Vijayanagara Empire - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

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Vijayanagara Empire

K ingdom of Bisnegar

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1336–1646 ↓

Extent of Vijayanagara Empire, 1446, 1520 CE

Capital Vijayanagara

Languages Kannada, Telugu

Religion Hindu

Government Monarchy

King

- 1336–1356 Harihara Raya I

- 1642–1646 Sriranga III

History

- Established 1336

- Earliest records 1343

- Disestablished 1646

Preceded by Succeeded by

Hoysala

Empire

Kakatiyadynasty

Pandyan

Empire

Reddy

Kingdom of

Mysore

Keladi Nayaka

Nayaks of

Tanjore

Nayaks of

Madurai

Vijayanagara EmpireFrom Wiki pedia, the free encyclopedia

The Vijayanagara Empire (also called Karnata

Empire), r eferred to as the Kingdom of Bisnegar by the

Portuguese, was an empir e based in South India, in the

Deccan Plateau region. It was established in 1336 by

Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of Sangama

Dynasty.[1][2][3] The empire rose to prominence as a

culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward

off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It

lasted until 1646 although its power declined after a

major military defeat in 1565 by the Deccan sultanates.

The empire is named after its capital city of

Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi,

now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.[4] The

writings of medieval European travelers such asDomingo Paes, Fernão Nunes and Niccolò Da Conti, and

the literature in local languages provide crucial

information about its history. Archaeological excavations

at Vijayanagara have revealed the empire's power and

wealth.

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread

over South India, the best known of which is the group at

Hampi. The previous temple building traditions in South

India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecturestyle. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired

architectural innovation of Hindu tem ple construction,

first in the Deccan and later in the Dravidian idioms

using the local granite. Efficient administration and

vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such

as water management systems for irrigation. The

empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to

reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and

Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its current

form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in

South Indian history that transcended regionalism by

promoting Hinduism as a unifying factor.

Contents

1 Alternative name

2 History3 Governance

4 Economy

5 Culture

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddy_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnatic_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannada_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagara_Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vijayanagara-empire-map.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domingo_Paeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Nuneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Da_Contihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_sultanateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddy_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_invasions_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangama_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_Plateauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domingo_Paeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakatiya_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoysala_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vijayanagara-empire-map.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayaks_of_Tanjorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoysala_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fern%C3%A3o_Nuneshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandyan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannada_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangama_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddy_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddy_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayaks_of_Maduraihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_Plateauhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayakas_of_Chitradurgahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sriranga_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddy_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoysala_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandyan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnatic_musichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keladi_Nayakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandyan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannada_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harihara_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niccol%C3%B2_Da_Contihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_invasions_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakatiya_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukka_Raya_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harihara_Raya_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakatiya_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduismhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_sultanateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagara_Architecture


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dynasty Nayakas of

Chitradurga

Bijapur

Sultanate

Qutb Shahi

dynasty

Nayaks of

Gingee

Vijayanagara Empire

Sangama dynasty

Harihara Raya I 1336–1356

Bukka Raya I 1356–1377

Harihara Raya II 1377–1404

Virupaksha Raya 1404–1405

Bukka Raya II 1405–1406Deva Raya I 1406–1422

Ramachandra Raya 1422

Vira Vijaya Bukka Raya 1422–1424

Deva Raya II 1424–1446

Mallikarjuna Raya 1446–1465

Virupaksha Raya II 1465–1485

Praudha Raya 1485

Saluva dynastySaluva Narasimha Deva Raya 1485–1491

Thimma Bhupala 1491

Narasimha Raya II 1491–1505

Tuluva dynasty

Tuluva Narasa Nayaka 1491–1503

Vira Narasimha Raya 1503–1509

Krishna Deva Raya 1509–1529

Achyuta Deva Raya 1529–1542Venkata I 1542

Sadasiva Raya 1542–1570

Aravidu dynasty

Aliya Rama Raya 1542–1565

Tirumala Deva Raya 1565–1572

Sriranga I 1572–1586

Venkata II 1586–1614

Sriranga II 1614

Rama Deva Raya 1617–1632

Venkata III 1632–1642

Sriranga III 1642–1646

Map of South India in 15thcentury

5.1 Social life

5.2 Religion

5.3 Literature

5.4 Architecture

5.5 Language

6 See also

7 Notes

8 References

9 Further reading

10 External links

Alternative name

Karnata Empire ( Karnata Rajya) was another name for the

Vijayanagara Empire and it has been used in some

inscriptions.[5][6] and literary works of the Vijayanagara times

including the Sanskrit work Jambavati Kalyanam by King

Krishnadevaraya and Telugu work Vasu Charitamu.[7]

History

Differing theories have been proposed regarding

the Vijayanagara empire's

origins. Many historians

propose Harihara I and

Bukka, the founders of

the empire, were

Kannadigas and

commanders in the army

of the Hoysala Empire

stationed in theTungabhadra region to

ward off Muslim

invasions from the Northern India.[8][9][10][11] Others claim

that they were Telugu people first associated with the

Kakatiya Kingdom who took control of the northern parts of

the Hoysala Empire during its decline.[12] Irrespective of their

origin, historians agree the founders were supported and

inspired by Vidyaranya, a saint at the Sringeri monastery to

fight the Muslim invasion of South India.[13][14]

Writings byforeign travelers during the late medieval era combined with

recent excavations in the Vijayanagara principality have

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukka_Raya_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoysala_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qutb_Shahi_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harihara_Raya_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narasimha_Raya_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saluva_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thimma_Bhupalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungabhadrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukkahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnadevarayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harihara_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venkata_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoysala_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijapur_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kakatiya_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harihara_Raya_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sriranga_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_Raya_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vidyaranyahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddy_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virupaksha_Raya_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayaks_of_Gingeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:South_India_in_AD_1400.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saluva_Narasimha_Deva_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_Raya_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnadevarayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayakas_of_Chitradurgahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venkata_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praudha_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virupaksha_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vira_Vijaya_Bukka_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sriranga_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sriranga_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuluva_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadasiva_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sringerihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achyuta_Deva_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aliya_Rama_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangama_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venkata_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuluva_Narasa_Nayakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallikarjuna_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viranarasimha_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirumala_Deva_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramachandra_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannadigahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukka_Raya_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aravidu_dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama_Deva_Raya


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Virupaksha Temple, Hampi

uncovered much-needed information about the empire's

history, fortifications, scientific developments and

architectural innovations.[15][16]

Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan, the

Yadava Empire of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty of Warangal, the Pandyan Empire of Madurai, and the

tiny kingdom of Kampili had been repeatedly invaded by Muslims from the north, and by 1336 they had

all been defeated by Alla-ud-din Khilji and Muhammad bin Tughluq, the Sultans of Delhi. The HoysalaEmpire was the sole remaining Hindu state in the path of the Muslim invasion. [17] After the death of

Hoysala king Veera Ballala III during a battle against the Sultan of Madurai in 1343, the Hoysala

Empire merged with the growing Vijayanagara empire.

