1RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND / BULLETIN, VOL. 81, NO. 10, AUGUST 2018

BulletinVol. 81, No. 10August 2018

2RESERVE BANK OF NEW ZEALAND / BULLETIN, VOL. 81, NO. 10, AUGUST 2018

Reserve Bank of New Zealand Bulletin

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The historical meaning of the Reserve Bank’s Armistice Day coinMatthew Wright1

This year the Reserve Bank is releasing a coloured circulating fifty cent coin to mark Armistice Day, the effective end of the First World War. This follows a similar coin issued in 2015 to mark the Gallipoli campaign. Both coins feature new-technology minting processes, and both were especially commissioned to mark these events as the Reserve Bank of New Zealand’s contribution to the government First World War centenary celebrations.2

This article outlines the historical meaning of the armistice and gives a particular context for the Armistice Day coin. It also describes the special design of the coin, which is one of only two coloured circulating coins issued in New Zealand.

1 I am grateful to Sonia Speedy and the Speedy family for their comments on the relevant sections of this article.

2 Theseareco-ordinatedbytheWW100office,partoftheMinistryofCultureandHeritage https://ww100.govt.nz/

1 The historical importance of the Armistice

1.1 What was the Armistice?

TheArmisticeDaycoinrecognisesthehistorical,socialandculturalimportanceofthearmisticesignedon11November1918,justoverfour years after the First World War began. During those years around fortymillionpeoplewerekilledorwounded,worldwide;3 and national populationsweredrawn,onewayoranother,intotheconflict.

This armistice was not the only such arrangement of the war: in mid-December1917,forexample,thecentralpowersandRussiasignedanarmistice,leadingtotheTreatyofBrest-Litovskthatendedtheeasternwar.Inlate1918,astheCentralPowerscollapsed,otherarmisticesweresigned,notablytheArmisticeSalonicaof29Septemberbetween

3 http://www.centre-robert-schuman.org/userfiles/files/REPERES%20%E2%80%93%20module%201-1-1%20-%20explanatory%20notes%20%E2%80%93%20World%20War%20I%20casualties%20%E2%80%93%20EN.pdf,accessed23July2018.

The two coloured circulating coins. Left: 2015 Anzac coin. Right: 2018 Armistice Day coin. Reserve Bank of New Zealand.

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BulgariaandtheAllies;andtheArmisticeofMudrosof30OctoberbetweentheOttomanEmpireandtheAllies.However,itwasthe11November armistice signed by Germany that remained the most crucial ofthesearrangements,foritbroughttoanendfightingontheWesternFront.Thisbattlezone,stretchingfromtheAlpsinthesouththroughtotheChannelcoast,wastheprimaryfrontoftheFirstWorldWar.

Bylate1918theAlliedarmieswereadvancing,buttheGermanarmyremainedintactandabletofight,althoughUSGeneralJohnPershingthought another week might have broken them.4 The armistice was pushed,instead,bythecollapseoftheGermanGovernmentfromlateOctober1918,acrisistriggeredbyaBolshevikrevoltinthenavy,butfundamentallyreflectinggeneralunrestinthefaceofwarshortagesafterfour years of Allied blockade. By early November there was open talk of negotiations.TheGermanarmisticepartyfinallysignedat5amon 11November1918,agreeingtoendhostilitiesinsixhours’time.5

This armistice was not a peace treaty: that had to wait until mid-1919. However,theFirstWorldWarwasofsuchscaleandimpactthat,forallpracticalpurposes,themomentwhenfightingwithGermanystoppedbecamethepointofremembrance.OutsideNewZealandandAustralia,11 November is memorial day for many former Allied powers.

