www.ext.vt.eduProduced by Communications and Marketing, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, 2009

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publication 420-141

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Virginia Cooperative Extension

LANDOWNERʼS GUIDE TO

MANAGING STREAMS IN THE

EASTERN UNITED STATES

LANDOWNERʼS GUIDE TO

MANAGING STREAMS IN THE

EASTERN UNITED STATES

Landowner’s Guide to ManaGinG streaMs in the

eastern united states

27

LANDOWNER’S GUIDE TO MANAGINGSTREAMS IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES

byL.A. Helfrich, Extension Specialist and Professor, Virginia Tech

D. L. Weigmann, Director, Office of Science and Technology, State of NevadaR. J. Neves, Leader, Virginia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit

College of Forestry and Wildlife ResourcesVirginia Cooperative Extension

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State UniversityBlacksburg, Virginia

Landowner's Guide to Managing Streams in the Eastern United States

L.A. Helfrich, Extension specialist and professor, Virginia TechD.L. Weigmann, director, Office of Science and Technology, State of Nevada

R.J. Neves, leader, Virginia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit

1 1

INTRODUCTIONThe eastern United States is

blessed with an abundance ofstreams. These flowing watersoccur in a variety of settings,shapes, and sizes. They range incharacter from steep-gradient,swift-flowing, mountain streamsto flat-gradient, slow-flowingpasture streams. There are wood-land streams, meadow streams,marsh streams, and even urbanstreams. Some are coldwatertrout streams and others arewarmwater bass streams. Asingle stream may support bothsportfish, with trout occupyingthe cold waters and bass inhabit-ing the warmer waters.

No two streams are alike,but many share certain problemsand characteristics. For example,all streams are products of theland they drain, and their watersreflect streamside land manage-ment practices, good and poor.Much can be done to protectclean streams and restore dam-aged ones. Since most streamsoriginate on private lands, theirfate depends largely on wisemanagement by streamside land-owners. This publication pro-vides general information andmanagement guidelines to helpstream property owners andtheir neighbors protect, improve,and restore these valuable run-ning waters.

IntroductIon

the eastern united States is blessed with an abundance of streams. these flowing waters occur in a variety of settings, shapes, and sizes. They range in character from steep-gradient, swift-flowing, mountain streams to flat-gradient, slow-flowing pasture streams. There are woodland streams, meadow streams, marsh streams, and even urban streams. Some are coldwater trout streams and others are warmwater bass streams. A single stream may support both sportfish, with trout occupying the cold waters and bass inhabiting the warmer waters.

No two streams are alike, but many share certain problems and characteristics. For example, all streams are products of the land they drain, and their waters reflect streamside land management practices, good and poor. Much can be done to protect clean streams and restore damaged ones. Since most streams originate on private lands, their fate depends largely on wise management by streamside landowners. This publication provides general information and management guidelines to help stream property owners and their neighbors protect, improve, and restore these valuable running waters.

22

Stream water quality largely depends on land use practices such asfarming, mining, and forestry in the upstream drainage basin

3 3

DRAINAGE BASINIf you look at the shape of a

stream on a map or aerial photo, no-tice that its branching pattern appearstree-shaped (dendritic). Most streamshave a main trunk with smaller con-necting branches (tributaries). In asingle stream system, each stream isa tributary of the larger stream it joinsand all streams are tributaries of themain stem.

The land area drained by astream is called a drainage basin. Thisis a low area or valley that collects wa-ter from a stream. Protecting and im-proving a stream usually depends onmanaging activities in the drainagebasin. Obviously, upstream landown-ers influence the amount and qualityof water available to those down-stream. In other words, your streamis at the mercy of your stream neigh-bors, so cooperation among adjacentstream property owners is essentialfor stream protection and manage-ment.

STREAM SIZEStreams are called brooks,

branches, creeks, cricks, forks, or runs,depending on local custom. InWebster’s Dictionary, streams are de-fined as small rivers. How large is astream and how small is a river? Ap-parently, whether a watercourse istermed a stream or a river has de-pended on the judgment of the personwho first discovered and named it. Inthis publication, streams are defined asflowing waters that are shallowenough to wade across and less than40 feet wide during normal flow;deeper, larger watercourses are rivers.This distinction is convenient but sim-plistic, since streams and rivers flowtogether, forming interconnecting wa-terways.

The smallest streams aretermed headwater or first-orderstreams. They can be categorized aspermanent or intermittent based ontheir seasonal flow pattern. Permanentstreams flow throughout the year. In-termittent streams dry up at certaintimes of the year. Landowners oftenassume that tiny streams, particularlyintermittent ones, are not important.However, they play significant roles byproviding clean, clear water to largerstreams and rivers, and by supportingvaluable sportfish and wildlife.

In fact, many tiny feederstreams are essential spawning andnursery areas for trout, bass, and othergamefish. Adult sportfish spawn intributary streams that have cleangravel and suitable cover to protecttheir young from predators. Even thesmallest tributary, including those nar-row enough to step across and thosethat occasionally dry up, can add valueto property and benefit fish and wild-life.

STreAM SizeStreams are called brooks, branches, creeks, cricks, forks, or runs, depend-ing on local custom. In Webster's Dic-tionary, streams are defined as small rivers. How large is a stream and how small is a river? Apparently, whether a watercourse is termed a stream or a river has depended on the judgment of the person who first discovered and named it. In this publication, streams are defined as flowing waters that are shallow enough to wade across and less than 40 feet wide during normal flow; deeper, larger watercourses are rivers. This distinction is convenient but simplistic, since streams and riv-ers flow together, forming intercon-necting waterways.

The smallest streams are termed head-water or first-order streams. They can be categorized as permanent or intermittent based on their seasonal flow pattern. Permanent streams flow throughout the year. Intermittent streams dry up at certain times of the year. Landowners often assume that tiny streams, particularly intermittent ones, are not important. However, they play significant roles by provid-ing clean, clear water to larger streams and rivers, and by supporting valuable sportfish and wildlife.

In fact, many tiny feeder streams are essential spawning and nursery areas for trout, bass, and other gamefish. Adult sportfish spawn in tributary streams that have clean gravel and suitable cover to protect their young from predators. Even the smallest trib-utary, including those narrow enough to step across and those that occasion-ally dry up, can add value to property and benefit fish and wildlife.

draInage BaSInIf you look at the shape of a stream on a map or aerial photo, notice that its branching pattern appears tree-shaped (dendritic). Most streams have a main trunk with smaller connect-ing branches (tributaries). In a single stream system, each stream is a tribu-tary of the larger stream it joins and all streams are tributaries of the main stem.

The land area drained by a stream is called a drainage basin. This is a low area or valley that collects water from a stream. Protecting and improving a stream usually depends on managing activities in the drainage basin. Obvi-ously, upstream landowners influence the amount and quality of water avail-able to those downstream. In other words, your stream is at the mercy of your stream neighbors, so cooperation among adjacent stream property own-ers is essential for stream protection and management.

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HOW MUCH IS YOURSTREAM WORTH ?

Streams are valuable assets. They offer riparian(streamside) landowners generous, long-term benefitsin return for minimal care and expense. Some benefitsare financial, providing income either in cash returns ordollar savings. Other benefits are less conspicuous, butequally valuable. Here are some major benefits providedby freshwater streams.

Agricultural and domestic benefits:Cropland irrigationLivestock wateringBottomland timber productionFire protection

Drinking, bathing, cleaning waterGroundwater suppliesWastewater processingEnergy production (hydropower)Streamside real estateFish farming

Fish and wildlife benefits:Sportfish and shellfish habitatWildlife habitatEndangered species habitat

Recreational and scenic benefits:Fishing, hunting, trappingSwimming, boating, campingTranquillity, scenic beautyNature study, education

Small coldwater streams provide ideal sportfish habitat,producing trophy trout such as the “lunker” brown troutharvested here.

Running the rapidson a free-flowingstream is anexciting weekendescape from thehectic workdaypressures of modernlife.

How MucH iS Your STreAM Worth?Streams are valuable assets. They offer riparian (stream-side) landowners generous, long-term benefits in return for minimal care and expense. Some benefits are finan-cial, providing income either in cash returns or dollar savings. Other benefits are less conspicuous, but equally valuable. Here are some major benefits provided by freshwater streams.

Agricultural and domestic benefits:Cropland irrigationLivestock wateringBottomland timber productionFire protectionDrinking, bathing, cleaning waterGroundwater suppliesWastewater processingEnergy production (hydropower)Streamside real estateFish farmingFish and wildlife benefits:Sportfish and shellfish habitatWildlife habitatEndangered species habitatRecreational and scenic benefits:Fishing, hunting, trappingSwimming, boating, campingTranquillity, scenic beautyNature study, education

5 5

Streamsides are vitalbreeding, nursing,nesting, and feedingareas for young andadult wild animals.

Large, secretiveanimals such aswild turkey, deer,bear, and bobcatsfind refuge andfood alongstreamsidebottomlands.

Wood ducks and otherwaterfowl use streams fornesting and brooding, as wellas travel routes during springand fall migration.

Stream fishing is a major outdoordelight pursued by millions ofanglers in the eastern UnitedStates.

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At one time, stream improvement waspracticed only on the estates of rich landown-ers or by exclusive fishing clubs. Now, it iswidely used by small landholders, farmers,and anglers who recognize the importance ofclean streams and quality sportfishing. Thetwo main objectives of stream improvementare to protect water quality and to enhancesportfish habitat.

Successful stream improvement requirescareful planning. Before starting a project, takethe following steps: (1) examine your stream,(2) determine its problems, (3) determine thecause of the problem, (4) select the appropri-ate control methods, (5) consult professionalsfor advice and help, and (6) determine theamount of effort and money needed to com-plete and maintain the project.

STREAMIMPROVEMENTMETHODS

7

PROTECT STREAMBANKPLANTS

The easiest, most effective way to protectyour stream is to maintain a strip of plants alongthe bank. Lush growths of grasses, shrubs, andcertain trees are essential to the health of a stream.Some of the valuable benefits to streamside land-owners afforded by shoreland plants includestreambank support and stabilization, erosion andflood control, water quality protection, scenicbeauty, and wildlife habitat.

The roots of native grasses, low shrubs,aquatic plants, and certain trees bind soil tostreambanks and reduce erosion. Plant roots de-flect the cutting action of swift-flowing stormwater,expanding surface ice, and strong winds. Abun-dant streamside vegetation slows runoff, catchessilt, softens the impact of rain, and helps preventthe undercutting and collapsing of streambanks.

Shoreland plants protect water quality by ab-sorbing and filtering out pollutants such as fertil-izers, animal wastes, and toxic chemicals. Plant lifealong the edges of the stream also provides foodand shelter for fish and wildlife. Streamside habi-tats usually are richer in the number and types ofwildlife than upland habitats. Wildlife foods(seeds, buds, fruits, berries, and nuts) are found inabundance along streamsides. Streambank plantspreserve scenic beauty and property values.Streams hidden by concrete walls, culverts, andditches are generally unnoticed, unappreciated,and often neglected.