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I

gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river

and earned the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master

of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor

to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of

Kondavidu, the Sultan of Madurai and gained control over Goa inthe west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna River doab in the

north.[18][19] The original capital was in the principality of Anegondi

on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today's

Karnataka. It was later moved to nearby Vijayanagara on the river's

southern banks during the reign of Bukka Raya I.

With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature, Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I,

further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River and brought the whole of South India under

the Vijayanagara umbrella.[20] The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the Gajapatis of

Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.[21] Italian traveler Niccolo de

Conti wrote of him as the most powerful ruler of India.[22] Deva Raya II (called Gajabetekara)[23]

succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama dynasty rulers. [24] He

quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the

island of Lanka and became overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim. [25][26][27] The

empire declined in the late 15th century until the serious attempts by commander Saluva Narasimha

Deva Raya in 1485 and by general Tuluva Narasa Nayaka in 1491 to reconsolidate the empire.

After nearly two decades of conflict with rebellious chieftains, the empire eventually came under the

rule of Krishna Deva Raya, the son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka.[28] In the following decades the

Vijayanagara empire dominated all of Southern India and fought off invasions from the five established

Deccan Sultanates.[29][30] The empire reached its peak during the rule of Krishna Deva Raya when

Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious.[31] The empire annexed areas formerly under the

Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including Kalinga, while

simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.[32] Many important monuments

were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishna Deva Raya.[33]

Krishna Deva Raya was followed by his younger half-brother Achyuta Deva Raya in 1529. When

Achyuta Deva Raya died in 1542, Sadashiva Raya, the teenage nephew of Achyuta Raya was appointed

king though real power was wielded by Rama Raya, Krishna Deva Raya's son-in-law. When Sadashiva

was old enough to claim absolute power, Aliya Rama Raya had him imprisoned and became the de facto

ruler.[34] Eager to take advantage of the disunity among the Sultanates of Bijapur, Ahamednagar, Berar,

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_Raya_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warangalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gajapatishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_Sultanateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalinga_(India)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madurai_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seuna_Yadavas_of_Devagirihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harihara_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karnataka_Hampi_IMG_0730.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burmahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alla-ud-din_Khiljihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lankahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peguhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odishahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kampilihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoysala_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanintharyi_Divisionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_factohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuluva_Narasa_Nayakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reddyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veera_Ballala_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslimhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadashiva_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Delhihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anegondihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kozhikodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doabhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Tughluqhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnadevarayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sangama_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saluva_Narasimha_Deva_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principalityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maduraihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandyan_Empirehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_Raya_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achyuta_Deva_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quilonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamorinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virupaksha_Templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampi


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Natural fortress at Vijayanagara

Golkonda, and Bidar, Rama Raya involved himself in the political affairs of the powers across the

Krishna river to the north.[35] His ploy of supporting militarily one Sultanate against another, often

changing alliances, brought rich rewards for a while. However, by 1563, exhausted with his intrigues,

the bitter rivals from the north formed an alliance. They marched against Rama Raya and clashed with

the Vijayanagara's forces in January 1565.[36]

The capture and killing of Aliya Rama Raya in the famous Battle of Talikota, after a seemingly easy

victory for the Vijayanagara armies, created havoc and confusion in the Vijayanagara ranks, which werethen completely routed. The Sultanates' army later plundered Hampi and reduced it to the ruinous state

in which it remains; it was never re-occupied. Tirumala Deva Raya, Rama Raya's younger brother who

was the sole surviving commander, left Vijayanagara for Penukonda with vast amounts of treasure on

the back of 1500 elephants.[37]

The empire went into a slow decline regionally, although trade with the Portuguese continued, and the

British were given a land grant for the establishment of Madras.[6][38] Tirumala Deva Raya was

succeeded by his son Sriranga I later followed by Venkata II who was the last king of Vijayanagara

empire, made his capital Chandragiri and Vellore, repulsed the invasion of the Deccan Sultanates and

saved Penukonda from being captured.[39]

His successor Rama Deva Raya took power and ruled until 1632, after whose death Venkata III became

king and ruled for about ten years. The empire was finally conquered by the Sultanates of Bijapur and

Golkonda.[39] The largest feudatories of the Vijayanagar empire – the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka,

Nayaks of Madurai, Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee

declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the

coming centuries. These Nayaka kingdoms lasted into the 18th century while the Mysore Kingdom

remained a princely state until Indian Independence in 1947 although they came under the British Raj in

1799 after the death of Tipu Sultan.[40]

Governance

The rulers of the Vijayanagara empire maintained the well-

functioning administrative methods developed by their predecessors,

the Hoysala, Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms, to govern their

territories and made changes only where necessary.[41] The King

was the ultimate authority, assisted by a cabinet of ministers

( Pradhana) headed by the prime minister ( Mahapradhana). Other important titles recorded were the chief secretary ( Karyakartha or

Rayaswami) and the imperial officers ( Adhikari). All high ranking

ministers and officers were required to have military training.[42] A

secretariat near the king's palace employed scribes and officers to

maintain records made official by using a wax seal imprinted with the ring of the king. [43] At the lower

administrative levels, wealthy feudal landlords (Goudas) supervised accountants ( Karanikas or Karnam)

and guards ( Kavalu). The palace administration was divided into 72 departments ( Niyogas), each having

several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty (some imported or captured in victorious

battles) who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve men of nobility ascourtesans or concubines.[44]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penukondahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sriranga_Ihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama_Deva_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thanjavur_Nayakshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax_sealhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scribeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipu_Sultanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penukondahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venkata_IIIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keladi_Nayakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirumala_Deva_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deccan_Sultanateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Mysorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayaks_of_Gingeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Talikotahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venkata_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madurai_Nayak_Dynastyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandragirihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nayakas_of_Chitradurgahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Independencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Rajhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Panaromic_view_of_the_natural_fortification_and_landscape_at_Hampi.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijapur_Sultanatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golkonda


