VIGYAN VARTA

70
sni VIGYAN VARTA An International E-Magazine for Science Enthusiasts www.vigyanvarta.com E-Mail: [email protected] Volume: 01 Issue:04 August 2020

Transcript of VIGYAN VARTA

sni

VIGYAN VARTA An International E-Magazine for Science Enthusiasts

www.vigyanvarta.com

E-Mail: [email protected]

Volume: 01 Issue:04 August 2020

Contents Volume: 01, Issue: 04 August 2020

Sl.

No. Title of the article Author’s Name Page

1 Integrated Nutriment Management for

Sustainable Agriculture

M. Jayalakshmi* and G.

PrasadBabu 1-3

2

Rejuvenating Family Farming-A

Magnetic Approach for Retaining

Youth and Women in Agriculture

K. Shireesha*, Srividhyarani N., B.

KranthiKumari and G. K.

Siddeswari 4-7

3 Price Indices- A Brief Note Ch. Ramya Sri*, K. Ashok, D.A.

and Rajini Devi 8-11

4 Ayurvedic Approach: A Natural Way

to Cure Diabetes (Madhumeha)

Priya Chaudhary, Aarti Kotnala,

Neetu Negi and Pracheta Janmeda* 12-15

5 Medicova: Nutritional and Medicinal

Value of Mushroom

Aarti Kotnala*, Priya Chaudhary,

Kiran Bisht and Neetu Negi 16-18

6 Significance of Antinutritional

Compounds in Vegetables Preetilagna Dhal 19-21

7 Milking Technique for Best Quality of

the Milk

Nripendra Pratap Singh*, Ninad

Bhatt and Pramod Chaudhary 22-25

8 DNA Diagnostics vs. Serodiagnostics:

A Comparison

Moon Moon Satpathy, Abhilash

Routray* and Sonam Sarita Bal 26-31

9

Brown Manuring, an Effective

Technique for Weed Management and

Sustainable Yield of Cereal Crops

Sumit Sow* and Shivani Ranjan 32-34

10

Zero Tillage as a Resource Conserving

Technology in Rice - Wheat Cropping

System

Shivani Ranjan* and Sumit Sow 35-37

11

Aerobic Rice Cultivation: An Eco-

Friendly and Water Saving

Technology

Mousumi Malo 38-41

12 Q-Fever: A Neglected Zoonosis Bhargavi Dadimi* and Maria Anto

Dani Nishanth 42-46

13 Opportunities and Challenges in

Digital Marketing K. Ashok* and B. Naresh 47-50

14 Antibiotics Use in Poultry in India Snehal Lonare 51-54

15 Consumer Behaviour in Online

Shopping

Meenakshi Tamta* and B. Naresh

Kumar 55-59

16 Quinoa: Need for Everyone and Food

for Everyone

LK Sanodiya*, Umesha C, Shivani

Kumari and M. R. Meshram 60-64

17

FMD Virus: Its Genome Organization,

Genetic and Antigenic Variations in

FMD Carrier State

Biswa Ranjan Jena* and Aishwarya

Dash 65-68

www.vigyanvarta.com © Vigyan Varta-2020

www.vigyanvarta.com Vol-1 Issue-4 Jayalakshmi and Prasadbabu (2020)

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Integrated Nutriment Management for Sustainable Agriculture

M. Jayalakshmi and G. PrasadBabu

KrishiVigyan Kendra Banavasi, Kurnool, AP, 518360

Acharya N.G Ranga Agriculture University, Guntur, A.P

Corresponding Author

M. Jayalakshmi

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

INM, soil fertility, soil productivity, crop rotation

How to cite this article:

Jayalakshmi, M. and Prasadbabu, G. 2020. Integrated nutriment management for sustainable

agriculture. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 1-3

INTRODUCTION

he basic concept underlying the

integrated nutrient management system

(INMS), nevertheless, remains the

maintenance and possible improvement of soil

fertility for sustained crop productivity on long

term-basis and to reduce inorganic (fertilizer)

input cost. The three main components of

INMS as defined by FAO, 1998 are:

1. Maintain or enhance soil productivity

through a balanced use of fertilizers

combined with organic and biological

sources of plant nutrients

2. Improve the stock of plant nutrients in the

soils

3. Improve the efficiency of plant nutrients

Components of Integrated Nutrient

Management

• Fertilizers

• Manures

• Bio fertilizers

• Compost

T

ABSTRACT

Integrated nutrient management plays a key role in maintaining sustainable Agriculture.

Combination of chemical fertilizer, manures, bio fertilizers, compost, green manures, and crop

rotation maintains soil fertility also helps in ecological balance. Nitrogen (N) losses and GHG

(greenhouse gas) emissions are reduced substantially under advanced INM practices. Lower

inputs of chemical fertilizer and therefore lower human and environmental costs (such as

intensity of land use, N use, reactive N losses and GHG emissions) were achieved under

advanced INM practices without compromising crop yields. Strong and convincing evidence

indicates that INM practice could be an innovative and environmentally friendly strategy for

sustainable agriculture worldwide

OPEN ACCESS

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• Green Manure

• Crop Rotation

Fertilizers

Among the sources available, chemical

fertilizers are favoured by many farmers as their

effects on crop production are visible and

spectacular. Before the commercial production

of fertilizers was started, farmers were

traditionally applying organic manures.

Chemical fertilizers have taken their dominant

position very quickly and therefore the use of

organic manures in crop production, at the

present is extremely much ignored or neglected.

Fertilizers contain the nutrients in higher

concentration with high consumption of energy

and since of this reason, they are costly.

Majority of the resource poor small and

marginal farmers can hardly afford to spend

more on such inputs. Besides, non-availability

of raw materials locally is forcing the country

to import several them from others to satisfy the

local demand. Further, continuous uses of

chemical fertilizers create ill effects to the soil.

Manures

Organic resources are biological in origin and

they have several nutrients in their composition,

which on decomposition are released into the

soil. The applied organic resources not only

increase soil fertility but also improve soil

physical conditions, which help in proper

growth of plants. Increasing water holding

capacity, aeration, permeability, soil

aggregation and nutrient holding capacity and

decreasing bulk density and soil crusting are

attributed to the continuous use of organic

manures. In this way productivity of soils is

improved and serves over a long period to

sustain the crop yields. Organic manures are of

different origin and hence, exhibit wide

variability in their nature and chemical

composition. Apart from higher quantities of N,

P and K, they also contain secondary and

micronutrients. All these nutrients are released

into soil system when organic manures are

applied to fields. The available estimates show

that about 875 million tonnes of organic wastes

are generated annually in our country. Out of

which only 60 percent is available for

agricultural purpose. Their usage for fuel

purposes, thus, does not permit the full potential

to be harnessed for crop production. Several

organic wastes are recycled through rural and

urban composting. Crop wastes and residues

are renewable and readily available but are

usually applied to the field since composting

can be done.

Vermicompost

Vermi-composting is gaining popularity during

recent years because it is environment friendly

and economic. Biogas plant spent slurry has 1.4

to 1.8%, N, 0.4-0.9% P and 0.6-1.0% K and it

can be used effectively for crop production.

Green Manures

Green manures are applied to the field without

composting. The legume crop grown in situ is

turned down into the soil when it is 40-60 days

old, while green leaf manuring through

application of lopping of trees and shrubs also

serve the same purpose. Benefits of Green

Manuring are

• Supplies organic matter, nitrogen, and

other nutrients to soil

• Enhances soil microbial activity

• Helps in weed suppression, soil and water

conservation and management of pests as

trap crops under some specific situations

Bio-fertilizers

The preparation containing specialized live

microorganisms for seed treatment or soil

application with objective of increasing the

number of such microorganisms and

accelerates the microbial process of converting

unavailable form of plant nutrients to available

form. Classification of Bio-fertilizers:

Nitrogen Fixer

• Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixer Ex: Rhizobium,

Azolla

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• Asymbiotic nitrogen fixer Ex:

Azotobacter, Blue Green Algae

• Associative nitrogen fixer Ex:

Azospirillum

Phosphorus mobilizers

• Phosphorus solubilizes Ex: Bacillus,

Pseudomonas, Aspergillus

• Phosphorus absorber Ex: VAM

Organic matter decomposer

• Arthrobacter, Cellulomonas, Trichoderma

Benefits of Bio-fertilizers

• Bio-fertilizers helps in eco-friendly use of

microorganisms and their sustenance

• Help in biological nitrogen fixation

• Can meet part of nitrogen demand needed

by the plants in certain cropping situations,

Increase the efficiency of

chemical/mineral fertilizers and bring the

nutrients to available form.

• Help in reducing environmental pollution

• Bio fertilizers suppress incidence of

pathogens in soil (biological control)

• Synthesize and release growth promoting

substances

• Increase crop yield

• Bio fertilizers are cheaper, eco-friendly,

renewable source of plant nutrient supply

system

• Bio fertilizers form an important

component of integrated nutrient

management

Cropping Systems

It is defined as the order in which the crops are

grown or cultivated on a piece of land over

fixed period.

Multiple Cropping Systems

• The Soils having low fertility and in

cropping systems having crops with high

nutrient uptake, the recommended dose of

fertilizers need to be applied to each crop.

• When residual effects of applied fertilizers

are not expected, the individual crops in

the system must receive optimum doses of

fertilizer nitrogen.

• When legumes are grown, proper

inoculation and application of phosphorus

fertilizers makes them require low N and

leave behind 20 to 50 kg N/ha for use by

succeeding crop.

• Organic manures should be applied during

wet season for easy decomposition and

release of nutrient elements contained in

them.

• The potassium loving crops grown in the

sequence must receive adequate potassium

dressing, while the legumes need adequate

phosphorus dressing too.

• In medium soil fertility conditions,

phosphorus to be applied in dry season,

while potassium application appears

profitable to wet season crops.

Intercropping systems

• When two or more crops are grown in the

system, balance application of fertilizers is

suggested. The intercrop does not need to

be fertilized when water use efficiency is

only aimed at.

• If a crop is grown for green manuring

purpose, small quantity of N may be

applied to it. If maximum production from

the crop is expected, all the crops must

receive optimum of fertilizers.

• In cereal- legume combination, N has to be

applied to cereal crop only, while

application of N to legume has to be 10-20

days in advance and earlier than the

beginning of symbiotic nitrogen fixation.

• Nitrogen application should be in higher

quantities to the cereals than for cereal-

legume combination.

