Vocabulary II

Prof. John Whitlam

Lexicology & Lexicography

• Lexicology – the study of words and the lexicon

• Lexicography – the cataloguing of the lexicon in dictionaries

Lexicology

• What is a word? – the nature of words• Morphology - the forms and elements of words• Lexical semantics – the meaning of words• Semantic relations – how words relate to one

another• Collocation and phraseology – how words

combine with one another• The lexicon as a system

What is a word?

Single indivisible unit* of language with a discrete meaning

*unit = combination of sounds

NB: A single “word” in the semantic/phonetic sense may correspond to more than one written word:e.g. washing machine, cara de pau

One word or more?

• English: to the man• Portuguese: ao homem• Danish: til manden• Arabic: رجللل lir-rajul (li+al+rajul)

• Turkish:Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan mısınız?Você é um daqueles que não conseguimos abrasileirar?

Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan mısınız?

Brezilya - Brasil

Brezilyalı – brasileiro

Brezilyalılaş – virar brasileiro

Brezilyalılaştır – fazer virar brasileiro > abrasileirar

Brezilyalılaştırama – não possível abrasileirar

Brezilyalılaştıramadık – que não possível abrasileirar

Brezilyalılaştıramadıklar – aqueles que não possível abrasileirar

Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımız – aqueles que não possível nós abrasileirarmos > que não conseguimos abrasileirar

Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan – um daqueles que não conseguimos abrasileirar

Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan mı? – um daqueles que não conseguimos abrasileirar?

Brezilyalılaştıramadıklarımızdan mısınız? –Você é um daqueles que não conseguimos abrasileirar?

Lexemes

• Are dog and dogs the same word, or two different words?

• Are speak, speaks, speaking, spoke and spoken five different words, or one?

Lexeme DOG has two word forms: dog, dogsLexeme SPEAK has five word forms: speak, speaks, speaking, spoke, spoken

Morphemes

• Morpheme: minimal meaningful unit of languagedogs consists of two morphemes:root morpheme doginflectional morpheme -sindependently consists of four morphemes:root morpheme dependderivational morphemes in- -ent -ly

Inflectional Morphemes

• Inflectional morphemes produce different forms of the same lexemee.g. speaks, speaking, spoke, spoken

• Use of inflectional morphemes is determined by inflectional rules, which in turn are determined by syntax – the role of the word in the sentence: morphosyntactics

Derivational Morphemes

• Derivational morphemes produce new lexemese.g. write > writer, rewrite, writings

• Use of derivational morphemes are determined by rules of word formation

• Derivational morphemes (affixes: prefixes and suffixes) have a meaning. These meanings can be difficult to describe in words, but are instinctively understood by native speakers through ANALOGY

Prefixes in English 1Prefixes Examples Portuguese

A. Negative prefixes

un-, in-, non-, de-, dis- unzip, illegal, non-smoker, decode, dislike

des-, in-, não, dis- , pouco

B. Latin prefixes

anti-, co-, inter-, post-, pre-, pro-, re-, semi-, sub-, super-, etc.

NB: arch-hyper-hypo-

anti-American, co-pilot, international, post-war, prefabricated, pro-Chinese, rebuild, semicircle, subconscious, supersonic

anti-, co-, inter-, pós-, pré-, pró-, re-, semi-, sub-, super-, etc.

NB:arqui-, arque-, arce-hiper-hipo-

Prefixes in English 2C. English prefixes Examples Portuguese

mis- misjudge, misspell, mistake mal, de forma errada

out- outgrow, outlive, outnumber, outwit

(superar, exceder, ultrapassar)

over- 1. overeat, overdo, overweight

2. overcome, overtake3. overfly, overpass

1. (em excesso, de forma exagerada)

2. (superação)3. (por cima)

under- 1. undernourished, underfunded

2. undergo, undertake3. underline, underpin

1. (insuficiência) sub-

2. (incumbência, submissão)

3. (por baixo)

Exercise 11. Hipermercado - hypermarket2. pós-operatório – post-operative3. desadicionar (no orkut, FB) - unfriend4. pouco convincente - unconvincing5. Arquirrival - archrival

6. Misinformation – informação errada, equivocada7. Not to be outdone (ser superado, ficar para trás), our

neighbors also bought a new car.8. Don’t overdo (exagerar) it.9. “John Lewis – never knowingly undersold (vender mais

barato)”10. The apartment had to be deroached (desinsetizado).