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Royal Insignia: boar, sun, moon

and dagger

Kannada inscription dated

1509 A.D., of King

Krishnadeva Raya at the

Virupaksha temple in Hampi

describes his coronation and

the construction of the large

open mantapa

The empire was divided into five

main provinces ( Rajya), each under

a commander ( Dandanayaka or

Dandanatha) and headed by a

governor, often from the royal

family, who used the native

language for administrative

purposes.[45]

A Rajya was dividedinto regions (Vishaya Vente or

Kottam), and further divided into

counties (Sime or Nadu) themselves

subdivided into municipalities

( Kampana or Sthala). Hereditary families ruled their respective

territories and paid tribute to the empire while some areas, such as Keladi

and Madurai, came under the direct supervision of a commander.

On the battlefields, the king's commanders led the troops. The empire's

war strategy rarely involved massive invasions; more often it employedsmall scale methods such as attacking and destroying individual forts.

The empire was among the first in India to use long range artillery

commonly manned by foreign gunners. (Gunners from present day

Turkmenistan were considered the best).[46] Army troops were of two

types: The king's personal army directly recruited by the empire and the

feudal army under each feudatory. King Krishnadevaraya's personal army consisted of 100,000 infantry,

20,000 cavalrymen and over 900 elephants. This number was only a part of the army numbering over 1.1

million soldiers, a figure that varied as an army of two million has also been recorded along with the

existence of a navy as evidenced by the use of the term Navigadaprabhu (commander of the navy).

[47]

The army recruited from all classes of society (supported by the collection of additional feudal tributes

from feudatory rulers), and consisted of archers and musketeers wearing quilted tunics, shieldmen with

swords and poignards in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so larges that no armour was

necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had knives fastened to their

tusks to do maximum damage in battle.[48]

The capital city was completely dependent on the water supply systems constructed to channel and store

water, and ensure a consistent supply throughout the year. The remains of these hydraulic systems have

given historians a picture of the prevailing surface water distribution methods in use at that time in South

India's semiarid regions.[49] Contemporary records and notes of foreign travelers describe how hugetanks were constructed by labourers.[50] Excavations have uncovered the remains of a well-connected

water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes

(suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty, and for special ceremonies) with sophisticated

channels using gravity and siphons to transport water through pipelines.[51] The only structures

resembling public waterworks are the remains of large water tanks that collected the seasonal monsoon

water and then dried up in summer except for the few fed by springs. In the fertile agricultural areas near

the Tungabhadra River, canals were dug to guide the river water into irrigation tanks. These canals had

sluices that were opened and closed to control the water flow. In other areas the administration

encouraged the digging of wells monitored by administrative authorities. Large tanks in the capital citywere constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain

social and religious merit.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keladi_(India)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artilleryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vijayanagara_royal_insignia.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maduraihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-water_hydrologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tunichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irrigation_tankhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tungabhadra_Riverhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siphonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkmenistanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_transportationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kannada_inscription_(1509_AD)_of_Krishnadeva_Raya_at_entrance_to_mantapa_of_Virupaksha_temple_in_Hampi.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pipeline_transporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archeryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sluicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poignard


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Ancient market place and

plantation at Hampi

Economy

The empire's economy was largely dependent on agriculture.

Sorghum ( jowar ), cotton and pulse legumes grew in semi arid

regions, while sugarcane, rice and wheat thrived in rainy areas.

Betel leaves, areca (for chewing), and coconut were the principal

cash crops, and large scale cotton production supplied the weaving

centers of the empire's vibrant textile industry. Spices such asturmeric, pepper, cardamom and ginger grew in the remote Malnad

hill region and were transported to the city for trade. The empire's

capital city was a thriving business centre that included a

burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold.[52]

Prolific temple-building provided employment to thousands of

masons, sculptors, and other skilled artisans.

Land ownership was important. Most of the growers were tenant farmers and were given the right of part

ownership of the land over time. Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between

land use to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of rose petals was important

for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment.[53] Salt production and the

manufacture of salt pans were controlled by similar means. The making of ghee (clarified butter), which

was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps, was profitable. [54] Exports to

China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, semi-precious stones, ivory, rhino horn, ebony,

amber, coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large vessels from China made frequent visits,

some captained by the Chinese Admiral Cheng Ho, and brought Chinese products to the empire's 300

ports, large and small, on the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The ports of Mangalore, Honavar,

Bhatkal, Barkur, Cochin, Cannanore, Machilipatnam and Dharmadam were the most important.[55]

When merchant ships docked, the merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied on all

items sold. The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials. Traders of

many nationalities (Arabs, Persians, Guzerates, Khorassanians) settled in Calicut, drawn by the thriving

trade business.[55] Ship building prospered and keeled ships of 1000–1200 bahares (burden) were built

without decks by sewing the entire hull with ropes rather than fastening them with nails. Ships sailed to

the Red Sea ports of Aden and Mecca with Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as Venice. The empire's

principal exports were pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, myrobalan, tamarind timber, anafistula,

precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, musk, ambergris, rhubarb, aloe, cotton cloth and porcelain.[55]

Cotton yarn was shipped to Burma and indigo to Persia. Chief imports from Palestine were copper,quicksilver (mercury), vermilion, coral, saffron, coloured velvets, rose water, knives, coloured camlets,

gold and silver. Persian horses were imported to Cannanore before a two week land trip to the capital.

Silk arrived from China and sugar from Bengal.