REFERENCES

Brinkman, R., 1998. Guide to efficient plant

nutrient management. FAO, Rome

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Popular Article

Rejuvenating Family Farming-A Magnetic Approach for Retaining Youth and Women in Agriculture

K. Shireesha1, Srividhyarani N.2, B. KranthiKumari3 and G. K. Siddeswari4 1Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension, Agricultural College, Aswarapet,

PJTSAU 2Scientist (Extension), KVK, Vonipenta, Dr. YSRHU

3Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension, Agricultural College, Badvel 4Assistant Professor, Department of Agricultural Extension, Sri KrishnaDevaraya College of

Agricultural Sciences, Ananthapuramu

Corresponding Author

K. Shireesha

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Family farming, youth in agriculture, women in agriculture, future farming

How to cite this article:

Shireesha, K., Srividhyarani, N., Kranthikumari, B. and Siddeswari, G.K. 2020. Rejuvenating family

farming-a magnetic approach for retaining youth and women in agriculture. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 4-7

INTRODUCTION

n the ancient India every farm family in a

village was an individual unit of production

by cultivating staple food crops, managing

livestock and was self-sufficient with nutritious

foods required for family members and the

surplus was marketed in the local markets. The

joint family culture in those days helped them

to practice agriculture along with the cattle by

large section of the rural people. On the other

side the sheep and goat were reared by the

resource poor people in the villages. Diversified

practices viz., application of farm yard manure

and sheep and goat manure to the crops helped

in the enrichment of soil health; pest and

disease management by natural agents;

recycling the crop residues as feed to the cattle;

dairy products produced from their own cattle;

I

ABSTRACT

In the ancient India, every farm family in a village was represented an individual unit of

production of crops, milk, egg and meat. The byproducts from these were recycled and utilized

for farm and home utilities. In this way, the subsistence farming helped in maintaining

agroecology. In the modern world these have been disappearing leading to many abnormal

variations in farming and human life. Retaining youth in agriculture has become a global

problem now. To have better future in the farming there is immediate need to blend the

advanced technologies with the ancient Indian culture and norms so that there will be scope

to rejuvenate family farming among those who are interested in farming

OPEN ACCESS

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protein rich source products from backyard

poultry; vegetables and fruits from nutritional

gardening in the backyards led to the healthy

and long life span of people in the villages in

the olden days. This ambient atmosphere

helped to maintain the not only the agroecology

system but also the traditions and culture of the

gigantic nation.

Family farming is one of the most predominant

forms of agriculture world-wide, both in

developing and in developed countries. The

sector comprises a wide spectrum of farm sizes

and types, ranging from very large land

holdings in high-income economies that are

easily cultivated by one or two family members

with the use of labour-saving machinery and

hired labour to the small holdings of a few

hectares or less in low-income economies.

These small family farms, run by small

producers are by far, the most numerous:

globally, there are approximately 525 million

small family farms, 290 million of which are in

China and India alone (IFPRI, 2012). Thus,

although family farmers and small producers

are not identical groups, they share much

common ground and hence face a series of

similar issues.

India is an agricultural country. Agriculture is

“only” ~16 % of GDP but the largest sector for

employment. Officially farmers are only a few

hundred million, but adding family members

who help or occasionally farm, as also wage

labourers, the number of farm workers is likely

to be closer to half a billion people. But how

many people would India need farming if it

were as labor efficient as the US for growing

crops? I am not suggesting it is possible, or even

desirable (large, mechanized farms with

massive chemical and water inputs) but as a

thought exercise? Just four million people. The

US is extreme; with less than 2% of its

population growing food sufficient for almost 2

billion people, but much of it is fed to animals.

The US also focuses on many crops suitable for

mechanisation, but even using metrics from

many East Asian countries, with about 10% of

the population in agriculture - as opposed to

half the workforce for India - that is hundreds

of millions of people who could shift to

alternative options. Agriculture is dying, OK,

not as in the production of food but as a

desirable profession. The clearest indicator of

the problems of agriculture as a profession is

how there are actually shortfalls of labour in

some areas, with larger farms relying on

imported farm labourers, drawn not just from

the neighbouring states but from the far ends of

the country (especially the north-east) and even

Nepal. Younger generations do not want to

follow their parents’ footsteps, which pushes

urbanisation. Unfortunately, urban areas, while

offering more opportunities, also relegate many

to low-end jobs.

Source: https://www.theindiaforum.in/article/india-

s-biggest-challenge-future-farming

The urbanization, declining trend and input

intensive agricultural production, requirement

of higher education for employment

opportunities led to drastic changes in the

farming patterns in the villages and broken

down the joint family system into nuclear

families. This gave rise to split up of large land

holdings into small and marginal land holdings

which resulted in the greater number of small

and marginal farmers in the country. Due to

increased rate of pollution, uncertain climatic

conditions agriculture ecology has been

disturbed completely leading to the less profits

and poor income levels of farming community.

The resource poor farmers migrated from rural

areas to urban areas in search of employment

opportunities in the urban areas leaving the

villages abandoned. Geographic isolation, lack

of public transportation, poor infrastructure,

low educational attainment, low health literacy,

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poverty and unemployment, a smaller health

care workforce and a lack of specialty care,

cultural or social differences, stigma, and norms

are leading to disintegration of the family

farming system. If this situation is continued,

then there would be no human being in the

villages in the coming decades. As quoted by

Mahatma Gandhi “The future of the nation lies

in its villages”, in order to see the future of the

nation it is our responsibility to protect our

villages from disintegration which is possible

through mobilizing family farming as a

magnetic approach for retaining youth and

women in agriculture. The policy makers must

come forward to implement the innovative

strategies to regain the village structure and

agroecology prevailed in those days to suit to

the present day needs of the people. Different

capacity building activities must be taken up to

upgrade the stakeholders involved in the entire

farming system through a systematic approach.

The family institution at village level must

become the single window system for all the

food products required by the human beings of

all the ages. To rejuvenate the family farming

system primarily the infrastructure facilities at

the villages must be improved to a large extent.

Secondarily the linkages between the rural and

urban amenities must be enhanced and

interdependence of both rural and urban areas

must be designed sophisticatedly.

A responsive policy environment must include

the social and cultural factors that influence

farm economics and farm structure. There is a

need to develop farm transition policies and

technical assistance programs that are aligned

with the values and needs of different types of

farmers and their households.

In a blog can we feed the world the author

suggested solutions for making agriculture

more attractive to younger generations using

the following means viz., link social media to

agriculture, improve agriculture’s image,

strengthen higher education in agriculture,

greater use of Information and Communication

Technologies (ICT), empower young people to

speak up, facilitate access to land and credit, put

agriculture on the school curricula, greater

public investment in agriculture, make

agriculture more profitable.

CONCLUSION

The forward and backward linkages between

rural and urban areas must be streamlined so

that the people living in both areas get benefits.

If the people in the rural areas are bestowed

with the physiological needs, security needs

and social needs that are essential for them, then

they never try to migrate to the urban areas. The

local self-government personnel, department

officials must contribute to the development of

education facilities, occupational appraisals,

and health facilities available at present to the

satisfactory level of rural people. The digital

world can help to boost up the agroecology

system optimistically in the villages, to identify

the major constraints faced by the rural people

regarding farming, to suggest the innovative

and economically feasible strategies for

policymakers in order to fasten the rejuvenation

of family farming system.

Some Causes for Remarkable Variations in Farming

situation

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Rejuvenating family farming-a magnetic approach

for retaining youth and women in agriculture

REFERENCES

Inwood, S., 2013. Social forces and cultural

factors influencing farm transition.

Choices, 28(316-2016-7666)

Prem Baboo, Dangote Fertilizer Ltd, 2016.

Answers to the post on What is the role

of family farming in agricultural

development?,16-05-

2016,researchgate.net.

https://www.researchgate.net/post/What

_is_the_role_of_family_farming_in_agr

icultural_development

Professor Sir Gordon Conway, 9 ways to

engage youth in agriculture.

canwefeedtheworld April 25, 2014 by

https://canwefeedtheworld.wordpress.co

m/2014/04/25/9-ways-to-engage-youth-

in-agriculture/

Rahul Tongia, 2019. India’s Biggest

Challenge: The Future of Farming, The

India Forum, October 4, 2019.

https://www.theindiaforum.in/article/ind

ia-s-biggest-challenge-future-farming

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Price Indices- A Brief Note Ch. Ramya Sri1, K. Ashok2 and D.A. Rajini Devi3

1Ph.D Scholar, PJTSAU, Department of Agricultural Economics,

2Ph.D Scholar, NDRI, Department of Agricultural Extension,

3Scientist, Regional Agricultural Research Station, Jagtial, PJTSAU

Corresponding Author

Ch. Ramya Sri

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Price index, Normalized average, Geographical locations

How to cite this article:

Sri, C. R., Ashok, K. and Devi, D. A. R. 2020. Price Indices- A Brief Note. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 8-11

INTRODUCTION

rice indexes were first developed to live

changes within the cost of living so as to

work out the wage increases necessary

to take care of a continuing standard of living.

They still be used extensively to estimate

changes in prices over time and also are wont to

measure differences in costs among different

areas or countries. Price indexes have several

potential uses, for particularly broad indices,

the index are often said to live the economy's

general price index or a price of living, more

narrow price indices can help producers with

business plans and pricing, sometimes, they can

be useful in helping to guide investment,

inflation is measured by constructing inflation

indices, inflation indices which help in

calculating inflation rates indicate what

proportion prices have changed over a period of

your time , the indices themselves are a

representation of the extent of costs at a specific

time. Not all prices are included in the index,

only a specified basket of goods and services,

the basket in the index is representative of the

items which are relevant to a market or group.

There are different price indices for the costs

faced by different groups. Consumer price

index, Producer price index, Export price index,

Import price index and GDP deflator.

There are different price indices for the prices

faced by different groups.

➢ Consumer price index

P

ABSTRACT

A price indices or price level may be a normalized average (typically a weighted average) of

price relatives for a given class of products or services during a given region, during a given

interval of time. It is a statistic designed to assist to match how these price relatives, taken as

an entire differ between time periods or geographical locations. Price index is a measure of

relative price changes, consists a series of numbers arranged in order that shows the

comparison between the values for any two period will show the average change in prices

between periods or the typical difference in prices between places

OPEN ACCESS

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➢ Producer price index

➢ Export price index

➢ Import price index

➢ GDP deflator

Consumer Price Index

A consumer price index (CPI) measures the

changes that appears in the price level of market

basket of consumer goods and services

purchased by households. It includes prices of

goods and services sold in the retail market, i.e.

the final prices which the top consumers need

to pay. It is hence also called the cost of living

index. It is also used for indexing dearness

allowance to employees for increase in prices.

Calculating the CPI for a single item

Current item price = Base Year Price X Current CPI

Base Year CPI

Calculating the CPI for multiple items

CPI = ∑ CPIi X Weighti

ni=1

∑ Weightini=1

Producer Price Index

It includes producer or output prices which are

prices of the first commercial transactions of

goods and services or the transactions at the

point of first sale. Most of the countries have

replaced their WPI with the PPI in the 1970s

and the 1980s, except India. A Producer Price

Index (PPI) is a price index that measures the

average changes in prices received by domestic

producers for their output. The Indian

Wholesale Price Index (WPI) was first

published in 1902 and was used by policy

makers until it was replaced by the Producer

Price Index (PPI) in 1978. The PPI usually

covers the industrial (manufacturing) sector as

well as public utilities. The WPI prices include

taxes and transportation charges, whereas the

producer prices do not.

Export Price Index

An export price index is an index calculated for

the price(s) of one or any specified group of

commodities entering international trade using,

ideally, f.o.b. export prices. An export price

index measures changes in the prices of exports

of merchandise from a country.

Import Price Index

The import price index in the development of

Cost, insurance, and freight prices of imported

goods. Foreign-currency import prices are

converted to euro using the mean rate for the

statistical reference month.

GDP Deflator

The Gross Domestic Product is the value of

total goods and services produced in an

economy in a year. Value means the entire

quantity of the products and services (total

output) multiplied by their respective prices.

