

Syn-volcanic Pluton

Andesite Fault

D'Alembert Shear

C

Caldera margin

A

B

Fi 2 (N d )

FIGURE 2. (A) Geologic map of the central portion of the Noranda Volcanic Complex (NVC; Noranda formation) showing the location and limits of the cen-tral area of subsidence, the Noranda Cauldron, between the Horne Creek and Horne (Andesite) faults, and the subvolcanic Flavrian-Powell Intrusive Complexand Old Waite Paleofissure which occur in the core of the subsidence structure (modified after Gibson, 2005). Refer to Table 2 for abbreviations used todenote VMS deposits and significant occurrences; (B) Reconstructed north-south geologic cross-section through the Noranda Cauldron showing the strati-graphic and structural control on VMS deposits (modified after Gibson, 2005).

537

time-stratigraphic interval for the formation of VMSdeposits as it contains 90 % of the past producing depositsand 50 % of the subeconomic deposits, whereas the olderDuprat-Montbray formation was less favourable. As will bediscussed later, the Noranda formation is unique in that itwas erupted and emplaced during a period of cauldron sub-sidence and high heat flow.

The number of economic deposits is not the only measureof stratigraphic favourability. The Rouyn-Pelletier forma-

tion, because of the Horne Upper and Lower H orebodies,accounts for 60 % of the total tonnage produced from theNoranda District as well as nearly 60 % of the Cu and almost80 % of the Au; this does not include the metal containedwithin the much larger, more Zn-rich, and subeconomicHorne No. 5 zone (Kerr and Mason, 1990; Table 2).Although there is some variation in the Zn and Cu contentbetween the Noranda VMS deposits, the most significantvariation in grade is reflected by Au content (Table 2). The


FIGURE 3. Photographs of rocks in the Noranda District, Quebec. (A) Columnar-jointed basalt from the Rusty Ridge formation typical of the flow lithofa-cies flows that define the base of each eruption cycle within the Noranda Cauldron; (B) Typical lobe-hyaloclastite rhyolite flow facies of the Amulet L mem-ber that formed from fissure-fed felsic eruptions that define the upper parts of the Noranda cauldron cycles; (C) Coarse-bedded and graded monolithologicrhyolite block breccia formed from dome collapse of the Cycle IV Delbridge rhyolite; (D) Main Contact Tuff from the Corbet Mine area with pillowed maficflows in the footwall and overlying massive mafic flows. Typical example of the thin exhalite tuff units that characterize several of the VMS-hosting hori,zonswithin the Noranda Cauldron; (E) Mineralized Main Contact Tuff with pyrite and sphalerite in proximity with and along strike from the D68 ore bodies (Fig.2A). Note fine interlayering of chert-sulphide (white) and mafic aquagene tuff (dark green); (F) Silicified pillowed flow from Upper Amulet andesite thatdirectly underlies the C Contact Tuff horizon as example of low temperature silicification in conjunction with silica precipitation on the paleo-seafloor sur-face.


538

average Au content of 16 of the past-producing deposits is<2 g/t, whereas the Horne Upper and Lower H orebodies,and the Quemont ore bodies have average Au content of 6.1

and 5.5 g/t Au and can be classified as Au-rich VMS deposits(Poulsen et al., 2000). The smaller Deldona and Delbridgedeposits and Bouchard-Hebert Main lens have average Au

Formations and VMS deposits

DominantLithofacies

DiscoveryDate

Depth(m)

DiscoveryMethods

Mt Ore (Geol.)

CU% ZN% AU (g/t) AG (g/t) Cu/ (Cu + Zn)

Reneault-DufresnoyBouchard-Hebert - Main Lenses (B-H) (formerly Mobrun)

Volcaniclastic-Felsic

1956 9 G-Geophysics 1.35 0.7 2.51 2.27 27.67 22

Bouchard-Hebert 1100 lens (B-H)


1988 In-mine 11.50 0.77 5.24 1.48 36.90 13

Bouchard-Hebert - Total Mineral Inventory


20.33 0.76 3.42 1.28 31.65 18

NorandaCycle 3 - Mine SequenceAldermac (Ad) Flow-Felsic 1925 9 G-Geophysic,

Prospecting2.86 1.54 4.12 0.48 31.20 27

Amulet Lower A (A) Flow-Mafic 1938 213 Geology 4.69 5.14 5.28 1.43 44.10 49

Amulet Upper A (A) Flow-Mafic 1925 Surface Prospecting 0.19 2.37 6.12 2.00 46.00 28Amulet C (C) Flow-Mafic 1925 Surface Prospecting 0.57 2.2 8.5 0.60 86.70 21Amulet F Shaft (F) Flow-Mafic 1929 38 Geology 0.27 3.4 8.6 0.30 46.30 28Amulet No. 11 (A) Flow-Mafic 600 Mine

Exploration0.45 3.6 2.4 0.70 22.00 60

Ansil (An) Flow-Felsic 1980 1280 Geology 1.58 7.22 0.94 1.60 26.50 88Corbet (Cb) Volcaniclastic-

Mafic1974 700 Geology, L-

Geochemistry2.78 2.92 1.62 1.00 21.00 64

East Waite (E) Flow-Felsic 1949 396 Geology 1.50 4.1 3.25 1.80 31.00 56Millenbach (M) Flow-Felsic 1966 700 Geology 3.56 3.46 4.33 1.00 56.20 44Norbec (including D orebody) (N)

Flow-Felsic 1961 335 Geology, Prospecting

4.47 2.75 4.75 0.91 44.30 37

Old Waite (O) Flow-Mafic 1925 Surface Prospecting 1.12 4.7 2.98 1.10 22.00 61Quemont (Q) Flow-Felsic 1945 61 G-Geophysics 16.65 1.2 1.8 5.50 18.00 40

Vauze (V) Flow-Felsic 1957 7 Geology 0.35 2.9 0.94 0.70 24.00 76West Ansil (Wa) Flow-Mafic 2003 250 Geology,

ComputerModelling

Bedford Flow-Felsic 1945 Surface Prospecting 0.90 0.89Ribago Flow-Mafic 1983 700m Geology, L-

GeochemistryMoosehead Flow-Mafic 1925 Surface ProspectingCycle 4Delbridge (D) Flow-Felsic 1965 91 Geology, L-

Geochemistry0.36 0.55 8.6 2.40 68.60 6

Deldona (De) Flow-Felsic 1947 152 Geology 0.09 0.3 5 4.10 26.00 6Gallen (G) formerlyWest MacDonald

Flow-Felsic 1944 7 G-Geophysics 8.10 0.08 3.36 0.06 2.40 2

Pinkos 3 (P) Flow-Felsic 2007 ? Geology? -New Discovery

Cycle3-4?Magusi River (Ma) Flow-Felsic 1972 15 A-Geophysics 3.73 1.2 3.55 1.10 31.20 25

New Insco (Ni) Flow-Mafic 1973 15 A-Geophysics 0.89 2.59 0.90 20.57

Rouyn-PelletierHorne - No. 5 Zone (H) Volcaniclastic-

Felsic019.01.000.051eniM-nI

Horne-H Orebodies (H) Volcaniclastic-Felsic

1923 Surface Pospecting 54.30 2.22 6.10 13.00

Duprat-MontbrayFour-corners (Fc) Flow-Felsic Surface PospectingInmont (I) Flow-Felsic Surface PospectingMontbray (Mb) Flow-Felsic 2004 110 A,B-GeophysicsYvannex (Y) Flow-Felsic Surface Pospecting

Table 2: Grade and Tonnage Characteristics, Lithofacies and Discovery Methods for VMS Deposits of the Noranda District

TABLE 2. Grade and tonnage characteristics, lithofacies and discovery methods for VMS deposits of the Noranda District. Deposits in italics aresubeconomic or are significant occurrences. The Bouchard-Hebert total mineral inventory is an estimate of the total resources, including orereserves (modified after Boldy, 1979; Gibson and Watkinson, 1990; Kerr and Gibson, 1993; Franklin et al., 2005).