East coast trade hummed, with goods arriving from Golkonda where rice, millet, pulse and tobacco were

grown on a large scale. Dye crops of indigo and chay root were produced for the weaving industry. A

mineral rich region, Machilipatnam was the gateway for high quality iron and steel exports. Diamond

mining was active in the Kollur region.[56] The cotton weaving industry produced two types of cottons,

plain calico and muslin (brown, bleached or dyed). Cloth printed with coloured patterns crafted by

native techniques were exported to Java and the Far East. Golkonda specialised in plain cotton andPulicat in printed. The main imports on the east coast were non-ferrous metals, camphor, porcelain, silk

and luxury goods.[57]

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Nāga (snake) stone worship at

Hampi

Horizontal friezes in relief

on the outer wall enclosure

of Hazara Rama temple,

depicting life in the kingdom

Culture

Social life

Most information on the social life

in Vijayanagara empire comes from

the writings of foreign visitors and

evidence that research teams in theVijayanagara area have uncovered.

The Hindu caste system was

prevalent and rigidly followed, with

each caste represented by a local

body of elders who represented the

community. These elders set the

rules and regulations that were

implemented with the help of royal decrees. Untouchability was part of

the caste system and these communities were represented by leaders

( Kaivadadavaru). The Muslim communities were represented by their own group in coastal

Karnataka.[58] The caste system did not, however, prevent distinguished persons from all castes from

being promoted to high ranking cadre in the army and administration. In civil life, by virtue of the caste

system, Brahmins enjoyed a high level of respect. With the exception of a few who took to military

careers, most Brahmins concentrated on religious and literary matters. Their separation from material

wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and their presence in every town

and village was a calculated investment made by the nobility and aristocracy to maintain order. [59]

However, the popularity of low-caste scholars (such as Molla and Kanakadasa) and their works

(including those of Vemana and Sarvajna) is an indication of the degree of social fluidity in the society.

The practice of Sati was common, though voluntary, and mostly practiced among the upper classes.

Over fifty inscriptions attesting to this have been discovered in the Vijayanagara principality alone.

These inscriptions are called Satikal (Sati stone) or Sati-virakal (Sati hero stone). Satikals

commemorated the death of a woman by entering into fire after the death of her husband while Sati-

virakals were made for a woman who performed Sati after her husband's heroic death. Either way, the

woman was raised to the level of a demi-goddess and proclaimed by the sculpture of a Sun and crescent

moon on the stone.[60]

The socio-religious movements of the previous centuries, such as Lingayatism, provided momentum for

flexible social norms to which women were expected to abide. By this time South Indian women hadcrossed most barriers and were actively involved in matters hitherto considered the monopoly of men,

such as administration, business and trade, and involvement in the fine arts.[61] Tirumalamba Devi who

wrote Varadambika Parinayam and Gangadevi who wrote Madhuravijayam were among the notable

women poets of the era.[18] Early Telugu women poets like Tallapaka Timmakka and Atukuri Molla

became popular during this period. The court of the Nayaks of Tanjore is known to have patronised

several women poets. The Devadasi system existed, as well as legalised prostitution relegated to a few

streets in each city.[62] The popularity of harems amongst men of the royalty is well known from records.

Well-to-do men wore the Pethaor Kulavi, a tall turban made of silk and decorated with gold. As in mostIndian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of anklets,

bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations, men and women

adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of rose water, civet musk, musk or

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"Clothing of

Bisnagar(Vijayanagar)," a

Dutch engraving by

Cornelius Hazart

Lakshmi Narasimha (Avatar

of Vishnu) at Hampi

sandalwood.[63] In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of the empire's

kings and queens were full of ceremonial pomp in the court. Queens and princesses had numerous

attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery, their daily duties being light.[64]

Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an

important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment. Even women

wrestlers are mentioned in records.[58] Gymnasiums have been

discovered inside royal quarters and records speak of regular physical

training for commanders and their armies during peace time.[65] Royal

palaces and market places had special arenas where royalty and common

people alike amused themselves by watching matches such as cock

fights, ram fights and wrestling between women.[65] Excavations within

the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various types

of community-based activities in the form of engravings on boulders,

rock platforms and temple floors, implying these were places of casual

social interaction. Some of these games are in use today and others are

et to be identified.[66]

Religion

The Vijayanagara kings were tolerant of all religions and sects, as

writings by foreign visitors show.[67] The kings used titles such as

Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (lit , "protector of cows and

Brahmins") and Hindurayasuratrana (lit , "upholder of Hindu faith") that

testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the

same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress, as

Philip Wagoner points out in his 1996 article 'Sultan Among Hindu

Kings' published in the Journal of Asian Studies. The Empire's founders,

Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout Shaivas (worshippers of

Shiva), but made grants to the Vaishnava order of Sringeri with

Vidyaranya as their patron saint, and designated Varaha (the boar, an

Avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem.[68] It is also important to note here

that over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found a "Islamic Quarter"

not far from the "Royal Quarter." Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid

kingdoms also came down to Vijayanagara. The later Saluva and Tuluva

kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of LordVirupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at

Tirupati. A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King

Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani

("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").[69] The kings patronised the saints of the dvaita order

(philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.[70]

The Bhakti (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known Haridasas

(devotee saints) of that time. Like the Virashaiva movement of the 12th century, this movement

presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The haridasas represented

two groups, the Vyasakuta and Dasakuta, the former being required to be proficient in the Vedas,

Upanishads and other Darshanas, while the Dasakuta merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya

through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs ( Devaranamas and

Kirthanas). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as Naraharitirtha,

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Ornate pillars, Virupaksha

temple Hampi

Wall panel relief in HazareRama Temple at Hampi

Jayatirtha, Sripadaraya, Vyasatirtha, Vadirajatirtha and others.[71] Vyasatirtha, the guru (teacher) of

Vadirajatirtha, Purandaradasa (Father of Carnatic music[72][73]) and Kanakadasa[74] earned the devotion

of King Krishnadevaraya.[75][76][77] The king considered the saint his Kuladevata (family deity) and

honoured him in his writings.[78] During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music,

Annamacharya composed hundreds of Kirthanas in Telugu at Tirupati in present day Andhra

Pradesh.[79]

The defeat of the Jain Western Ganga Dynasty by the Cholas in early 11th century and the rising

numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a

decreased interest in Jainism.[80] Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory

were Shravanabelagola and Kambadahalli.

