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Visual Resources and the Analysis ofHistoric CostumeCynthia R. JasperPublished online: 04 Jan 2011.

To cite this article: Cynthia R. Jasper (1989) Visual Resources and the Analysis of HistoricCostume, Visual Resources: An International Journal of Documentation, 5:4, 325-335, DOI:10.1080/01973762.1989.9659191

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Visual Resources, Vol. V, pp. 325-335 OGordon and Breach, Science Publishers, Inc., 1989 Reprints available directly from the publisher Printed in the United States of America Photocopying permitted by license only

Visual Resources and the Analysis of Historic Costume

by Cynthia R. Jasper

Visual resources, such as photographs, paintings, sketches and sculptures are especially useful as information sources1 for documenting change in historic c o s t ~ m e . ~ They can yield data that are seldom recorded in written literature and often impossible to obtain through a study of artifacts for analyzing the form and communicative functions of dress. This discussion will address the use of visual resources as a record of historic costume, including methods of collection, classification, and analysis of information.

Types of Information

The study of visual resources is particularly useful in documenting whether and when change in dress occurred for groups of people for whom dress has not been identified and analyzed in historical per~pective.~ Visual documents can indicate what types of dress were appropriate for men and women, specific age groups, social classes, occupational roles, and political ranks within a society. They may show the dress that was appropriate for ritual events, such as weddings (Figure I), and for everyday events, such as daily household chores (Figure 2). They may also indicate the relationship between dress and individual beliefs, values, and attitudes. Thus, visual resources can reveal how dress functioned to help individuals communicate within a given society.

Visual resources also reveal the basic appearance of dress and the way in which it was worn-such as the basic shape or silhouette of dress within different time periods and the way in which individuals chose, arranged and displayed garments, accessories, and body modifications. Ann Hol- lander contends that various types of information can be learned about dress by studying visual image^.^ For instance, she says it can show:

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Figure 1. Photograph of wedding couple, about 1885-1900, shows dress considered appropriate for the occasion. By Gerhard Gesell. Courtesy of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin; Gesell Collection WHI (G472)92.

1. What kinds of garments were usually worn in combination, whether one garment showed under another, and where.

2. What characteristic varieties and combinations of accessories were worn or omitted, and how they were used.

3. The correct visual effect of certain arrangements, such as belting and draping. Visual resources may show whether and to what degree tunics were bloused over, for example, or whether belts lay loosely over the hips or were cinched tight around the body

4. Whether articles of dress were worn in a neat and orderly manner or in a disarranged style. Dress designed to fit neatly might be worn sloppily, either for effect or for convenience. For example, laces might be unlaced, or sleeves pushed back. Even when dress shown in visual resources were pushed out of the way for convenience, the images often show that there was a special way of doing this.

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The Analysis of Historic Costume / 327

Figure 2. Photograph shows dress worn by a woman sweeping snow off of a stair, about 1909, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Courtesy of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin WHI(X3)21157.

5. The ways in which body posture and gestures (hands, arms, feet, legs, etc.) related to the dress. Bodily movement and posture vary a great deal according to the fashion of the time. For instance, skirts, capes, hats, and gloves were handled in different ways at different times. Visual resources demonstrate these, and more signifi- cantly, may also show what was not done.

Hollander concludes that whether or not garments have actually survived from an earlier period, information about how they functioned visually in society can be obtained only through a study of resources such as photo- graphs and paintings.