Try to avoid any activity that will kill or in-jure streambank plants. It’s best to limit activitiessuch as plowing, livestock grazing, housing de-velopment, road construction, dumping, filling,and applying herbicides near streambanks.

StreamImprovementMethods

At one time, stream improvement was prac-ticed only on the estates of rich landown-ers or by exclusive fishing clubs. Now, it is widely used by small landholders, farmers, and anglers who recognize the importance of clean streams and quality sportfishing. The two main objectives of stream improvement are to protect water quality and to enhance sportfish habitat.

Successful stream improvement requires careful planning. Before starting a project, take the following steps: (1) examine your stream, (2) determine its problems, (3) deter-mine the cause of the problem, (4) select the appropriate control methods, (5) consult pro-fessionals for advice and help, and (6) deter-mine the amount of effort and money needed to complete and maintain the project.

7 7

PROTECT STREAMBANKPLANTS

The easiest, most effective way to protectyour stream is to maintain a strip of plants alongthe bank. Lush growths of grasses, shrubs, andcertain trees are essential to the health of a stream.Some of the valuable benefits to streamside land-owners afforded by shoreland plants includestreambank support and stabilization, erosion andflood control, water quality protection, scenicbeauty, and wildlife habitat.

The roots of native grasses, low shrubs,aquatic plants, and certain trees bind soil tostreambanks and reduce erosion. Plant roots de-flect the cutting action of swift-flowing stormwater,expanding surface ice, and strong winds. Abun-dant streamside vegetation slows runoff, catchessilt, softens the impact of rain, and helps preventthe undercutting and collapsing of streambanks.

Shoreland plants protect water quality by ab-sorbing and filtering out pollutants such as fertil-izers, animal wastes, and toxic chemicals. Plant lifealong the edges of the stream also provides foodand shelter for fish and wildlife. Streamside habi-tats usually are richer in the number and types ofwildlife than upland habitats. Wildlife foods(seeds, buds, fruits, berries, and nuts) are found inabundance along streamsides. Streambank plantspreserve scenic beauty and property values.Streams hidden by concrete walls, culverts, andditches are generally unnoticed, unappreciated,and often neglected.

Try to avoid any activity that will kill or in-jure streambank plants. It’s best to limit activitiessuch as plowing, livestock grazing, housing de-velopment, road construction, dumping, filling,and applying herbicides near streambanks.

ProTecT STreAMbANk PlantSThe easiest, most effective way to protect your stream is to maintain a strip of plants along the bank. Lush growths of grasses, shrubs, and certain trees are essential to the health of a stream. Some of the valuable benefits to streamside landowners afforded by shoreland plants include streambank support and stabilization, erosion and flood control, water qual-ity protection, scenic beauty, and wildlife habitat.

The roots of native grasses, low shrubs, aquatic plants, and certain trees bind soil to streambanks and reduce erosion. Plant roots deflect the cutting action of swift-flowing stormwater, expanding surface ice, and strong winds. Abundant streamside vegetation slows runoff, catches silt, softens the impact of rain, and helps prevent the undercutting and collapsing of streambanks.

Shoreland plants protect water quality by absorb-ing and filtering out pollutants such as fertilizers, animal wastes, and toxic chemicals. Plant life along the edges of the stream also provides food and shel-ter for fish and wildlife. Streamside habitats usu-ally are richer in the number and types of wildlife than upland habitats. Wildlife foods (seeds, buds, fruits, berries, and nuts) are found in abundance along streamsides. Streambank plants preserve sce-nic beauty and property values. Streams hidden by concrete walls, culverts, and ditches are generally unnoticed, unappreciated, and often neglected.

Try to avoid any activity that will kill or injure streambank plants. It's best to limit activities such as plowing, livestock grazing, housing development, road construction, dumping, filling, and applying herbicides near streambanks.

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STREAMBANKPLANTINGGUIDELINES

Although any rooted plantgrowing on the streambank is helpful,some plants give better protection thanothers. Grasses and low shrubs are pre-ferred because they develop relativelydeep, strong, fibrous root systems thatbind streambank soils. They also areless costly and become establishedfaster than trees.

The grasses and shrubs listed inTable 1 are the best to use for stream-side plantings. They can tolerate awide range of temperature and mois-ture conditions; even survive underwater for extended periods. They areeasy to establish and maintain, andthey provide good ground cover. Theydevelop a strong, tough system of rootsthat tightly binds streambanks, trapssilt, and slows erosion.

Of the grasses listed, reed ca-nary grass is widely planted for

streambank stabilization. It providesyear-round support for banks and afringe of overhanging streamsidecover for sportfish. This fast-growing,early developing grass grows in thickstands that reach heights of 4 to 7 feet.It can be controlled by cutting, but can-not tolerate livestock grazing. Sincethis grass may block flows on smallstreams, avoid seeding it on streamsthat are less than 4 feet wide.

Willows (Salix), unlike other treesand woody shrubs, are water-lovingplants that develop relatively deep,strong root systems in wet soil. Manytypes of willows grow in the U.S., butmost are unsuitable for streambankplantings because they grow rapidlyand form tall, dense, nearly impen-etrable thickets. Thick streamsidestands can block stream channels andshade out beneficial plants.

The willows listed in Table 1are varieties that have proved to beuseful streambank protectors. Bankersdwarf willow is a low growing (maxi-

mum height of 6 feet), hardy shrub rec-ommended for bank protection onsmall streams (4 to 20 feet in width).Streamco purpleozier willow (basketwillow) is a taller plant (maximumheight of 15 feet) used for planting onlarger streams (greater than 20 feet inwidth).

These plants and others are avail-able from nurseries, can be trans-planted from existing stands, or startedfrom cuttings. For advice onstreambank plantings, landownersshould contact their local USDA Natu-ral Resources Conservation Service orCooperative Extension agents. Sur-vival of streamside vegetation dependson proper planting and care until theplants are firmly established. Bankshaping, weeding, fertilization, mulch-ing, and fencing from livestock may benecessary.

Table 1: Plants for streambanks

Reed Canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea)Fescue Kentucky 31 (Fescua arundinacea)Redtop grass (Agrostis alba)

Bankers dwarf willow (Salix cotteti)Streamco purpleozier willow (Salix purpurea)

Grey stem dogwood (Cornus racemosa)Silky dogwood (Cornus amomum)Red stem dogwood (Cornus stolonifera)

STreAMbANk PlantIng guIdelIneSAlthough any rooted plant growing on the streambank is helpful, some plants give better protection than others. Grasses and low shrubs are preferred because they develop rela-tively deep, strong, fibrous root sys-tems that bind streambank soils. They also are less costly and become estab-lished faster than trees.

The grasses and shrubs listed in Table 1 are the best to use for streamside plantings. They can tolerate a wide range of temperature and moisture conditions; even survive under water for extended periods. They are easy to establish and maintain, and they provide good ground cover. They develop a strong, tough system of roots that tightly binds streambanks, traps silt, and slows erosion.

Of the grasses listed, reed canary grass is widely planted for stream-bank stabilization. It provides year-round support for banks and a fringe of overhanging streamside cover for sportfish. This fast-growing, early developing grass grows in thick stands that reach heights of 4 to 7 feet. It can be controlled by cutting, but can-not tolerate livestock grazing. Since this grass may block flows on small streams, avoid seeding it on streams that are less than 4 feet wide.

Willows (Salix), unlike other trees and woody shrubs, are water-loving plants that develop relatively deep, strong root systems in wet soil. Many types of willows grow in the U.S., but most are unsuitable for streambank plantings because they grow rapidly and form tall, dense, nearly impen-etrable thickets. Thick streamside stands can block stream channels and shade out beneficial plants.

The willows listed in Table 1 are varieties that have proved to be use-ful streambank protectors. Bankers dwarf willow is a low growing (max-imum height of 6 feet), hardy shrub recommended for bank protection on small streams (4 to 20 feet in width). Streamco purpleozier willow (basket willow) is a taller plant (maximum height of 15 feet) used for planting on larger streams (greater than 20 feet in width).

These plants and others are available from nurseries, can be transplanted from existing stands, or started from cuttings. For advice on streambank plantings, landowners should contact their local USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service or Cooperative Extension agents. Survival of stream-side vegetation depends on proper planting and care until the plants are firmly established. Bank shap-ing, weeding, fertilization, mulching, and fencing from livestock may be necessary.

Table 1: Plants for streambanks

Reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea)

Fescue Kentucky 31 (Festuca arundinacea)

Redtop grass (Agrostis alba)

Bankers dwarf willow (Salix Cotteti)

Streamco purpleozier willow (Salax purpurea)

Grey stem dogwood (Cornus racemosa)

Silky dogwood (Cornus amomum)

Red stem dogwood (Cornus stolonifera)

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If stream watering-crossing sites are necessary, care-fully choose sites with firm bottom materials (bed-rock ifavailable) and gentle, graded slopes that animals will use.Gravel lined paths or entrance ramps constructed of woodand other materials will minimize streambank damage.Restrict upstream-downstream animal movements by us-ing swinging flood gates suspended from cables or string-ing wire high enough across the stream to avoid catchingflood debris. Build watering-crossing sites wide enoughto accommodate the herd and prevent panic and injury tothe animals.

Build fences well back from the streambank, par-ticularly at stream bends. Place the fence at least 15 feetaway from the top of the streambank (not the water’s edge)to protect streambank plants and prevent flood damageto fencing. Plant fence rows with dogwood, autumn ol-ive, and other wildlife food and cover vegetation.

FENCE STREAMSIDEFarm livestock, particularly cattle, sheep, and hogs,

are major threats to small streams. Livestock congregatealong streams to graze, drink, wallow, and obtain relief fromheat and insects. They overgraze and trample streamsideplants, leaving bare, muddy banks and silt-choked streamchannels. Livestock wastes (liquid and solid) flushed offshorelands or deposited directly into streams contaminatethe waters with harmful nutrients and disease-causing fe-cal bacteria and viruses. These water quality problems canbe avoided by fencing farm animals away from streams.

Livestock need drinking water, but they don’t needto have unlimited access to the stream just to get a drink ofwater. Select specific stream watering and crossing sites(fords) for livestock, or develop offstream watering sitessuch as tanks or small ponds, gravity-fed by piped wells,springs, or stream water.

FeNce STreAMSideFarm livestock, particularly cattle, sheep, and hogs, are major threats to small streams. Livestock congregate along streams to graze, drink, wallow, and obtain relief from heat and insects. They overgraze and trample streamside plants, leaving bare, muddy banks and silt-choked stream channels. Livestock wastes (liquid and solid) flushed off shorelands or deposited directly into streams contaminate the waters with harmful nutrients and disease-causing fecal bacteria and viruses. These water quality prob-lems can be avoided by fencing farm animals away from streams.

Livestock need drinking water, but they don't need to have unlimited access to the stream just to get a drink of water. Select specific stream watering and crossing sites (fords) for livestock, or develop offstream watering sites such as tanks or small ponds, gravity-fed by piped wells, springs, or stream water.