1.2 How the First World War impacts us today

The First World War remains important to world and New Zealand historyforavarietyofreasons.Manyoftheeconomicconceptsandsystemsthatexisttodaycanbetracedtothewaythiswardrovetrends

4 Gilbert,p.503.5 ‘TermsofArmisticewithGermany’reprintedinJohnBuchan,Nelson’s History of the War,Vol.24,

ThomasNelson&Sons,London[1915-1919]p.247.

and forced new developments. They include the move away from the goldstandardtofiat(legallybased)currency,undertakenbyBritainin1914,largelyasanexpedienttoenablethewartobepaidfor.However,efforts to reinstate the gold system after 1918 were erratic and largely unsuccessful,andtodayallmajorcurrencies,includingNewZealand’s,arefiat.6

Another economic outcome of the First World War was the rise of Keynesianism,anapproachdevelopedbyBritisheconomistJohnMaynardKeynesinparttohelpaddressthesocio-economicchallengesthatBritain,inparticular,facedafterthatwar,7withwhichNewZealand’sown fortunes were entwined.8Thesechallengesweresignificant,9 not leastbecausethewarhadtobepaidfor;estimatesofBritishwarcostsrange from 11 to 14.9 percent of total pre-war wealth.10 The economic outcomesofthewaralsoledtheBankofEnglandtourgethattheDominions within the British Commonwealth should set up their own central banks. The Reserve Bank of New Zealand emerged from this push in 1933–34.11

6 This will be detailed in a Bulletinarticle,forthcoming.7 ForaNewZealandcasestudy,seeBrianEaston‘TheImpactoftheGreatWarontheNewZealand

Economy’,PapertotheAsiaPacificEconomicandBusinessHistoryConference:13-15February,2014,https://www.eastonbh.ac.nz/2014/02/the-impact-of-the-great-war-on-the-new-zealand-economy/,accessed25July2018.RecentinterpretationoftheUSexperiencepaintsadifferentpictureinwhichwarproductionsubstitutedfordomesticproduction,seeChristinaD.Romer,‘ExistingEstimates,NewEstimates,andNewInterpretationsofWorldWarIanditsAftermath’,Journal of Monetary Economics, Vol.22,No.1,July1988,pp.91-115,http://www.nber.org/papers/w2187,accessed25July2018.

8 FordiscussionseeMatthewWright‘Mordaciousyears-socio-economicaspectsandoutcomesofNewZealand’sexperienceintheGreatDepression’,ReserveBankofNewZealandBulletin,Vol.72(3),September2009,https://www.rbnz.govt.nz/research-and-publications/reserve-bank-bulletin/2009/rbb2009-72-03-02,accessed25July2018.

9 Forsummaryoftheeconomicside,seeStephenBroadberryandMarkHarrison,‘TheeconomicsofWorldWarI:acomparativequantitativeanalysis’,2August2005,https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/papers/ww1toronto2.pdf,accessed25July2018.

10 StephenBroadberryandPeterHowlett,‘TheUnitedKingdomduringWorldWarI:businessasusual?’,18June2003,p.32,http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.200.8263&rep=rep1&type=pdf,accessed25July2018.

11 MatthewWright,‘ThePolicyOriginsoftheReserveBankofNewZealand’,ReserveBankofNewZealand Bulletin,Vol.69(3),September2006,https://www.rbnz.govt.nz/research-and-publications/reserve-bank-bulletin/2006/rbb2006-69-03-01

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Lifestyleswerealsoinfluencedbythewar,notleastthroughthewaytheconflictthrewfocusonasafe,comfortablehomelife.Italsotransformedhomeamenities.The‘SecondIndustrialRevolution’waswellunderway by the early 20th century. The First World War accelerated the processandaddednewlydevisedmanagementtechniques,whichweredevelopedtoenablemoreefficientproductionofwarmateriel. The uptakeofmotorvehiclesanddomesticappliancesinthe1920s,notablyinNewZealand,wasfacilitatedbyavailabilityandfallingpricesontheback of these industrial methods and management approaches.

Therequirementtomaximiseeconomicoutputandmanagethewaypopulations were harnessed for the war effort also accelerated the growthofgovernmentbureaucracyandpower,leadingtothedominatingstate structures that characterised 20th century government across the industrialised world.