Classification of Costume

Scholars have long struggled with the development of classification systems for visual images, and specifically for costume; various methods have been advocated and improvised over the years. A goal of these systems is to give order to the vast amount of detailed information that is contained in visual resources and to condense it into a manageable form.6 Thus, classification systems are designed to reduce the complexity of aspects of the human en~ironment.~ This is particularly the case with photographs, as Collier notes that "one photograph can contain a thousand references."E

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Various costume classification systems have emerged from a number of disciplines, including sociology, psychology, history, home economics and anthropology. A commonly accepted method is to classify costume accord- ing to the part of the body with which it is associated.9 Another is to classify according to the form or shape of the clothing. For instance, this was the method used by Kroeber in his classic study based on the silhouette of clothing.10 Roach and Musa cite two other methods which have often been used in the study of historic costume. The first is to single out one specific article of dress, such as a vest, and trace changes in the form and meanings of the article over a number of years. The second is to classify costume according to modal types that are representative of a time period or cultural group and to note change that occurs in the entire ensemble over time. The authors point out, however, that while both are useful approaches, each has limitations. They note that

In the first, comprehension of the total impact of dress, both visually and symbolically, may be lost by isolating one item of dress from a total ensemble. In the second, the reality of variation and its social significance may be lost by focusing on the dress that seems to have been worn by a majority of people.

However, they conclude that "costume historians rarely attempt to present and apply classification systems" and instead generally "name and describe aspects of historic dress item by item, time period by time period." Roach and Musa also note that emphasis has been "on coverings of the body, often to the neglect of accessories, details, and changes of the body itself, such as those achieved by shaping and styling the hair or using cosmetics."12

Perhaps one way to correct these problems is to include social meanings in the classification along with identification of forms of dress and modal types of dress. In the past, some social meanings associated with dress have been included in analyses of dress, and almost all studies of change in costume classify dress according to gender; thus, separate categories exist in the analysis of the dress of men and women. Other categories that can be included in classifications of dress are age, ethnic, political and religious affiliation, sports and military activities, ceremonial occasions and other social situations. Visual images can also be classified as to whether they represent a private or public setting.13 In studies of historic costume, information about body language and movements is often omitted. This is unfortunate, since body posture and gestures are an integral part of the "total" arrangement of dress on the body. One scholar who has focused on the analysis of bodily movements is Van Hooff.14 He proposes a classifica- tion system identifying time segments that account for the continuous variations in human body movements.

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Other scholars of costume may be interested in gathering detailed infor- mation about visual attributes of dress, such as color, design, motifs, tex- ture, and other decorative aspects.15 These aspects can also be included within a classification system. However, as each additional aspect of cos- tume is added, the classification system becomes more complex. As noted earlier, one of the reasons for applying a classification system to the study of dress is to condense and make the vast amounts of detailed information more manageable. Thus, rather than trying to record details exhaustively, the aspects of dress that are included should be determined by the goals and hypotheses of the research. What is the researcher most interested in investigating? Is it how the forms of dress changed over time, or is it the interplay between social meanings of dress and change in dress? Is the focus to be on a specific type of garment, such as wedding dresses, or a category of dress, such as headwear? Or is it on how "public" dress varies from that worn within the private setting? However, if extensive data are needed for the study, modern computers and multivariate statistical methods allow vast quantities of information to be interpreted, permitting the discovery of modal patterns-that is, combinations that occur compara- tively frequently.

Analysis of Costume

After decisions are made regarding the focus of the study and the classifica- tion system to be used, three additional interrelated decisions about the purpose and scope of the research project must be made. These involve the type of documents to be included in the study and the sample size; the time period of analysis; and the development of a lexicon to help define and identify terms used in the analysis.

The first step is to decide what types of visual records should be included in the sample and how large that sample should be. This decision must be based on the data that are available and on the goals of the research project. The researcher may want to use only one type of visual resource, such as photographs. However, to ensure an adequate sample size, and since few photographs exist prior to the late 1 8 0 0 ~ , ~ ~ the researcher may have to include more than one type. For instance, a study may include both photo- graphs and sketches. The researcher must decide on a sampling procedure; however, if few visual records exist for the time period being investigated, all those which are available will probably need to be included in the study to assure an adequate sample size.

The second decision concerns the time period of analysis. The researcher will need to decide whether a large time segment, perhaps 200 years, or a

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shorter time period, for instance a twenty-five year segment, will be the focus of the study. Moreover, a decision will need to be made as to whether to divide the time period into segments. This decision will depend on a number of factors, including the length of time chosen. The researcher may wish to consider when significant changes occurred in the social, economic or political aspects of a society and divide time segments accordingly. On the other hand, it may be desirable to divide segments in an arbitrary manner-for instance, in ten or twenty year time periods-and then com- pare changes from one period to the next. This decision will depend to an extent on the visual resources that are available.