If stream watering-crossing sites are necessary, care-fully choose sites with firm bottom materials (bed-rock if available) and gentle, graded slopes that animals will use. Gravel lined paths or entrance ramps constructed of wood and other materials will minimize streambank dam-age. Restrict upstream-downstream animal movements by using swinging flood gates suspended from cables or stringing wire high enough across the stream to avoid catching flood debris. Build watering-crossing sites wide enough to accommodate the herd and prevent panic and injury to the animals.

Build fences well back from the streambank, particularly at stream bends. Place the fence at least 15 feet away from the top of the streambank (not the water's edge) to protect streambank plants and prevent flood damage to fencing. Plant fence rows with dogwood, autumn olive, and other wildlife food and cover vegetation.

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STREAMBANK PROTECTIONSTRUCTURES

Artificial structures (terraces, rock riprap, gabions,and tire or sandbag barriers) may be necessary to supportand protect streambanks. These structures supplementplants by reinforcing steep banks and banks that are vul-nerable to flood and ice damage, swift currents, strongwinds, and heavy wave action.

Natural stone is the most durable material for con-structing streambank protection structures. If enough stoneof the right sizes is not available, use a combination of stoneand wire mesh or stone and logs. In areas where stone isscarce and expensive, sandbag barriers anchored withplants will provide good protection.

Temporary structures such as hay bales, mulches, fil-ter fencing, and netting can be used to provide short termprotection and allow vegetation to become established.Other materials are not effective. Concrete readily fracturesand cracks. Metal structures (steel beams and iron pipes)will rust, pollute stream water, and eventually collapse.

Grading, Terracing, and BermingStreambanks too steep (slopes greater than 1:1 or 45

degrees) to support plants can be reshaped by grading,bench terracing, or berming. Limit this method to smallareas, use erosion control measures, and reseed immedi-ately.

Bench terraces (stair steps), cut across the face of astreambank, break long, steep banks, slow runoff flow, andprovide gradual slopes for revegetating. Bench terraces arenot flat. Construct them to tilt inward toward the bank tointercept and divert runoff water along the bench ratherthan downslope. Bench terraces can also be ditched to re-route drainage. The width of each bench and the numberof benches necessary depends on site characteristics. Con-sult professionals for design advice.

Earth berms and diversion ditches built along the topof eroding streambanks intercept and divert runoff waterfrom eroding streambanks. A combination ditch and berm(a low mound of earth excavated from the ditch) providesa simple, effective way to protect streambanks. Locate theends of the ditch and berm where water can flow into thestream without causing erosion.

Rock Riprap BarriersRock riprap is the most common and effective way to

stabilize eroding streambanks, especially at stream bends.Rock riprap is a lining or pile of natural stone placed alongstreambanks. Construction of riprap barriers is simple. Aload of rocks is clumped over the streambank and rear-ranged by hand. Avoid leaving large rocks jutting out intothe stream channel because they create counter currents(eddy currents) that cause washouts. On severely eroding

Fence livestock watering-crossing sites to re-strict upstream or downstream animal move-ments. Carefully select sites with a firm bottomand gentle slopes.

Terraces, earth berms, and diversion ditches can beused to stablilize streambanks and reroute siltyrunoff waters away from streams.

Rock riprap (natural rock) placed on steepstreambanks adds support, slows erosion, andprotects water quality.

Fence livestock watering and crossing sites to restrict up-stream or downstream animal movements. Carefully select sites with a firm bottom and gentle slopes.

Terraces, earth berms, and diversion ditches can be used to stabilize streambanks and reroute silty runoff waters away from streams.

Rock riprap (natural rock) placed on steep streambanks adds support, slows erosion, and protects water quality.

STreAMbANk ProTecTioN StructureSArtificial structures (terraces, rock riprap, gabions, and tire or sandbag barriers) may be necessary to support and protect streambanks. These structures supplement plants by reinforc-ing steep banks and banks that are vulnerable to flood and ice damage, swift currents, strong winds, and heavy wave action.

Natural stone is the most durable material for constructing streambank protection structures. If enough stone of the right sizes is not available, use a combination of stone and wire mesh or stone and logs. In areas where stone is scarce and expensive, sandbag barriers anchored with plants will provide good protection.

Temporary structures such as hay bales, mulches, filter fenc-ing, and netting can be used to provide short term protection and allow vegetation to become established. Other materials are not effective. Concrete readily fractures and cracks. Metal structures (steel beams and iron pipes) will rust, pollute stream water, and eventually collapse.

Grading, Terracing, and bermingStreambanks too steep (slopes greater than 1:1 or 45 degrees) to support plants can be reshaped by grading, bench terrac-ing, or berming. Limit this method to small areas, use erosion control measures, and reseed immediately.

Bench terraces (stair steps), cut across the face of a stream-bank, break long, steep banks, slow runoff flow, and provide gradual slopes for revegetating. Bench terraces are not flat. Construct them to tilt inward toward the bank to intercept and divert runoff water along the bench rather than downslope. Bench terraces can also be ditched to reroute drainage. The width of each bench and the number of benches necessary depends on site characteristics. Consult professionals for design advice.

Earth berms and diversion ditches built along the top of erod-ing streambanks intercept and divert runoff water from eroding streambanks. A combination ditch and berm (a low mound of earth excavated from the ditch) provides a simple, effective way to protect streambanks. Locate the ends of the ditch and berm where water can flow into the stream without causing erosion.

rock riprap barriersRock riprap is the most common and effective way to stabilize eroding streambanks, especially at stream bends. Rock riprap is a lining or pile of natural stone placed along streambanks. Construction of riprap barriers is simple. A load of rocks is clumped over the streambank and rearranged by hand. Avoid leaving large rocks jutting out into the stream channel because they create counter currents (eddy currents) that cause wash-outs. On severely eroding steep streambanks, blanket the

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steep streambanks, blanket the entire face of the slope withrocks. Where erosion is mild, it may be necessary to rockonly the bottom of the bank.

On most streambanks, a riprap cover 1 or 2 feet thickshould be adequate, but use a thicker layer (2 to 3 feet atthe base) to stop rocks from sliding down the bank. Use amixture of rocks ranging in size from small (10 pounders)to large (100 pounders). This allows for the openings be-tween large stones to fill with smaller ones, providing aninterlocking pattern and preventing undercutting.

On banks composed of fine silt and sand, use a fabricfilter or plastic mesh sheeting between the rock and thebank to prevent slumpage and the loss of fine materials.Filter sheeting materials that hold fine soils in place, yetstill allow for water seepage, are commercially available.

Gabions (Rock-filled Wire Cages)A gabion is a rock-filled wire cage, box, or basket. Ga-

bions are used on steep banks to hold rocks in place or atsites where rocks of the right sizes are not available. Ga-bions can be made easily by using corrosion resistant (gal-vanized) steel wire. Each cage should be secured to the bankor tied to other cages and filled with rocks that are largerthan the wire mesh openings. A less costly method of hold-ing rock riprap in place is to lay wire mesh over the stone.Stake the wire covering into the streambank by driving inbent pipes or bars.

Gabions and wire mesh structures are functional, butnot very attractive. To preserve the natural scenic beautyof streamsides, many landowners cover these structureswith soil and plant grasses on top.

Used-tire BarriersOld auto and truck tires can serve as streambank pro-

tectors. Tires are placed flat on the bank surface to form ablanket or are stacked in stairstep fashion against the bank.To assure that the tire blanket stays in place, tie all tirestogether by weaving strong cables through them and firmlyanchor the cables to the bank.

When constructing the stacked-tire barrier, shape theface of the bank so that the tires can be laid flat, one on topof another, forming a stairstep (not a wall). Each upper tireshould overlap two tires under it and each row should beset back about a foot from the row underneath. To reduceflotation and prolong bank protection, holes can be cut,drilled, or burnt into the tires. Packing the tires with stone,sand-cement mixtures (15% cement, 85% sand, by weight),or soil will add stability.

Plant grasses or willows inside soil-packed tires toanchor them. Once established, the foliage will hide thetires. A used-tire barrier is a good, inexpensive alternativeto rock riprap where natural stone of suitable size and quan-tity is unavailable.

Gabions (rock-filled wire cages) are useful bankprotectors on steep slopes.

Used-tires, stacked in stairstep fashion, providegood erosion protection in areas where naturalrock is not available.

Sand bags similar to those used in flood emergen-cies provide temporary streambank erosion protec-tion.

entire face of the slope with rocks. Where erosion is mild, it may be necessary to rock only the bottom of the bank.

On most streambanks, a riprap cover 1 or 2 feet thick should be adequate, but use a thicker layer (2 to 3 feet at the base) to stop rocks from sliding down the bank. Use a mixture of rocks ranging in size from small (10 pounders) to large (100 pounders). This allows for the openings between large stones to fill with smaller ones, providing an interlocking pattern and preventing undercutting.

On banks composed of fine silt and sand, use a fabric filter or plastic mesh sheeting between the rock and the bank to pre-vent slumpage and the loss of fine materials. Filter sheeting materials that hold fine soils in place, yet still allow for water seepage, are commercially available.

Gabions (rock-filled wire cages)A gabion is a rock-filled wire cage, box, or basket. Gabi-ons are used on steep banks to hold rocks in place or at sites where rocks of the right sizes are not available. Gabions can be made easily by using corrosion resistant (galvanized) steel wire. Each cage should be secured to the bank or tied to other cages and filled with rocks that are larger than the wire mesh openings. A less costly method of holding rock riprap in place is to lay wire mesh over the stone. Stake the wire covering into the streambank by driving in bent pipes or bars.

Gabions and wire mesh structures are functional, but not very attractive. To preserve the natural scenic beauty of stream-sides, many landowners cover these structures with soil and plant grasses on top.

used-tire barriersOld auto and truck tires can serve as streambank protectors. Tires are placed flat on the bank surface to form a blanket or are stacked in stairstep fashion against the bank. To assure that the tire blanket stays in place, tie all tires together by weaving strong cables through them and firmly anchor the cables to the bank.

When constructing the stacked-tire barrier, shape the face of the bank so that the tires can be laid flat, one on top of another, forming a stairstep (not a wall). Each upper tire should over-lap two tires under it and each row should be set back about a foot from the row underneath. To reduce flotation and pro-long bank protection, holes can be cut, drilled, or burnt into the tires. Packing the tires with stone, sand-cement mixtures (15% cement, 85% sand, by weight), or soil will add stability.

Plant grasses or willows inside soil-packed tires to anchor them. Once established, the foliage will hide the tires. A used-tire barrier is a good, inexpensive alternative to rock riprap where natural stone of suitable size and quantity is unavailable.

Gabions (rock-filled wire cages) are useful bank protectors on steep slopes.

Used-tires, stacked in stair-step fashion, provide good erosion protection in areas where natural rock is not available.

Sand bags similar to those used in flood emergencies provide temporary streambank erosion protection.

1212

POOLS AND RIFFLESNatural streams are composed of two dominant habi-

tat types: pools and riffles. A pool is an area of deep, slowwater; a riffle is an area of shallow, swift water. Both poolsand riffles are important to fish and aquatic life. Pools pro-vide cover, shelter, and resting areas for sportfish. Riffles re-aerate the water, produce most of the fishes’ food, and areused as spawning and feeding areas. Fish expend consider-able energy maintaining their positions when feeding inriffles. Nearby pools serve as resting and hiding areas.