There were also long-term international outcomes. The war accelerated thedeclineofthe‘old’Europeanorder.12 The new world of the 1920s and 1930s was divided between western democracies and new totalitarianpowers,thelattervariouslyfascistorcommunist.Thehistorical consensus is that the Second World War was part of the broad cycleofsocio-politicalchangebegunin1918.Indeed,thehistorianEricHobsbawmhasarguedthat,becausetheColdWarreflectedongoingstate-levelconflictbetweencommunismandcapitalism–anoppositionthatalsoemergedin1914–18–thisbroadsocial,economicandpoliticalcycleonaworldscaledidnotenduntiltheearly1990s,whentheSovietUnioncollapsed.13

The world today has been broadly shaped by these developments on alltheselevels,mostofwhichhadtheiroriginsvariouslyinthewaytheFirstWorldWaracceleratedexistingtrendsofthatperiod,andintheoutcomes of that war. The armistice of 11 November 1918 is therefore asymbolicanchorpoint,markingthemomentwhenthefightingthatacceleratedandintensifiedsomanyofthesetrendsanddevelopmentsended.

12 Niall Ferguson The War of the World: History’s age of hatred,Penguin,London2007,pp.184-186.13 EricHobsbawm,Age of Extremes,Abacus,London,1995,pp.3,56,225-227.

Massed troops at a New Zealand Division thanksgiving service to mark the Armistice. Royal New Zealand Returned and Services’ Association :New Zealand official negatives, World War 1914-1918. Ref: 1/2-013804-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22620709

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1.3 Why the Armistice carried emotional power

Inahumansensearmisticehadhugemeaningatthetime,largelyaproduct of the fact that the war was of unprecedented scale and lethality. Thiswasnew.Traditionally,warfarehad been framed by economic constraints,transporttechnology,and disease. These acted as limiting factors,includingduringtheglobe-spanningEuropeanwarsofthe18thand early 19th centuries.14

Bytheturnofthe20thcentury,industrialsocietywascapableofmobilisinglargenumbersofpeople,oftransportingthemtobattlefields– often via ship and train – and of supplying them thanks to those same transport systems and the industrialisation of food production. Vaccines reduced the incidence of disease.15Warscouldbefoughtwithaspeed,scale and endurance never previously seen.

Industrial technology also transformed warfare itself. By 1914 weapons couldproducefarhighervolumesoffireovervastlygreaterrangesthanacenturyearlier.Minesandbarbedwireofferednewobstaclestoinfantry.AsJohnTerrainepointedout,theoutcomewasthattheindustrialnationscouldrapidlymovementothisexpandedbattlefieldinunprecedentednumbers;butcouldnotmovethemonit. 16

14 TheseincludedtheAnglo-Frenchwarsof1702-13,1744-63,1778-83,1793-1802,1803-14and1815;theAnglo-Dutchwarof1780-84andtheAmericanRevolutionaryWar1775-1783,amongothers.

15 JohnKeegan,A History of Warfare,Pimlico,London1994,pp.359-362.16 Popularly,highlightedbyJohnTerraine,White Heat,Sidgwick&Jackson,London,1982,pp.203-221.

Seealsoe.g.AndrewMacdonald,First Day of the Somme,HarperCollins,Auckland2016,esp.pp.18-29.

The problem was that although Germany fought a mostly defensive war inthewestbetweenearly1915andearly1918,Alliedcommanderswereunderpoliticalpressuretofindwaysthrough.17Contrarytomythology,tacticswerecarefullyconsidered;butdefencesoftrench,barbedwire,mines and machine guns were almost impossible to defeat with infantry andartilleryalone.Norwasthereanywayofexploitingabreak-throughotherthanwithcavalry,whowerevulnerabletothenewweaponry.

The result was a lethal deadlock that lasted on the Western Front from December1914untilMarch-June1918,whentheGermanslaunchedamajoroffensiveandbroketheAlliedlines.Buttheywereunabletoexploittheadvantage;andinAugust1918theAllied‘hundredday’offensivebegan,usingnewtacticsandtechnologies,notablytanksandclose-support aircraft.18

Thesefactorsgavethewaradeepandpoignanthumanside,anditisfrom this that the Armistice draws much of its emotional power today.

1.4 New Zealand’s scale of involvement in the First World War

TheNewZealandexperiencewastypicalofthatofallnationsinvolved,drawinginvirtuallythewholepopulation,eitherthroughdirectparticipation,war-relatedworkandactivitiesathome,orthroughfamilyconnections.ManyNewZealandfamilies,today,havecloseconnectionswiththosewhoservedinthatwar,particularlyatGallipoliandtheWestern Front.