From this we arrive at two concepts of GDP: the

nominal GDP and the real GDP. The nominal

GDP, when compared to the GDP of some

previous year reflects the change in the total

output produced by the economy as well as

change in their prices. So, to arrive at the true

picture of whether the economy has grown in

terms of the actual output produced, we have

the real GDP. The real GDP is calculated by

taking the output of the year under

consideration but multiplied by the prices of the

base year. Like the consumer price index (CPI),

the GDP deflator is a measure of price

inflation/deflation with respect to a specific

base year; the GDP deflator of the base year

itself is equal to 100.

GDP deflator = Nominal GDP

Real GDP X 100

Unlike the CPI, the GDP deflator is not based

on a fixed basket of goods and services; the

"basket" for the GDP deflator is allowed to

change from year to year with people's

consumption and investment patterns.

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Weighted Index Numbers

There are various methods by which weights

can be assigned and hence a large number of

formulae for constructing Index Numbers have

been devised. Some commonly used methods

suggested by different authorities are as

follows:

• Laspeyre’s Method

• Paasche’s Method

• Fisher’s Ideal Method

• Marshall Edge Worth Method

• Kelly’s Method

• Dorbish And Bowley’s Method

Laspeyre’s method

Laspeyre suggested that for the purposes of

calculating Price Indices, the quantities in the

base year should be taken as weights.

Hence, the formula for computing price Index

number would be

P01 = ∑ 𝑝1 𝑞0

∑ 𝑝0 𝑞0 X 100

where,

P01 refers to Price Index,

p refers to price of each commodity,

q refers to quantity of each commodity,

0 base year,

1 current year, and

∑ refers to the summation of items

Price index

P01 = ∑ 𝑝1 𝑞0∑ 𝑝0 𝑞0

X 100 = 202000/1700 = 118.82

Quantity Index

Q01 = ∑ 𝑝0 𝑞1∑ 𝑝0 𝑞0

X 100 = 188000/1700 = 110.588

Paasche’s method

Under this method of calculating Price Index,

the quantities of the current year are used as

weights as compared to base year quantities

used by Laspeyres.

The formula for calculating price index is

P01 = ∑ 𝑝1 𝑞1∑ 𝑝0 𝑞1

X 100

P01 = ∑ 𝑝1 𝑞1∑ 𝑝0 𝑞1

X 100 = 212000/1880 = 112.76

Quantity Index

Q01 = ∑ 𝑝1 𝑞1∑ 𝑝1 𝑞0

X 100 = 212000/2020 = 104.95

Fisher’s Ideal Index

Laspeyre’s has used base year quantities as

weights whereas Paasche’s has used current

year quantities as weights for the computation

of Index Number of prices.

The geometric mean of the Laspeyre’s and

Paasche’s must be calculated and that figure

should be the Index Number. Symbolically

F P01 = √𝐿 𝑃01 𝑥 𝑃𝑃01

Items Base

year

Current

year

q0 p0 q1 p1 p0q0 p1q0 p0q1 p1q1

A 24 20 30 24 480 576 600 720

B 30 14 40 10 420 300 560 400

C 48 10 40 18 480 864 400 720

D 10 32 10 28 320 280 320 280

1700

2020

1880

2120

Items Base

year

Current

year

q0 p0 q1 p1 p0q0 p1q0 p0q1 p1q1

A 24 20 30 24 480 576 600 720

B 30 14 40 10 420 300 560 400

C 48 10 40 18 480 864 400 720

D 10 32 10 28 320 280 320 280

1700

2020

1880

2120

Items Base year Current year

Quantity Price Quantity Price

A 24 20 30 24

B 30 14 40 10

C 48 10 40 18

D 10 32 10 28

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The geometric mean of the Index number of

quantities with base year prices as weights and

Index number of quantities with current year as

weights is found out.

F Q01 = √𝐿 𝑄01 𝑥 𝑃𝑄01

Dorbish and Bowley’s method

If we find out the arithmetic mean of Laspeyres

Index and Paasches Index, we get the index

suggested by Dorbish and Bowley.

This method considers both the base year as

well as current year weights. The formula is

DB P01 = 𝐿 𝑃01+𝑃 𝑃01

2

DB Q01 = 𝐿 𝑄01+𝑃 𝑄01

2

Marshall and Edgeworth’s method

In this method, the arithmetic mean of the

quantities in the base year and current year are

taken as weights i.e. w = (q0+q1)/2 for

calculating price index and the prices in the

base year and current year are taken as weights

i.e. w = (p0+p1)/2 for calculating quantity index.

The formula is

ME P01 = ∑ 𝑝1𝑞0+ ∑ 𝑝1𝑞1

∑ 𝑝0𝑞0+ ∑ 𝑝0𝑞1 X 100

ME Q01 = ∑ 𝑝0𝑞1+ ∑ 𝑝1𝑞1

∑ 𝑝0𝑞0+ ∑ 𝑝1𝑞0 X 100

Kelly’s method

According to this method, named after Truman

Kelly, the weights should be fixed for all

periods. This method is also known as

aggregative index with fixed weights. The

formula is

P01 = ∑ 𝑝1𝑞

∑ 𝑝0𝑞 X 100

REFERENCES

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consumer price

index

https://www.britannica.com/topic/Laspeyres-

index.

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Ayurvedic Approach: A Natural Way to Cure Diabetes

(Madhumeha) Priya Chaudhary1, Aarti Kotnala2, Neetu Negi2 and Pracheta Janmeda1

1Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan-304022, India 2Azoth Biotech LLP, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Noida, Uttar Pradesh-201306, India

Corresponding Author

Pracheta Janmeda

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Ayurveda, Diabetes (madhumeha), Free radicals, Medicinal plants, Treatment

How to cite this article:

Chaudhary, P., Kotnala, A., Negi, N. and Janmeda, P. 2020. Ayurvedic Approach: A Natural Way to Cure

Diabetes (Madhumeha). Vigyan Varta 1(4): 12-15

INTRODUCTION

yurveda (Science of life) is the

traditional approach with roots

originated in 100 BC as a spiritual and

religious medicine. It connects physiologic,

spiritual, and physical processes to maintain a

healthy association among the soul, body, and

mind. The major aim of Ayurveda is the

equilibrium maintenance between the five basic

elements of vacuum, air, fire, water, and earth

with the theory of the three life forces.

According to Ayurveda, equilibrium between

these forces denotes the healthy life whereas

imbalance may result in disease. The main

medicines prescribe in Ayurveda are procured

from medicinal plants. The application of

Ayurveda in diabetes, a chronic ailment has

resulted significant improvement in the

patient’s health. Diabetes includes lack of

insulin sensitivity and the subsequent

incapacity of the body to maintain glucose level

A

ABSTRACT

Ayurveda is a traditional medicinal practice that is emerging all over the world as an

alternative and complementary cure of chronic disorders. Diabetes (madhumeha) is a human

disorder that has long-term inferences for persons suffering from the illness, also the health-

maintenance system as a whole. One of the factors that is involve in the occurrence of diabetes

is the damaging effect of free radicals. Therefore, anti-diabetic bioactive constituents with

antioxidant activity should be utilized. Moderation in lifestyle, exercise, and diet are all crucial

factors for the effective treatment of diabetes. Medicines procured from medicinal plants are

being utilized by around 60% of the globe population. Though several approaches are utilized

to decrease the damaging effect of diabetes, but medicinal plants and the herbal formulations

are adopted due to their low cost and lesser aftereffects.

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in blood. Overtime greater glucose level in

blood has many complications i.e. damage to

digestive system, peripheral nerves, eyes,

kidneys, blood vessels, ability of wound

healing, sexual response, and heart. Because of

the cause and cure of diabetes are associated to

lifestyle and diet, Ayurvedic approach is a

promising practice to deal with type II diabetes.

Thus, the usage of Ayurveda in the treatment of

type II diabetes should benefits large number of

sufferers, suffering from diabetes all over the

globe.

What is Diabetes?

Diabetes (madhumeha) is a chronic illness of

protein, fat, and carbohydrate metabolism

determined by raising level of post prandial and

fasting blood sugar. It is a metabolic disorder

resulting from the dysfunction and

insufficiency of insulin. Diabetes may result in

severe complications in different organ system.

Types of Diabetes

Type I Diabetes: It resulted due to the

deficiency of insulin because of the absence of

beta cells. Person suffering from this type, is

dependent upon the external supply of insulin.

Type II Diabetes: It is independent of insulin.

Person suffering from this type is not able to

respond to insulin. It can be cured with

medication, exercise, and dietary changes.

Symptoms for diabetic condition

Certain symptoms observed in diabetes which

are as follows: high blood sugar level,

polydypsis, polyurea, polyphagia, weight loss,

vomiting, blurred vision, nausea, weakness, and

mood fluctuation.

Risk factors for diabetes

Risk factor for the diabetes are widely known

and include obesity, diabetic family history,

absence of physical activity, poor diet,

excessive intake of calories, low intake of

fibers, high intake of trans and saturated fat,

greater glycemic load, greater glycemic index,

smoking of cigarette, and consumption of

alcohol.

Medicinal plants

There are several herbal treatments are

available for the diabetes and its complications.

Medicinal plants listed in Table 1 form the

major components of these herbal formulations.

Table 1: Medicinal plants with anti-diabetic potential

Plant name Common name Antidiabetic effect

Withania somnifera Ashvagandha Hypoglycemic effect

Punica granatum Anar Anti-hyperglycemic effect

Emblica officinalis Amla Hypoglycemic effect

Ipomoea batatas Sakkargand Reduces insulin resistance

Murraya Koenigii Curry patta Hypoglycemic effect

Eugenia jambolana Jamun Anti-hyperglycemic effect

Aegle marmelos Bel Decrease blood sugar

Aloe vera Aloe Hypoglycemic effect

Azardirachta indica Neem Anti-diabetic activity

Momordica charantia Bitter gourd Anti-hyperglycemic agent

Ocimum sanctum Holy basil Blood sugar reduction

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Herbal formulations

Many herbal formulations as shown in Table 2

are available in the market that can be utilized

regularly for the treatment of diabetes on the

direction of physician.

Yoga practices

Many yoga practices as shown in Table 4 are

proved to be beneficial in the regulation of

diabetes; however, their practice is advised

after the complete assessment of the risk

factors, individual requirement, and overall

health of a patient. After considering the patient

as a whole, yoga practice of low or high

intensity is recommended.

Diet in diabetes

Diet is the main supplement in the treatment of

diabetes as shown in Table 3. Diet is

recommended based on season, body

constitution, age, and environmental

circumstances.

CONCLUSION

Diabetic patient may look for latest

complementary remedy available for the cure of

their illness. Awareness regarding the

Ayurvedic approaches is essential for the

successful patient counselling and care. The

advantage of offering broad array of remedy

option includes decrease in ill effects with

advised usage of herbs and herbal formulations

along with mind-body calmness approaches.