Islamic contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a

result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and Arab lands. Jumma

Masjids existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century[81] and

many mosques flourished on the Malabar coast by the early 14th

century.[82] Muslim settlers married local women; their children wereknown as Mappillas ( Moplahs) and were actively involved in horse

trading and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between the

Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased

the presence of Muslims in the south. The introduction of Christianity

began as early as the 8th century as shown by the finding of copper

plates inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian

travelers wrote of the scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle

Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries.[83] The arrival of the

Portuguese in the 15th century and their connections through trade withthe empire, the propagation of the faith by Saint Xavier (1545) and later

the presence of Dutch settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in

the south.

Literature

During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and

philosophers wrote primarily in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit, and also

in other regional languages such as Tamil and covered such subjects as

religion, biography, Prabandha (fiction), music, grammar, poetry,medicine and mathematics. The administrative and court languages of

the Empire were Kannada and Telugu—the latter was the court language

and gained even more cultural prominence during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings.[84][85][86]

Telugu was a popular literary medium, reaching its peak under the patronage of Krishnadevaraya.[85]

Most Sanskrit works were commentaries either on the Vedas or on the Ramayana and Mahabharata

epics, written by well known figures such as Sayana and Vidyaranya that extolled the superiority of the

Advaita philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies.[87] Other writers were famous Dvaita saints of

the Udupi order such as Jayatirtha (earning the title Tikacharya for his polemicial writings), Vyasatirthawho wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians, and

Vadirajatirtha and Sripadaraya both of whom criticised the beliefs of Adi Sankara.[88] Apart from these

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10/18



saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned the courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudatory

chiefdoms. Many kings of the dynasty were themselves litterateurs and authored classics such as King

Krishnadevaraya's Jambavati Kalyana, a poetic and dramatically skillful work.[7]

The Kannada poets and scholars of the empire produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava

Bhakti movement heralded by the Haridasas (devotees of Vishnu), Brahminical and Virashaiva

(Lingayatism) literature. The Haridasa poets celebrated their devotion through songs called

Devaranama (lyrical poems) in the native meters of Sangatya (quatrain), Suladi (beat based), Ugabhoga(melody based) and Mundige (cryptic).[89] Their inspirations were the teachings of Madhvacharya and

Vyasatirtha. Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are considered the foremost among many Dasas (devotees)

by virtue of their immense contribution.[90] Kumara Vyasa, the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote

Gadugina Bharata, a translation of the epic Mahabharata. This work marks a transition of Kannada

literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada.[91] Chamarasa was a famous Virashaiva scholar and

poet who had many debates with Vaishnava scholars in the court of Devaraya II. His Prabhulinga Lile,

later translated into Telugu and Tamil, was a eulogy of Saint Allama Prabhu (the saint was considered an

incarnation of Lord Ganapathi while Parvati took the form of a princess of Banavasi).[92]

At this peak of Telugu literature, the most famous writing in the Prabandha style was Manucharitamu.

King Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the celebrated

muktamalyada.[93] In his court were the eight famous scholars regarded as the pillars (Ashtadiggajas)

of the literary assembly. The most famous among them were Allasani Peddana honoured with the title

ndhrakavitapitamaha (father of Telugu poetry) and Tenali Ramakrishna, Krishnadevaraya's court jester

who authored several acclaimed works.[94] The other six poets were Nandi Thimmana (Mukku

Timmana), Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra, Madayyagari Mallana, Bhattu Murthi (Ramaraja Bhushana),

Pingali Surana, and Dhurjati. This was the age of Srinatha, the greatest of all Telugu poets in legend,

who wrote books like Marutratcharitamu and Salivahana-sapta-sati. He was patronised by King

Devaraya II and his stature was equal to the most important ministers in the court. [95]

Though much of the Tamil literature from this period came from Tamil speaking regions ruled by the

feudatory Pandya who gave particular attention on the cultivation of Tamil literature, some poets were

patronised by the Vijayanagara kings. Svarupananda Desikar wrote an anthology of 2824 verses,

Sivaprakasap-perundirattu, on the Advaita philosophy. His pupil the ascetic, Tattuvarayar, wrote a

shorter anthology, Kurundirattu, that contained about half the number of verses. Krishnadevaraya

patronised the Tamil Vaishnava poet Haridasa whose Irusamaya Vilakkam was an exposition of the two

Hindu systems, Vaishnava and Shaiva, with a preference for the former.[96]

Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were Vidyaranya's Sangitsara, Praudha Raya's

Ratiratnapradipika, Sayana's Ayurveda Sudhanidhi and Lakshmana Pandita's Vaidyarajavallabham.[97]

The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished during this period under such well known

scholars as Madhava (c. 1340-1425) who made important contributions to Trigonometery and Calculus,

and Nilakhanta (c. 1444-1545) who postulated on the orbitals of planets.[98]

Architecture

Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the Chalukyan, Hoysalan, Pandyan and Cholan

styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries.[99][100] Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and

painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic

hallmark is the ornate pillared Kalyanamantapa (marriage hall), Vasanthamantapa (open pillared halls)

and the Rayagopura (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability

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Yali pillars in

Aghoreshwara Temple at

Ikkeri in Shimoga

District

Stone temple car in Vitthala

Temple at Hampi

A view from inside the

Hazara Rama temple

complex at Hampi

Balustrade entrance to ornate

open mantapa at Vittala

temple, Hampi

since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's monuments are spread over

the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open air theatre of monuments at its capital at

Vijayanagara, a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[101]

In the 14th century the kings continued to build vesara or Deccan-style monuments but later

incorporated Dravida-style gopurams to

meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna

Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of Bukka and the Hazare Rama temple of Deva

Raya are examples of Deccan

architecture.[102] The varied and intricate

ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of

their work.[103] At Hampi, though the

Vitthala temple is the best example of their

pillared Kalyanamantapa style, the Hazara

Ramaswamy temple is a modest but

perfectly finished example.