17 GermanoffensivesincludedthatatVerdun,butuntilearly1918,whentheeasternwarended,werenotofthescaleoftheiroperationsintheeast.See,e.g.PaddyGriffiths,Battle Tactics of the Western Front, Yale,UniversityPress,NewHaven,1994,pp.96-98.

18 MatthewWright,The New Zealand Experience at Gallipoli and the Western Front,OratiaBooks,2017,pp. 268-282.

“The whole thing seems too big to realise and too sad to understand.” -FannySpeedy,11November1918

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Curiously,theprecisefiguresfordirectNewZealandparticipation,woundinganddeathremainunknown,inpartbecausetheyhavebeenaccountedforinmultipleways;butalsobecausefullfigureswerenot always collected. This has been a particular problem in terms of discovering the Gallipoli participation rate.19

Themainofficialdocument,the‘ProvisionandMaintenance’record,indicatesthatsome92,860officersandmenhadbeendespatchedtothewarfromitsoutbreakupuntil12November1918.Another9,578were

19 See,e.g.JohnCrawford,andMatthewBuck‘EnumeratingNewZealandExpeditionaryForceServiceonGallipoli:InterimReportMarch2016http://www.nzdf.mil.nz/downloads/pdf/public-docs/2016/enumerating-nzef-service-interim-report-march2016.pdf - also https://ww100.govt.nz/how-many-new-zealanders-served-on-gallipoli-some-new-answers

enlistedbutstillinNewZealandwhenwarended,totalling102,438.20 However,thatwassubjecttofurtherrevision,andtheofficialRollofHonourpublishedattheendof1924putthenumbersat100,444.21 Morethan550nursesandmanyotherwomenalsoserved.

Irrespectiveofvariationsinthestatistics,thenettotalwhowentoverseastothewar,eithertofightorinsupportoftheeffort,wasaboutninepercentofNewZealand’sentirewartimepopulation.Ofthoseparticipants,morethan58,000werekilledorwounded.Thisrateofroughlysixtypercentwastypicalofthatwar:NewZealand,despitethehistoricalmythology,didnotsuffermorethanothernations.Thetotalnumberofdeadstandsataround16,500,butcannotbedeterminedwithprecision because some former soldiers died from the effects of gas poisoningafterDecember1923,whenthearmystoppedcollectingthosestatistics.

Theoutcomewasthatthewartouchedeveryfamilyinthecountry,oneway or another.22Itwasalsoanemotionallyintenseexperience.Indeed,theactofgoingtowarwas,itself,oftentraumaticforNewZealanders.Althoughitwasinitiallyseenasagreatadventure,thatpaledafterawhile,particularlyascasualtyratesclimbed.JesseStayte(1875–1918)leftNewZealandinJuly1916andfelt“asthoughIhadleftalltheworldbehind me”.23Hewaskilledinactionon1October1918.24

ThatscaleandstyleofexperiencegavetheArmisticethesamesocialand emotional power here and among the New Zealand forces overseas

20 ‘NewZealandExpeditionaryForce:itsprovisionandmaintenance’,GovernmentPrinter,Wellington1919,p.39.

21 ‘NewZealandExpeditionaryForce:RollofHonour’,GovernmentPrinter,Wellington1924,p.iii.22 ForfurtherdetailsseeWright,TheNewZealandExperienceatGallipoli and the Western Front, pp. 27-

28,166-172.23 WtuMS-Papers-7198,Stayte,JesseWilliam,roughnotesfrommydiary,25July1916.24 ArchivesNewZealand,STAYTE,JesseWilliam-WW131444–Army,accessed23July2018.

Soldiers of the New Zealand (Māori) Pioneer Battalion await their evening meal on the Somme. Ref: 1/2-013083-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/22795056

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thatithadelsewhereatthetime.ThesocialplaceoftheArmistice,afterwards,wasalsosharedwithothernationstoasignificantextent,althoughbothinNewZealandandAustraliahadamoresignificantculturalfocuson25April,thedayoftheGallipolilandings.