Table 2: Herbal formulations with anti-diabetic effect

Company Drug Ingredients Effect

Plethico

Laboratories

Syndrex Extract of germinated fenugreek seed Anti-diabetic drug

Ayurvedic herbal

health products

Diabeta Ginger, Giloy, Black babhul, Black

plum, Bitter gourd, Kino tree, Neem,

Turmeric, Periwinkle, and Gurmar

Anti-diabetic

effect

Nature beaute sante Diabecure Taraxacum, Millefolium, European

centary, Barberry, and English walnut

Anti-diabetic

effect

Garry & Sun Bitter gourd

powder

Bitter gourd Lower the sugar

level

Table 3: Diet recommended in diabetes

Diet type Name

Oils Mustard, Atasi, Ingudi, Nikumbha

Fruits Amlaki, Kapitha, Apple, Watermelon, Orange, Jamun, Pomegranate

Vegetables Bitter gourd, Methi-Fenugreek leaves, Green banana, Garlic, Bathuva, Drum

stick

Pulses Green gram, Horse gram, Red gram, Toor dal

Cereals Wheat, Barley, Rice, Kodrava

Flesh Pigeon, Rabbit, Harina

Alcoholic liquid Old wine

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge the Bioinformatic Centre,

Banasthali Vidyapith supported by DBT and

DST for providing computation and networking

support through the FIST and CURIE programs

at the Department of Bioscience and

Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith,

Rajasthan and authors are also thankful to

Azoth Biotech LLP, Noida for their support.

REFERENCES

Gordon, A., Buch, Z., Baute, V. and Coeytaux,

R. 2019. Use of Ayurveda in the

treatment of type 2 Diabetes mellitus.

Global Advances in Health and

Medicine. 8: 2164956119861094.

Modak, M., Dixit, P., Londhe, J., Ghaskabdi, S.

and Devasagayam, T.P.A. 2007. Indian

herbs and herbal drugs used for the

treatment of diabetes. Journal of Clinical

Biochemistry and Nutrition. 40(3): 163-

173.

Srinath, N., Haripriya, N., Singh, R., Manjula,

and Tewari, D. 2015. Diabetes mellitus

(Madhumeha) and ayurvedic

management: an evidence-based

approach. World Journal of Pharmacy

and Pharmaceutical Science. 4(8): 881-

892.

Raveendran, A.V., Deshpandae, A. and Joshi

S.R. 2018. Therapeutic role of yoga in

type 2 diabetes. Endocrinology and

Metabolism. 33(3): 307-317.

Table 4: Yoga practices for the diabetes management

Yoga practice Benefit

Surya namaskar Stimulates production of insulin via brain signalling

Yoga nidra Decrease of postprandial and fasting blood glucose level

Aum chanting Mind stabilization and negative thoughts removal

Meditation (Dhyan) Positive influence on the level of sugar

Kapalbhati Enhance the pancreatic β-cells efficiency

Prana mudra, surya mudra,

linga mudra

Decrease sugar levels, promote loss of weight, and boost metabolic

rate

Surya bhedan Sympathetic stimulating effect in diabetic people

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Medicova: Nutritional and Medicinal Value of Mushroom

Aarti Kotnala1, Priya Chaudhary2, Kiran Bisht3, Neetu Negi1

1Azoth Biotech LLP, Gautam Buddha Nagar, Noida, Uttar Pradesh-201306, India 2Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith, Rajasthan-304022, India

3J Mitra & Co. Pvt. Ltd., Okhla Industrial Area Phase-1, New Delhi-110020, India

Corresponding Author

Aarti Kotnala

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Mushrooms, Diseases, Health, Nutritional component, Treatments

How to cite this article:

Kotnala, A., Chaudhary, P., Bisht, K. and Negi, N. 2020. Medicova: nutritional and medicinal value of

mushroom. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 16-18

INTRODUCTION

he word mushroom is utilized

throughout the world to express the

variable species of fungi belongs to the

order Ascomycetes or Basidomyecetes. These

Ascomycetes and Basidomycetes are found in

the soil rich in animal waste, moist wood,

humus, and organic matter after the sudden

alteration in temperature and rainfall but soon

they disappear and leave no sign except

mycelium. The people of rural areas eat more

mushrooms than the urban areas individual.

Older peoples give more values to mushrooms

than the younger generations. Mushrooms are

utilized as a therapeutic as they treat cancer,

atherosclerosis, hypercholesterolemia, and

hypertension due their active constituents.

Mushrooms play an important role in the

ecosystem of forest as they have unique ability

to break down organic matter, leaves, and wood

and recycle them back into the ecosystem.

T

ABSTRACT

Many of the mushrooms and fruiting bodies of fungi are edible in nature and act as a great

source of protein, whereas some other mushrooms reported to have narcotic effect and

utilized as a medicine. They are enriched in nutritional components such as trace elements,

fibers, minerals, vitamins, and proteins, and have low content of cholesterol. They are utilized

by the individual as an additional vegetable due to its great quality and have beneficial

influence on the human fitness and health. Mushrooms reported to have healing properties

and utilized for the treatment of various diseases. They are used as anticancer, antiviral, and

antibacterial agents due to the presence of active bio-constituents. Because of these

properties, mushrooms are utilized to promote the health of the individuals as a dietary

supplement all over the globe.

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Many species of mushrooms are broadly

cultivated throughout the Europe and Asia due

to their greater biological efficiency.

Mushrooms has higher concentration of fiber,

carbohydrates, fat, proteins, and water in it.

Higher content of microelements and proteins,

and low calorific content make it suitable for

the prevention of cardiovascular diseases.

Basically, a well-balanced diet is required for

the prevention of ailments and mainly the

oxidative stress in the body. So, in this respect,

mushrooms have a long back history to be

utilized as an oriental medicine to prevent

various diseases. In recent years, the extracts of

mushrooms have been commercialized due to

their anticancer and immunity enhancement

properties. Thus, through this article we

highlighted the nutritional and medicinal values

of mushrooms.

Fig 1: Different types of mushrooms

Nutritional value of Mushrooms

Mushrooms have a great flavor, taste, aroma

and a unique texture and type as shown in

figure-1 that differentiate mushrooms from the

other cultivated food crops. Different

nutritional components of the mushroom are

described below:

Carbohydrate content

The content of carbohydrate in mushrooms

determine the bulk of fruiting bodies which

accounts for 50 to 65% of carbohydrate,

majorly 80% of mannitol based on dry weight.

Fresh mushroom comprises of different

percentage of carbohydrate such as:

• 0.91% hemicellulose

• 0.59% glycogen

• 0.28% reducing sugar

• 0.9% mannitol

Protein content

• The content of protein in mushroom is

based on the substratum composition,

pileus size, harvesting time and

mushroom species

• Protein content in Agaricus bisporus

mycelium varied from 32 to 42% on dry

weight basis

• Mushrooms have greater content of

protein than the other wild plants and

vegetable crops, 15.20 to 18.87% and

14.71 to 17.37% protein in the fruiting

bodies of Lactarious sanguiffus and

Lactarious deliciosus, respectively

Fats

• The major fats present in the fruiting

bodies of mushroom are of unsaturated

fatty acids type

• The content of fat is varied from species

to species i.e. 2.32% in Agaricus

campestris, 3.66% in Suillus luteus, and

2.04% in Suillus granulatus

• Mushrooms are enriched in essential

amino acid i.e. linolenic acid

Vitamins

• Mushrooms are the well-known source

for the vitamins

• Wild mushrooms comprise greater

quantity of vitamin D2 in comparison to

dark cultivated Agaricus bisporus

• Mushrooms also have vitamin C and

vitamin B-complex in less quantity, but

they are poor in vitamin E, D, and A

Mineral constituents

• Mushrooms contains a large level of

mineral constituent that are crucial for

the health of a human being

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• The content of minerals in mushrooms

are depend upon the diameter of fruiting

bodies, age, and species

• It also depends on the substratum type

that is required during the cultivation of

mushrooms

Medicinal value of Mushrooms

Mushrooms not only have nutritional value but

also utilized as therapeutic food product. It is

found to be effective in the treatment of disease

like cancer, inflammation, hypertension, and

diabetes as shown in below.

Mushrooms Medicinal value

Agaricus blazei

Hyperlipidemia,

arteriosclerosis, diabetes,

chronic hepatitis, cancer

Ganoderma lucidum AIDS and HIV

Osmoporus odoratus

Antibacterial activity

against Pseudomonas

aeruginosa, Escherichia

coli, Bacillus subtilis,

Streptococcus pyrogenes

Ganoderma lucidum

Antimicrobial activity

against P. aeruginosa, S.

typhi, B. subtilis, K.

pneumoniae, S. aureus, E.

coli

Sclerotinia

sclerotiorum, Grifola

frondosa,

Schizophyllum

commune, Lentinus

edodes

Anti-tumor activity

Lentinus tuberregim Inhibition in the

proliferation of solid tumor

Morchella esculents Anti-inflammatory activity

Ganoderma. lucidum Inhibition of O2

- And OH-

radicals

Agaricus bisporus Prevent tumor cell

proliferation in cancer

Lentinula edodes Suppression of cell

proliferation in leukemia

Lentinus polychrous Dyspepsia

Pleurotus florida Decreased Inflammation

CONCLUSION

Mushrooms have a great association with the

mankind and provide extensive economic and

biological impact. From earlier times, man has

utilized wild mushrooms because of their

pleasant flavour and taste. The edible

mushrooms provide a great quality of vitamin

C, vitamin B-complex, minerals, fibers, and

protein and have low fatty acid content. But

starch is absent from mushrooms. They

comprise significant quantity of potassium,

sodium, phosphorous with low quantity of iron

and calcium. Mushrooms are reported to have

various medicinal uses for the treatment of

different diseases. Many proteins in

mushrooms also have anti-HIV and antiviral

properties.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We acknowledge the Bioinformatic Centre,

Banasthali Vidyapith supported by DBT and

DST for providing computation and networking

support through the FIST and CURIE programs

at the Department of Bioscience and

Biotechnology, Banasthali Vidyapith,

Rajasthan and authors are also thankful to

Azoth Biotech LLP, Noida and J Mitra & Co.

Pvt. Ltd. for their support.

REFERENCES

Valverde, M.E., Hernández-Pérez, T. and

Paredes-López, O., 2015. Edible

mushrooms: improving human health

and promoting quality life. International

Journal of Microbiology, 2015. pp 1.14

Waktola, G. and Temesgen, T., 2018.

Application of mushroom as food and

medicine. Advances in Biotechnology

and Microbiology, 113. pp.1-4.

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Significance of Antinutritional Compounds in Vegetables

Preetilagna Dhal

PhD Scholar,

Department of Vegetable Science, College of Agriculture,

Odisha University of Agriculture & Technology, Bhubaneswar-751003

Corresponding Author

Preetilagna Dhal

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Antinutritional factor, oxalates, saponin, haemagluttin, cynogens

How to cite this article:

Dhal, P. 2020. Significance of antinutritional compounds in vegetables. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 19-21

ABSTRACT

Antinutritional factor is known to interfere with metabolic processes such that growth and

bioavailability of nutrients are negatively influenced. Anti-nutrients are natural compounds

that interfere with the absorption of nutrients, hence are known to reduce nutrients

availability to animals and humans. Vegetables is an important source of protective food and

a part of healthy diet. However, plants generally contain toxic secondary metabolites or anti-

nutritional factors and they have been shown to be highly biologically active. Antinutritional

factor is known to interfere with metabolic processes such that growth and bioavailability of

nutrients are negatively influenced. They include saponins, alkaloids, protease inhibitors,

oxalates, haemaggluttinins (lectin), cyanogens, lethogens, and goitrogen. Some of these plant

chemicals have been shown to be deleterious to health or evidently advantageous to human

health, if consumed in appropriate amounts. However, some antinutrients may exert beneficial

health effects at low concentrations like phytic acid, lectins, tannins, saponins, amylase

inhibitors and protease inhibitors have been shown to reduce the availability of nutrients and

cause growth inhibition. However, when used at low levels, phytate, lectins, tannins, amylase

inhibitors and saponins have also been shown to reduce the blood glucose and insulin

responses to starchy foods and/or the plasma cholesterol and triglycerides. In addition,

phytates, tannins, saponins, protease inhibitors, goitrogens and oxalates have been related to

reduce cancer risks. This implies that anti-nutrients might not always harmful even though lack

of nutritive value.