539

grades >2 g/t and are enriched in Au relative to most VMSdeposits of the Norand District (Table 2). Except for theBouchard-Hebert main lens, all of the Au-rich VMS depositsare localized along the Horne Creek Fault, a splay of theCadillac-Larder Lake Fault located 6 km to the south. Someof the most visibly spectacular concentrations of Au and tel-luride minerals at the Horne deposit are hosted by quartzveins associated with quartz syenite dykes. These auriferousquartz veins, interpreted as a local remobilization phenome-non (Kerr and Mason, 1990), together with the location ofthe Horne mine between second-order splays off theCadillac-Larder Lake Fault (the Horne Creek and AndesiteFaults), suggest that Au at the Horne deposit, and possibly atthe Quemont, Delbridge and Deldona deposits located alongthe same second-order fault, was introduced by a post-vol-canic, epigenetic or orogenic event. However, the syngeneticAu model is now generally accepted and will be discussedbelow (Kerr and Mason, 1990; MacLean and Hoy, 1991;Barrett et al., 1991; Cattalani et al., 1993; Gibson et al.,2000; Dubé et al., 2007a, Mercier-Langevin et al., 2007).

Although not discussed further within this paper, theNoranda District is also host to 19 small, orogenic Audeposits. All Au deposits, except the Chadborne deposit, arehosted by quartz veins in shear zones and can be subdividedinto three types based on their spatial relationship to theCadillac-Larder Lake Fault and morphology. The first type(14 deposits) includes structurally controlled, disseminatedand quartz-vein lode deposits associated with parallel to sub-parallel splays of the Cadillac-Larder Lake fault (Robert,1990; Gauthier et al., 1990). The ore zones occur within vol-canic rocks of the Blake River Group and metasedimentaryrocks of the Timiskaming and Pontiac groups where they arespatially related to either megascopic z-folds that refold ear-lier east-west shears or to areas of intersection between east-west shears and later northeast striking faults (Gauthier et al.,1990). The second type (5 deposits) is hosted by northeast-trending, shear zone-hosted quartz veins within variousphases of the subvolcanic FPIC (Robert, 1990; Riverin et al.,1990; Carriere et al., 2000). The third type (Chadbournedeposit) is hosted by a vertical, diatreme breccia pipe wherethe Au occurs, along with quartz, pyrite and siderite, withinthe breccia matrix (Walker, 1980; Gibson et al., 1984).

Two types of magmatic-related mineralization also occurwithin the Noranda District. The Don-Rouyn Cu-Mo depositis hosted within an early trondhjemite phase of the FPIC,where it is crosscut by a late phase tonalitic dyke swarm. Thedeposit, interpreted to be an Archean porphyry deposit, con-sists of a bornite-pyrite-rich strongly silicified core changingoutwards to a chalcopyrite-pyrite vein stockwork, and col-lectively constitutes a mineral resource of approximately 36Mt with an average grade of 0.15 % Cu (Kotila, 1975;Goldie et al., 1979, Jebrak et al., 1997, Pelletier and Jébrak,1994). Along the western margin of the FPIC a quartz dior-ite-rhyolite dyke swarm hosts numerous pyrite-galena-Auand pyrite-magnetite vein occurrences (Kennedy, 1985;Richard, 1999). This vein-dyke system terminates at itsnorthern end at the St. Jude Cu-Mo-enriched, magmatic-hydrothermal breccia pipe (Kennedy, 1985, Carriere et al.,2000). An intramineral aplite dyke associated with this min-eralizing phase has a U-Pb zircon age of 2697 ± 2 Ma (Galley

and van Breemen, 2002). This age is a similar to that of theyoungest trondhjemite phase in the core of the FPIC, and tothe Cycle V Clericy rhyolite (Galley and van Breemen,2002).

Deposit Classification and Description

VMS deposits have been classified on the basis of theircomposition, tectonic setting, and host rock composition(e.g., Franklin et al., 1981; Hannington et al., 1999; Sawkins,1976; Morton and Franklin, 1987; Barrie and Hannington,1999). In this paper we use the lithostratigraphic schemeproposed by Franklin et al. (2005) that classifies VMSdeposits into five types based on the principal volcanic andsedimentary lithological units that formed concurrently withthe deposits within the entire district; bimodal-mafic, mafic,pelitic-mafic, bimodal-felsic, and siliciclastic-felsic. As thisclassification is based on a larger and more representativestratigraphic interval it has the potential to more confidentlyrelate VMS types to their geodynamic setting, a comparisonthat cannot be made on deposit-scale geological or geo-chemical characteristics alone.

VMS deposits of the Noranda District formed within abimodal succession comprised principally of tholeiitic totransitional basaltic to basaltic andesite flows, with lesservolumes of high-temperature, high–silica FIII and FII rhy-olitic flow domes (Ludden et al., 1982; Lesher et al., 1986;Barrie et al., 1993; Kerr and Gibson, 1993), and lesser andmore localized FII (FIII?) rhyolitic to dacitic volcaniclasticrocks. Based on this lithological association the NorandaVMS deposits fall within the bimodal-mafic type of Franklinet al. (2005). The bimodal-mafic type also includes mostother Archean VMS districts (e.g., Kamiskotia, Kidd Creek,Matagami), Paleoproterozoic VMS districts of easternFennoscandia and the Canadian Trans-Hudson (e.g., FlinFlon), Paleozoic VMS districts of the mid and south Urals(e.g., Tarnyer; Sibai), and Mesozoic VMS deposits of Peruand Ecuador (e.g.,Tambo Grande, La Plata) (Franklin et al.2005 and references therein).

Lithofacies AssociationWithin each of the five lithostratigraphic types, the litho-

facies that directly host the VMS deposits may vary exten-sively, and the bimodal-mafic VMS deposits of the NorandaDistrict are not an exception. VMS deposits of the Norandadistrict are hosted by two distinct lithofacies, flow (Figs. 3A-3B) and volcaniclastic (Fig. 3C), where volcaniclasticincludes primary pyroclastic deposits and those that are re-deposited and syneruptive (Table 2) (Gibson et al., 1999). Ofthe 20 economic VMS deposits, 17 are hosted by flows (8with mafic and 9 with felsic flows) whereas volcaniclasticrocks host only the Horne, Bouchard-Hebert and Corbetdeposits. Although volcaniclastic strata host the Corbet andpart of the Ansil deposit, the volcaniclastic units are volu-metrically minor and are interpreted to be a product of mildfire fountaining eruptions (<1 km3; Gibson et al., 1993). Partof the Ansil deposit, considered as flow lithofacies deposit,is hosted by the channelized Cranston rhyolite block and ashflow, which originated as a pyroclastic facies of theNorthwest rhyolite composite flow (Galley et al., 1995). Onthe other hand, the felsic volcaniclastic lithofacies that hoststhe Horne and Bouchard-Hebert deposits are voluminous



540

and consist of primary and syneruptivevolcaniclastic deposits of probablepyroclastic origin with minor felsicflows, domes, and cryptodomes (Kerrand Gibson, 1993).

Deposit MorphologyNoranda VMS deposits consist of a

concordant lens of massive sulphidethat is either cone- or mound-shapedwhere hosted by a mafic or felsic flowlithofacies (Fig. 4), or more tabular andsheet-like where hosted by a felsic vol-caniclastic lithofacies (Figs. 5-6). Themassive sulphide lens, where hosted byflows, overlies a vertically extensive,discordant stockwork of stringer miner-alization that, in some cases (e.g.,Ansil, Corbet, and Amulet Lower A;Kerr and Gibson, 1993; Galley etal.,1995) extends up through the mas-sive sulphide lens and into the hangingwall rocks for several hundred meters(Figs. 4 and 7). In volcaniclastic hosteddeposits (e.g., Horne, Bouchard-Hebert) the massive sulphide lens isunderlain by a diffuse and verticallyrestricted or semiconformable stock-work of stringer and disseminated sul-phides. The VMS deposits are poly-metallic, and the minerals present in all deposits includepyrrhotite (the dominant sulphide in flow lithofaciesdeposits), pyrite (the dominant sulphide in volcaniclasticlithofacies deposits), with variable proportions of chalcopy-rite, sphalerite, galena, and magnetite. Accessory elementsand minerals commonly include nativeAu and Ag, electrum, tetrahedrite, ten-nantite, telluride minerals and, in somedeposits, cassiterite (e.g., Corbet andMillenbach; Knuckey et al., 1982;Kunckey and Watkins, 1982).