English Suffixes 1Suffix Examples Portuguese equivalent

-able, -ible probable, horrible -ável, -ível

-al 1. national, natural2. proposal, approval

1. -al2. proposta, aprovação

-dom boredom, kingdom (qualidade; domínio)

-ee employee, interviewee -ado, -ido

-er 1. writer, smoker2. stapler, printer

-dor, -nte-dor, -dora

-ess actress, waitress -a, -iz, -esa etc.

-ful 1. fearful, powerful 2. teaspoonful, cupful

1. -oso2. (quantidade)

-hood childhood, motherhood -dade etc.

-ic tragic, logic -ico, -ica

-ical alphabetical, logical -ico

-ics politics, statistics -ica

English Suffixes 2Suffix Examples Portuguese equivalent

-ify identify, modify -ificar

-ish greenish, smallish (mais ou menos)

-ism Leninism, feminism -ismo

-ist artist, saxophonist -ista

-ity immunity, paternity -idade

-ize Americanize, nationalize -izar

-less homeless, useless in-, sem-

-ly 1. quietly, importantly2. friendly, monthly

-mente-al etc.

-ness kindness, closeness -eza, -dade, -ência etc.

-ship ownership, professorship (qualidade/cargo de) -ado

-sion, -tion decision, creation, nation -são/-ção

-th depth, width, strength (qualidade)

-y spotty, greeny, moody -oso

Productive Affixes in English

• Productive prefixes:un-, non-, de-, dis-re-Colloquial: hyper-, mega-, super-, uber-

• Productive suffixes:-able/-ible, -ee, -er, -hood, -ify, -ish, -ism, -ist, -ize, -less, -ly, -ness, -ship, -sion/-tion, -y

Words ending in -icacademic, acoustic, acrobatic, (a)esthetic, agnostic, alcoholic, algebraic, altruistic, an(a)emic, an(a)esthetic, angelic, antarctic, antibiotic, anti-Semitic, antiseptic, apathetic, apologetic, aquatic, Arabic, archaic, arctic, aristocratic, aromatic, arthritic, artistic, athletic, atmospheric, atomic, authentic, autocratic, automatic, ballistic, basic, bombastic, bureaucratic, cathartic, catholic, caustic, ceramic, chaotic, characteristic, chronic, civic, concentric, cosmetic, cosmic, cryptic, cubic, democratic, demonic, despotic, diabetic, didactic, diplomatic, dogmatic, domestic, dramatic, drastic, dynamic, eccentric, eclectic, ecstatic, elastic, electronic, emphatic, encyclop(a)edic, endemic, energetic, enigmatic, enthusiastic, epic, epidemic, epileptic, erotic, erratic, ethnic, euphoric, exotic, fantastic, frantic, gastric, generic, genetic, geriatric, gigantic, Gothic, graphic, hectic, heroic, hieroglyphic, Hispanic, histrionic, hydraulic, hydroelectric, hygienic, hypnotic, Icelandic, idiomatic, idiotic, idyllic, intrinsic, italic, journalistic, laconic, lethargic, linguistic, lunatic, magnetic, majestic, melodramatic, metallic, microscopic, monolithic, mosaic, narcotic, neurotic, nomadic, obstetric, oceanic, Olympic, operatic, optimistic, organic, paralytic, pathetic, patriotic, pedantic, pessimistic, phlegmatic, phonetic, photogenic, photographic, plastic, pneumatic, prolific, prosaic, psychic, public, romantic, rustic, sadistic, scenic, scientific, semantic, septic, Slavic, specific, sporadic, static, supersonic, symbolic, sympathetic, synthetic, systematic, therapeutic, tragic, vitriolic, volcanic

Words ending in -icalallegorical, analytical, anatomical, anthropological (all -logical words), astronomical, Biblical, biographical, botanical, chemical, cyclical, cylindrical, cynical, diabolical, ecumenical, empirical, evangelical, farcical, geological, grammatical, hypocritical, hypothetical, hysterical, identical, illogical, lackadaisical, metaphorical, methodical, mythical, mythological, nautical, nonsensical, numerical, paradoxical, pharmaceutical, physical, physiological, practical, psychological, quizzical, radical, satirical, spherical, surgical, technical, technological, typical, tyrannical, umbilical, vertical, zoological