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INTRODUCTION

nti-nutritional factors are those

substances or chemical compounds

found in fruits and food substances in

general which are poisonous to humans. They

reduce the ability of nutrients such as minerals,

vitamins and even proteins within the plant

material. This, in turn, affects the nutritional

value of these plants. Anti-nutrients comprise

of amino acids to proteins, simple amines to

alkaloids, glycosides and phenolic compounds.

Anti-nutritional factors are naturally occurring

compounds, present in different vegetables in

varying amounts depending on the kind of food,

mode of its propagation, chemicals used in

growing the crop as well as those chemicals

used in storage and preservation of the food

substances (Panhwar, 2005). These anti-

nutritional factors are also known as “secondary

metabolites” in plants and they have been

shown to be highly biologically active. These

secondary metabolites are secondary

compound produced as side products of

processes leading to the synthesis of primary

metabolites. Antinutrients are chemicals which

have been evolved by plants for their own

defense, they are produced by plants to defend

themselves against fungi, insects and predators,

and offer a protective mechanism for the plant

Tomatine

Found in leaves and stem of tomato plants and

has fungicidal, antimicrobial & insecticidal

property. Chemically pure tomatine is a white

crystalline solid at standard temperature and

pressure, used as reagent, precipitating

cholesterol act as antidote to mercury.

Solanine and Chaconine

Green potatoes have elevated level of solanine

(30-80% close to skin) which act as defence

mechanism to late blight disease and increase

level of glycoalkaloid which is bitter in taste.

Cyanogens

Cassava and some legumes like kidney bean

contain cyanogenic glycosides from which

hydrogencyanide (HCN) may be released by

hydrolysis (Akande et al., 2010). The

compounds which release HCN on hydrolysis

are called as “cyanogens”. HCN so released

block the respiration. Their general function in

plants is dependent on activation by β-

glucosidases to release toxic volatile HCN as

well as a ketones or aldehydes to fend off

herbivore and pathogen attack.

Oxalate

A salt formed from oxalic acid is known as an

Oxalate: for example, Calcium oxalate, widely

distributed in plant kingdom. Strong bonds are

formed between oxalic acid, and various other

minerals, such as Calcium, Magnesium,

Sodium, and Potassium which, results in the

formation of oxalate salts. Sodium and

potassium oxalate salts are soluble, but calcium

oxalate salts are basically insoluble. As calcium

oxalate is insoluble, has the tendency to

precipitate (or solidify) in the Kidneys or in the

Urinary tract, when the levels are high enough,

thus forming sharp-edged calcium oxalate

crystals. These crystals play a role to the

formation of kidney stones in the urinary tract

when the acid is excreted in the urine (Nachbar,

2000).

Nitrate (NO3-) and Nitrite (NO2

-)

The high level of these anions is harmful as

these compounds convert haemoglobin to

metaemoglobin (a function less protein) that is

unable to carry out the oxygen transport

function of the former. The NO3 level more than

75 ppm is toxic while NO2 results in toxicity

beyond 200 ppm. An excessive nitrogen

fertilization can lead to their accumulation in

vegetables. Both environmental and

agricultural factors can influence the nitrate

concentrations in vegetables. The former

includes soil moisture, light intensity and

A

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temperature and the later fertilizers, variety and

crop protection strategies.

Saponins

Saponin found in soybeans, sugar beets,

peanuts, spinach, asparagus, broccoli, potatoes,

eggplants (Price et al., 1987). Saponin is bitter

in taste and can haemolyse red blood cells. It

occurs in all parts of plant, although the

concentration is affected by variety and stage of

growth. Saponin, disrupt red blood cells causes

diarrhoea and vomiting in humans. Also, have

anti-spermal effect on human spermatozoa:

significantly inhibit acrosine activity of human

sperms and the spermicidal effect is attributed

to strong damage of the spermal plasma

membrane (Su and Guo, 1986; Pant et al.,

1989). Saponin present in garlic useful in

lowering cholesterol levels, helps in reduce the

risk of heart disease (Esenwah and

Ikenebomeh, 2008). Saponin have immense

industrial importance due to its insecticidal,

antibiotic, and fungicidal properties. It exerts

antifungal activity due to its capacity to

associate with steroids of fungal membranes,

causing damage to its integrity and pore

formation (Loewus, 2002).

Tannins

Tannin is a yellowish or brownish bitter-testing

organic substance present in bark and other

plant tissue that either binds or precipitates

proteins and various other organic compounds

including amino acids and alkaloids (Gemede

and Ratta, 2014).

CONCLUSION

Antinutritional content although reduce

nutrient intake, digestion, absorption,

utilization & may cause depressions in growth

performance and animal health due to a variety

of mechanisms including, reducing protein

digestibility, binding to various nutrients

,damaging the intestinal wall ,lowering

digestive efficiency, causes nutritional

deficiencies, interferes with the functioning and

utilization of nutrients, antinutritive can

interfere with food components before intake,

during digestion in the gastrointestinal tract,

and after absorption in the body but it has some

positive effects like promoting the growth of

beneficial bacteria. The lectins present in

legumes assessed to act as a mucosal adjuvant,

beneficial outcome in hypercholesterolemia

after intake of heat-treated chickpea in rats have

been observed.

REFERENCES

Akande, M. A., Khan, S. H., Anjum, A. and

Makhdoomi, M. I. 2010. Antinutritional

factors in vegetables. Rashtriya Krishi,

6(1). pp-9-11

Esenwah, C. N. and Ikenebomeh, M. J., 2008.

Processing effects on the nutritional and

anti-nutritional contents of African

locust bean (Parkia biglobosa Benth.)

seed. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 7(2),

pp.214-217.

Gemede, H. F. and Ratta, N., 2014.

Antinutritional factors in plant foods:

Potential health benefits and adverse

effects. International Journal of

Nutrition and Food Sciences, 3(4),

pp.284-289.

Loewus, F., 2002. Biosynthesis of phytate in

food grains and seeds. Food Phytates,

pp.53-61.

Nachbar, M. S., Oppenheim, J. D. and Thomas,

J. O., 1980. Lectins in the US Diet.

Isolation and characterization of a lectin

from the tomato (Lycopersicon

esculentum). Journal of Biological

Chemistry, 255(5), pp.2056-2061.

Panhwar, F., 2005. Anti-nutritional factors in

oil seeds as aflatoxin in ground nut.

Digitalverlag GmbH, pp.1-8.

Price, K. R., Johnson, I. T., Fenwick, G. R. and

Malinow, M. R., 1987. The chemistry

and biological significance of saponins in

foods and feedingstuffs. Critical Reviews

in Food Science & Nutrition, 26(1),

pp.27-135.

Su, H. and Guo, R., 1986. Inhibition of acrosine

activity of human spermatozoa by

saponins of Bulbostermma paniculatum

Xtian Yike Daxue Xuebae 7, 225. In

Chem. Abstr (Vol. 1008, p. 49459).

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Milking Technique for Best Quality of the Milk

Nripendra Pratap Singh1, Ninad Bhatt1 and Pramod Chaudhary2

1PhD Scholar, Livestock Production Management Section, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal,

Haryana 2PhD Scholar, Division of Animal Nutrition, ICAR-Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar,

Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh

Corresponding Author

Nripendra Pratap Singh

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Clean Milk, Milking Process, Pre-dipping, Post-dipping

How to cite this article:

Singh, N. P., Bhatt, N. and Chaudhary, P. 2020. Milking technique for best quality of the milk. Vigyan

Varta 1(4): 22-25

INTRODUCTION

ndia is world’s largest milk producer with

milk production of 187.7 MT in year 2018-

19. But quality milk production has always

been an issue in India which is always been

neglected. But now being the leader in milk

production in world we are now focused on

quality milk production. Clean milk production

has always been the biggest concern for both

producers and consumers. With regards to

limiting mastitis and bringing down substantial

somatic cell counts, the region where we have

the most control is our milking systems. This is

a basic advance to keeping up most extreme

milk quality. Milking process should be done at

regular intervals and time of milking should

also be fixed at the same time every day.

The basic goal of the milking process is to

• Produce large quantities of a high-quality

end-product for consumers

• Limit mastitis infections

• Milking clean dry teats

• Reduce stress inside the parlour, on both

cows and staff

To achieve clean milk production, the first step

is to understand the how’s and whys of the

I

ABSTRACT

Getting good quality milk is an important issue in India. Getting clean and best quality milk is

dependent on the milking operations. Clean and quality milk fetch more prices to producers in

market. For getting best quality milk we need to follow some steps during milking procedure,

these steps are minimizing stress, wearing gloves, cleaning cows, fore-stripping, pre-dipping,

drying teats, attaching milking units, removing milking units and post-dipping. Following these

steps would help us achieve clean and best quality milk to consumers.

OPEN ACCESS

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milking process. Then only we can determine

what procedures best fit your individual dairy

operation. Lastly write these procedures down

and post them where everyone involved in the

milking process can see them. Working

strategies ought to be conveyed to workers and

intermittently assessed.

These are the recommended best practices to

consider for quality milk production

1. Minimize stress

The operation of milking immediately starts

when cows reach the milking parlor. Bring

them into the parlour calmly and gently. Hitting

or yelling will cause them to become excited

and stressed. Time in the holding pen ought to

be limited to less than total two hours per day.

If cows are stressed a steroid hormone

adrenaline is released into the bloodstream

which interferes with oxytocin secretion from

the brain of the cow. Oxytocin is a hormone that

is naturally released in the Cow's body to signal

for milk letdown. Without regular timely

letdown of milk, the quantity of milk you

produce may be lowered. Additionally, cows

that are stressed or more likely to slip fall or

defecate while entering the parlour.

2. Wear gloves

Contagious mastitis causing bacteria, like staph

aureus may live on your hands and can be

transmitted between cows during milking.

Before milking, at least hand should be cleaned

in complete with water and soap. Ideally

because bacteria are less likely to adhere to

gloves than rough callous skin. Latex or nitrile

gloves must be worn. Gloves minimize the

spread of contagious mastitis between cows and

help protect the milker’s skin. They are also

easier to disinfect than bare hands.

3. Clean Cows

Keep Cows as tidy as possible until they reach

the milking area. Clean cows are not only

exposed to fewer environmental mastitis

pathogens, but they are also easier to clean prior

to milking. If you want to wash a high level of

your dairy animals, you might need to

reevaluate how your fields or horse shelters are

overseen. To improve dairy animals’

cleanliness, dirt manure or debris can

frequently be expelled by hand or with a towel

without the utilization of water. At the point

when dairy animals are unnecessarily filthy

some utilization of water might be important to

clean the teats. In any case, this practice ought

to be the special case and not the standard. If

water is used, be sure to only wet the teats and

not the entire udder because it is nearly

impossible to dry the udder and this water ends

up being drawn into the inflations. In addition,

the usage of water in the parlour contributes to

higher rates of mastitis and bacteria in milk

(Pantoja et al., 2011).