[104]

A visibleaspect of their style is their return to the

simplistic and serene art developed by the

Chalukya dynasty.[105] A grand specimen of

Vijayanagara art, the Vitthala temple, took

several decades to complete during the reign

of the Tuluva kings.[106]

Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving and

consecration of large monoliths such as the Sasivekalu (mustard)

Ganesha and Kadalekalu (ground nut) Ganesha at Hampi, theGommateshvara (Bahubali) monoliths in Karkala and Venur, and the

Nandi bull in Lepakshi. The Vijayanagara temples of Kolar, Kanakagiri,

Shringeri and other towns of Karnataka; the temples of Tadpatri,

Lepakshi, Ahobilam, Tirumala Venkateswara Temple and Srikalahasti in

Andhra Pradesh; and the temples of Vellore, Kumbakonam, Kanchi and

Srirangam in Tamil Nadu are examples of this style. Vijayanagara art

includes wall-paintings such as the Dashavatara and Girijakalyana

(marriage of Parvati, Shiva's consort) in the Virupaksha Temple at

Hampi, the Shivapurana murals (tales of Shiva) at the Virabhadra temple

at Lepakshi, and those at the Kamaakshi and Varadaraja temples at

Kanchi.[107] This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a

richness not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on reliefs in addition to

sculpture that surpasses that previously in India.[108]

An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism

of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing

Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing

conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a

more creative interaction. There are many arches, domes and vaults that show these influences. Theconcentration of structures like pavilions, stables and towers suggests they were for use by royalty.[109]

The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during

the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are

known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been Muslim

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganeshahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dashavatarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuluvahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumbakonamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Someshwara_Temple,_Kolarhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCOhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vault_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virupaksha_Templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mustard_seedhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monolithic_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Heritage_Sitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanakagirihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijayanagarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Towerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andhra_Pradeshhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvatihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yali_pillars1_in_Aghoreshwara_Temple_in_Ikkeri.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadpatrihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahobilamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gopuramhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhatrihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahubalihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_carhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nandi_(bull)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venurhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepakshihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stone_Chariot_at_the_Vitthala_Temple_in_Hampi.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepakshihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peanuthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hampi,_Hazararama_Temple_(6338545206).jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karkalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tirumala_Venkateswara_Templehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srirangamhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yali_balustrade_at_side_entrance_to_main_mantapa_in_Vitthala_temple_complex_in_Hampi.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shringerihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanchihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepakshihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virabhadrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srikalahastihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_Naduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_Rayahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shimoga_Districthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bukka


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Poetic inscription in

Kannada by Vijayanagara

poet Manjaraja (1398 CE)

architects. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of

peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms.[110] The "Great Platform" ( Mahanavami dibba) has

relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were

known to have been employed as royal attendants.[111]

Language

Kannada, Telugu and Tamil were used in their respective regions of theempire. Over 7000 inscriptions (Shilashasana) including 300 copper

plate inscriptions (Tamarashasana) have been recovered, almost half of

which are in Kannada, the remaining in Telugu, Tamil and

Sanskrit.[112][113] Bilingual inscriptions had lost favour by the 14th

century.[114] The empire minted coins at Hampi, Penugonda and Tirupati

with Nagari, Kannada and Telugu legends usually carrying the name of

the ruler.[115][116] Gold, silver and copper were used to issue coins called

Gadyana, Varaha, Pon, Pagoda, Pratapa, Pana, Kasu and Jital .[117] The

coins contained the images of various gods including Balakrishna (infantKrishna), Venkateshwara (the presiding deity of the temple at Tirupati),

goddesses such as Bhudevi and Sridevi, divine couples, animals such as

bulls and elephants and birds. The earliest coins feature Hanuman and

Garuda (divine eagle), the vehicle of Lord Vishnu. Kannada and Telugu

inscriptions have been deciphered and recorded by historians of the

Archaeological Survey of India.[118][119]

See also

Hampi

History of India

History of South India

Karnataka

Military of Vijayanagara

Political history of medieval Karnataka

Notes

1. ^ By James Mansel Longworth page 204

2. ^ edited by J C morris page 261

3. ^ By Om Gupta, page 428-429

4. ^ "Master Plan for Hampi Local Planning Area"

(http://www.bellary.nic.in/HMP/REPORT%20PDFs/CHAPTER-2.pdf).

5. ^ K.V.Ramesh. "Telugu Inscriptions from Vijayanagar Dynasty, vol16, Introduction"

(http://inscriptions.whatisindia.com/). Archaeological Survey of India. What Is India Publishers (P) Ltd.,

Saturday, December 30, 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-31.

6. ^ a b K.A. Nilakanta Sastry, History of South India, From Prehistoric times to fall of Vijayanagar, 1955,

OUP, (Reprinted 2002), p268

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Survey_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_history_of_medieval_Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garudahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venkateshwarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhudevihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hampihttp://inscriptions.whatisindia.com/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanumanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnatakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_of_Vijayanagarahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_South_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_architecturehttp://www.bellary.nic.in/HMP/REPORT%20PDFs/CHAPTER-2.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Poetic_Kannada_inscription_of_Manjaraja_dated_1398_CE_at_Vindyagiri_hill_in_Shravanabelagola.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devanagari


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7. ^ a New Light on Hampi, Recent research in Vijayanagara, edited by John M. Fritz and George Michell,

MARG, 2001, p14

8. ^ Historians such as P. B. Desai ( History of Vijayanagar Empire, 1936), Henry Heras (The Aravidu Dynasty

of Vijayanagara, 1927), B.A. Saletore (Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire, 1930), G.S. Gai

(Archaeological Survey of India), William Coelho (The Hoysala Vamsa, 1955) and Kamath (Kamath 2001,

pp157–160)

9. ^ Karmarkar (1947), p30

10. ^ Kulke and Rothermund (2004), p188

11. ^ Rice (1897), p345

12. ^ Robert Sewell ( A Forgotten Empire Vijayanagar: A Contribution to the History of India, 1901), Nilakanta

Sastri (1955), N. Ventakaramanayya (The Early Muslim expansion in South India, 1942) and B. Surya

Narayana Rao ( History of Vijayanagar , 1993) in Kamath (2001) pp157–160.

13. ^ Nilakanta Sastry (1955), p216

14. ^ Kamath (2001), p160

15. ^ Portuguese travelers Barbosa, Barradas and Italian Varthema and Caesar Fredericci in 1567, Persian Abdur

Razzak in 1440, Barani, Isamy, Tabataba, Nizamuddin Bakshi, Ferishta and Shirazi and vernacular works

from the 14th century to the 16th century. (Kamath 2001, pp157–158)

16. ^ Fritz & Michell (2001) pp1–11

17. ^ Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p216

18. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p162


20. ^ The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of Muhammad II Bahmani, according to Nilakanta

Sastri (1955), p242

21. ^ From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadraand an aqueduct 15 miles (24 km) long was cut out of rock (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p243).