Words ending in -ic/-ical 1• Either -ic or -ical with no change of meaning:

ecclesiastistic(al), geographic(al), geometric(al), ironic(al), logistic(al), philosophic(al), poetic(al), rhythmic(al), stoic(al), symmetric(al), typographic(al)

• Noun ends in –ic(s), adjective ends in –ical:aeronautics/aeronautical, arithmetic/arithmetical, cleric/clerical, clinic/clinical, critic/critical, ethics/ethical, fanatic/fanatical, heretic/heretical, logic/logical, lyric/lyrical, mathematics/ mathematical, mechanic/mechanics/mechanical, medic/medical, music/musical, mystic/mystical, optics/optical, rhetoric/rhetorical, sceptic/sceptical, statistic/statistics/statistical, tactic/tactical, theatrics/theatrical, topic/topical, tropic/tropical

• NB: periodical/periodic(al)

Words ending in -ic/-ical 2• Both forms exist with distinct meanings:

classic (típico, consagrado, admirado) x classical (relativo à música clássica ou à antiguidade romana e grega)comic (escrito como comédia) x comical (muito engraçado)economic (relativo à economia) x economical (barato, parcimonioso)electric (movido à eletricidade, eletrizante) x electrical (relativo à eletricidade ou a aparelhos eletricos)historic (muito antigo; marcante, que faz história) x historical (relativo à história)magic (que tem poder mágico ou que envolve mágica) x magical (irreal, onírico)metric (relativo ao sistema métrico de medidas) x metrical (relativo ao metro poético)politic (prudente, diplomático) x political (relativo à política)

Exercise 21. um erro clássico2. prédios históricos3. uma noite mágica4. um fogão elétrico5. um pianista clássico6. um estudo histórico7. um anel mágico8. um defeito elétrico9. uma vitória histórica10. uma cena cômica

How does the lexicon develop and expand?

• Existing words take on new meaningse.g. mouse, to click, to like, bookmark

• New words are createde.g. internet, dongle, docudrama

• Words are borrowed from other languagese.g. samba, capoeira, favela, caipirinha

• Words and meanings fall into disuse and die out

How are new words created?

• Conversion (e.g. from noun to verb: to hand, to book, to house, to friend)

• Derivation (write > writer, rewrite, writing)• Composition (toothbrush, ghost-writer etc.;

write back, write in, write off, write out)• Invention (dongle, docudrama, edutainment)

Word types

• Root words (house, book, hand, car, write etc.)

• Derived words (handy, writer, rewrite, bookish etc.)

• Compound words (houseboat, bookshelf, race car, ghost-write etc.)

• Shortenings and abbreviations (lab, flu, photo, MP, OK etc.)

Content Words vs. Form Words

• Content words – most of the words of the language which have a more or less clearly defined meaning even in isolatione.g. car, house, impossible, to create etc.

• Form words – words which are almost empty of meaning in isolation, but which structure the relations between content wordse.g. the, that, not, a(n), of, will etc.

The meaning of words

• Until 1930s, people only interested in the development of words over time: etymology and evolution of meaning

• Synchronic study of meaning only began in 20th century with Saussure

• Saussure took structuralist approach: the meaning of a word is understood by how it differs from the meaning of other words in the lexicon

Ferdinand de Saussure• Swiss linguist 1857-1913• Each word is a sign• Each sign consists of a signifier (phonetic or

written representation) and a signified (the thing, action or quality referred to)

• Signifiers are arbitrary – that’s why there are different languages

• Signified is also arbitrary – how the world is classified is not fixed, but done using language, so native speakers of different languages see the world in different ways

Signifier vs. Signified

The signified is also arbitrary 1

cиний siniy голубой goluboy

The signified is also arbitrary 2

EnglishBonfire Night, homecoming queen, letter jacket, root beer, sorority, binge drinking

Portuguesefeijoada, roda de samba, forró universitário, farofeiro, favela

What is meaning?