The massive sulphide lens andunderlying stringer zone display a dis-tinct mineral and metal zonation char-acterized by a more Cu-rich, chalcopy-rite-pyrrhotite (-magnetite) core thatgrades outward and upward to a moreZn-rich, pyritic or pyrite (pyrrhotite)-sphalerite fringe (Fig. 8). The propor-tion of more Cu-rich to Zn-rich ore,expressed by the (Cu/(Cu +Zn)) x 100ratio in Table 2, is variable betweendeposits but in general felsic volcani-clastic hosted deposits such asBouchard-Hebert (and Horne if theNo.5 zone is included) are more Zn-rich, whereas in mafic- or felsic flow -hosted deposits the proportion of Zn-to Cu-rich ores is more variable (e.g.,Ansil versus Amulet Upper A), butcommonly they are more Cu-rich.

Gold and Ag within the deposits can be associated with Cu-rich ore (e.g., Horne; Kerr and Mason, 1990), Zn-rich ore(e.g. Corbet; Knuckey and Watkins, 1982), or with both (e.g.Ansil; Galley et al., 1995).

39120 E

S N

Flavrian pluton Andesite Cranston tuff

Ansil dacite Rhyolite Massive sulfide

Massive magnetite

Footwall sulfidestringer

Hangingwall sulfidestringer

Magnetite string

Composite W-E46550 - 46560

100 m

100 m

10

0m

Zinc zone

Alteration zone

Pillowed flowsMassive flows

Levels

6C

7A7B

8

8A

9

9B9C1010A

10B

11A

A B

FIGURE 4. Cross-section and long-section through the Ansil deposit as an example of a typical cone- ormound-shaped massive sulphide lens hosted by a felsic flow lithofacies footwall and overlain by maficflow lithofacies hanging wall. From Galley et al., 1995. Note the extensive nature of the discordant foot-wall and hanging wall alteration zones typical of many of Noranda’s lithofacies-hosted VMS deposits.

Depth (ft.)

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

300 metres

5

9

13

17

21

25

SurfaceLevel

N

HorneCreekFault

AndesiteFault

Lower

H

Upper

H

Diabase (Proterozoic)

Post-volcanic faults(major; minor)

Quartz diorite to gabbro

Rhyodacite cryptodomes

Massive sulphides

Disseminated, vein sulphides

Rhyolite flows and flow breccias

Rhyolitic volcaniclastic rocks

Bedded rhyolite, volcaniclastic rocks

FIGURE 5. Vertical, north-south cross-section through the Horne deposit showing the Upper H (UH) andLower H (LH) orebodies (modified from Kerr and Gibson, 1993; see Figure 2 for location of the Hornedeposit). This is an example of a volcaniclastic lithofacies-hosted VMS deposit from the Noranda min-ing camp.

541

Metal ZonationThe zonation of Cu, and Zn within the massive sulphide

deposits was attributed by Gibson and Watkinson (1990),

Kerr and Gibson (1993) and Galley et al. (1995) to zonerefining processes whereby a lower temperature pyrite-spha-lerite assemblage is replaced by a higher temperature chal-copyrite-pyrrhotite (-magnetite) assemblage, as described byEldridge et al., (1983) for the Kuroko VMS deposits, byLarge (1992) for VMS deposits of the Mount ReadVolcanics, and by Hannington and Scott (1989) and Herzigand Hannington (1995), for modern seafloor sulphidedeposits. The replacement process is interpreted to reflect aprogressively higher temperature for the hydrothermal fluidascending through each stringer zone and sulphide lens(Figs. 9A through 9C). In Archean VMS deposits the

increase in fluid temperature is interpreted toresult from self-sealing processes, such as sul-phide (silica) precipitation and hydrothermalalteration within the hydrothermal vent, whichprogressively insulated and inhibited the ascend-ing higher temperature hydrothermal fluid frominteracting with down-drawn, cooler ambient sea-water (Lydon, 1988; Gibson, 1990; Alt, 1995;Hannington et al.,1999; Gibson, et al., 1999). Theoccurrence of stringer mineralization andhydrothermal alteration extending for significantdistances into the hanging wall strata above somedeposits (e.g., for 300 m at the Ansil and AmuletLower A deposits; Figs. 3 and 7), and the moreCu-rich character of deeper deposits stacked


200 m

1000 feet

surface

1000’ level

2000’

3000’

4000’

5000’

6000’

(2130 m) 7000’

90

30

30

3090

150

N - S Thickness of MassiveSulfide (contours in meters)

LowerH

UpperH

55

29

Stratiform Number 5 pyrite zone

Au - rich lenses in No.5 zone

Rhyodacite cryptodomes

FIGURE 6. Vertical cross section looking north through the Upper andLower H orebodies and the No. 5 zone of the Horne Deposit. Isopach mapsof the Upper and Lower H are presented on the right. Note the tabular andsheet like form of the No. 5 zone that is hosted by a predominately vol-caniclastic lithofacies (modified after Kerr and Mason, 1990).

Gabbro Sill

Amulet Andesite Fm

Millenbach Rhyolite Fm

Millenbach Andesite Fm

Amulet Upper Member“Silicified andesite”

CuCu+Zn

x 100

65

46 MainContact Tuff

C Contact Tuff

Alteration Zone Millenbach

AmuletC

0 500m

28

35

40260

2820

34

49

SericiteMg-chloriteFe-chlorite

SMF

S

M

F

Massive sulphide

S

S

SM

M

Chlorite-sericite alteration

Amulet Lower andUpperA

FIGURE 7. Cross-section through the Amulet and MillenbachVMS deposits illustrating the stratigraphic stacking ofdeposits within basaltic and rhyolitic vent areas, and metalzoning within and between individual VMS deposits as illus-trated by the Cu/(Cu+Zn) x 100 ratio. The progressively moreCu-rich character of VMS deposits at depth within the Amuletalteration pipe from 28 at the Upper A, 49 at Lower A, and 60at the #11 deposit is interpreted to reflect sub-seafloor zonerefining due to the continued passage of ascending hydrother-mal fluid that dissolved Zn from the lower deposits (replacedby chalcopyrite) to form a more Zn-rich deposit at the seafloor(Upper A). Refer to Figure 2 for location of deposits (modi-fied from Kerr and Gibson, 1993).

90

10

60

MASSIVE SULPHIDE LENS

Cp+Po Py±

x100Cu+Zn

Cu

stratification

Fracture +Disseminated

Mineralization (cp,po)"STOCKWORK”

orSTRINGER ZONE

Disseminatedfracture mineralization

(py,sp)±

AlterationPipe

"Exhalite" or"Tuff" unit Sp+Py Cp+Po+Gn±

Py +Gn±Sp

14

90

85

FIGURE 8. Typical sulphide textures, structures and metal zoning within anidealized Noranda flow hosted VMS deposit (modified from Gibson andKerr, 1993).


542

within a single alteration pipe (e.g., Amulet Lower andUpper A; Fig. 7), has been interpreted to indicate that zonerefining occurred below the seafloor as the deposits wereburied by a significant thickness of flows (Knuckey et al.,1982; Kerr and Gibson, 1993; Galley et al.,1995).