Junk piles and refuse dumps are worthless as bank protectors.They increase erosion, are unsightly, and pollute stream waters

Sandbag BarriersSandbags, widely used during flood control emergen-

cies, may be used to protect eroding streambanks. Bags canbe made of burlap, plastic, and other materials. Used bagscan be obtained from local feed and seed or hardware stores.Most bags deteriorate rapidly, but filling them with a sandcement mixture can provide lasting protection.

Build sandbag barriers in a stairstep pattern (not awall) by setting each successive row back about one half ofa bag width from the row underneath. Each upper bagshould overlap the two bags underneath (like laying bricks).Place rock riprap at the base of the bags to prevent under-cutting. On the complete barrier, slope steepness shouldnot exceed 1:1 (1 foot vertical for 1 foot horizontal). Sand-bag barriers generally are more costly and less effective thanrock riprap.

No Vertical Walls and BulkheadsAvoid building vertical walls or bulkheads along

streambanks. Straight walls (breakwalls, wavewalls, retain-ing walls) are expensive to construct and maintain; theyare unsightly and generally short-lived. Walls tend to di-vert current energy downward, resulting in undermining

and eventual collapse. Water that penetrates cracks in a wallor breaks over a wall frequently erodes the bank behindthe wall. A tumbled mass of rock riprap covered with plantsprovides greater protection, a more natural appearance, andmore cover for sportfish.

No Streambank Junk PilesStreamside junk piles are ugly and ineffective bank

protectors. They seldom stay in place during floods andfrequently contain substances that cause water pollution.Junk piles shade out beneficial grasses and increase bankerosion. Refuse sliding into streambeds may block the flowand cause flooding.

Avoid dumping used construction materials (brokenpavement, asphalt slabs, concrete blocks, bricks, rottinglumber, scrap metal), old household appliances (refrigera-tors, stoves), automobiles, and other types of refuse andgarbage on eroding streambanks. It’s impractical to sort thetypes and sizes of these materials cluttering a steep bankand impossible to firmly anchor them to the bank. Garbagedumps on streambanks increase erosion and their unattrac-tiveness depreciates property values.

Sandbag barriersSandbags, widely used during flood control emergencies, may be used to protect eroding streambanks. Bags can be made of burlap, plastic, and other materials. Used bags can be obtained from local feed and seed or hardware stores. Most bags deteriorate rapidly, but filling them with a sand cement mixture can provide lasting protection.

Build sandbag barriers in a stairstep pattern (not a wall) by setting each successive row back about one half of a bag width from the row underneath. Each upper bag should over-lap the two bags underneath (like laying bricks). Place rock riprap at the base of the bags to prevent undercutting. On the complete barrier, slope steepness should not exceed 1:1 (1 foot vertical for 1 foot horizontal). Sandbag barriers gener-ally are more costly and less effective than rock riprap.

no Vertical Walls and BulkheadsAvoid building vertical walls or bulkheads along stream-banks. Straight walls (breakwalls, wavewalls, retaining walls) are expensive to construct and maintain; they are unsightly and generally short-lived. Walls tend to divert current energy downward, resulting in undermining and

eventual collapse. Water that penetrates cracks in a wall or breaks over a wall frequently erodes the bank behind the wall. A tumbled mass of rock riprap covered with plants provides greater protection, a more natural appearance, and more cover for sportfish.

no Streambank Junk PilesStreamside junk piles are ugly and ineffective bank pro-tectors. They seldom stay in place during floods and fre-quently contain substances that cause water pollution. Junk piles shade out beneficial grasses and increase bank erosion. Refuse sliding into streambeds may block the flow and cause flooding.

Avoid dumping used construction materials (broken pave-ment, asphalt slabs, concrete blocks, bricks, rotting lum-ber, scrap metal), old household appliances (refrigerators, stoves), automobiles, and other types of refuse and gar-bage on eroding streambanks. It's impractical to sort the types and sizes of these materials cluttering a steep bank and impossible to firmly anchor them to the bank. Garbage dumps on streambanks increase erosion and their unattrac-tiveness depreciates property values.

13 13

In-StreamHabitat STREAM FLOW

Most of the annual flow in streams isprovided by groundwater (natural springseeps) that, in turn, is replenished by rainwa-ter. Since water seeps slowly through the soil,the surface water flowing in streams can repre-sent rainwater that fell days, weeks, or evenmonths ago. This regular, continuous seepageof groundwater that keeps streams flowing iscalled base flow, low flow, or minimum flow.

Base flow is critical to stream life andwater quality. Sportfish, fish-food animals,and water plants require a stable, continuousflow of water, particularly during dry periods.Stream water quality depends on the amountof water available to dilute and flush out toxicchemicals and other pollutants. During lowflows, pollutants are more concentrated andpersistent. Streams can clean themselves ifthey have good base flows and don’t receivetoo much pollution.

WATER VELOCITYThe velocity or speed of water in a

stream, commonly expressed in feet per sec-ond, is the distance it travels during an inter-val of time. Water velocity is regulated bygravity (steepness of the slope), friction(roughness of the bottom and banks), andwater depth. Although shallow, steep gradi-ent streams appear to be flowing swiftly, adeep river having the same slope and rough-ness will have the greater velocity. Moreover,speed decreases vertically with depth, so wa-ter flows much faster on the surface than thebottom.

Landowners can estimate stream wa-ter velocity by tossing an orange into thestream and measuring the time required for itto travel a known distance. For example, if theorange floats 100 feet downstream in 11 sec-onds the water velocity is about 9 feet per sec-ond. Although any object that floats will pro-vide a rough estimate of water velocity, theorange-float works well because oranges haveabout the same density as water, and float atabout the same rate as water moves.

iN-STreAM HAbiTAT

Stream FlowMost of the annual flow in streams is provided by groundwater (natural spring seeps) that, in turn, is replenished by rainwater. Since water seeps slowly through the soil, the surface water flowing in streams can represent rainwater that fell days, weeks, or even months ago. This regular, continuous seepage of groundwater that keeps streams flowing is called base flow, low flow, or minimum flow.

Base flow is critical to stream life and water quality. Sportfish, fish-food animals, and water plants require a stable, continuous flow of water, particularly during dry periods. Stream water quality depends on the amount of water available to dilute and flush out toxic chemicals and other pollutants. During low flows, pollutants are more concentrated and persistent. Streams can clean themselves if they have good base flows and don't receive too much pollution.

water VelocityThe velocity or speed of water in a stream, commonly expressed in feet per second, is the distance it travels during an interval of time. Water velocity is regulated by gravity (steep-ness of the slope), friction (roughness of the bottom and banks), and water depth. Although shallow, steep gradient streams appear to be flowing swiftly, a deep river having the same slope and roughness will have the greater velocity. Moreover, speed decreases vertically with depth, so water flows much faster on the surface than the bottom.

Landowners can estimate stream water veloc-ity by tossing an orange into the stream and measuring the time required for it to travel a known distance. For example, if the orange floats 100 feet downstream in 11 seconds the water velocity is about 9 feet per second. Although any object that floats will provide a rough estimate of water velocity, the orange-float works well because oranges have about the same density as water, and float at about the same rate as water moves.

1414

Good sportfish streams display an alternating patternof pools and riffles. Pools and riffles generally occur at adistance of 5 to 7 times the width of a stream. For example,in a stream 10 feet wide, a pool or riffle usually will occurevery 50 to 70 feet. An equal amount of both habitats (pool-riffle ratio of 1:1) is considered optimum for sportfish.

STREAMBEDSThe streambed is the foundation of the stream and its

banks. Many stream characteristics (channel shape, width,depth, and fish community) will vary markedly depend-ing on streambed materials. Streambeds are formed by twoforces: scouring and sedimentation. If the cutting force ofrunning water is directed downward, the bed will bescoured out until a resistant layer (bedrock) is reached. Al-ternatively, if the gradient (slope) flattens and flow slows,sediment loads are deposited on the bottom.

Streambeds are composed of a variety of materials,collectively called bottom sediments. Bottom sedimentsrange in size from large boulders and rocks, through gravel(1/4 to 3 inches in diameter) to fine sand, silt, and clay par-ticles. Of these, gravel-sized and larger particles are mostimportant to sportfish. Nearly all stream fish require cleangravel to spawn and larger cobbles or boulders for resting

and cover. The smaller, fine bottom materials (silt and clay)generally are unsuitable for spawning sites since theysmother eggs and young fish.

WATER TEMPERATUREWater temperature governs most of the physical,

chemical, and biological processes that occur in streams.The types of aquatic life inhabiting streams; the timing offish reproduction, spawning, and migration; animal growthand development rates; concentrations of dissolved gases;and decay rates are directly influenced by water tempera-ture. All aquatic animals have an optimum water tempera-ture range, above and below which they become stressed,and at extreme temperatures, die.

Maximum stream water temperatures usually occurin August when air temperatures are highest and ground-water inflows are reduced. Landowners can improve (cool)stream water temperatures and reduce thermal stress onsportfish by (1) removing dams and log jams, (2) unclog-ging spring seeps, (3) decreasing channel width and increas-ing depth, (4) protecting streamsides from livestock, and(5) planting grasses, shrubs, and trees. Free-flowing, deep,narrow streams that receive abundant, regular groundwa-ter inflows typically have stable temperature ranges.

Reduced flows during dry periods canconcentrate pollutants and kill fish

Good sportfish streams display an alternating pattern of pools and riffles. Pools and riffles generally occur at a dis-tance of 5 to 7 times the width of a stream. For example, in a stream 10 feet wide, a pool or riffle usually will occur every 50 to 70 feet. An equal amount of both habitats (pool-riffle ratio of 1:1) is considered optimum for sportfish.

STreAMbedSThe streambed is the foundation of the stream and its banks. Many stream characteristics (channel shape, width, depth, and fish community) will vary markedly depending on streambed materials. Streambeds are formed by two forces: scouring and sedimentation. If the cutting force of running water is directed downward, the bed will be scoured out until a resistant layer (bedrock) is reached. Alternatively, if the gradient (slope) flattens and flow slows, sediment loads are deposited on the bottom.

Streambeds are composed of a variety of materials, collec-tively called bottom sediments. Bottom sediments range in size from large boulders and rocks, through gravel (1/4 to 3 inches in diameter) to fine sand, silt, and clay par-ticles. Of these, gravel-sized and larger particles are most important to sportfish. Nearly all stream fish require clean gravel to spawn and larger cobbles or boulders for rest-

ing and cover. The smaller, fine bottom materials (silt and clay) generally are unsuitable for spawning sites since they smother eggs and young fish.

wATer TeMPerATureWater temperature governs most of the physical, chemi-cal, and biological processes that occur in streams. The types of aquatic life inhabiting streams; the timing of fish reproduction, spawning, and migration; animal growth and development rates; concentrations of dissolved gases; and decay rates are directly influenced by water temperature. All aquatic animals have an optimum water temperature range, above and below which they become stressed, and at extreme temperatures, die.