Alfred Olsson’s Armistice story

AlfredOlsson(1887–1968)who,incivilianlifehadbeenagrocerinWoodville,1wasatHornchurchmilitarycampwhenthearmisticecame.ThateveninghewalkedtonearbyRomfordtoseehowitlooked“onthefirsteveningofpeace”. 2

There was also a certain amount of mild excitement in London and expectation of the important news coming through any minute. However it was not until 11 o’clock this morning that the news reached us in Camp and the first intimation of it was various noises in the street outside such as the firing maroons [small powder rockets] or something, which made a noise like guns fired, cheering and so forth. At the mess-room just before dinner [lunch] we were officially told by some of our officers that the armistice was signed and that we were free for the day, and that free beer would be served at the wet canteen tomorrow. …On coming down to Romford tonight the most noticeable thing is the amount of light showing from the shops and houses, which up till now have had to keep all lights concealed because of possible air-raids.3

1 ArchivesNewZealand,OLSSON,Alfred-WW141873–Army,accessed23July2018.2 WTuMs-Papers-7899-2,‘LettersfromAlfredOlssontohisfamily’,letter11November1918.3 Ibid.

The women staffing the Lowry Hut canteen in Etaples, World War I. Royal New Zealand Returned and Services’ Association :New Zealand official negatives, World War 1914-1918. Ref: 1/2-013435-G. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand. /records/23132505

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‘Peace blessed peace’ – the Armistice story of Fanny Speedy

Fanny Speedy (top left) with her family. Photo courtesy Speedy family.

NewZealandnurseFannyHelenaSpeedy(1873–1942)wasbroughtuponafarminsouthernHawke’sBay,Woodbank.ShetrainedasanurseinWellingtonandqualifiedin1905.1WhenwarcameshejoinedtheNewZealandAuxiliaryNursingService,leavingNewZealandinApril1915asoneofthefirst50nursestoleavethecountryforwar,andworkingattheGeneralHospitalinAlexandria,thenonthehospitalshipsAssaye,Gascon and Glengorn.InOctober1916shewenttoEngland,whereshenursed for the rest of the war.2 She recorded the moment of armistice in her diary.

PEACE BLESSED PEACE. The bells rang at 11 a.m. and soon we knew the Armistice had been signed. Yesterday we knew the Kaiser and the Crown Prince had abdicated and fled to Holland, the latter giving up all right to the Throne, and Germany forming a republic. Insurrection everywhere and all the small states proclaiming Republics and their Kings Fleeing [sic]. The streets are thronged here and flags and bunting in all directions with shouting and singing. Thanksgiving services in the churches. The whole thing seems too big to realise and too sad to understand.3

1 https://www.geni.com/people/Fanny-ARRC/6000000040884949047,accessed25July2018.2 ArchivesNewZealand,SPEEDY,FannyHelena-WW122/10–Army,R7820143.3 WTuMS-Papers,Speedy,FannyHelena,d.1942:Diaries,entry11November1918.

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2 How people experienced the armistice

Forallthereasonsoutlinedabove–scale,industrialandeconomicimpact,humanintensityandendurance–thearmisticewithGermanyhadimmensepersonalimpact.However,thoseatthefront,particularly,weresonumbedbytheirexperiencethatthefactthatitwasoverwashardtotakein.Eventhosebehindthelines,intrainingcampsorinhospitals,had trouble emotionally accepting the fact that fightinghadended.

NewZealand’smaingroundforce,theNewZealandDivision,hadalreadybeenrotatedoutofthefrontandwasatBeauvois,‘moreorless...wiltingawayonleave’,25asNewZealand’sdivisionalcommandingofficer,Major-GeneralAndrewRussell(1868–1960)putit.Butthemenweretoostunnedbywhattheyhadbeenthroughtoreact.HughStewartthought they were emotionless.26Anothersoldier,N.E.Hassall,recalledthat‘wejustwanderedaimlesslyaboutdoingnothing’.27