The Cu-Au or Zn-Au (Ag) association within the NorandaVMS deposits has also been attributed to zone refiningprocesses described by Hannington and Scott (1989),Hannington et al. (1999), Huston and Large, (1989); Large etal. (1989), Kerr and Gibson (1993), Gibson and Kerr (1993);Gibson et al. (2000) and Dubé et al. (2007a). However, theprocesses responsible for forming Au-rich VMS depositssuch as the Horne (6.1 g/t Au) and Quemont (5.5 g/t Au)deposits, and for Au-enrichment at Delbridge (2.4 g/t Au),

Deldona (4.1 g/t Au) and at the Bouchard Hebert main lens(2.27 g/t Au) are not well understood. At Horne, discordantzones of Fe-chlorite alteration and Cu-Au mineralizationcrosscut earlier sericite-quartz alteration and were inter-preted by Kerr and Mason (1990), MacLean and Hoy (1991),and Barrett et al. (1991) to be the product of a later, highertemperature stage of zone refining. These authors also attrib-ute this later, higher temperature stage to be responsible forthe replacement of lower temperature Fe and Zn sulphideswithin the Upper and Lower H ore bodies by Au- and Cu-bearing assemblages dominated by pyrrhotite, pyrite, chal-copyrite and magnetite (Barrett et al., 1991; Kerr andGibson, 1993). In this model, the large, stratiform (“clastic”)No. 5 Zone may represent a pyrite-dominated, "unrefined",

FIGURE 9. Photographs of mineralized rocks. (A) Sphalerite-rich remnant of Cranston Tuff surrounded by massive pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite on Level 9A of theAnsil Mine; (B) Cranston Tuff completely replaced by pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite due to a mature stage of zone refining; (C) Mature stage of zone refining withmassive pyrrhotite-chalcopyrite replaced with massive magnetite; (D) Groundmass within a coarse volcaniclastic unit is replaced by massive pyrrhotite-chal-copyrite at the Corbet deposit; (E) A typical footwall sulphide stringer zone in which sulphide stockwork veining infills fractures in massive, chlorite-alteredbasalt in the core of the Corbet deposit footwall alteration pipe; (F) Sericite-altered rhyolitic volcaniclastic flow breccia from footwall to the Horne deposit.

543

low grade Zn deposit (Fig. 5; Sinclair, 1971; Gibson et al.,2000). At the Ansil deposit, Au appears to have been morehighly concentrated in the Cu-rich orebodies due to remobi-lization of both Cu and Au during the partial replacement ofthe lower half of the orebody by massive magnetite and asso-ciated hydrothermal skarn (Galley et al., 1995; Galley et al.,2000; Fig. 9C). On the other hand, the 2698 Ma Au-richVMS deposits of the Bousquet formation of the Doyon-Bousquet-LaRonde camp located 50 km east of the NorandaDistrict are interpreted to have acquired their high Au gradesfrom a magmatic fluid contribution to a seawater derivedhydrothermal fluid (Dubé et al., 2007b; Mercier-Langevin etal., 2007).

Thus, the anomalously high Au grade at Horne andQuemont and the elevated Au grade at Delbridge, Deldona,and the Bouchard-Hebert Main lens may have resulted froma highly efficient zone refining process. Alternatively, otherprocesses that can result in a significantly higher Au concen-tration in the hydrothermal fluid and deposits include a directmagmatic contribution of Au (Cu) and/or boiling of thehydrothermal fluid (Gibson and Watkinson, 1990; Gibson etal., 1999, Hannington et al., 1999; Dubé et al., 2007a and ref-erences therein). Boiling can occur at various depths depend-ing on the salinity and temperature of the hydrothermal fluid(e.g. <1500 m at 350˚C; Hannington et al., 1999). AlthoughLichtblau and Dimroth (1980) have interpreted above stormwave base conditions during emplacement of the PowellTuff unit north of the Horne Creek Fault, there is no evidencereported from strata of the Horne block to infer a shallow,above storm wave base environment during formation of theHorne deposit.

Mechanisms of FormationBased on sulphide textures, structures, and metal zoning

patterns that are similar to those of modern and activelyforming seafloor sulphide deposits, the Noranda mafic andfelsic flow-hosted deposits are interpreted to have formed onthe seafloor through processes of chimney collapse,hydraulic fracturing, and precipitation of sulphides withinthe lens, like their modern counterparts.

In contrast, VMS deposits hosted by volcaniclastic litho-facies such as Horne, Bouchard-Hebert, and parts of theCorbet and Ansil deposits, are interpreted to have formed inwhole or in part below the seafloor. Features such as rem-nants of volcaniclastic material within massive sulphide(Fig. 9A), partial sulphide replacement of volcanic lapilliand clasts (Fig. 9B), sulphide cement of coarser volcaniclas-tic deposits (Fig. 9D), and transgressive contacts betweensulphides and their host volcaniclastic rocks are interpretedto indicate sub seafloor mineralizing processes (Galley et al.,1995; Doyle and Allen, 2003) such as: 1) sulphide precipita-tion in void spaces within unconsolidated and permeablevolcaniclastic deposits, 2) hydraulic jacking or displacementof beds with precipitation of sulphide within the lens, and 3)replacement (Kerr and Mason, 1990; Gibson and Kerr, 1993;Kerr and Gibson, 1993; Galley et al., 1995; Hannington etal., 1999; Gibson et al., 2000). These deposits are not typi-cally associated with exhalative tuffs and include the twolargest VMS deposits in the district, Horne and Bouchard-Hebert (Figs. 4 and 5).

Most VMS deposits within the Noranda Cauldron areassociated with a number of thin (typically <0.5m), exten-sive, continuous, and well bedded water lain tuff depositsthat formed at several stratigraphic intervals throughout theNoranda Cauldron (e.g., Main Contact and C Contact tuffs;Knuckey et al., 1982; Figs. 3D, E and 7); these are referredto as exhalites or exhalative tuffs (Kalogeropoulos and Scott,1983; 1989) These exhalites have a fine-grained clastic com-ponent, derived through suspension sedimentation of ash,and a chemical component composed of chert and sul-phides, derived from mineral precipitates from vent plumesthat were contemporaneous with formation of the sulphidedeposits (Comba, 1975; Kalogeropoulos and Scott,1983;1989).

Within the Noranda Cauldron, the exhalite units representa significant hiatus in volcanism and are commonly of largeextent (i.e., up to 10 km). The C Contact tuff, in particular(Figs. 3D, E), is underlain by up to several hundreds ofmetres of weakly to strongly silicified basaltic to andesiticflows (Fig. 3F). Here, the silicification is interpreted to be aproduct of relatively low temperature convection of compo-sitionally modified seawater that was enriched in Si andother elements (Fe, Mg,) through interaction with glass-rich,basaltic-rhyolitic flows (Gibson et al., 1983). Venting ofheated, Si-enriched seawater released Si, Fe and other ele-ments to form the hydrothermal component of the overlyingC Contact tuff (Gibson et al., 1983; Gibson, 1990; Paquette-Mihalasky, 1999). At Noranda and elsewhere, the presenceof these exhalative units are used to define prospective con-tacts, and the distribution and tenor of their contained metalshave been used to define exploration targets along these con-tacts (Peter and Goodfellow, 1996; 2003).

Alteration AssemblagesTypical alteration assemblages associated with the

Noranda deposits are chlorite and sericite. Calcite and Fe-carbonate occur in proximity to some deposits (e.g.Delbridge, Deldona), but the relationship of carbonate alter-ation to the VMS deposits is uncertain. The proportion ofsericite versus chlorite alteration and the morphology of thealteration zone differ between VMS deposits hosted by aflow lithofacies versus those hosted by a volcaniclastic litho-facies (Figs. 10-11). The discordant stockwork of stringersulphide that occurs below and locally above mafic or felsic,flow-hosted, massive sulphide deposits are enveloped withinvertically extensive, well-defined, pipe-like zones of chlori-tized and sericitized rock (Riverin and Hodgson, 1980; Fig.9E). In contrast to the marked vertical extent of the alterationpipes their diameter is rarely larger than the massive sul-phide lenses, except where the immediate footwall unit is avolcaniclastic unit (e.g., Corbet; Gibson et al., 1993). Thealteration pipes are characterized by a mineralogical andcompositional zoning from an inner core dominated byquartz and Fe-chlorite, with subordinate minnasotite and Fe-talc. This changes progressively outward (and in some casesupward) to an assemblage dominated by Mg-chlorite which,in turn, changes to an outer zone dominated by sericite (Fig.10). Although the proportion of chlorite versus sericite alter-ation is variable between deposits, chlorite-rich alteration istypically dominant.