Maximum stream water temperatures usually occur in August when air temperatures are highest and groundwa-ter inflows are reduced. Landowners can improve (cool) stream water temperatures and reduce thermal stress on sportfish by (1) removing dams and log jams, (2) unclog-ging spring seeps, (3) decreasing channel width and increas-ing depth, (4) protecting streamsides from livestock, and (5) planting grasses, shrubs, and trees. Free-flowing, deep, narrow streams that receive abundant, regular groundwa-ter inflows typically have stable temperature ranges.

15 15

IN-STREAM HABITATIMPROVEMENTSTRUCTURES

In-stream structures are built to extend out into thestream channel. They are intended to protect erodingstreambanks and create hiding, resting, and feeding placesfor sportfish. By modifying the speed and direction ofstream flow, these structures can be used to flush out bot-tom sediments, deepen the channel, form pools or riffles,and provide living space for sportfish.

The design, construction, and placement of in-streamdevices require technical expertise. These structures mustbe built to survive floods, expanding ice, and log jams.Poorly built or placed structures can increase bank erosionand clog streams.

Before attempting to use in-stream structures, seekexpert advice from your district fisheries biologist or soilconservationist. Also, check federal and state legal restric-tions. A federal permit available from the U.S. Army Corpsof Engineers is required to place material below the ordi-nary high-water mark on navigable streams with flowsgreater than 5 cubic feet per second. Other permits are re-quired by state agencies before constructing deflectors,dams, or similar structures across or in streams.

A pair of gabions (rock-filled wire cages), here used as wingdeflectors, divert the current away from the banks, narrow anddeepen the channel, and increase flow

Wing Deflectors

Wing deflectors are triangular shapedwedges of rock built to jut out from the bank intothe channel. They point downstream at an angleto direct currents away from eroding banks to-ward midstream and to increase current speed.Water moving downstream slides off the deflec-tor at an increased velocity. This fast-flowingcurrent cuts and cleans a deep, narrow, centerchannel that increases sportfish habitat and pro-tection from predators.

Deflectors are built singly to protect aneroding bank, or in pairs to narrow the streamchannel. They are placed in a series, positionedalternately, on one bank and then the other tokeep the current sweeping swiftly in a naturalwinding pattern. In nature, pools and riffles nor-mally are repeated every 5 to 7 channel widths;therefore, the distance between deflectors shouldbe at least seven times the average stream width.

Deflectors may be constructed entirely ofrock, or rock and wire combinations (gabions),or rock framed with logs. Build deflectors in atriangular shape, with the tip pointing down-stream and angling out toward the channel. Ad-just the angle (usually about 30 degrees betweenthe bank and the deflector) to guide the currentinto mid-channel at a suitable speed.

Check the path of the current by throwinga float into the water upstream from the deflec-tor. If the float hits the opposite bank, modifythe size or angle of the deflector until the floatremains in mid-channel. Deflectors built at anextreme angle (pointed more across than downstream) or too long (more than one half the chan-nel width) may cause erosion on the oppositebank or catch floating debris. Improperly builtdeflectors receive greater water pressure andmay be damaged by floods.

Build deflectors low with only a few inchesabove the water surface at the offshore tip andtapered upward toward the bank. Design deflec-tor height to allow high flows to pass over thetop of the structure. Remember, deflectors shouldguide the current, not dam it!

Avoid building deflectors in riffles. Pre-serve natural riffle areas from any type of dis-turbance or construction. They are importantsportfish food production and spawning areas.

wing deflectorsWing deflectors are triangular shaped wedges of rock built to jut out from the bank into the channel. They point downstream at an angle to direct currents away from eroding banks toward midstream and to increase current speed. Water moving downstream slides off the deflector at an increased velocity. This fast-flowing current cuts and cleans a deep, narrow, center channel that increases sportfish habitat and protection from predators.

Deflectors are built singly to protect an eroding bank, or in pairs to narrow the stream channel. They are placed in a series, positioned alternately, on one bank and then the other to keep the current sweep-ing swiftly in a natural winding pattern. In nature, pools and riffles normally are repeated every 5 to 7 channel widths; therefore, the distance between deflectors should be at least seven times the average stream width.

Deflectors may be constructed entirely of rock, or rock and wire combinations (gabions), or rock framed with logs. Build deflectors in a triangu-lar shape, with the tip pointing downstream and angling out toward the channel. Adjust the angle (usually about 30 degrees between the bank and the deflector) to guide the current into mid-channel at a suitable speed.

Check the path of the current by throwing a float into the water upstream from the deflector. If the float hits the opposite bank, modify the size or angle of the deflector until the float remains in mid-channel. Deflectors built at an extreme angle (pointed more across than down stream) or too long (more than one half the channel width) may cause erosion on the opposite bank or catch floating debris. Improp-erly built deflectors receive greater water pressure and may be damaged by floods.

Build deflectors low with only a few inches above the water surface at the offshore tip and tapered upward toward the bank. Design deflector height to allow high flows to pass over the top of the struc-ture. Remember, deflectors should guide the cur-rent, not dam it!

Avoid building deflectors in riffles. Preserve natural riffle areas from any type of disturbance or construc-tion. They are important sportfish food production and spawning areas.

iN-STreAM HAbiTAT iMProVeMeNT STrucTureSIn-stream structures are built to extend out into the stream channel. They are intended to protect eroding streambanks and create hiding, resting, and feeding places for sportfish. By modifying the speed and direction of stream flow, these structures can be used to flush out bottom sediments, deepen the channel, form pools or riffles, and provide living space for sportfish.

The design, construction, and placement of in-stream devices require technical expertise. These structures must be built to survive floods, expanding ice, and log jams. Poorly built or placed structures can increase bank erosion and clog streams.

Before attempting to use in-stream structures, seek expert advice from your district fisheries biologist or soil conser-vationist. Also, check federal and state legal restrictions. A federal permit available from the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers is required to place material below the ordinary high-water mark on navigable streams with flows greater than 5 cubic feet per second. Other permits are required by state agencies before constructing deflectors, dams, or simi-lar structures across or in streams.

1616

Pool FormersA low waterfall (plunge, or

chute) is an in-stream structure builtto narrow the channel, increasestreamflow, and funnel water over amidstream ledge. Its purpose is to cre-ate a plunge pool or hole immediatelydownstream from the fall. Low water-falls are used on fast-flowing streamswith limited pool habitat to create analternating series of pools and riffles.Plunge pools are ideal resting and hid-ing places for sportfish.

A low waterfall is built to form apool below but not above it. A long

pool of slow water above the fall willfill in with silt and destroy fish habi-tat. Alternatively, a plunge pool or holebelow the fall will be flushed with fast,aerated water, providing goodsportfish habitat.

Low waterfalls can be con-structed of rock, rock and wire (ga-bions), or rock and logs (Hewitt ramp).The Hewitt ramp, a ski- jump shapedstructure constructed of stone and logsfirmly anchored to streambanks, is agood pool former. A pair of wing de-flectors can be used to narrow thechannel and direct the flow to mid-

stream.

Build these structures low, onlyabout a foot or two above the watersurface, to allow for the free movementof fish upstream and downstream. Theheight of the falls and width of theopening should be adjusted to permita continuous flow of water over thecrest during periods of low flow. As ageneral rule, the width of the openingshould approximate that of the nar-rowest natural width of the stream.

Fish Cover and

A pool former (low waterfall) is used to improvesportfish habitat by aerating the water and creating a

downstream plunge pool.

Pool FormersA low waterfall (plunge, or chute) is an in-stream structure built to narrow the channel, increase streamflow, and funnel water over a midstream ledge. Its purpose is to create a plunge pool or hole immediately downstream from the fall. Low waterfalls are used on fast-flowing streams with limited pool habitat to create an alternating series of pools and riffles. Plunge pools are ideal resting and hiding places for sportfish.

A low waterfall is built to form a pool below but not above it. A long pool of slow water above the fall will fill in with silt and destroy fish habitat. Alternatively, a plunge pool or hole below the fall will be flushed with fast, aerated water, providing good sportfish habitat.

Low waterfalls can be constructed of rock, rock and wire (gabions), or rock and logs (Hewitt ramp). The Hewitt ramp, a ski- jump shaped structure constructed of stone and logs firmly anchored to streambanks, is a good

pool former. A pair of wing deflec-tors can be used to narrow the chan-nel and direct the flow to midstream.

Build these structures low, only about a foot or two above the water surface, to allow for the free movement of fish upstream and downstream. The height of the falls and width of the opening should be adjusted to permit a continuous flow of water over the crest during periods of low flow. As a general rule, the width of the opening should approximate that of the nar-rowest natural width of the stream.

17 17

ShelterIn some streams, sportfish popu-

lations are limited by the amount ofavailable cover and shelter (sub-merged boulders, logs, tree roots, un-dercut banks, and overhanging veg-etation). Fish use these protective ar-eas to rest, hide from predators, catchfood items drifting in the swirling cur-rents that occur around submergedstructures, and avoid territorial con-flicts. Large sportfish often select asheltered site as their territory fromwhich they exclude other adult fish.

Sportfish abundance instreams without sufficient cover can beincreased by adding boulders, anchor-ing logs and trees, and building plat-forms along the banks. Carefully placethese structures to avoid deflecting thecurrent into the bank and dammingthe flow. In large streams, tree tops,root clumps, and logs can be used, pro-vided they are securely anchored. Ahalf-log cover, as the name implies, isa log cut in half length wise. Com-pletely submerge the half-log, point-ing downstream, with the rounded,bark side up and the flat, cut sidedown. Two stakes driven through thelog into the streambed provide firmanchorage.

Artificial platforms, built likesmall boat docks, are used to supplyoverhead cover in streams lacking un-dercut banks and ledges. They can becovered with rocks and sod to addsupport and a natural appearance.Foot and forest road bridges also pro-vide overhead cover for sportfish andaccess for anglers.

Fish covers and shelters are designed to provide resting places for sport fish.Adding boulders, anchoring logs and tree tops, or building streambankplatforms can improve sportfish populations that lack fish habitat.

Example of a half-log fish cover.

Example of foot and forestroad bridges providingoverhead cover and accessfor anglers.

Example of a submergedtree top to provide cover.

An example of a submergedboulder for cover.

ShelterIn some streams, sportfish populations are limited by the amount of avail-able cover and shelter (submerged boulders, logs, tree roots, undercut banks, and overhanging vegetation). Fish use these protective areas to rest, hide from predators, catch food items drifting in the swirling currents that occur around submerged structures, and avoid territorial conflicts. Large sportfish often select a sheltered site as their territory from which they exclude other adult fish.

Sportfish abundance in streams with-out sufficient cover can be increased by adding boulders, anchoring logs and trees, and building platforms along the banks. Carefully place these structures to avoid deflecting the cur-rent into the bank and damming the flow. In large streams, tree tops, root clumps, and logs can be used, pro-vided they are securely anchored. A half-log cover, as the name implies, is a log cut in half length wise. Com-pletely submerge the half-log, point-ing downstream, with the rounded, bark side up and the flat, cut side down. Two stakes driven through the log into the streambed provide firm anchorage.