The meaning of a word is made up of:

• denotative component

• connotative components

Denotative componentslonely -------- » [alone, without company]

notorious -------- » [widely known]celebrated -------- » [widely known]

to glare --------» [to look] to glance --------» [to look]

to shiver --------» [to tremble] to shudder--------» [to tremble]

Connotative componentslonely -------- » [alone , without company] {sad}solitary -------- » [alone , without company] {out of choice}

notorious -------- » [widely known] {for doing bad things}celebrated -------- » [widely known] {for outstanding

achievement}

to glare --------» [to look] {angrily}to glance --------» [to look] {briefly}to stare --------» [to look] {insistently, for some time}

to shiver --------» [to tremble] {continuously, usually with cold}to shudder--------» [to tremble] {once, with fear or disgust}

Connotation TypesConnotation Type Examples

Intensity surprise, astonish, amaze, astound

Duration stare, gaze, peer vs. glance, peep

Emotive lonely vs. solitary

Evaluative (value judgement) notorious vs. celebrated, eyes sparkle vs. eyes glint/glitter

Causative shiver (with cold) vs. shudder (with disgust), to blush (with embarrassment) vs. to redden (with anger)

Manner walk vs. stroll, amble, trot etc.

Attendant circumstances peep (secretly, from a hiding place) vs. peer (in darkness, at a distance)

Attendant features beautiful vs. handsome vs. pretty

Stylistic (register) meal vs. bite to eat, repast, blow-out; to leave vs. to clear off, to leg it, to depart, to withdraw

Exercise 3

What are the connotations of the following words:

• think, ponder, reflect, deliberate, meditate, muse, ruminate, brood

• laugh, chuckle, chortle, guffaw, giggle, titter, snicker (Brit: snigger), roar, crack up, piss yourself

Register• Neutral – words that do not have a particular register (e.g.

toilet, bottom)• Colloquial – words that are only appropriate in informal

speech/writing (e.g. loo, bum/butt/buns)• Slang – words restricted to certain groups and/or certain

very informal situations (e.g. bog, arse/ass)• Taboo – swear words (e.g. shitter, arsehole/asshole)• Formal – words that are only used in formal contexts (e.g.

lavatory, WC; buttocks, rear)• Literary – words that are only used in literary contexts (e.g.

privy, derrière)• Specialist – words relating to a specific field (e.g. toilet

bowl, glutes)

EuphemismEuphemism Non-euphemism

public convenience, bathroom, restroom, comfort station

toilet

backside, behind, derrière buttocks

pass away die

family planning contraception

privates, private parts genitals

overweight fat

homely, plain unattractive

differently abled disabled, handicapped

sleep with, go to bed with have sex with

tired and emotional drunk

freaking, frigging, flipping fucking

Exercise 41. to be economical with the truth2. intellectually challenged3. to powder your nose4. to see a man about a dog5. bathroom tissue6. correctional facility7. enhanced interrogation8. adult entertainment9. sanitation worker10. gentlemen’s club

Synonyms

• Ideographic synonyms – same denotation, different connotation (e.g. arremessar, jogar, tacar)

• Stylistic synonyms – same denotation, different register (e.g. colocar x botar)

• Absolute synonyms – identical in denotation, connotation and register (e.g. colocar, pôr)

Synonymic GroupsDominant (unmarked) synonymno connotations

Marked synonymswith connotations

surprised astonished, amazed, astounded, stunned, flabbergasted, gobsmacked

shout yell, bellow, roar, scream, shriek

look stare, glare, gaze, peer, peep, gawp

tremble shiver, shudder, quiver, shake, quake

make create, manufacture, turn out, fabricate, produce

shine flash, blaze, gleam, glisten, sparkle, glitter, shimmer, glimmer

angry furious, enraged, mad, apoplectic, pissed

fear panic, terror, dread, apprehension

Conclusions• Languages have a neutral core vocabulary which is purely

denotative and unmarked• Absolute syonyms are a temporary phenomenon in

language – generally, no two words share exactly the same denotation and connotation

• One element of meaning is the contrast with other words in the lexicon

• Translators should match not only the denotative meaning of a word or expression, but also the connotative elements. Bilingual dictionaries only do this to a certain extent.

• Teachers should teach not only the denotative meaning of a word or expression, but also make students aware of its connotations. Translation helps here.

False Friends 11. These days, environmental concerns are high on the agenda.

O primeiro-ministro tem uma agenda muito cheia.