22. ^ Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture, John Stewart Bowman p.271, (2013), Columbia

University Press, New York, ISBN 0-231-11004-9

23. ^ Also deciphered as Gajaventekara, a metaphor for "great hunter of his enemies", or "hunter of elephants"

(Kamath 2001, p163).


25. ^ From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes

to Vijayanagara empire (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p245)

26. ^ Kamath (2001), p164

27. ^ From the notes of Abdur Razzak about Vijayanagara: a city like this had not been seen by the pupil of the

eye nor had an ear heard of anything equal to it in the world ( Hampi, A Travel Guide 2003, p11)



30. ^ Kamath (2001), p159

31. ^ From the notes of Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes about Krishna Deva Raya: A king who was perfect in

all things ( Hampi, A Travel Guide 2003, p31)

32. ^ The notes of Portuguese Barbosa during the time of Krishna Deva Raya confirms a very rich and well provided Vijayanagara city (Kamath 2001, p186)

33. ^ Most monuments including the royal platform ( Mahanavami Dibba) were actually built over a period

spanning several decades (Dallapiccola 2001, p66)

34. ^ Eaton 2005 90-92

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._B._Desaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.A._Saletorehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferishtahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Herashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231110049


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. ,

35. ^ Kamath 2001, p172

36. ^ Eaton 2005, pp96-98

37. ^ Some scholars say the war was actually fought between Rakkasagi and Tangadigi in modern Bijapur

district, close to Talikota, and the battle is also called "Battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi". Shervani claimed that the

actual venue of the battle was Bannihatti (Kamath 2001, p170)

38. ^ The Telugu work Vasucharitamu refers to Aravidu King Tirumala Deva Raya (1570) as the reviver of the

Karnata Empire.(Ramesh 2006)

39. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p174

40. ^ Kamath (2001), p220, p226, p234

41. ^ A war administration, (K.M. Panikkar in Kamath 2001, p174)

42. ^ From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak and research by B.A. Saletore (Kamath 2001, p175)

43. ^ From the notes of Nuniz (Kamath 2001, p175)


45. ^ From the notes of Duarte Barbosa (Kamath 2001, p176). However, the kingdom may have had nine

provinces (T.V. Mahalingam in Kamath 2001, p176)46. ^ Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p287

47. ^ From the notes of Abdur Razzaq and Paes respectively (Kamath 2001, p176)

48. ^ From the notes of Nuniz (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p288)

49. ^ Davison-Jenkins (2001), p89

50. ^ From the notes of Domingo Paes and Nuniz (Davison-Jenkins 2001, p98)

51. ^ Davison-Jenkins (2001), p90

52. ^ From the notes of Duarte Barbosa (Kamath 2001, p181).

53. ^ From the notes of Abdur Razzak in Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p298

54. ^ From the notes of Abdur Razzak in Nilakanta Sastry (1955), p299

55. ^ a b c From the notes of Abdur Razzak in Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p304



58. ^ a b Kamath (2001), p179

59. ^ According to Sir Charles Elliot, the intellectual superiority of Brahmins justified their high position in

society (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p289)

60. ^ Verghese (2001), p41

61. ^ B.A. Saletore in Kamath (2001), p17962. ^ Kamath, p180

63. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 180

64. ^ From the writings of Portuguese Domingo Paes (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 296)

65. ^ a b Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p296

66. ^ Mack (2001), p39

67. ^ From the notes of Duarte Barbosa (Kamath 2001, p178)

68. ^ Kamath (2001), p177

69. ^ Fritz & Michell, p14

70. ^ Kamath (2001), p177–178

71. ^ Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), p192, pp194–196

72. ^ Iyer (2006), p93

73. ^ Owing to his contributions to carnatic music, Purandaradasa is known as Karnataka Sangita Pitamaha.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijapur_district,_Karnataka


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(Kamat, Saint Purandaradasa)

74. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p196

75. ^ Shiva Prakash (1997), p195

76. ^ Kamath (2001), p178


78. ^ Pujar, Narahari S.; Shrisha Rao and H.P. Raghunandan. "Sri Vyasa Tirtha"

(http://www.dvaita.org/scholars/vyasaraja/). Dvaita Home Page. Retrieved 2006-12-31.79. ^ Kamath (2001), p185

80. ^ Kamath (2001), pp.112, 132

81. ^ From the notes of Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri (Nilakanta Sastry 1955, p396)

82. ^ From the notes of Ibn Batuta (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p396)

83. ^ From the notes of Jordanus in 1320–21 (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p397)

84. ^ Pollock, Sheldon (http://books.google.com/books?

id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=vijayanagar+court+language+telugu+nagaraj+pollock&source

=bl&ots=zaeme9rIgy&sig=z9jw5c8GhIwN1ll1JWXgYAWR_TE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cvPuUauACuH8igLsxY

GAAw&ved=0CCkQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=vijayanagar%20court%20language%20telugu%20nagaraj%2

0pollock&f=false). Retrieved 2013-07-23. "Quote:"Telugu had certainly been more privileged than Kannada

as a language of courtly culture during the reign of the last Vijayanagara kings, especially Krsnadevaraya

(d.1529)", Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p378

85. ^ a b Quote:"Royal patronage was also directed to the support of literature in several languages: Sanskrit (the

pan-Indian literary language), Kannada (the language of the Vijayanagara home base in Karnataka), and

Telugu (the language of Andhra). Works in all three languages were produced by poets assembled at the

courts of the Vijayanagara kings". Quote:"The Telugu language became particularly prominent in the ruling

circles by the early 16th century, because of the large number of warrior lords who were either from Andhra

or had served the kingdom there", Asher and Talbot (2006), pp74-75

86. ^ "Telugu Literature" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/586439/Telugu-literature). Retrieved

2013-07-19. "Telugu literature flowered in the early 16th century under the Vijayanagar empire, of which

Telugu was the court language."