Artificial platforms, built like small boat docks, are used to supply over-head cover in streams lacking under-cut banks and ledges. They can be covered with rocks and sod to add support and a natural appearance. Foot and forest road bridges also pro-vide overhead cover for sportfish and access for anglers.

1818

DAMS AND LOG JAMSDams, log jams, and other obstructions to flow

destroy streams. Small dams once used to hydro-power sawmills and grist mills, and those built to-day to create farm, recreation, and flood controlponds needlessly ruin miles of free-flowing streams.

Dams create a variety of problems. They arecostly, short-lived structures easily damaged byfloods, winds, and ice. Dams can collapse, threaten-ing downstream life and property. Owners of a damare responsible for inspecting and maintaining it.They may be held liable for downstream loss of lifeand property if their dam collapses or malfunctions.

The life expectancy of a dam depends on theamount of upstream erosion, but even those builton streams carrying moderate silt loads eventuallysilt-in with eroded soil. As silt accumulates in theimpounded pools, the water becomes shallow, stag-nant, warm, turbid, and weed-choked.

Dams eliminate stream sportfish populations.Stream-dwelling sportfish and the aquatic insects onwhich they feed require running water. For example,most stream sportfish are gravel-riffle spawners; theydeposit their eggs only where the water depth, speed,temperature, clarity, oxygen content, and bottomtypes are suitable. Dams destroy spawning sites andflowing water conditions essential for streamsportfish. Dams also block the free movement ofsportfish to their spawning and nursery grounds.Few small streams have fish ladders (fishways) thatprovide passage.

Dammed or clogged streams can be restored.Remove old mill-pond dams, log jams, fallen trees,and other impediments to flow. Cut trees that mayfall into or across streams, but leave their stumpsand roots undisturbed. Use hand labor, chain saws,and winches to avoid killing streambank grasses.

Discourage the damming of streams to createponds. Ponds needed for cropland irrigation, live-stock watering, sportfishing, swimming, and otheruses, should be constructed by digging a basin onthe flood plain next to the stream and piping waterfrom the stream.

Man has damaged streams in many ways. Dam building,stream channeling, wetland drainage, and waterpollution are among the most widespread and destructivethreats to small streams. Countless streams have beenaltered and polluted by (1) poor farm cropland andlivestock management practices, (2) careless timberharvesting, (3) improper farm and forest roadconstruction, (4) unwise mining and dredging operations,and (5) unsound streamside property developments.

The Stream KillersThe Stream KillersThe Stream Killers

Man has damaged streams in many ways. Dam build-ing, stream channeling, wetland drainage, and water pollution are among the most widespread and destruc-tive threats to small streams. Countless streams have been altered and polluted by (1) poor farm cropland and livestock management practices, (2) careless timber harvesting, (3) improper farm and forest road construc-tion, (4) unwise mining and dredging operations, and (5) unsound streamside property developments.

dams and Log JamsDams, log jams, and other obstructions to flow destroy streams. Small dams once used to hydro-power sawmills and grist mills, and those built today to create farm, recreation, and flood con-trol ponds needlessly ruin miles of free-flowing streams.

Dams create a variety of problems. They are costly, short-lived structures easily damaged by floods, winds, and ice. Dams can collapse, threatening downstream life and property. Owners of a dam are responsible for inspecting and maintaining it. They may be held liable for downstream loss of life and property if their dam collapses or malfunctions.

The life expectancy of a dam depends on the amount of upstream erosion, but even those built on streams carrying moderate silt loads eventu-ally silt-in with eroded soil. As silt accumulates in the impounded pools, the water becomes shallow, stagnant, warm, turbid, and weed-choked.

Dams eliminate stream sportfish populations. Stream-dwelling sportfish and the aquatic insects on which they feed require running water. For exam-ple, most stream sportfish are gravel-riffle spawn-ers; they deposit their eggs only where the water depth, speed, temperature, clarity, oxygen con-tent, and bottom types are suitable. Dams destroy spawning sites and flowing water conditions essen-tial for stream sportfish. Dams also block the free movement of sportfish to their spawning and nurs-ery grounds. Few small streams have fish ladders (fishways) that provide passage.

Dammed or clogged streams can be restored. Remove old mill-pond dams, log jams, fallen trees, and other impediments to flow. Cut trees that may fall into or across streams, but leave their stumps and roots undisturbed. Use hand labor, chain saws, and winches to avoid killing streambank grasses.

Discourage the damming of streams to create ponds. Ponds needed for cropland irrigation, live-stock watering, sportfishing, swimming, and other uses, should be constructed by digging a basin on the flood plain next to the stream and piping water from the stream.

19 19

CHANNELING ANDWETLAND DRAINAGE

Stream channeling (stream-straightening) converts anatural winding stream with riffles, pools, shelter, andabundant fish and wildlife, into a straight, featureless drain-age ditch. The resulting ditch contains no protective boul-ders, ledges, spawning gravel, or stream side cover, andfew sportfish or wild animals.

Channeling consists of using a drag line to straighten,deepen, and clear streambeds. When natural streams areditched, their bottoms containing eggs and young ofsportfish, fish-food insects, in-stream cover, and criticalspawning gravel are dredged out and piled high on thebanks. Streamside vegetation is crushed by machines orburied under the dredge spoils, leaving bare muddy banks.

As storm waters concentrate in the straight, steeptrench, they travel at high speed and energy, eroding thebanks and stripping off any remaining plant cover. Ero-sion increases and the waters become too muddy to sup-port life. During dry seasons, channeled streams becomemud-choked ditches. They lack the water flow, depth, andoxygen to sustain sportfish. Valuable gamefish are elimi-nated and replaced by undesirable species such as carp.

So why are streams channeled? Flood protection isthe usual excuse given for this wanton destruction. Theclaim is that ditching speeds storm waters downstream andprevents overflows. This is partly true; storm waters do

shoot rapidly through a straight channel and are containedby the high banks (levees) of dredge spoils. But, channel-ing does not prevent floods, it simply moves them down-stream, and at such high velocity that flooding is intensi-fied. The solution to flood control problems is to keep theraindrops where they fall.

Floods are born on the land, not in streams. Floodscan be controlled by using good watershed management(contour and no till farming, grassed waterways,streambank filter strips and plantings) and protecting natu-ral wetlands. Streamside wetlands (marshes and swamps)have enormous flood control capacity. They serve as natu-ral sponges, temporarily holding and storing flood waters.

Unfortunately, wetlands are a vanishing resource.Drained by stream channeling, ditching, and water diver-sion projects to create farmland, tree farms, and urban de-velopments, few natural wetlands remain. Channeling re-duces the amount of stream (often to one half of its originallength), lowers the water table, and leaves wetlands highand dry.

Marshes and swamps, once considered wastelands,are recognized as important for flood control, water con-servation, stream and ground water recharge, outdoor rec-reation, and as prime fish and wildlife habitat. Streams andtheir associated wetlands are interrelated. Wetlands sup-ply much of the ground water needed to keep streams flow-ing. Conserving our valuable wetlands is essential to theprotection of stream water quality.

Dredging destroys stream habitatand kills sportfish, their eggs, and

aquatic insects.

Channeled, ditched streams lack thehabitat necessary to supportsportfish and wildlife.

channeling and wetland drainageStream channeling (stream-straightening) converts a natu-ral winding stream with riffles, pools, shelter, and abun-dant fish and wildlife, into a straight, featureless drainage ditch. The resulting ditch contains no protective boulders, ledges, spawning gravel, or stream side cover, and few sportfish or wild animals.

Channeling consists of using a drag line to straighten, deepen, and clear streambeds. When natural streams are ditched, their bottoms containing eggs and young of sport-fish, fish-food insects, in-stream cover, and critical spawn-ing gravel are dredged out and piled high on the banks. Streamside vegetation is crushed by machines or buried under the dredge spoils, leaving bare muddy banks.

As storm waters concentrate in the straight, steep trench, they travel at high speed and energy, eroding the banks and stripping off any remaining plant cover. Erosion increases and the waters become too muddy to support life. Dur-ing dry seasons, channeled streams become mud-choked ditches. They lack the water flow, depth, and oxygen to sustain sportfish. Valuable gamefish are eliminated and replaced by undesirable species such as carp.

So why are streams channeled? Flood protection is the usual excuse given for this wanton destruction. The claim is that ditching speeds storm waters downstream and pre-vents overflows. This is partly true; storm waters do shoot rapidly through a straight channel and are contained by the

high banks (levees) of dredge spoils. But, channeling does not prevent floods, it simply moves them downstream, and at such high velocity that flooding is intensified. The solution to flood control problems is to keep the raindrops where they fall.

Floods are born on the land, not in streams. Floods can be controlled by using good watershed management (con-tour and no till farming, grassed waterways, streambank filter strips and plantings) and protecting natural wet-lands. Streamside wetlands (marshes and swamps) have enormous flood control capacity. They serve as natural sponges, temporarily holding and storing flood waters.

Unfortunately, wetlands are a vanishing resource. Drained by stream channeling, ditching, and water diversion proj-ects to create farmland, tree farms, and urban develop-ments, few natural wetlands remain. Channeling reduces the amount of stream (often to one half of its original length), lowers the water table, and leaves wetlands high and dry.

Marshes and swamps, once considered wastelands, are recognized as important for flood control, water conser-vation, stream and ground water recharge, outdoor rec-reation, and as prime fish and wildlife habitat. Streams and their associated wetlands are interrelated. Wetlands supply much of the ground water needed to keep streams flowing. Conserving our valuable wetlands is essential to the protection of stream water quality.

2020

ERODED SOILAND SILT

Each year, millions of tons of fer-tile topsoil, washed from “disturbed”areas (freshly turned fields, over-grazed pasture, logged forest lands,roadways, trails, and constructionsites) fill in and clog our streams. Even“undisturbed” forest lands orungrazed pastures lose about 400pounds per acre per year of rich top-soil.

No one wins when valuable top-soil is flushed into streams. We all payhigher water, sewage, and electricitybills, as well as higher taxes for bridgeconstruction, road repairs, flood relief,flood control, and water treatmentwhen sediments fill stream channels.Erosion of productive farm and forestlands contributes to the higher cost offood and lumber products. It is a par-ticularly bitter irony to realize that thesame soil that produces our food andwood products, when flushed intostreams, becomes our worst water pol-lutant.

As fine soil sediments drop to thestream bottom, they blanket spawninggrounds, smother fish eggs, suffocatefish-food insects, bury oxygen produc-ing plants, and clog the gills ofsportfish. Muddy waters block sun-light, reducing oxygen production andthe ability of gamefish to see and cap-ture prey. Soil sediments pave streambottoms, filling in pools and riffles, andthereby reduce sportfish habitat.

Keeping soil on the land andout of streams is one of the best waysto protect water quality and sportfish.It’s much easier and cheaper to keepsoil on the land than to remove it fromstreams. Important ways to controlerosion include: (1) protectingstreambank plants; (2) replantingmuddy banks; (3) practicing no-till andcontour farming; (4) using terraces,grassed waterways, and diversionditches to reduce edge of field soil loss;(5) preventing overgrazing; (6) fencinglivestock from streambanks; and (7)building streambank protection struc-tures.