544

Broad, diffuse, semiconformable alteration zones domi-nated by sericite and quartz characterize the felsic volcani-clastic-hosted Horne and Bouchard-Hebert deposits(Caumartin and Caille, 1990; Kerr and Mason, 1990; Kerrand Gibson, 1993) (Figs. 9F, 11). Within these alterationzones chlorite is less common but where present, crosscutssericite-quartz alteration as narrow zones rich in Fe-chlorite(Fig. 11). In both flow and volcaniclastic hosted deposits, thesericite (+/-quartz) alteration is characterized by a depletionin Na2O and CaO, and enrichment in K2O (+/- SiO2)whereas the chlorite alteration is typically depleted in Na2O,CaO, K2O and SiO2, and enriched in MgO (Mg-chlorite)and/or FeO (Fe-chlorite); in all cases chlorite is later andcross-cuts sericite (Gibson and Kerr, 1993).

In addition to chlorite and sericite alteration that is spa-tially and temporally related to the VMS deposits, theNoranda District has undergone synvolcanic, regional semi-conformable alteration that has resulted in the developmentof several key alteration types (Gibson et al., 1983; Gibson,1990; Santaguida, 1999; Hannington et al., 2003). The firstis spilitization, a texturally non-destructive alteration thathas affected all volcanic rocks within the Blake River Group.Spilitization is characterized by higher Na2O values, lowerCaO values, and a greenschist assemblage of chlorite,quartz, epidote and albite in mafic rocks and sericite (+/-chlorite), quartz, and albite in felsic volcanic rocks (Gibson,1990). In subgreenschist facies volcanic rocks, spilitizationis characterized by a prehnite and pumpelleite assemblagethat typically occurs within amgydules of both mafic and fel-sic volcanic rocks. The second is epidote-quartz alteration,which manifests itself as irregular patches and amoeboidforms decimeters to metres in size within mafic volcanicrocks. Epidote-quartz alteration is characterized by anincrease in CaO and a depletion in mobile elements such asFeO, MgO, K2O, Zn and Cu; SiO2 is conserved (Gibson,1990; Santaguida, 1999). The alteration is texturally destruc-tive and results in a granular mosaic of clinozoisite andquartz +/-amphibole. The alteration occurs within all maficvolcanic rocks of the Blake River Group, but is most intensewithin mafic volcanic rocks, dykes, and sills proximal tosynvolcanic structures located within and peripheral to theNoranda Cauldron. On a regional scale there is a changefrom epidote-dominant to clinozoisite-dominant in proxim-ity to the hanging wall contact of the subvolcanic FPIC(Hannington et al., 2003). The last type of regional-scalealteration is silicification, a texturally non-destructive alter-ation characterized by a quartz-albite assemblage and ele-mental changes marked by the addition of SiO2 and Na2O,and a depletion of mobile elements such as FeO, MgO, K2O,and Zn (Gibson et al., 1983; Paquette-Mihalasky, 1999).Pervasive and widespread silicification is restricted to per-meable areas (amygdule zones, flow tops) within andesiticflows of the Upper member of the Amulet formation, a dis-tinct marker unit that underlies most of the VMS depositsand associated exhalite units within the Noranda Cauldron(Fig. 3F) (Gibson, 1990).

Gibson et al., (1983) and Gibson (1990) suggested thatthe morphology, elemental changes, and distribution of thesemiconformable alteration types indicated that the alter-

ation was caused by fluid-rock interaction within a largegeothermal-hydrothermal system centred on the NorandaCauldron. This was supported by a regional oxygen isotopestudy by Cathles (1993), which delineated the size and dis-tribution of lower temperature (<300˚C) seawater-rock inter-action zones. Furthermore, this study defined the presence ofdiscrete, higher temperature (>300˚C) hydrothermal alter-ation zones that are spatially associated with the upper con-tact of the subvolcanic FPIC, and with more linear zonescontaining clusters of VMS deposits and occurrences withinthe Noranda Cauldron. Santaguida et al., (1998), Santaguida(1999) and Hannington et al. (2003) documented grain-scalecompositional heterogeneity of chlorite, sericite, and epidotewithin these assemblages, and a systematic change from aMg-rich to more Fe-rich chlorite, and from a more Fe-rich toAl-rich clinozoisite within the assemblages in volcanic rocksperipheral to and within the Noranda Cauldron and its under-lying subvolcanic intrusive complex. They interpreted thatthe change in mineral chemistry indicated a hydrothermal asopposed to a metamorphic origin for the semi conformablealteration assemblages.

+

+

+

+

+

++

++

+

++

+

+

+

+

++

+ +

+


++

++

Margin ofalteration

pipe

Sea floor

+KSi, Mg

-Ca-Na

± ±

Entrainment ofSeawater

+Mg+Fe-Si

+Fe-Mg -Si-Mg-Si

Chlorite ( Fe-rich)

Chlorite ( Mg-rich)

Talc (Mg-rich alteration)

Silicification

Sericite

+++

FIGURE 10. Idealized distribution of alteration assemblages and composi-tional gains and losses associated with Noranda VMS deposits hosted byflow lithofacies (modified from Gibson and Kerr, 1993).


-Mg,-Si+Fe

+K,+Si,-

+Mg,-Na,-CaSeawater

Entrainment of

Sea Floor

Margin ofalteration

pipe

Chlorite (Fe-rich)

Silicification

Sericite

-

FIGURE 11. Idealized distribution of alteration assemblages and composi-tional gains and losses associated with Noranda VMS deposits hosted byvolcaniclastic lithofacies (e.g., Horne and Bouchard-Hebert; modified fromGibson and Kerr, 1993).


545

Distribution of VMS Deposits

At the deposit-scale, Knuckey et al. (1982), Gibson,(1990), Gibson et al. (1993), and Kerr and Gibson (1993)have demonstrated a pronounced spatial association betweenmafic and felsic volcanic centres, synvolcanic faults andmassive sulphide deposits in the Noranda District (e.g.,Amulet-Millenbach deposits; Fig. 12). Swarms of rhyolite,basalt and composite dykes and lesser sills of the samedefine the synvolcanic faults; these structures not only con-trolled the location of volcanic centres, vents, and VMSdeposits but also, in some cases, accommodated subsidence(e.g. Old Waite Paleofissure, Fig. 2). At the district-scale,Gibson (1990), Gibson and Watkinson, (1990). and Kerr andGibson (1993) have shown that the VMS deposits are pref-erentially located in time and space to the development ofthe Noranda Cauldron (Fig. 2A and Table 2).

Cycle I (2701 Ma), located west of the FPIC (Fig. 2A)contains the subeconomic Inmont, Four-corners, Ivanex andMontbray VMS deposits (Fig.1, Table 1). The Four-cornersand Inmont deposits are chalcopyrite-pyrrhotite stringerzones that are interpreted to be the erosional remnants of for-mer VMS deposits. The Ivanex deposit is a bedded, pyritic,Zn-rich transported sulphide deposit, and the Montbraydeposit consists of a small massive sulphide lens and stringersulphide mineralization (Martin and Masson, 2005). AllCycle I VMS deposits are hosted by rhyolitic flow domesand Cycles I and II are interpreted to havebeen erupted before subsidence of theNoranda Cauldron (2697 Ma to 2701 Ma,Table 1; Gibson, 1990). However, the2696.9 +/-3.4 Ma age for a Cycle II rhyo-lite (David et al., 2006) is comparable inage to Cycle III (2698.5 +/-2 Ma; Davidet al., 2006), the Mine Sequence that,along with Cycle IV, hosts 18 of the eco-nomic massive sulphide deposits in thedistrict.