AfterafewdaysRussellbecameworried.‘Therehasbeenlittle,ifany,exuberantdisplayofenthusiasmoverthearmisticehere,’heremarked.‘Iamonlyexercisedastohowtokeepthemenamused,interestedandoccupied.’28HisworrywasthatRussiaandGermanyhadbothcollapsed

25 R.F.Gambrill(ed.),The Russell Family Saga,MS.(ed.),n.d.,Russellto‘mydearfamily’,11November1918.

26 HughStewart,The New Zealand Division,1916–1919,WhitcombeandTombs,Auckland,1921,p.602.27 WTuMS-Papers-2295,Hassell,N.E.,‘Memoriesof1914’28 Gambrill(ed.),Russelltofamily,13November1918.

toBolshevikrevolution,andameetingbyformer‘RedFeds’amonghisown forces alarmed him.

Not every New Zealander had such a quiet end to the war. The Armistice wasnotapeacetreaty,andtheBritishwantedtoendthefightinginthebesttacticalposition,justincasecombatresumed.OneNewZealandercaught in the rush was former WellingtonianBernardFreyberg,thena Brigadier-General commanding the British88Brigade.Hewasorderedtosecure a bridge over the river Dendre nearLessines,butwassome16kmawaywhentheordercame,andhadjust90minutesbeforetheArmisticetookeffect.Hetookhorsesandadetachment of 7 Dragoon Guardsinto action at the gallop. They came undersniperfirebut,atwhatFreybergalwaysinsistedwas10.59am,secured the bridge.29TheGermansprotested,butwereignored,andFreybergwasawardedhissecondDSO.

ThingsweredifferentawayfromtheWesternFront.InEgypt,whichremainedamainbaseforNewZealandoperationsinPalestine,therewascelebration.“Greatrejoicingincamp,”JamesHislop(1897–1980)wroteinhisdiaryfor11November.“Allbeercanteensraided”.30 That was followed,alittlelater,byriotinginCairo.

29 PeterSingleton-Gates,General Lord Freyberg, VC,MichaelJoseph,London,n.d.,,p.8130 WTuMS-Papers11690,Parker,JamesHislop,1897-1890,Soldiers’Diary,typescript,11November

1918.

‘There has been little, if any, exuberant display of enthusiasm over the armistice here’

–Major-GeneralAndrewRussell,commanding the New Zealand Division.

‘We just wandered aimlessly about doing nothing’

–N.E.Hassall.

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HarryGlass(1872–1959),wasservinginNewZealand’smainbasecampontheSalisburyPlainsinEngland.Hewasoverjoyed.“Thegoodnewshasjustbeenannounced,”hewrotehomeatnoonon11November,“Alldrill has been cut out for the afternoon… a thanksgiving service is to take placeat2o’clock…TheyaretakingthingsabitquieterthanIexpected,but they are all beastly glad.”31CyrilCoxheadoftheCanterburyInfantryRegimentwasinLondon,andwroteashortentryinhisdiary.“At11a.m.‘JoyBells’ringouttheArmistice.GreattimeontheStrand.”32

3 The coin

TheArmisticeDaycoinincorporatestheofficialReturnedandServicesAssociationpoppy,surroundedbyaremembrancewreathwhichfeaturesthe silver fern and koru. The poppy symbol has long been associated both with the First World War and with war remembrance in general. TheflowergrewonandaroundtheFirstWorldWarbattlefields–forNewZealanders,bothatGallipoliandontheWesternFront–andwasgenerally adopted by the former Allied powers to symbolise that war during the early 1920s.33

Thethreesilverfernsrepresentbothpast,presentandfuture;andthethree armed forces of New Zealand. The Korus pattern represents new beginnings.34 ThesilverfernreflectsNewZealand’snationalidentity.AportraitofHerMajestyQueenElizabethIIisontheobverse.

31 WTuMS-Papers-8983,Glass,Henry,1872-1959:Letters,letter,11November1918.32 MSX-7829,Wardiary/transcribedbyRuthGerson,Coxhead,CyrilHenderson,1895-1968,Wardiary.33 https://www.rsa.org.nz/stories/poppy-its-meaning-and-history,accessed23July2018.34 NotingthattheRoyalNewZealandAirForcewasfoundedin1936,andtheRoyalNewZealandNavy

in 1941.