FERTILIZERS ANDANIMAL WASTES

We intentionally apply chemicalfertilizers and livestock wastes to ourfields, lawns, and gardens to growhealthy plants. Fertilizers and animalwastes, when kept on the land andwisely used, are valuable soil buildersthat benefit landowners by increasingplant production. However, in streamsthey cause serious water quality prob-lems.

Fertilizers and animal wastes(manure, urine, rotting feed, and otherrefuse) from pasturelands, barnyards,feedlots, slaughterhouses, canneries,and septic systems are oxygen-usingsubstances that degrade water quality.In stream waters they decompose, usevaluable dissolved oxygen, and pro-duce poisonous methane, ammonia,and sulfur gases that kill sportfish andother water animals.

Stream waters polluted with fer-tilizers and animal wastes acquire anunpleasant taste and foul odor, and be-

come unfit for drinking, swimming,and sportfishing. Contaminatedstream waters carry disease-causingorganisms such as fecal bacteria andviruses down stream, infecting healthyherds and flocks, and even humans.They become choked with algaeblooms and water weeds that reducestream flow and water clarity, clog fil-ters and intake pipes, impair scenicbeauty, and depreciate property val-ues.

Proper land application of fertil-izers and animal wastes will protectstream water quality. Avoid fertilizingor spreading manure near streams oron steep slopes, particularly duringrainy weather or when the ground isfrozen or covered with ice and snow.Fence livestock from streambanks, andlocate or relocate feedlots, barnyards,and winter pasture away from streamsand drainage ditches. Avoid overfer-tilizing and overgrazing. Build wastestorage areas (waste ponds, lagoons,pits) where large herds of animals areconcentrated in a small area.

Soil erosion is the major threat to stream water quality and allaquatic life. Each year, tons of soil washed away from croplands,pastures, roadways, and construction sites clog streams andsuffocate aquatic life.

eroded Soil and SiltEach year, millions of tons of fertile topsoil, washed from "disturbed" areas (freshly turned fields, over-grazed pasture, logged forest lands, roadways, trails, and construction sites) fill in and clog our streams. Even "undisturbed" forest lands or ungrazed pastures lose about 400 pounds per acre per year of rich topsoil.

No one wins when valuable topsoil is flushed into streams. We all pay higher water, sewage, and electric-ity bills, as well as higher taxes for bridge construction, road repairs, flood relief, flood control, and water treatment when sediments fill stream channels. Erosion of productive farm and forest lands contributes to the higher cost of food and lumber prod-ucts. It is a particularly bitter irony to realize that the same soil that pro-duces our food and wood products, when flushed into streams, becomes our worst water pollutant.

As fine soil sediments drop to the stream bottom, they blanket spawn-ing grounds, smother fish eggs, suf-focate fish-food insects, bury oxygen producing plants, and clog the gills of sportfish. Muddy waters block sunlight, reducing oxygen produc-tion and the ability of gamefish to see and capture prey. Soil sediments pave stream bottoms, filling in pools and riffles, and thereby reduce sport-fish habitat.

Keeping soil on the land and out of streams is one of the best ways to protect water quality and sport-fish. It's much easier and cheaper to keep soil on the land than to remove it from streams. Important ways to control erosion include: (1) protect-ing streambank plants; (2) replanting muddy banks; (3) practicing no-till and contour farming; (4) using ter-races, grassed waterways, and diver-sion ditches to reduce edge of field soil loss; (5) preventing overgrazing; (6) fencing livestock from stream-banks; and (7) building streambank

protection structures.

Fertilizers and Animal WastesWe intentionally apply chemical fer-tilizers and livestock wastes to our fields, lawns, and gardens to grow healthy plants. Fertilizers and ani-mal wastes, when kept on the land and wisely used, are valuable soil builders that benefit landowners by increasing plant production. How-ever, in streams they cause serious water quality problems.

Fertilizers and animal wastes (manure, urine, rotting feed, and other refuse) from pasturelands, barnyards, feed-lots, slaughterhouses, canneries, and septic systems are oxygen-using sub-stances that degrade water quality. In stream waters they decompose, use valuable dissolved oxygen, and pro-duce poisonous methane, ammonia, and sulfur gases that kill sportfish and other water animals.

Stream waters polluted with fertil-izers and animal wastes acquire an

unpleasant taste and foul odor, and become unfit for drinking, swim-ming, and sportfishing. Contaminated stream waters carry disease-causing organisms such as fecal bacteria and viruses down stream, infecting healthy herds and flocks, and even humans. They become choked with algae blooms and water weeds that reduce stream flow and water clarity, clog filters and intake pipes, impair scenic beauty, and depreciate prop-erty values.

Proper land application of fertilizers and animal wastes will protect stream water quality. Avoid fertilizing or spreading manure near streams or on steep slopes, particularly during rainy weather or when the ground is frozen or covered with ice and snow. Fence livestock from streambanks, and locate or relocate feedlots, barnyards, and winter pasture away from streams and drainage ditches. Avoid overfertilizing and overgraz-ing. Build waste storage areas (waste ponds, lagoons, pits) where large herds of animals are concentrated in a small area.

21 21

PESTICIDESPesticides (insecticides and her-

bicides) are poisonous chemicals thatpose a serious threat to stream waterquality, groundwater supplies, andaquatic life. Insecticides are widelyused by landowners to kill destructivecrop and forest insects, but they alsocan kill beneficial stream insects andsportfish. Similarly, herbicides used tokill land weeds will also kill oxygen-producing water plants and reduce thefood supply of aquatic animals.

Some pesticides remain in the en-vironment for a long time, often accu-mulating up the food chain and con-centrating in animals. For example, ifa fish eats dead or dying insectssprayed with an insecticide, the fishand the angler who eats the fish willbecome contaminated. Low doses ofcertain pesticides can cripple fish, ster-ilize them, or increase their suscepti-bility to diseases and parasites. More-over, particular pesticides may not betoxic alone, but can become deadly

when mixed with other compounds inthe environment.

Some basic guidelines for the safeuse of pesticides include: (1) apply pes-ticides only when and where neces-sary; (2) employ those that are short-lived; (3) avoid applications nearstreams or drainage ditches; (4) use soilconservation practices to limit runoff;and (5) properly dispose of old or un-used pesticides and their containers.

WASTE OILMany thousands of types of

harmful chemicals exist and new onesare being made each day. Among themost familiar contaminants that en-danger streams in the eastern UnitedStates are pesticides, used motor oil,fuel oil, gasoline, and acids leachingfrom mined lands.

Used motor oil is a particu-larly widespread stream pollutant.Each year, millions of gallons are

dumped deliberately into streams andpoured carelessly in backyards, road-side ditches, and sewers. Motor oil,home heating oil, and gasoline (leak-ing from buried tanks) eventually endup contaminating surface and groundwaters. Removing oil from water is dif-ficult and costly. One quart of oil cancontaminate 2 million gallons of water,form a slick covering more than twoacres, and cost thousands of dollars toclean up.

The best way to protect streamwater quality from oil pollution (andto reclaim valuable energy) is to recyclewaste oil. Take your used motor oil toa local oil collection center (certain gasstations and home heating oil compa-nies). Waste oil can be recycled by re-processing it into heating oil or by re-fining it into clean lubricating oil.

Livestock wastes contaminate stream waters with fecalbacteria and disease causing organisms. Fencinglivestock away from streams will help protect waterquality

Limit the use of pesticides aroundstreams. These toxic chemicals cause fish

kills and threaten stream water quality.

PesticidesPesticides (insecticides and herbi-cides) are poisonous chemicals that pose a serious threat to stream water quality, groundwater supplies, and aquatic life. Insecticides are widely used by landowners to kill destruc-tive crop and forest insects, but they also can kill beneficial stream insects and sportfish. Similarly, herbicides used to kill land weeds will also kill oxygen-producing water plants and reduce the food supply of aquatic animals.

Some pesticides remain in the envi-ronment for a long time, often accu-mulating up the food chain and concentrating in animals. For exam-ple, if a fish eats dead or dying insects sprayed with an insecticide, the fish and the angler who eats the fish will become contaminated. Low doses of certain pesticides can cripple fish, sterilize them, or increase their sus-ceptibility to diseases and parasites.

Moreover, particular pesticides may not be toxic alone, but can become deadly when mixed with other com-pounds in the environment.

Some basic guidelines for the safe use of pesticides include: (1) apply pesticides only when and where necessary; (2) employ those that are short-lived; (3) avoid applications near streams or drainage ditches; (4) use soil conservation practices to limit runoff; and (5) properly dispose of old or unused pesticides and their containers.

Waste oilMany thousands of types of harm-ful chemicals exist and new ones are being made each day. Among the most familiar contaminants that endanger streams in the eastern United States are pesticides, used motor oil, fuel oil, gasoline, and acids leaching from mined lands.

Used motor oil is a particularly wide-spread stream pollutant. Each year, millions of gallons are dumped delib-erately into streams and poured care-lessly in backyards, roadside ditches, and sewers. Motor oil, home heating oil, and gasoline (leaking from bur-ied tanks) eventually end up contam-inating surface and ground waters. Removing oil from water is difficult and costly. One quart of oil can con-taminate 2 million gallons of water, form a slick covering more than two acres, and cost thousands of dollars to clean up.

The best way to protect stream water quality from oil pollution (and to reclaim valuable energy) is to recy-cle waste oil. Take your used motor oil to a local oil collection center (certain gas stations and home heat-ing oil companies). Waste oil can be recycled by reprocessing it into heat-ing oil or by refining it into clean lubricating oil.

2222

COAL MINESEDIMENTS ANDACID

Coal mining can pollute streamsin two ways: siltation and acidifica-tion. Coal silt and mined sedimentsenter streams when coal is washedand sorted. Erosion from strip minedlands and from huge piles of wastematerials extracted from deep minescontributes to the silt load of streams,further polluting stream channels, in-creasing flooding, and suffocatingwater life.

Acid drainage from coal miningareas results in deadly sulfuric acidbeing formed when iron and sulfurdeposits are exposed to air, rainwater,or ground water. Acid can be formedin the mine itself or leach from spoilbanks, slag heaps, and gob pilesformed during coal processing. For-gotten waste sites can continue to leaksulfuric acid into streams and groundwaters for 100 years or more! Despitecurrent regulations, some streams stillrun black with coal fines, are stainedyellow-orange with “yellow-boy”(ferric hydroxide associated withmine acid drainage), and are devoidof water life.

Coal silt runoff and deadly acids seepingfrom underground and surface minespose major threats to stream waterquality and aquatic life.

Used motor oil is a widespread waterpollutant. Protect surface waters andgroundwaters by recycling waste oil

products.

An important American heritage. Free flowing streams haverewarded countless generations with outdoor adventures.

coAL MiNe SediMeNTS ANd acIdCoal mining can pollute streams in two ways: siltation and acidification. Coal silt and mined sediments enter streams when coal is washed and sorted. Ero-sion from strip mined lands and from huge piles of waste materials extracted from deep mines contributes to the silt load of streams, further polluting stream channels, increasing flooding, and suffocating water life.