Noranda formation Cycles III and IVare interpreted to have been erupted dur-ing incremental, piece-meal subsidence toproduce the “trap door-like” NorandaCauldron that is centred on a northeast-trending rift referred to as the Old WaitePaleofissure (Gibson and Watkinson,1990; Fig. 2A, B). U-Pb zircon ages of2698.5 (+/- 2 Ma) for the MillenbachRhyolte and 2696.5 +/-2.4Ma for the rhy-olitic Fishroe synvolcanic intrusion arethe only constraints on the timing andduration of Cycle III and IV volcanismand cauldron development (David et al.,2006; Table 1). Sixteen of the VMSdeposits within and along the margins ofthe Noranda Cauldron are spatially asso-ciated with coincident rhyolitic andbasaltic volcanic centres marked by rhy-olitic flow dome complexes, thick pondedbasaltic flows successions and dykeswarms (Gibson, 1990; Gibson andWatkinson, 1990; Kerr and Gibson,

1993). The remaining two deposits (New Insco and MagusiRiver; Table 2), although located outside of the northernstructural margin of the Noranda Cauldron (Fig. 1), occurwithin rhyolitic and basaltic strata interpreted to be part ofthe Noranda formation (Cycle III time equivalent?). TheNoranda formation VMS deposits, with the exception of theQuemont and Gallen deposits, are typically small and con-tain <5 Mt of ore (Table 2).

The giant, Au-rich Horne deposit is located immediatelysouth of the subvertical Horne Creek Fault and within theRouyn-Pelletier formation (Figs. 2A,B). The Horne depositconsists of three main orebodies, the Upper H, Lower H, andthe No. 5 (Figs. 5,6); only the Upper and Lower H orebodieswere mined (Table 2). The Upper H and Lower H orebodiesconsist of massive to semi-massive sulphides with a miner-alogy dominated by pyrite and pyrrhotite with lesseramounts of chalcopyrite, magnetite and, locally, sphalerite,plus trace amounts of native Au (electrum) and Au-Ag tel-luride minerals (Kerr and Mason, 1990; Fig. 5). The largerNo.5 orebody consists of massive to semi-massive pyrite(subordinate pyrrhotite) and lesser sphalerite within volcani-clastic units containing clasts of massive sulphide (Fig. 6).Sericite, as a broad semi-conformable zone, forms the dom-inant footwall alteration and, below the Upper and Lower Horebodies, is crosscut by local narrow zones of Fe-chloritealteration. The Horne orebodies are hosted by a southeast

Amulet Andesite Fm

Millenbach Andesite Fm

Amulet Upper MemberSilicified andesite

MillenbachAmuletAmulet-Millenbach

Structure

D-68

McDougall-Despina

Fault

Millenbach Rhyolite Fm

0

1 km

FIGURE 12. Volcanic reconstruction of the Millenbach dome complex showing the pronounced struc-tural control on volcanism and hydrothermal discharge that results in a coincidence between volcanicvents and VMS deposits. The Amulet Lower A deposit is localized along a fissure for basalt volcan-ism whereas the Millenbach VMS deposits occurs along the top of the rhyolite ridge and directlyabove and along the feeding fissure (modified from Gibson et al., 1999). Refer to Figure 1 for depositlocation and to Figure 6 for a cross-section.

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striking, sub-vertical, north-facing, 900m-thick rhyolitic vol-caniclastic lithofacies with subordinate, coherent, rhyolitelithofacies occurring as flows, domes and cryptodomes. Therhyolitic succession and the ore bodies are crosscut by aswarm of basaltic dykes and, within the upper part of thesuccession, basaltic sills. The timing of the basalt dyke/sillswarm has not yet been established, but if synvolcanic itcould define a major rift along the inferred south margin ofthe cauldron that is similar to but narrower than the dykeswarm associated with the Old Waite Paleofissure locatedwithin the core of the cauldron.

The Horne deposit lies within the Horne Block, an east-west-trending “structural wedge” that is bound to the northand south by the Horne Creek and Andesite Faults (Figs.2A, B). These faults, plus the lack of geochronological data,have hampered attempts to confidently correlate the Hornevolcanic succession with Cycle III and IV volcanic units ofthe Noranda formation to the north or with volcanic units ofthe Rouyn-Pelletier formation to the south (2701 +/- 1.6 Ma,David et al., 2006; Table 1; Fig. 2A). Spence and deRosen-Spence (1976) interpreted the Horne and Quemont (Norandaformation) deposits to be time-stratigraphic equivalent basedon a tentative correlation of volcaniclastic units across theHorne Creek fault. Gibson (1990), Gibson and Watkinson(1990) and Kerr and Gibson (1993) suggested that the Hornedeposit may have formed upon older volcanic strata of theRouyn-Pelletier formation within a fault block located on thesouthern structural margin of the Noranda Cauldron but thatthe deposit itself may be the time-stratigraphic equivalent ofthe entire Mine Sequence or Cycle III of the Noranda for-mation. Recent interpretations by Pearson (2005) would ten-tatively place the Horne deposit and the entire NorandaCauldron within the larger New Senator caldera.

The Bouchard-Hebert deposit is the only economic VMSdeposit discovered thus-far within the Reneault-Dufresnoyformation (Cycle V of the NVC); a U-Pb zircon age of 2698+/- 1Ma has been established for rhyolitic units hosting thedeposit (Mortensen, 1993). The deposit consists of severalZn-rich, pyritic massive sulphide orebodies, the largest beingthe 10 Mt 1100 lens (Table 2; Caumartin and Caille, 1990;Barret et al., 1992; Larocque et al., 1993). The BouchardHebert orebodies are similar to those at the Horne deposit inthat they are: 1) hosted within a volcanic succession domi-nated by a rhyolitic volcaniclastic lithofacies with subordi-nate coherent lithofacies as flows or domes; 2) associatedwith a broad, semiconformable zone of sericite alterationthat is locally cross cut by narrower and aerially restrictedzones of chlorite alteration; and 3) pyrite-rich.

Genetic Models and Geodynamic Setting

VMS deposits are syngenetic, stratabound accumulationsof sulphide minerals that formed in spatial, temporal andgenetic association with contemporaneous volcanism and/orplutonism. VMS deposits are interpreted to have formed onand immediately below the seafloor by the discharge of ahigh temperature, evolved, seawater-dominated hydrother-mal fluid (Franklin et al., 1981; Lydon, 1984, Franklin et al.,2005, and references therein). The metals are interpreted tohave been leached from hydrothermal reactions zones byheated, compositionally modified seawater convecting undera steep geothermal gradient through the volcanic pile with or

without a magmatic contribution of metals (Galley, 1993;Franklin et al., 2005). However, to understand the funda-mental processes responsible for the formation of VMSdeposits at Noranda it is important to step-back from thedetails of individual deposits and examine the larger-scalecontrols that could potentially affect the VMS hydrothermalsystem.