The third step is the development of a lexicon. Since terms for dress vary from society to society and between cultural groups, each term should be defined precisely, because terms for dress are often ambiguous and lend themselves to misinterpretation. In English, for example, the term "bonnet" usually refers to a woman's hat that is tied under the chin; the same term can be understood to mean an Indian man's headdress made with several feathers. Thus, both types of bonnets should be assigned to sub-categories within a category of "headwear."

After those decisions are made, the last phase of the analysis is to collect, quantify and analyze the data in a systematic and objective manner. This phase consists of two steps: the collection of data, and their quantification and analysis.

DATA COLLECTION

The researcher will need to develop an instrument to record the data on dress. Such information as the date, occasion and characteristics of the individuals represented in the visual documents should be recorded. Only photographs and other datable resources, or those for which confirmation of a date can be obtained, should be included in the sample. The researcher should be cautioned that the date on some records may have been added years after the image was completed. If this practice is suspected, the date should be confirmed with a costume or art historian or a representative of the group being studied. If the date cannot be confirmed, the image should be eliminated from further analysis.

Precautions for Data Collection

When collecting information, precautions must be taken to minimize prob- lems dealing with the accuracy of visual materials. Paintings and photo- graphs should be eliminated if the subject is only partially visible, or if a

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human figure is visible but items of dress are not identifiable because of poor print quality or the distance of the figure from the camera. If a subject is portrayed wearing the same costume in more than one picture, but from two different angles, the researcher will want to include both pictures so that a more complete view of the costume can be included in the study. Actually, since people are perceived in three dimensions, it is preferable to include at least two angles of the costume in the analysis. In some collec- tions of visual resources, a subject may appear more than once, but in a different dress each time; in these cases the researcher will probably wish to analyze the dress of the subject in each picture. To help eliminate the possibility of overlooking a garment, the dress of each subject should be systematically analyzed, perhaps starting with the head and proceeding downward, from the feet upward, or in some other systematic way.

Unfortunately some of the images presented in visual records can be misleading. Bell compares the posed photograph with the painted portrait, and notes that "The sitter dressed in his or her best, sat, or rather was propped into a becoming attitude and the image was carefully touched up." He concludes that the snapshot has given us a more realistic view of everyday life.17 In order to assess whether the individuals posed for the photograph or whether it was taken in a more spontaneous manner, the researcher should note the setting which the visual materials represent.

Blackman notes that often photographers were motivated by what would sell, "and the more exotic, the more saleable."l8 Therefore, some photo- graphs may depict stereotypical dress instead of a more realistic mode. For example, when photographing American Indians, it was common to depict most as Plains Indians, with feather headdresses and buckskin. One photo- grapher went so far as to put a feather duster on an Ojibwa Indian's head to make him resemble more closely the photographer's conception of what an Indian should look 1ike.lg

In light of these types of problems, Hollander cautions that before dress can be interpreted from visual resources these representations must be evaluated regarding their accuracy, function and meaning in their own time. Hollander concludes that "Visual artists have better eyes than most people, not worse. Their stylization and abstraction in the picturing of clothed figures in the past are not artful dodges and clumsy mistakes which obscure how things 'really' looked, but varying records of their sharper percep- ti0n."~0 Although some images may be misleading, she concludes that 'At any time, straightforward picture-stories about actual events in the recent past probably have a high degree of current visual accuracy about the dress of the participants. "21

One way to minimize error in data collection is to have consultants, such

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as art or costume historians, assist in the interpretation of images presented in visual resources. If the study focuses on the dress of an ethnic group of which the researcher is not a member, it may be helpful, and in many cases essential, to have members of that group provide additional information about the visual resources and assist with the classification and analysis of images. Knapp notes that if an observer belongs to the same group that is communicating a message, the accuracy of detecting the meaning of non- verbal signals within the society increases.22

QUANTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS

The quantification of data collected from visual documents is an integral part of analyzing information about dress.23 The first step is to categorize the data collected about dress. One way to accomplish this is to develop a classification system to group articles of dress or details of dress. A system implemented by Miller24 and was^^^ classified garments according to the particular region of the body in which they are worn. For example, items of dress were divided into categories beginning with those worn on the head and ending with those worn on the feet (Table 1).