Acid drainage from coal mining areas results in deadly sulfuric acid being formed when iron and sulfur deposits are exposed to air, rainwater, or ground water. Acid can be formed in the mine itself or leach from spoil banks, slag heaps, and gob piles formed during coal processing. Forgotten waste sites can continue to leak sulfuric acid into streams and ground waters for 100 years or more! Despite current regula-tions, some streams still run black with coal fines, are stained yellow-orange with "yellow-boy" (ferric hydroxide associated with mine acid drainage), and are devoid of water life.

23 23

Protecting our stream and waterresources can succeed only with the ac-tive support of interested landownersand concerned citizens. Too oftenstream pollution problems are ignored,go unnoticed or unreported and, there-fore, continue to occur in the same orother streams.

Police your stream. Be aware ofcurrent and changing land-use activi-ties (farming, grazing, irrigation, min-ing, logging, home construction, busi-ness development, dams, bridges, roadimprovements, sewage disposal, wa-ter diversion, power-line spraying,utility crossings). Investigate waterlaws. Know your community leaders,legislators, county officials, town coun-cil and zoning board members.

Be alert and prepared to respond— know what stream pollution prob-lems to look for and who to contact forhelp. Report unusual changes in yourstream to your county, town, city, orstate agency officials. Agencies arelisted in your telephone book underU.S. Government, or your state,county, and city governments. Someindicators of stream problems, theirpossible causes, and some actions totake appear in Table 2.

THE STREAM WATCHER’SGUIDETHE STREAM WATCHER’SGUIDE

THe STreAM Watcher'S guIde

Protecting our stream and water resources can succeed only with the active support of interested landown-ers and concerned citizens. Too often stream pollution problems are ignored, go unnoticed or unreported and, there-fore, continue to occur in the same or other streams.

Police your stream. Be aware of cur-rent and changing land-use activities (farming, grazing, irrigation, mining, logging, home construction, business development, dams, bridges, road improvements, sewage disposal, water diversion, power-line spraying, util-ity crossings). Investigate water laws. Know your community leaders, legisla-tors, county officials, town council and zoning board members.

Be alert and prepared to respond -- know what stream pollution problems to look for and who to contact for help. Report unusual changes in your stream to your county, town, city, or state agency offi-cials. Agencies are listed in your tele-phone book under U.S. Government, or your state, county, and city govern-ments. Some indicators of stream prob-lems, their possible causes, and some actions to take appear in Table 2.

2424

Table 2. Stream Watchers Guide

Observations Causes Things to Do

Muddy Streams

Fish Kills

Oil Slicks

Gravel Dredging

Muddy Water

Odor & Gas

Abnormal Flows

Foaming

Trash & Litter

Algae & Weeds

Green Water

Milky Water

Red-yellow Water

Flooding & erosionFarming & livestockLogging & dredgingConstruction activity

SuffocationDecaying water weedsTemperature stressPesticides & toxinsDiseases & parasites

Accidental spillsLeaking storage tanksIllegal dumping

Permits requiredIllegal dredging

Soil erosionDecaying plantsLivestock, mining

Decaying vegetationDecaying animalsSewage pollution

Heavy rainfallDroughtDams & log jamsIrrigation

Decaying plantsDetergents & soaps

Illegal dumping

Fertilizer runoffAnimal wasteSewage pollution

AlgaeIndustrial dye

Sewage pollutionDecaying plants

Mining wasteIndustrial wasteAlgae

Investigate upstreamUse fences & filter stripsReplant vegetationUse soil erosion barriersPhone soil conservation agency

Investigate upstreamEstimate number of dead fishLarge fish , small, both?Freeze a dying fish for agencyPhone fish & game agency

Investigate upstreamEstimate the area coveredTake a water samplePhone resource agency

Note vehicle license numberPhone water resource agency

Investigate upstreamMan or natural causesPhone water resource agency

Follow your nose to sourceMan or natural causesReport man made pollutionPhone water resource agency

Investigate upstreamMan or natural causesRemove log jam & old damsPhone water resource agency

Check the odor of the foamMan-made soap has a perfumesmell

Erect anti-litter signsOrganize a stream clean up dayPhone litter control agency

Investigate upstreamEstimate area coveredCollect a plant samplePhone soil conservation agency

Investigate upstreamEstimate area coveredCollect a water samplePhone water resource agency

Investigate upstreamCollect a water samplePhone water resource agency

Investigate upstreamCollect a water samplePhone water resource agency

25

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSProduction of this publication was made possible by

many individuals who believe in protecting our nation’sstream resources and generously contributed their time,effort, information, and advice. We deeply appreciate theassistance provided by Dan Stiles and Duncan MacDonald,U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Ben Jaco, Roger Bollanger,and Dick Austin, Tennessee Valley Authority; Paul Brouhaand Monte Seehorn, U.S. Forest Service; Curtis Sharp, BobFranzen, Keith Salvo, John Oyler, Don Henry, Chuck Gil-bert, and Larry Robinson, U.S.D.A. Natural ResourcesConservation Service; John Ney, Don Orth, PaulAngermeier, Virginia Tech Department of Fisheries andWildlife; Dave Whitehurst, John Kauffman, Larry Mohn,Bob Wollitz, and Francis Satterlee, Virginia Department ofGame and Inland Fisheries; Louis Ballenberger,Cumberland Plateau Planning Commission; Tom Wiseman,Forest Landowner Magazine; Byron Prough and JerryLarson, U.S. Geological Survey; Larry Claggett and JimMcEvoy, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; LoryHobson, Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals and En-ergy; Chester McConnell, The Wildlife Management Insti-tute; Jerry Lewis, West Virginia Department of Natural Re-sources; Dave Wise, Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Program;Al Cobrin, Grumman Boats Inc.; Lorice Beall, U.S. ArmyCorps of Engineers; John Herwald, Virginia Departmentof Parks and Recreation; Mel Thomas, Virginia Departmentof Highways; Stephen Burrik, Sportsman Specialty Com-pany, Youngwood, Pennsylvania.

Photos by Steve Croy, U.S. Forest Service; Creed Tay-lor, Virginia Tech; Beth Maynor, Southern Living Magazine;Doug Patterson, Abingdon, Virginia; Tim Cox, Norton, Vir-ginia; Luther Goldman, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; H.Foster, Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Program; Tim McCabe,U.S.D.A. Natural Resources Conservation Service; and theauthors. Illustrations by D. Bryan Stone III, South CarolinaWildlife and Marine Resources Department; Creed Taylor,Virginia Tech.

Special Thanks to the Virginia Department of Forestryfor providing funds for printing the second edition.

25

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSProduction of this publication was made possible by

many individuals who believe in protecting our nation’sstream resources and generously contributed their time,effort, information, and advice. We deeply appreciate theassistance provided by Dan Stiles and Duncan MacDonald,U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Ben Jaco, Roger Bollanger,and Dick Austin, Tennessee Valley Authority; Paul Brouhaand Monte Seehorn, U.S. Forest Service; Curtis Sharp, BobFranzen, Keith Salvo, John Oyler, Don Henry, Chuck Gil-bert, and Larry Robinson, U.S.D.A. Natural ResourcesConservation Service; John Ney, Don Orth, PaulAngermeier, Virginia Tech Department of Fisheries andWildlife; Dave Whitehurst, John Kauffman, Larry Mohn,Bob Wollitz, and Francis Satterlee, Virginia Department ofGame and Inland Fisheries; Louis Ballenberger,Cumberland Plateau Planning Commission; Tom Wiseman,Forest Landowner Magazine; Byron Prough and JerryLarson, U.S. Geological Survey; Larry Claggett and JimMcEvoy, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; LoryHobson, Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals and En-ergy; Chester McConnell, The Wildlife Management Insti-tute; Jerry Lewis, West Virginia Department of Natural Re-sources; Dave Wise, Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Program;Al Cobrin, Grumman Boats Inc.; Lorice Beall, U.S. ArmyCorps of Engineers; John Herwald, Virginia Departmentof Parks and Recreation; Mel Thomas, Virginia Departmentof Highways; Stephen Burrik, Sportsman Specialty Com-pany, Youngwood, Pennsylvania.

Photos by Steve Croy, U.S. Forest Service; Creed Tay-lor, Virginia Tech; Beth Maynor, Southern Living Magazine;Doug Patterson, Abingdon, Virginia; Tim Cox, Norton, Vir-ginia; Luther Goldman, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; H.Foster, Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Program; Tim McCabe,U.S.D.A. Natural Resources Conservation Service; and theauthors. Illustrations by D. Bryan Stone III, South CarolinaWildlife and Marine Resources Department; Creed Taylor,Virginia Tech.

Special Thanks to the Virginia Department of Forestryfor providing funds for printing the second edition.

AckNowLedGMeNTSProduction of this publication was made possible by many individuals who believe in protecting our nation's stream resources and generously contributed their time, effort, infor-mation, and advice. We deeply appreciate the assistance pro-vided by Dan Stiles and Duncan MacDonald, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Ben Jaco, Roger Bollanger, and Dick Aus-tin, Tennessee Valley Authority; Paul Brouha and Monte See-horn, U.S. Forest Service; Curtis Sharp, Bob Franzen, Keith Salvo, John Oyler, Don Henry, Chuck Gilbert, and Larry Robinson, U.S.D.A. Natural Resources Conservation Service; John Ney, Don Orth, Paul Angermeier, Virginia Tech Depart-ment of Fisheries and Wildlife; Dave Whitehurst, John Kauff-man, Larry Mohn, Bob Wollitz, and Francis Satterlee, Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries; Louis Ballenberger, Cumberland Plateau Planning Commission; Tom Wiseman, Forest Landowner Magazine; Byron Prough and Jerry Larson, U.S. Geological Survey; Larry Claggett and Jim McEvoy, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources; Lory Hobson, Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals and Energy; Chester McConnell, The Wildlife Management Institute; Jerry Lewis, West Virginia Department of Natural Resources; Dave Wise, Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Program; Al Cobrin, Grumman Boats Inc.; Lorice Beall, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; John Herwald, Virginia Department of Parks and Recreation; Mel Thomas, Virginia Department of Highways; Stephen Burrik, Sportsman Specialty Company, Youngwood, Pennsylvania.

Photos by Steve Croy, U.S. Forest Service; Creed Taylor, Vir-ginia Tech; Beth Maynor, Southern Living Magazine; Doug Patterson, Abingdon, Virginia; Tim Cox, Norton, Virginia; Luther Goldman, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; H. Foster, Pennsylvania Scenic Rivers Program; Tim McCabe, U.S.D.A. Natural Resources Conservation Service; and the authors. Illustrations by D. Bryan Stone III, South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department; Creed Taylor, Virginia Tech.

Special Thanks to the Virginia Department of Forestry for providing funds for printing the second edition.

26

This is a revision of Extension Bulletin 420-141, of the same title, by L.A.Helfrich, D.C. Weigmann, R.J. Neves, and P.T. Bromley, 1986

Reviewed by Michelle Davis, research associate, Fisheries and Wildlife