VMS deposits of the Noranda District formed within abimodal, basalt-dominated, central volcanic complex, theNVC, of primitive arc-like geochemical affinity that mayhave consisted of one or more volcanic edifices (Ludden etal. 1982; Gelinas et al., 1984; Peloquin, 2000; Peloquin,2005). DeRosen-Spence (1976), Dimroth et al. (1982),Gibson, 1990, Gibson and Watkinson (1990), and Kerr andGibson (1993) have shown that 19 of the 20 past producingVMS deposits formed within or in proximity to the NorandaCauldron, and that the 16 VMS deposits that occur in thecauldron formed during hiatuses that separate at least 3 caul-dron-subsidence cycles (Gibson, 1990; Gibson andWatkinson, 1990; Fig. 2A). The Noranda Cauldron is inter-preted to be a seafloor manifestation of a rift that is now rep-resented by the Old Waite Paleofissure, an extensive, sheeteddyke swarm upon which the cauldron is centred. Other evi-dence for rifting include: 1) the emplacement of the sill-like,multiphase, FPIC within the Old Waite Paleofissure and coreof the cauldron, and 2) trondhjemite phases of the Flavrian-Powel plutons which, like the high temperature FIII rhyolitesthey intrude, are interpreted to be a product of partial melt-ing of hydrated oceanic crust within a shallow crustal envi-ronment that is typical of rifts (Lesher et al., 1986; Galley,2003; Hart et al., 2004).

As discussed, a large number of factors such as volcanicenvironment (flows versus volcaniclastic lithofacies), depo-sitional processes (zone refining), and synvolcanic structuresinfluenced the location, formation, and preservation of VMSdeposits at Noranda. However, rifting provides the twoessential components required to form VMS hydrothermalsystems. First, it provides an aerially restricted but verticallyextensive heat source, i.e., a thermal corridor that is largeenough, hot enough, and at an appropriate level within thecrust to not only produce crustally-derived magmas (e.g.,FIII rhyolite and tronhjemites at Noranda; Lesher et al.,1986) but also to generate and sustain the long-lived, high-temperature seawater convective hydrothermal systemrequired to form the Noranda VMS deposits. The restrictionof high-temperature, semiconformable alteration assem-blages to the Noranda Cauldron attests to the high heat- andfluid-flow that was focused within this rift (Gibson, 1990;Cathles, 1993; Santaquida et al. 1999; Hannington et al.,2003). Second, rifting is associated with long-lived, re-acti-vated and deeply penetrating faults that provide pathways formagma ascent into upper crustal magma chambers or to feedsurface eruptions (i.e., enhanced heat flow), and the cross-stratal permeability required to permit and facilitatehydrothermal circulation and to maintain and focushydrothermal discharge (Cathles et al., 1997; Barrie andHannington, 1999). Rifting may also allow for a direct con-tribution of magmatic metals from fluids exsolved frommagmas emplaced at various levels within the rift thatcaused or resulted from partial melting (e.g., Tomkins andMavrogenes, 2003; Hart et al., 2004).



547

Thus, rifting of the NVC resulted in high heat flow, cross-stratal permeability, and the development of a high tempera-ture VMS hydrothermal system that was focused in time andspace to a vertical, long-lived thermal corridor defined bythe rift. Hydrothermal discharge and the formation of VMSdeposits at or near the seafloor were restricted to areas withinand adjacent to Noranda Cauldron, the seafloor manifesta-tion of the rift. The stratigraphic relationship of theBouchard-Hebert deposit to VMS deposits within theNoranda Cauldron is uncertain. However, the overlap in agebetween the Mine Sequence (Millenbach Rhyolite 2698.5+/2 Ma; David et al., 2006) and the Bouchard-Hebert rhyo-lite (22698 +/-1 Ma; Mortensen, 1993) suggests that VMSdeposits within the Noranda (except for the Magusi and NewInsco deposits whose absolute age is unknown) andReneault-Dufresnoy formations formed within a narrowtime interval (<1Ma) and perhaps within the same thermalcorridor that developed during rifting and cauldron subsi-dence. On an even larger scale, the similarity in age betweenthe Bousquet formation (2696+/-1.1 to 2698+1.3/-0.7 Ma;Mercier-Langevin et al., 2004; Lafrance et al., 2005) that ishost the LaRonde, Bousquet and Dumagami VMS depositsand VMS deposit in the Noranda and Reneault-Dufresnoyformations suggests that VMS deposits within both districtsformed within a <1 Ma period at 2698 Ma. The age of theAu-rich Horne deposit and its stratigraphic relationship andtimming to the Noranda and Reneault-Dufrenoy formationsis uncertain.

Viewed in this context, the Noranda VMS deposits mayhave formed within a volcanic complex that consists of sev-eral separate volcanic edifices and in a geodynamic environ-ment that was, perhaps, similar to a modern primitive arc orback arc environment that was undergoing extension andrifting. Modern examples of these environments include the

Tonga Ridge-Lau basin system (Gill, 1987; Kerrich andWyman, 1996; Hannington et al., 2006) and the Kermadecarc (Stoffers et al., 1999a, 1999b). For example, theMonowai arc volcano (Monowai Cone) and caldera locatedalong the Kermadec arc are shown at the same scale as theNoranda Cauldron and Central Volcanic Complex in Figure13. Besides the similarity in scale between the Monowaicaldera and Noranda Cauldron there are other features of thismodern rifted arc that have implications for volcanic recon-struction and the timing of VMS deposit formation atNoranda that include: 1) the Monowai caldera formed duringa period of arc extension (rifting) that was superimposedupon a cluster of several arc volcanoes, the Monowai conebeing just one of those early volcanoes. The NorandaCauldron is interpreted to have formed during a rifting eventthat represented the final evolutionary stage of the NorandaVolcanic Complex (Gibson, 1990; Gibson et al., 2005); 2)The Monowai cone (Fig. 13) and other arc volcanoes repre-sent contemporaneous, separate but overlapping individualvolcanoes that may have had a similar or slightly differentevolution. However if tilted on end, deformed and viewed incross section, the individual Monowai arc volcanoes couldnot be distinguished but would collectively define a volcaniccomplex composed of different formations, perhaps likethose that comprise the Noranda Volcanic complex; and 3)the Monowai caldera, like the Noranda Cauldron, is thefocus of high-temperature hydrothermal activity and con-tains several active hydrothermal vents. In both cases,processes responsible for the development of the high tem-perature hydrothermal systems responsible for the VMSdeposits at Noranda and the active vents at Monowai arelinked to high heat flow and structural permeability that arerestricted in time and space to caldera development.

N

PowellPluton

A

FlavrianPluton

DufaultPluton

0 3

km

Horne Creek FaultBeauchastel Fault

Hunter Creek FaultCranston Fault


AldermacSyenite

Amulet Uppermember

B-H

An V

OE

N

FC

A

M

Cb

Q

H

DE

D

G

Ad

Andesite Fault

D'Alembert Shear

Caldera margin

FIGURE 13. Comparison of the Archean, Noranda Volcanic Complex (NCV) and cauldron with the Monowai arc volcano and caldera, Kermadec Arc (seeFig. 2 for Noranda Volcanic Complex legend).


548

Summary of Effective Exploration Methods

The Noranda District has a long and colourful explorationhistory that continues today. Prospector Edmund Horne dis-covered the Horne deposit, the largest VMS deposit in thedistrict, in 1923 and Alexis Minerals and Noranda discov-ered the West Ansil deposit in 2003 (Table 2). Explorationin the early years was difficult with no existing infrastructureor access except canoe routes, and in most respects was morechallenging and costly than exploration in the remote areasof today. The Horne discovery not only opened up the explo-ration and settlement of northwestern Quebec but alsoresulted in the creation of Noranda, formerly one ofCanada’s largest mining companies (Lulin, 1990). It can beconsidered a nation builder. In contrast, the West Ansildeposit was discovered within a now mature Noranda campand resulted from a comprehensive compilation and reinter-pretation of existing geological, geochemical and geophysi-cal data using sophisticated earth modeling software (Table2; Martin, 2005). In this respect, exploration in the NorandaDistrict records an evolution in discovery methods thatBoldy (1979) referred to as the “Exploration Life Cycle of amining district”. Boldy (1979) divided the Exploration LifeCycle of the Noranda District into 3 stages: 1) the EarlyYears, 1920-1935; 2) the Middle Years, 1936-1955; and 3)the Later Years, 1955-1977, which now can be extended to2006.