After the data are categorized the way in which the data are quantified and analyzed will depend on the purpose of the research project.26 The goal of the researcher at this point is to manage and give meaning to the descriptive data collected about costume.27 The researcher will want to use

Table 1 Classification of Articles of Dress

Head Coverings Head and Face Accessories Neck Accessories Arm and Hand Accessories Upper Torso Coverings Upper Torso Accessories Lower Torso Accessories Lower Torso Coverings Torso Coverings (Complete) and Accesso- ries Foot Coverings and Accessories

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either descriptive or inferential statistical procedures (or both) in the inter- pretation of the data. Descriptive statistics can be useful in condensing large amounts of data so that they may be easily comprehended. Inferential statistical methods allow the researcher to deduce the characteristics of the dress of a population from an inspection of samples drawn from them. This can help the researcher generalize the findings of the study.

APPLICATION OF THE METHOD

The method described in this paper has been applied to the analysis of historic costume in two separate studies. In a study of Yoruba dress, Wass focused on change in dress for five generations of a Lagos family. Her study included three time periods spanning the years 1900 to 1974. The primary source of data in the study was photographs. The information about cos- tume obtained from 607 subjects depicted in the photographs was supple- mented with personal communications from family members. The findings indicated that dress communicated change in social roles and self concepts within Yoruba society. It was also determined that dress was indicative of age, education, occupation, sex and the social occasion.28

Building on the work of Wass and others, Jasper identified modal forms of dress for Ojibwa Indians through a study of photographs, paintings and sketches. Information pertaining to the dress for 647 subjects depicted in the visual materials was recorded. Members of the Ojibwa tribe served as informants, providing information about the photographs, paintings and sketches.

Statistical analysis, which included the use of multivariate cross-tabula- tions, was used to determine modes of Ojibwa dress for seven time periods, encompassing the years 1820 to 1980. The analysis identified what garments were most often worn together and how frequently each combination occurred. It was found that in each successive period the Ojibwa wore less indigenous dress and more non-Indian clothing. Specifically, Ojibwa Indian dress dominated the modal dress before 1860 for Ojibwa men and before 1880 for women. After these times non-Indian dress was characteristic. The change to non-Indian dress appears to have been a gradual but steady process in which Ojibwa Indians adopted non-Indian dress step by step. First, fabric was substituted for leather, although the forms of dress re- mained the same. Second, articles of Ojibwa dress were combined with non-Indian dress until 1959. The last stage involved the complete adoption of non-Indian dress, with perhaps an accessory that displayed an Ojibwa design.29

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CONCLUSION

Visual resources provide a valuable source of data for the costume historian, since these resources document the lives of individuals-weddings, family gatherings and everyday events, such as children playing with their pets. These images show specific types of dress considered appropriate for the event, and reveal both the form and communicative functions of dress. Moreover, visual records are especially useful to the costume historian because they contain information that is difficult to obtain from other sources, such as written materials or artifacts. Nevertheless, the researcher should not ignore these other sources, but may wish to use them to supple- ment a study of visual resources. These sources may be helpful in finding additional facts about dress such as information about attitudes pertaining to dress.

NOTES

1. Researchers have studied visual resources to obtain information on a variety of subjects including art, household objects and other social phenomena.

2. A number of terms refer to human acts of modifying the body or adding material objects to it. These terms include "costume" and "dress." Either is appropriate in historic studies.