4. Forestrip

Once the cow is in position in the milker’s

prepared the first step in the actual process is

generally fore-stripping. This involves

manually removing a few streams or strips of

milk from each teat. This process allows you to

examine the milk for any signs of mastitis,

including clotty stringy or watery milk. Also,

fore-stripping helps to stimulate the teats and

udder and encourage milk letdown. Effective

stimulation helps increase milk flow rate and

reduce milking unit time. Ideally fore-stripping

is accomplished using a strip cup. Milk may

also be stripped onto to the floor and hosed off

immediately. Milk ought not to be stripped into

the hand or towel since this would lead to

spread of mastitis among teats and between

dairy animals. Fore-stripping can be

accomplished before or after pre dipping but

absolutely must occur before drying. Often fore

stripping and pre dipping are accomplished in

the same task within a routine to save time. This

activity will take around 10 to 20 seconds per

cow to enable adequate stimulation (Tangorra

et al., 2017).

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5. Pre-dip

Teat should be pre-dipped with a sanitizing

solution. This eliminates bacteria on teat ends

prior to milking and helps to control mastitis,

caused by environmental mastitis pathogens. At

least three-quarters of the teat will be filled with

a target of covering the whole teat while pre

dipping. A non-return teat dip cup should be

used to prevent contamination. The pre-dip

must stay on the teats before drying for at least

30 seconds.

6. Dry teats

The teats ought to be altogether dried with a

solitary assistance retentive fabric or paper

towel. Never utilize a similar towel on two

dairy animals. All debris manure and pre plunge

buildup on the teats ought to be expelled while

drying utilizing a delicate turning movement.

During the drying procedure specific

accentuation ought to be set on getting the teat

ends spotless and dry. If not, adequately dried

water containing mastitis causing bacteria may

end up in the teacups and expose the open teat

ends to these bacteria. In the end improperly

dried teats contribute to increased occurrence of

mastitis. When using cloth towels, research has

demonstrated that at least two of the following

must occur during laundering, firstly washing

with detergent and sanitizer, second using hot

water above 140℉ and number three using a

heated drying cycle.

7. Attach milking units

Timely attaching the milking units. After

stimulation, oxytocin which triggers milk

letdown reaches peak rates 60 seconds. Milkers

will then be connected within 1 to 1.5 minutes

of stimulation of the teat (Jessell et al., 1977).

The goal here is to coordinate milker

attachment with milk letdown when milk flow

is highest. Attaching too soon or too late can

result in excessive milking time or reduced

yield. Attach the milker without allowing

excessive air into the milking system. Adjust

the milking unit to hang squarely beneath the

cow's udder and arrange it and the hoses to

avoid any twisting. The milking units should be

checked and adjusted to prevent liner slips

throughout the process. When units are not

aligned properly too much milk will remain in

the udder after milking and teatcups may slip or

squawk. When the teatcup liners slips small

droplets of milk may be forced back toward the

end of the teat. When these droplets of milk

contain organism-inducing mastitis, they can

infiltrate the udder and result in a new infection.

8. Remove milking units

Milking units may be removed manually or

with automatic takeoffs or detachers. With

either process avoid over milking which can

increase the incidence of liner slips and lead to

teat end damage. Adjust automatic takeoffs to

ensure they do not stay on too long.

Additionally, milkers should resist the

temptation to override the automatic

detachment by putting the milker back on.

When teatcups are removed manually be sure to

shut the vacuum off before removal. Removing

teacups while under vacuum can lead to

increased infections and tissue damage. The

process of machine stripping or holding down

on individual teacups or milking clusters should

be avoided. Properly stimulated cows milked

with correctly functioning and attached units

should not have excessive residual milk left in

the udder.

9. Post-dip

The teats will be soaked with a post-dip for as

long as possible after the milking devices are

withdrawn. Documented to be an efficient

germicide, through independent studies. The

target would be to cover at least three-quarters

of the teat as with pre-dipping. An effective

post dip kills organism on teats, prevents

organisms from colonizing in the teat canal and

reduces the rate of new infections from

contagious mastitis pathogens. Teat dip cups

should be kept clean a non-return teat dip cups

should be used to prevent teat dip

contamination. Some dairy farmers prefer to

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spray the teats instead of dipping. While teats

may be properly protected with a spray bottle.

Total coverage is always low. Wrapping a paper

towel across the teat immediately after dipping

is a safe way to check the efficacy of post

dipping. The purpose is to see on the paper

towel a continuous line of teat dip showing the

whole teat was protected. You can also notice

split traces of teat dip from spraying since the

teat's opposite side is not exposed.

CONCLUSION

Farmers must face major losses when the

quality milk is not supplied to consumers. So,

to avoid this type of situation farmer must check

the milking procedure that he is following at his

farms. Farmers should follow the strict

procedure recommended during the milking

operation. Any type of casual attitude during

milking would lead the loss in quality of milk.

The practice of proper pre and post dipping the

teat has certainly led to the decrease in cases of

mastitis, which are important steps during

milking procedure. So, following the steps in

proper and critical way will help the farmer get

quality milk from animals and will certainly to

more income generation.

REFERENCES

Pantoja, J. C. F., Reinemann, D. J. and Ruegg,

P. L., 2011. Factors associated with

coliform count in unpasteurized bulk

milk. Journal of Dairy Science, 94(6),

pp.2680-2691.

Jessell, T. and Iversen, L. L., 1977. Opiate

analgesics inhibit substance P release

from rat trigeminal nucleus. Nature,

268(5620), pp.549-551.

Tangorra, F.M., Leonardi, S., Bronzo, V., Rota,

N. and Moroni, P., 2017. Pre-milking

mechanical teat stimulation and milking

performance of dairy buffaloes in early

lactation. Journal of Agricultural

Engineering, 48(1), pp.53-55.

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Popular Article

DNA Diagnostics vs. Serodiagnostics: A Comparison

Moon Moon Satpathy1, Abhilash Routray2 and Sonam Sarita Bal3

1PG Scholar, Department of Veterinary Microbiology, GADVASU, Ludhiana, Punjab 2PhD. Scholar, Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, LUVAS, Hisar, Haryana

3PG Scholar, Department of Veterinary Pathology, GADVASU, Ludhiana, Punjab

Corresponding Author

Dr. Abhilash Routray

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

DNA based diagnostic, Serology, Serodiagnostics, Animal health

How to cite this article:

Satpathy, M. M., Routray, A. and Bal, S. S. 2020. DNA diagnostics vs. Serodiagnostics: a comparison.

Vigyan Varta 1(4): 26-31

INTRODUCTION

Diagnostic test is an indispensable

tool for accurate diagnosis,

monitoring, screening and predicting

the prognosis of a disease in the field of

Veterinary and Human Medicine. It helps the

practitioner to diagnose the specific ailment or

disease of a patient and hence plays a very

crucial role in prescribing the most appropriate

treatment for it. For some diseases like that in A

ABSTRACT

A diagnostic test plays an important role in the present era not only for accurately diagnosing

a disease condition but also has a key role in monitoring, screening and predicting its

prognosis. Hence it is of immense significance the field of Veterinary and Human Medicine. We

have two approaches in diagnostics; one is serology based which includes agglutination based

tests, precipitation based tests , Enzyme linked Immuno sorbent assay, western blotting,

complement fixation test, Viral neutralization test etc., other one is DNA based including

Polymerase Chain Reaction, Reverse Transcriptase PCR, Real-time PCR etc. Serology based

tests are fast, require less manpower and pen-side tests with reasonable sensitivity and

specificity whereas DNA based tests are highly sensitive and specific with enormous scope of

use including identifying unknown bacteria by targeting its 16s rRNA, but these also have

certain limitations like these may not be always convenient in every situation, even fail to

detect current infection and past exposure. These also detect the presence of dead

microorganism which can also mislead the present disease status. Hence choosing an

appropriate diagnostic test well suited to our purpose is necessary as it not only saves time but

also saves manpower and resources.

OPEN ACCESS

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case of cancer, it is not only important to know

the disease but it is equally important to

understand the degree of development, whether

it is stable or in regression, hence the chosen

diagnostic test helps the health care providers to

access whether the given treatment is effective

in controlling the disease. Infectious diseases

pose a greater threat to the world today than

years back possibly due to a myriad of

emerging and re-emerging diseases, new

bacteria, viruses and parasites, increasing

population density, changing food habits of

people and easy travel facilities. Rampant use

of antibiotics without proper testing has paved

the way for emergence of resistant bacteria,

thus an appropriate diagnostic test also checks

development of AMR. Diagnostic tests are also

important for confirming the health status of

animal and identifying pathogens. It plays a

crucial role early detection, management and

control of animal diseases including zoonotic

diseases. As per WHO, about 60% of the

emerging infectious diseases reported globally

are zoonotic, hence they help to safeguard the

public health. Tests help to monitor the disease

status and immune response to a vaccination

program in a herd. It also helps in herd health

screening for various diseases like Bovine Viral

Diarrhoea (BVD), Brucellosis etc. Apart from

this, accurate diagnosis of infectious diseases

helps to prevent huge economic losses due to

mortality, morbidity and reduction on

productivity in livestock and poultry

populations and also facilitate safe trade in

animals and animal products.

Properties of an Ideal Diagnostic test

For selecting an ideal diagnostic test, the

ASSURED criteria can be used as a benchmark,

where ASSURED denotes Affordable,

Sensitive, Specific, User-friendly, Rapid and

robust, Equipment free and Deliverable to end

users. Tests should be easy to perform, reliable

and require less machinery. Pen-side

Diagnostic tests that can be performed near the

animal are preferred. Other factors like it should

not be much influenced by temperature, should

also withstand the test in different countries

should be reproducible and validated, should be

reliable i.e. it should produce same result both

in lab and in field condition.

However not all tests perfectly fit into these

criteria especially those requiring infrastructure

and necessary equipment, but they can be

perfectly accurate in identifying a disease-

causing pathogen.

Serodiagnostics

The scientific study or diagnostic examination

of blood serum/other body fluids, especially

regarding the response of immune system to

pathogens or introduced substances is called

serology. In other words, the measurement of

antigen-antibody interactions for diagnostic

purpose is referred to as serology.

Serodiagnostics are based on the principle of

detecting ‘antigen’ or ‘antibody’ in serum,

where antigen being the organism itself or any

toxin produced by it and antibodies are

immunoglobulins secreted in response to the

antigen by the specialized lymphocytes called

plasma cells. Both antigen and antibody can be

detected by various methods. It is done by

separating the serum from blood and using it to

detect antigen or antibody. These tests also

serve as a primary laboratory diagnostic test for

the organisms that are difficult to culture in

laboratory

Serological testing for infectious diseases has

been available since early and middle part of the

past century. In due course of time, their

sensitivity and specificity has been increased

using better reagents and methods thus making

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them more convenient to use as compared to the

traditional tests.

Types of Serological Techniques

Diagnostic serological tests fall into three broad

categories i.e. primary binding tests, secondary

binding tests and tertiary binding tests.

Primary binding tests directly measures the

binding of antigen to antibody. Under this

category comes RIA, ELISA, FAT,

Immunoperoxidase test, Western Blotting etc.

RIA stands for Radio Immuno Assay. It is one

of the most sensitive techniques for detecting

antigen or antibody developed in 1960s by S. A.