2. The president had not anticipated the outcry the decision would cause.O presidente antecipou para segunda-feira sua reunião com ministros.

3. The man was charged with assault.

O homem foi condenado por assalto à mão armada. 4. This cannot be done without Her Majesty’s assent.

Um rapaz cedeu o assento à senhora idosa. 5. The magician asked a member of the audience to assist him with the trick.

O senador assistiu ao casamento da filha de um aliado político.

False Friends 26. It is safe to assume that the phone company is to blame for the mistake.

Não vou assumir a culpa por uma coisa que eu não fiz. 7. I’m not sure I’m going to be able to attend tomorrow’s meeting.

Você acha que ela vai atender ao nosso pedido? 8. The party was a very casual affair and I felt rather overdressed.

Não passou de um encontro casual. 9. The casualties were taken to a nearby hospital.

O gol contra pode ter sido uma casualidade, mas já é o terceiro marcado por este jogador.

10. The government is proposing a comprehensive set of reforms.

Eu achei que você fosse ser mais compreensivo.

False Friends 311. How can peace be achieved when neither side is prepared to compromise?

Os dois países se comprometeram a encontrar uma solução pacífica. 12. Do you already have your costume for the Carnival parade?

O casamento foi combinado pelos pais, como é o costume do país. 13. He was charged with obtaining money by deception.

Ela não conseguiu esconder sua decepção. 14. Security cameras are supposed to deter intruders.

Os seguranças resolveram deter o intruso. 15. It’s a disgrace the way people are treated in public hospitals.

Não sou de me comprazer com a desgraça alheia.

False Friends 416.One of the robbers creates a diversion while the other steals the bag.

A Internet pode ser uma fonte inesgotável de conhecimentos e diversão. 17.She’s very well educated.

Ela é muito bem-educada. 18.The couple exchanged e-mails and eventually arranged to meet.

Os participantes trocam e-mails e eventualmente marcam um encontro. 19.The minister’s exit from office has sparked a political crisis.

O ministro não obteve êxito com a nova política. 20.The policeman was exonerated of any blame for the shooting.

O policial foi exonerado por ter atirado contra o suspeito.

False Friends 521. It felt more secure to be in familiar surroundings.

Muitas crianças não vivem num ambiente familiar estável. 22. There are many grand buildings and monuments in Paris.

É um prédio grande com uma agència de viagens no térreo. 23. Environmental protection should be an integral part of all government policy.

As famílias têm assistência médica integral. 24. You can’t buy liquor unless you have ID.

Depois do jantar, pedimos um licor.

25. I don’t think I can manage another piece of cake.Massa maneja o carro com grande habilidade.

False Friends 626.There was a notice on the door saying “Back in 5 mins”.

Foi uma notícia que surpreendeu a todos. 27.I like reading historical novels.

Gosto de novelas de época. 28.It’s an offence to park on a double-yellow line.

Nos países árabes, é uma ofensa mostrar a sola do pé. 29.Here’s a photo of my parents.

Essa é uma foto de alguns dos meus parentes. 30.He has a peculiar accent. Where’s he from?

Os sul-africanos tèm um sotaque peculiar.

False Friends 731.The price of petrol has gone up again.

O preço do petróleo voltou a subir.

32.Many gay teenagers have suffered prejudice at school.Muitos comerciantes sofreram prejuízo com o quebra-quebra.

33.She doesn’t call me anymore now she’s preoccupied with her new baby.

A mãe estava preocupada com o bebê, que não mamava direito. 34.This cake contains no preservatives or artificial flavorings.

A Igreja católica condena o uso do preservativo. 35.He pretends to be a professional footballer.

Ele pretende ser jogador profissional.

False Friends 836. She’s a physics professor.

Ela é professora de Física. 37. The discussion was resumed after lunch.

A discussão foi resumida na ata. 38. It was an emotional reunion.

Foi uma reunião acalorada. 39. I was robbed as I was coming out of the bank.

A minha carteira foi roubada dentro do banco! 40. I don’t know how he supports that family of his.

Não sei como ele suporta aquela família dele. 41. She was very sympathetic and said she would try to help me.

Ela foi muito simpática e disse que ia me ajudar. 42. The government introduced a tax on financial transactions.

O banco cobra uma taxa por cada movimento da conta.