88. ^ Nilakanta Sastry (1955), p324

89. ^ Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), p164, pp193-194, p203




93. ^ During the rule of Krishnadevaraya, encouragement was given to the creation of original Prabandhas

(stories) from Puranic themes (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p372)

94. ^ Like the Nine gems of King Vikramaditya's court, the Ashtadiggajas of Krishnadevara's court are famous in

legend (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p372)



97. ^ Prasad (1988), pp.268–270

98. ^ "History of Science and Philosophy of Science: A Historical Perspective of the Evolution of Ideas in

Science", editor: Pradip Kumar Sengupta, author: Subhash Kak, 2010, p91, vol XIII, part 6, Publisher:

Pearson Longman, ISBN 978-81-317-1930-5

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Brown_(scholar)http://www.dvaita.org/scholars/vyasaraja/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/586439/Telugu-literaturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_architecturehttp://books.google.com/books?id=ak9csfpY2WoC&pg=PA94&lpg=PA94&dq=vijayanagar+court+language+telugu+nagaraj+pollock&source=bl&ots=zaeme9rIgy&sig=z9jw5c8GhIwN1ll1JWXgYAWR_TE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=cvPuUauACuH8igLsxYGAAw&ved=0CCkQ6AEwADgK#v=onepage&q=vijayanagar%20court%20language%20telugu%20nagaraj%20pollock&f=falsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puranichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788131719305


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References

99. ^ Art cr t c Percy Brown ca s V ayanagara arc tecture a ossom ng o Drav an sty e Kamat 2001,

p182)

100. ^ Arthikaje, Literary Activity

101. ^ "So intimate are the rocks and the monuments they were used for make, it is was sometimes impossible to

say where nature ended and art began" (Art critic Percy Brown, quoted in Hampi, A Travel Guide, p64)

102. ^ Fritz & Michell, p9

103. ^ Nilakanta Sastri about the importance of pillars in the Vijayanagar style in Kamath (2001), p183

104. ^ "Drama in stone" wrote art critic Percy Brown, much of the beauty of Vijayanagara architecture came from

their pillars and piers and the styles of sculpting ( Hampi, A Travel Guide, p77)

105. ^ About the sculptures in Vijayanagara style, see Kamath (2001), p184

106. ^ Several monuments are categorised as Tuluva art (Fritz & Michell 2001, p9)

107. ^ Some of these paintings may have been redone in later centuries (Rajashekhar in Kamath 2001, p184)

108. ^ Historians and art critics K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A. L. Basham, James Fergusson and S. K. Saraswathi have

commented about Vijayanagara architecture (Arthikaje Literary Activity).

109. ^ Fritz & Michell (2001), p10

110. ^ Philon (2001), p87111. ^ Dallapiccola (2001), p69

112. ^ G.S. Gai in Kamath (2001), p10, 157.

113. ^ Arthikaje, Mangalore. "The Vijayanagar Empire"

(http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka39.htm). 1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc.

Retrieved 2006-12-31.

114. ^ Thapar (2003), pp 393–95

115. ^ "Vijayanagara Coins" (http://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/04/01/coin6.htm). Government

Museum Chennai. Retrieved 2006-12-31.

116. ^ Prabhu, Govindaraya S. "Catalogue, Part one" (http://prabhu.50g.com/vijayngr/vij_cat.html). Vijayanagara,

the forgotten empire. Prabhu'S Web Page On Indian Coinage. Retrieved 2006-12-31.

117. ^ Harihariah Oruganti. "Coinage" (http://www.vijayanagaracoins.com/htm/catalog.htm). Catalogue.

Vijayanagara Coins. Retrieved 2006-12-31.

118. ^ Ramesh, K. V. "Stones 1–25"

(http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_16/stones_1_to_25.html). South

Indian Inscription, Volume 16: Telugu Inscriptions from Vijayanagar Dynasty. New Delhi: Archaeological

Survey of India. Retrieved 2006-12-31.

119. ^ Sastry & Rao, Shama & Lakshminarayan. "Miscellaneous Inscriptions, Part II"

(http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_9/vijayanagara.html). South

Indian Inscription, Volume 9: Kannada Inscriptions from Madras Presidency. New Delhi: Archaeological


Arthikaje. "Literary Activity, Art and Architecture"

(http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka47.htm). History of karnataka.OurKarnataka.Com. Retrieved 2006-12-31.

Dallapiccola, Anna L. (2001). "Relief carvings on the great platform". In John M. Fritz and George Michell

(editors). New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara. Mumbai: MARG. ISBN 81-85026-53-X.

" "

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-85026-53-Xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_9/vijayanagara.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percy_Brown_(scholar)http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_16/stones_1_to_25.htmlhttp://www.vijayanagaracoins.com/htm/catalog.htmhttp://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka39.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dravidian_architecturehttp://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/04/01/coin6.htmhttp://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka47.htmhttp://prabhu.50g.com/vijayngr/vij_cat.html


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Asher & Talbot, Catherine & Cynthia (2006). "Creation of Pan South Indian Culture". India Before Europe.

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Wikimedia Commons has

media related to

Vijayanagara Empire.

Wikisource has the text of

the 1911 Encyclopædia

Britannica article

Vijayanagar .

Further reading

Bang, Peter Fibiger; Kolodziejczyk, Dariusz, eds. (2012). "Ideologies of state building in Vijayanagara India".

Universal Empire: A Comparative Approach to Imperial Culture and Representation in Eurasian History.

Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781107022676.

External links

Hampi – History and Tourism

(http://www.hampionline.com/)

www.Hampi.in (http://www.hampi.in/) – Photos,

descriptions & maps of the Hampi Ruins.

Archaeos Mapping Project at Vijayanagara – Seasons 1

(http://www.archaeos.org/vmp-season-1/)

Archaeos Mapping Project at Vijayanagara – Seasons 2–3

(http://www.archaeos.org/vmp-season-2-3/)

Archaeos Mapping Project at Vijayanagara – Seasons 1–4 Summary

(http://www.archaeos.org/vmp-summary.html)

Coins of Vijayanagar (http://coinindia.com/galleries-vijayanagar.html)

Indian Inscriptions - Archeological Survey Of India (http://inscriptions.whatisindia.com)

Hazararama Temple Photographs, 2013 (http://indiatourism.ws/hampi/hazararama_temple/)

Mahanavami Dibba Photographs, 2013 (http://indiatourism.ws/hampi/mahanavami_dibba/)

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vijayanagara_Empire&oldid=637718430"

Categories: Former monarchies Former countries in South Asia Former empires

States and territories established in 1336 States and territories disestablished in 1646

Vijayanagara Empire

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