Twomillionfiftycentcoinswereminted,ofwhich1.6millionwerereleased into general circulation.

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4 Conclusion

In 1918 the Armistice had profound meaning for the people involved in theFirstWorldWar,andithasremainedasymboloftheendingofthatwar – and the poppy a symbol of all war remembrance – since. The Armisticeitselfremainsapivotalandsignificantmomentinthesocial,political and economic trends given shape and pace by the First World War,whichinturngaveshapetothebroadpatternsofthetwentiethcentury.Thishistory,andparticularlythepersonalstoriesofsomeofthoseinvolved,givesbothhistoricalcontextandhumanmeaningtothecirculatingfiftycentcoinissuedtomarkthecentenary.

5 Bibliography

Alexander Turnbull Library

MS-Papers11690,Parker,JamesHislop,1897-1890,Soldiers’Diary,typescript

MS-Papers-8983,Glass,Henry,1872-1959:Letters

Ms-Papers-7899-2,‘LettersfromAlfredOlssontohisfamily’

MS-Papers-1703,Speedy,FannyHelena,d.1942:Diaries

MS-Papers-2295,Hassell,N.E.,‘Memoriesof1914’

MS-Papers-7198,Stayte,JesseWilliam,roughnotesfrommydiary

MSX-7829,Wardiary/transcribedbyRuthGerson,Coxhead,CyrilHenderson,1895-1968:Wardiary

Archives New Zealand

AABK Series 18805OLSSON,Alfred-WW141873–Army,R21382398

SPEEDY,FannyHelena-WW122/10–Army,R7820143

STAYTE,JesseWilliam-WW131444–Army,R7820830

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Speedy family

Papers,photographsandcorrespondence

Books, reports and articles

---‘NewZealandExpeditionaryForce:itsprovisionandmaintenance’,GovernmentPrinter,Wellington1919.

---‘NewZealandExpeditionaryForce:RollofHonour’,GovernmentPrinter,Wellington1924.

Broadberry,StephenandMarkHarrison,‘TheeconomicsofWorldWarI:acomparativequantitativeanalysis’,2August2005,https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/papers/ww1toronto2.pdf

Broadberry,StephenandPeterHowlett,‘TheUnitedKingdomduringWorldWarI:businessasusual?’,18June2003,https://warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/economics/staff/mharrison/papers/ww1toronto2.pdf

Buchan,John,Nelson’s History of the War,Vol.24,ThomasNelson&Sons,London(1915-1919).

Crawford,JohnandMatthewBuck‘EnumeratingNewZealandExpeditionaryForceServiceonGallipoli:InterimReport,March2016.

Easton,Brian,‘TheImpactoftheGreatWarontheNewZealandEconomy’,PapertotheAsiaPacificEconomicandBusinessHistoryConference:13-15February,2014,https://www.eastonbh.ac.nz/2014/02/the-impact-of-the-great-war-on-the-new-zealand-economy/

Ferguson,Niall,The War of the World: History’s age of hatred,Penguin,London2007.

Gambrill,R.F.(ed.),The Russell Family Saga,MS.

Griffiths,Paddy,Battle Tactics of the Western Front,YaleUniversityPress,NewHaven,1994.

Hobsbawm,Eric,Age of Extremes,Abacus,London,1995.

Keegan,John,A History of Warfare,Pimlico,London1994.

McDonald,Andrew,First Day of the Somme,HarperCollins,Auckland2016.

Romer,ChristinaD.,‘ExistingEstimates,NewEstimates,andNewInterpretationsofWorldWarIanditsAftermath’,Journal of Monetary Economics,Vol.22,No.1,July1988.

Singleton-Gates,Peter,General Lord Freyberg, VC,MichaelJoseph,London,1963.

Stewart,Hugh,The New Zealand Division, 1916–1919,WhitcombeandTombs,Auckland,1921.

Terraine,John,White Heat,Sidgwick&J.ackson,London,1982.

Wright,Matthew,‘ThePolicyOriginsoftheReserveBankofNewZealand’,ReserveBankofNewZealandBulletin,Vol.69(3),September2006.