Berson and Rosalyn Yalow to determine the

levels of insulin-anti insulin complexes in

diabetics. Immunofluorescence Assays

comprises of the Fluorescent Antibody Tests

(direct, indirect and sandwich). These tests

make use of fluorescent dyes like FITC

(Fluorescein isothiocyanate), Rhodamine

isothiocyanate etc. Enzyme Immune Assays

(EIAS) are commonly called as ELISA. It has

similar principle as RIA, but it depends on

enzyme rather than radioactive label for test.

Immunoperoxidase test is used to detect antigen

in tissue sections. Its principle is similar to

Immunofluorescence test or direct/indirect

ELISA. Here enzymes labelled with

immunoglobulin are used and DAB is used as

chromogenic substrate. Western blotting

technique is used to identify a specific protein

in a complex protein mixture.

In secondary binding test, the reaction between

antigen and antibody forms a stable complex

which is followed by which can be visualized.

It measures the antigen- antibody reaction

invitro. The secondary binding tests include

precipitation test, agglutination test and

Complement Fixation Test (CFT).

Agglutination reaction is characterized by the

formation of visible clump when particulate

antigen interacts with antibodies. Precipitation

tests involve reaction of soluble antigen

(precipitinogen) with an antibody (precipitins).

CFT is used to measure the serum levels of

specific antibody against antigens. These tests

are less sensitive but easier to perform.

Tertiary binding tests are also called assays in

living system in which the actual protective

action of antibodies in an animal is measured. It

is the most complex of all tests. Under this

comes neutralization test and protection test.

DNA Diagnostics

It is based on the principle of detecting the

presence of an organism by detecting its nucleic

ELISA plate

Rose Bengal

Plate test

AGID

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acid (DNA or RNA). This is done by detecting

a particular gene which is specific to that

organism.

Microbial DNA (either from virus or bacteria)

can be subjected to PCR (Polymerase Chain

Reactions) by using specific DNA sequences

for unique portions of microbial DNA called as

primers in order to allow its specific

amplification, followed by detection on agarose

gel. Quantification of the DNA can be done

PCR or branched chain DNA assay. The RNA

from RNA viruses can be detected by reverse-

transcriptase PCR (RT-PCR) and its

quantification can be done by using real-time

PCR or branched chain DNA assay. In real-time

PCR or q-PCR DNA concentration is indicated

by the release of fluorescent molecules during

amplification. Branched chain DNA assay is

based on the technique of signal amplification

for detecting nucleic acids.

Which is Better?

To compare which is a better technique, the

following queries must be considered i.e. what

to use? How to use? When to use? Where to

use?

Sensitivity

Sensitivity of a screening test is denoted by its

ability to correctly identify a true positive case.

DNA diagnostics can detect even if there one

DNA or RNA strand in the sample whereas for

a serological test, there is a minimum limit of

detection below which it may not detect the

antigen.

Specificity

Specificity of a test measures the ability of the

test to correctly identify the true negatives.

DNA based tests are more specific as the gene

of interest or the particular gene targeted is not

found elsewhere rather than in the organism

itself. Whereas Serological tests can show a

wide range of cross reactivity, hence they are

relatively less specific too.

Ease of Use

For performing a serology-based test, we just

must use a standard kit which is much easier

than performing a DNA based test which

requires trained personnel and sophisticated

equipment. Serodiagnostics can be used as pen-

side test. Thus, it can be performed near the

patient whereas a DNA based test can never be

performed as a pen-side test.

Duration of test

Duration depends on the type of test used. Some

serological tests are very fast like slide

agglutination, lateral flow etc., whereas some

are very lengthy taking more than a day like in

case of ELISA(if pre-coated antigenic plates are

not available and we have to do it manually then

it may require overnight incubation ).DNA

based tests take roughly more than a day. Real

time PCR (q-PCR) also saves time.

Scope of Use

DNA based tests are not only used for diagnosis

purpose, but they have enormous other uses.

These tests can be used paternity testing,

cloning and expression studies, genetic

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evolution, mutation, oncology, disease risk

management, genetic abnormality detection, in

forensic science, identifying criminals etc. But

serology-based tests can only be used to detect

antigen or antibody for a particular pathogen

and quantify them. It can also be used for typing

bacteria (Streptococcus), standardize toxin.

Some specific applications of serology apart

from the field of microbiology are ABO typing

(blood typing) and diagnosis of autoimmune

diseases like autoimmune haemolytic anaemia

(coombs test).

Sophistication

PCR tests are more sophisticated as it uses some

expensive machinery whereas serology-based

tests need less sophisticated machines (ELISA

reader).

Flexibility

DNA is present in every cells of the body, so

the biological samples for DNA based tests can

be any kind of cells or tissue like blood, hair,

bones, horns, hooves apart from samples like

blood, faeces, urine, sputum etc from which the

organism of interest can be directly isolated.

DNA based tests are particularly important in

the field of forensic science. DNA isolated from

archeological findings from different samples

like bones, hooves etc has paved the way for

studying the evolutionary history of humans

and animal. Serological tests lag behind the

DNA based tests in this aspect as they are

neither technically so advanced for serving

multipurpose use, nor do they operate using any

kind of biological sample as in case of DNA

based tests. Serological tests use only blood

serum or interstitial fluid.

Cost

Cost is a significant factor for choosing any

kind of diagnostic tool. So far as cost factor is

concerned, initial cost of DNA based tests is

high but recurrent cost is less whereas in case

of serology-based tests, cost remains constant

every time. Some tests are cheap whereas some

are expensive.

Some Specific Limitations

As serological testing is based on the

individual’s ability to mount an effective

humoral immune response to a pathogen which

may take time to develop ranging from few

weeks to even months, the diagnosis may get

delayed accordingly or may be even be

unreliable sometimes.

It also fails to differentiate between a current

infection and a past exposure. IgM is the

earliest antibody response to infection which

later converts to an IgG response as the

infection progress. IgM –specific assays are not

assays are not available for most bacterial

diseases and where available (Mycoplasma

pneumoniae or Toxoplasma gondii), solid

conclusions can’t be drawn from the tests due

to the fact that specific IgM may be present long

after an acute infection. The criteria for

serologically confirming an infection is based

on 4-fold rise in antibody titer between acute

and convalescent specimens, but in real world

of clinical laboratory testing, paired specimens

are extremely rare.

Serological testing can quantify the amount of

protective antibody against a vaccine whereas

PCR bases tests cannot. DNA based tests can

detect lineage and mutation of a pathogen

whereas serology-based tests cannot. Gene

expression studies can be done using PCR

based tests. Unknown bacteria can also be

identified by targeting its 16s rRNA can also be

done using PCR based tests.

Molecular tests are advantageous over

serological tests as detect microbes rather than

serological history of infection and thus can

detect the microbe much earlier than serological

tests. The empirical sensitivity of most

molecular tests especially nucleic acid

amplification assays tends to decrease over time

from time of infection to a positive assay. False

positive amplifications can also occur

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sometimes. As the pathogen is often cleared by

host’s innate immune response, so previous

exposure cannot be estimated by these tests.

Serological tests can be unreliable in case of

persistent infection as in case of Bovine Viral

Diarrhoea in which the persistently infected

calves are seronegative throughout their life.

Serology also has limited applications in

immunocompromised individuals.

CONCLUSION

The conclusion about which test is better

depends on our use. If we need a test which

should be extremely sensitive, specific,

flexible, and not very lengthy, then DNA based

test wins. If we want to perform mutation and

genetic lineage studies, DNA based tests are

preferred.

On the other hand, if we want a pen-side test

with reasonable sensitivity and specificity, less

sophisticated and faster, then serology-based

tests solve the purpose well. Hence it can be

concluded, the best test for our need depends on

the type of need itself.

REFERENCES

Alexander, T. S., 2006. Serology or Molecular

Infectious Disease Testing-Which,

When, and Why? Infectious Diseases in

Clinical Practice, 14(6), pp.373-376.

Nir-Paz, R., Michael-Gayego, A., Ron, M. and

Block, C., 2006. Evaluation of eight

commercial tests for Mycoplasma

pneumoniae antibodies in the absence of

acute infection. Clinical Microbiology

and Infection, 12(7), pp.685-688.

Gorgievski-Hrisoho, M., Germann, D. and

Matter, L., 1996. Diagnostic implications

of kinetics of immunoglobulin M and A

antibody responses to Toxoplasma

gondii. Journal of Clinical

Microbiology, 34(6), pp.1506-1511.

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Brown Manuring, an Effective Technique for Weed Management and

Sustainable Yield of Cereal Crops

Sumit Sow and Shivani Ranjan

PG Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, 813210

Corresponding Author

Sumit Sow

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Brown manuring, Green manuring, Soil fertility

How to cite this article:

Sow, S. and Ranjan, S. 2020. Brown Manuring, an effective technique for weed management and

sustainable yield of cereal crops. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 32-34

INTRODUCTION

ereals specially rice has biggest

commitment to support independence

in food grain production to take care of

consistently expanding population of the

nation. Maize considered as the queen of

cereals, is one of the most significant yields

close to rice and wheat in global agriculture.

Although maize is under development in India,

production and productivity are less over

temperate countries. The factor which causes

decrease in development, advancement and

yield of maize is weed which causes 40-70%

yield reduction under uncontrolled weed

development condition in maize. Fertilizers

have contributed significantly to the astounding

increment in crop production. However, use of

inorganic fertilizers alone in huge amount for a

long time brings about irregularity in the supply

C

ABSTRACT

As the population is increasing day by day and per capita land availability is decreasing leading

to poor soil fertility. So, efficient nutrient management is essential to main the soil fertility and

to gain sustainable yield of crops. Application of organic manure can play a vital role in this

direction. But these manures are generally bulky in nature and low in nutrient content. So,

farmers use inorganic fertilizer in huge amount. Therefore, substitution is highly required and

green manure can be a possible option to provide nutrient from sources. In green manuring,

the main limitation is as it is mainly practiced in rice crop which requires a duration of 45-60

days from seedling to decomposition with proper temperature and moisture after

incorporation. So, brown manuring is a viable option. Brown manure improves available

nutrients, porosity, organic carbon, CEC, aggregation of soil and improve soil properties. It will

suppress the weed population as well as increase the yield of the crops.

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and availability of other nutrients. The

combined use of organic manure and inorganic

fertilizers help in sustaining the yield of crops.

India has sufficient amount of organic waste

which can be converted into organic compost

and manure. But the huge quantity of organic

waste is not properly used and scientific

conversation into compost is not done and lost

in various ways. On the other hand, carrying

costs of low value bulky organic manure is too

expensive. So the option like green manuring

comes which add nutrient to the soil, but it

requires a period of time for decomposition

after incorporation into the soil. Moreover, the

decomposition process in green manuring

needs specific temperature and sufficient

moisture content in the soil which may not be

available throughout the year. In this context,

brown manuring is a viable option which is not

only free from these limitations but also

increase the yield sustainably of cereal crops.

Brown Manuring

Basically "no-till" version of green manuring,

using an herbicide to desiccate the crop plant

before flowering is brown manuring. In brown

manuring, green manure crops like Sesbania

are grown in standing cereal crops and selective

herbicide like 2,4-D or bispyribac sodium is

applied and after 4-5 days of spraying, green

manure crops start dying due to knock down

effect in the same piece of land. The plant

residues are left as such in that field along with

the main crop without incorporation or

ploughing until it's decomposition in the soil.