The Early Years were dominated by four prospecting dis-coveries (Horne, Amulet Upper A and C, and Old Waite),one geophysical discovery (Aldermac, dip needle), one geo-logical discovery (Amulet F), and one in-mine explorationdiscovery (Horne Lower H) (Table 2). The Middle Yearswere characterized by three discoveries using empirical geo-logical models (recognized association of VMS depositswith favourable lithologies, alteration, and structure; AmuletLower A, Deldona, and East Waite), two ground EM andmagnetic discoveries (Gallen, and Quemont), and one in-mine discovery (Horne No.5 zone) (Table 2). The LaterYears are subdivided into a pre- and post-1981 periods; thelatter is referred to the “current or mature” period. The pre-1981 discoveries resulted from the use of a progressivelymore sophisticated volcanogenic and syngenetic geologicalmodel for VMS deposits (4 discoveries; Vauze, Norbec,Millenbach and Ansil), the introduction of the use of geologycoupled with lithogeochemistry (2 discoveries; Delbridgeand Corbet), and more sophisticated ground EM (1 discov-ery; Mobrun) and, for the first time, airborne EM geophys-ical discoveries (Magusi River and New Insco) (Table 2).Exploration from 1920 to 1981 yielded 19 economic and 2subeconomic VMS deposits over a 60-year period, with 9discoveries made during the pre-1981 Later Years, versus 6and 7 discoveries during the Middle and Early Years.However, because of the enormous size of the Horne deposit,more than 60% of the total tonnage of the Noranda Districtwas discovered during the Early Years.

Except for the in-mine discovery of the 1100 lens atBouchard-Hebert and the small subeconomic Ribagodeposit, exploration during the post-1981, mature period wascharacterized by a 22-year discovery gap until discovery ofthe West Ansil deposit in 2003, the Montbray deposit in 2004and the Pinkos 3 discovery in 2007 (Alexis Minerals, Press

Release, January 09th, 2007). The West Ansil discoveryresulted from the use of a computer aided geological, geo-chemical and geophysical compilation of the NorandaDistrict, sophisticated 3-D computer visualization tools, anda more sophisticated and refined genetic model for VMSdeposits (Martin and Masson, 2005). The Montbray discov-ery resulted from the use of a new, more deeply penetratingairborne EM (Megatem‘) and borehole EM geophysical sur-veys (Martin and Masson, 2005). Although not economic,these three latest discoveries illustrate that during the maturestage of a mining district new discoveries will most likelyresult from a re-evaluation of existing data aided by sophis-ticated visualization software and by new or improved geo-physical or geochemical technologies. The three recent dis-coveries in the Noranda District (West Ansil, Montbray,Pinkos 3) also occur at shallow depths and reverse a generaltrend of progressively deeper discoveries with time (Table2).

Exploration Potential

The Noranda District is now in the mature stage of itsExploration Life cycle, following

a long and successful exploration and development his-tory. However, there are opportunities for new discoveriesand, as the most recent discoveries indicate, these will likelyresult from a re-evaluation and interpretation of existing geo-logical, geochemical, and geophysical data using modern 3-D computer techniques, the development of new deeper pen-etrating airborne, ground and borehole geophysical tech-niques, and new geochemical techniques to explore beneathglacial deposits.

If we assume that the present exposure of the NorandaDistrict represents a somewhat random section or sectionsthrough the volcanic edifice that is host to the VMS deposits,then the distribution of known VMS deposits and occur-rences can be taken as an indication of the prospectivity fordifferent parts of the NVC. In this regard areas to be consid-ered for future exploration may include:

1. The area west of the Flavrian-Powell intrusive com-plex (Cycles I and II) is less explored, but has only yielded 4subeconomic deposits and occurrences, and may thereforehave a lower mineral potential (Fig. 2).

2. With most of the VMS deposits and significant occur-rences and subeconomic deposits located within the NorandaCauldron, or in proximity to it, this area warrants furtherexploration. The area north of the Noranda Cauldron needsto be re-examined as it is less explored and it is poorlyexposed (glacial cover); however, it may be less favorable asthe deposits discovered to date (New Insco and Magusi) aresmall and low grade. There is still room for smaller (1-5 Mt),undiscovered deposits within the cauldron (e.g., along thenorthern margin and within or adjacent to the old WaiteDyke swarm); however they will likely be deep (>700m).Cycle IV volcanics that host the Delbridge and Deldonadeposits have not been thoroughly explored and excellentpotential exists especially to north and northwest of thesedeposits as evidenced by the recent discovery of the Pinkos3 zone. The Horne block (south of the Horne Creek Fault)contains the largest and most Au-rich deposit in the district,yet it is poorly understood and this block has not been as


549

thoroughly explored. The Horne block and the area immedi-ately south of the Andesite fault, which should contain thesouthern continuation of the Horne stratigraphy, seem themost favorable for the discovery of a new deposit or addi-tional lenses peripheral to the main Horne deposit (Fig. 2).

3. Although Cycle V felsic volcaniclastics of theReneault-Dufresnoy formations have only yielded one eco-nomic deposit, Bouchard-Hebert, this is the second largestVMS deposit in the district and the Main lens was enrichedin Au (Fig. 1; Table 2). This portion of the NVC is arguablythe least explored, the most poorly exposed due to thicker,more extensive glacial cover and, based on new U-Pb zirconages (2698 +/1 Ma and 2698.3 +/1 0.8/2697.8 +/-1 Marespectively, Table 1), is the time equivalent and perhaps thecontinuation of the Bousquet formation that contains exten-sive felsic volcaniclastic rocks that host the Bousquet 1,Bousquet 2-Dumagami and LaRonde Penna, Au-rich VMSdeposits (see Mercier-Langevin et al., 2007).

Knowledge Gaps

Despite an exploration and research history that spansmore than 85 years, there remain significant knowledge gapsin our understanding of the Noranda Volcanic Complex andassociated VMS deposits. What we believe to be the mostsignificant knowledge gaps are listed below.

1) What is the time-stratigraphic relationship of the Hornedeposit to VMS deposits immediately north of the HorneCreek fault and to strata south of the Andesite fault?

2) What are the processes responsible for Au-enrichmentat the Horne, Quemont, Delbridge and Deldona VMSdeposits, which are located along the Horne Creek fault?

3) What is the time-stratigraphic relationship between theReneault-Dufresnoy and Bousquet formations?

4) Is the Noranda Volcanic complex a single, large vol-canic edifice or does it represent several separate edifices? Ifthe latter interpretation is correct, is the Noranda Cauldronconfined to a single edifice or was it superimposed on sev-eral edifices.

5) Is the Noranda Cauldron part of nested caldera thatinclude larger structures such as the proposed New Senatorand Misema caldera? And if so what are the metallogenicand exploration implications?

6) What is the large-scale geodynamic setting of the BlakeRiver Group and the Noranda Volcanic complex?

Acknowledgements

This paper is dedicated to all who have explored or haveconducted research at Noranda, as our knowledge of this dis-trict stems from the results of their work. Many of our col-leagues have influenced our thoughts on the NorandaDistrict and on VMS deposits in general and we would tothank Bankie Bancroft, Dave Comba, Benoit Dubé, JimFranklin, Jean Goutier, Mark Hannington, David Kerr, MikeKnuckey, Thomas Monecke, Gerald Riverin, and DavidWatkinson. We would also like to thank a host of dedicatedstudents that we have been fortunate to have worked with,including, Suzanne Paradis, Shirley Peloquin, FrankSantaguida, Francine Paquette-Mihilasky, Renee Turmel,and Steve Zubowski. Thorough reviews by Patrick Mercier-Langevin, Benoit Lafrance, and Wayne Goodfellow

improved the manuscript and their efforts are gratefullyacknowledged. HLG acknowledges an NSERC DiscoveryGrant, which has supported his VMS research at Norandaand elsewhere.

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Volcanogenic Massive Sulphide Deposits of the Archean, Noranda District, Quebec

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