3. For an analysis of the use of stereographs in the educational setting see Tara Maginnis, "Stereo- graphs as an Educational Resource in Costume History" Theater Design and Technology, Spring, 1987, pp. 25-29.

4. Ann Hollander, "Dress and Its Image in Art," in Mary Ellen Roach and Kathleen Ehle Musa, New Perspectives on the History of Western Dress (New York, NutriGuides, 1980) pp. 42-51.

5. Ibid., p. 44. 6. Eleanor Rosch and Barbara B. Lloyd, Cognition and Categorization (New York: John Wiley and Sons,

1978) pp. 29-35. 7. Jerome S. Bruner, Jacqueline J. Goodnow and George A. Austin, A Study of Thinking (New York:

John Wiley & Sons, 1967) pp. 11-13. 8. John Collier, Jr., Visual Anthropology: Photography as a Research Method (New York: Holt, knehart

and Winston, 1967) p. 6. 9. Rebecca H. Holmon, "A Transcription and Analysis System for the Study of Women's Clothing

Behavior." Serniotica, 32, 1980, pp. 20-29. 10. A. L. Kroeber, "On the Principle of Order in Civilization as Exemplified by Changes in Fashion."

American Anthropologist, 21, 1919, pp. 235-263. 11. Mary Ellen Roach and Kathleen Ehle Musa, New Perspectives on the History of Western Dress (New

York: NutriGuides, 1980) p. 7. 12. Ibid., p. 8. 13. Erving Goffman, Gender Advertisements (New York: Harper & Row, 1976) pp. 10-23. 14. J. Van Hooff, "Categories and Sequences of Behavior: Methods of Description and Analysis." In

Handbook of Methods in Nonverbal Behavior Research, Klaus R. Scherer and Paul Ekman (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982) pp. 362-367.

15. E. H. Gombrich, The Sense of Order: A Study in the Psychology of Decorative Art (Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1979) pp. 117-170.

16. Lena Johannesson, "Pictures as News, News as Pictures," Visual Paraphrases: Studies in Mass Media lmagery (Stockholm: Almquist & Wiksell International, 1984) pp. 59-62.

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The Analysis of Historic Costume 1 335

17. Quentin Bell, On Human Finery (New York: Schocken Books, 1976) p. 13. 18. Margaret Blackman, "Posing the American Indian," Natural History. Oct. 1980, p. 70. 19. lbid., p. 74. 20. Hollander, p. 43. 21. Ibid., p. 45. 22. M. Knapp, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction, 2nd ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and

Winston, 1978) p. 180. 23. For a discussion of the use of content analysis for interpreting historic costume see, Jo B. Paoletti,

"Content Analysis: Its Application to the study of the History of Costume," Clothingand Textiles Research Journal, 1 (1982), pp. 14-23.

24. M. Miller, "The Clothing of the Forest Potawatomi," (Unpublished Thesis, U of Wisconsin, 1972). 25. Betty Wass, "Yomba Dress: A Systematic Case Study of Five Generations of a Lagos Family."

(Diss. Michigan State U., 1975). 26. A specific method of analyzing dress is discussed in Cynthia R. Jasper, "Ojibwa (Chippewa)

Indian Dress in Wisconsin and Minnesota: Forms and Functions from 1820 to 1980." (Unpublished Thesis, U of Wisconsin, 1982).

27. Cynthia R. Jasper and Mary Ellen Roach-Higgins, "History of Costume: Theory and Instmc- tion," Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, vol. 5, No. 4 (1987), pp. 3.

28. For a complete description of the study see Betty Wass, "Yomba Dress in Five Generations of a Lagos Family," in Justine M. Cordwell and Ronald A. Schwarz, eds., The Fabrics of Culture: The Anthropology of Clothing and Adornment, (New York: 1979).

29. For a more detailed description of the study see Cynthia R. Jasper, "Ojibwa (Chippewa) Indian Dress in Wisconsin and Minnesota: Forms and Functions from 1820 to 1980." (Unpublished Thesis, U of Wisconsin, 1982).

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