As a result of loss of chlorophyll due to

application of post emergence herbicide on the

green manure plant leaves showing brown in

colour referred to as brown manuring (Tanwar

et al., 2010). Brown manuring not only adds

organic matter to soil but also improves

biological and physico-chemical properties of

the soil. There are lots of benefits of brown

manuring specially maximizing the yield of

cereals and controlling weeds.

Effect on weeds

Brown manuring can be able to smother the

weeds by about 40-50% through raising green

manure crops like sunhemp, Sesbania etc. as

intercrop. Brown manuring can suppress 50%

of total weed population by shading effect of

the plant till 45 DAS up to which critical period

of crop weed competition continues in cereals

generally. Maity and Mukherjee (2007)

reported that combination of butachlor 1.5

kg/ha + brown manuring + 2,4-D 0.50 kg/ha

application at 40 DAS recorded lowest weed

index value of 4.5 and maximum weed control

efficiency of 88.15% at 60 DAS in Direct

Seeded Rice (DSR) in kharif. Application of

Wheat residue mulch at 4 t/ha along with

Sesbania intercropping for are equally effective

in controlling weeds in dry seeded rice (Singh

et al., 2007). Ramachandran et al., 2012

reported that Pre emergence alachlor 1.0 kg/ ha

+ brown manuring had higher weed control

efficiency of 92.15% at 40 DAS in irrigated

maize. Yadav et al. (2014) found that brown

manuring with cowpea and Sesbania had

positive effect in lowering weed population and

fostering the yield in DSR.

Effect on crop yield

Aslam et al, 2008 reported that yield of paddy

direct seeding and brown manuring (4.23 t/ha)

has higher yield than direct seeding without

manuring (3.36 t/ha). Prabhakaran and

chinnuswamy, 2006 found that drum seeding

with dhaincha brown manure reduced weeds as

well as increased yield of rice. In rabi maize,

pre emergence alachlor + brown manuring

increased the yield attributes such as cob length,

no of rows) cob, no of grains/ row and test

weight which in turn reflected in higher grain

(7.227 kg/ha), stover yield (11,563 kg/ha) and

increase economic return (Ramachandran et al.,

2012). The highest grain (3.88 t/ha) and straw

(5.96 t/ha) was recorded with butachlor +

brown manuring + 2,4-D application in direct

seeded kharif rice (Maity and Mukherjee,

2007). Yield of DSR with brown manuring and

conventional transplanting of rice is mostly

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same but brown manuring with DSR saves the

water over transplanting by moisture

conservation.

Effect on soil health and nutrient use

efficiency

The sustainability of rice-wheat cropping

system is in risk by increasing labour, water and

crisis of energy. In an experiment Nawaz et al.

(2017) Sesbania brown manuring in DSR

decreased the dry biomass 62-75%. By

replacing 25% of nitrogenous fertilizer by

brown manuring in DSR increased organic

carbon content 13.04% indicating better soil

health without affecting the economical

attributes. Sharma et al. noted that brown

manuring with basmati rice cultivated under the

method system of rice intensification boost up

the actinomycetes present in the soil. Brown

manure decreases bulk density of soil and

acting as buffer or lowering the transmission of

compaction to subsoil. Nutrient use efficiency

is positively influenced by weed. Skipping of

basal dose of nitrogen in the field has

considerable effect on nutrient use efficiency.

Nutrient use efficiency of N (50.00 and 64.67kg

grain yield/kg nutrient applied), P (229.36 and

296.64kg grain yield/kg nutrient applied) and K

(90.36 and 116.87 kg grain yield/kg nutrient

applied) was highest under butachlor 1.5 kg/ha

and brown manuring with 2,4-D 0.5kg/ha

during both the years in which nitrogen was

applied in four splits (Maiti and Mukherjee,

2007). Brown manure improves soil structure

and providing a protective cover for the soil

surface thus increases water infiltration and

retention, reduces wind and water erosion risk

as well as reduces the impact of extreme

temperatures. It also helps in maintaining the

earthworm population which indirectly

improve the soil fertility.

CONCLUSION

To satisfy the food demand of a worldwide

population expected to arrive at 9.1 billion in

2050 and more than 10 billion by century's end

will require significant changes in agricultural

production systems. As the nutrient status of the

soil is depleting day by day due to overuse of

chemical fertilizers, brown manuring is viable

option to cereal crops to enhance productivity

and maintaining sustainability through

restoration of soil health. It is not only a

resource conservation technology but also

controls the weed population. Due to erratic

monsoon farmers are unwilling to take to risk

of green manuring, for them brown manuring is

a reasonable solution which is economically

viable and environmentally sustainable.

REFERENCES

Maitra, S. & Zaman, A. 2017. Brown manuring,

an effective technique for yield

sustainability and weed management of

cereal crops: A review. International

Journal of Bioresource Science. 4(1),

pp.1-5.

Maity, S. K. and Mukherjee, P. K. 2011. Effect

of Brown Manuring on Grain Yield and

Nutrient Use Efficiency in Dry Direct

Seeded Kharif Rice (Oryza sativa L.).

Indian Journal of Weed Science, 43(1-2):

pp: 61-66.

Nawaz, A., Farooq, M., Lal, R., Rehman, A.,

Hussain, T. and Nadeem, A. 2017.

Influence of Sesbania Brown Manuring

and Rice Residue Mulch on Soil Health,

Weeds and System Productivity of

conservation Rice–Wheat Systems. Land

Degradation and Development, 28: pp:

1078-1090.

Ramachandran, A. Veeramani, A. and Prema,

P. 2012. Effect of brown manuring on

weed growth, yield and economics of

irrigated maize. Indian Journal of Weed

Science, 44(3), pp: 204–206.

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Zero Tillage as a Resource Conserving Technology in Rice - Wheat Cropping

System

Shivani Ranjan and Sumit Sow

PG Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Bihar Agricultural University, Sabour, Bhagalpur, 813210

Corresponding Author

Shivani Ranjan

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Climate change, Conventional tillage, Greenhouse gases, Zero tillage

How to cite this article:

Ranjan, S. and Sow, S. 2020. Zero tillage as a resource conserving technology in rice - wheat cropping

system. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 35-37

INTRODUCTION

illage is used to remove weeds, prepare

rows for sowing of crops but more

tillage is leading to soil compaction,

degradation of land, soil erosion etc. Extremely

low input use efficiency has led to improper use

of inputs and depletion of natural resources

besides environmental degradation (Hobbs et

al., 1997). Zero tillage can be a potential

solution to all these problems which involves

minimum disturbance of the soil. In zero tillage,

zero till seed cum fertilizer drill machine place

the seeds and fertilizers in a narrow slit created

by furrow opener in the soil with minimal soil

disturbance. The shape of the furrow is inverted

T. Adoption of zero tillage also increases the

amount of water infiltered into the soil,

T

ABSTRACT

The two most important cereal crops of India rice and wheat occupying an area of 43.86 million

hectare and 29.8 million hectares, respectively. Rice-wheat cropping system is practiced on a

large scale in Indo-Gangetic plains. There are issues or problems in rice-wheat cropping system

arising due to climate change and variability, emission of greenhouse gases, delayed sowing

of wheat, insect pest and diseases, lack of improved production technology, less water use

efficiency, less fertilizer use efficiency. These problems can be overcome by adopting zero

tillage in rice wheat cropping system. Zero tillage is a type of conservation tillage in which

primary tillage is completely avoided and secondary tillage is restricted to seed bed

preparation in the row zone only. In rice wheat cropping system, it can be also called as direct

sowing of wheat in rice field. Zero tillage in rice field system has reduced the fuel as well as

labour requirement and an overall reduction in cultivation cost. Yield is also more in zero tillage

as compared to the conventional tillage.

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increases soil organic carbon content, reduces

erosion. It also helps in maintaining the

population of beneficial microbes in the soil.

The idea of zero tillage was given by Faulkner

in an early 1940s. G. B. Triplett is considered

as father of zero tillage.

Objectives of zero tillage

• To reduce the cultivation cost

• To improve the organic matter content in

the soil

• Reduction in soil erosion

• Increase in water use efficiency

• Reducing soil compaction

• Less fuel is required leading to less

environmental pollution

• Weed problem is minimized. This may be

due to the reason that weed seeds remained

in deeper layer under zero tillage system in

comparison to conventional system

(Verma and Srivastava, 1989)

Practices for management of zero tillage

Growing of cover crops

They are known for their shading effect by

which they do not allow the weeds to grow so

that the succeeding crop may get required

resource for growth.

Crop rotation

As residue is kept on the surface of soil and zero

tillage this can result in an outbreak of insect

pest. To avoid this problem crop rotation must

be followed to stop the life cycle of the plant

pathogen.

Implements

Heavy tillage equipments are not used for zero

tillage as it can cause compaction of the soil.

Implements used for zero tillage are zero seed

cum fertilizer drill, rotary weeder, metal cutting

blade mould board plough.

Surveys reveal that 60 percent of zero-tillage

adopters did not own a zero-tillage drill

machine (Erenstein, Malik, and Singh, 2007).

Management of crop residue

Loose crop residue must be handled properly to

avoid burning.

Important consideration for adoption of zero

tillage

• The standings stubble should not be longer

than 15cm.

• The zero till seed drill machine should be

calibrated properly.

• The depth of sowing should be kept 5cm.

• Granular fertilizer should be used to avoid

choking of zero till seed cum fertilizer drill

machine.

• Irrigation should be applied 15 to 20 days

after sowing.

• Cultivar of crops suitable for zero tillage

should be sown.

Need of zero tillage in rice-wheat cropping

system

Traditional the field is prepared for wheat

sowing by ploughing 5 to 6 times causing a

delay in sowing of wheat leading to reduction

in number of plants, low yield and an increase

in cost of cultivation. There is also reduction in

yield if sown after 10 December. In traditional

sowing, cost of cultivation is more. Zero tillage

saves 15 to 20 days sowing time and reduces

cost of cultivation of wheat. The depth of seed

sowing is kept 3 to 5 cm in sowing and a soil

layer is formed above the soil leading to good

germination. In zero tillage seed rate is also less

than conventional methods for wheat that is 150

kg per hectare whereas in conventional tillage it

is 160-170 kg per hectare. Sowing time of

wheat is in zero tillage is 15 November to 10

December that is early than in conventional

method that is 10 to 30 December. Fertilizer

requirement is less for wheat in zero tillage.

Labour as well as fuel requirement is also less.

So, zero tillage if followed in rice-wheat

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cropping system will use the resources

efficiently as well as will give more yield.

Problems associated with zero tillage in rice

wheat cropping system

Topography: Undulating topography causes

more erosion resulting in decline in soil nutrient

value and does not allow easy drawing of zero

till drill machine.

Soil texture: Soil texture also affects zero

tillage. Clay textured soil have high moisture

retention capacity so is better for zero tillage.

CONCLUSION

In this present situation, where population is

increasing at an alarming rate and the world is

facing problems like climate change,

agriculture sector has pressure on it to ensure

food security. A system is needed for

successful management of resources to increase

food production as well as to maintain

environmental sustainability. These things can

be done by adopting the technology of zero

tillage. Zero tillage not only gives increased

productivity per unit area, but it also reduces

labour, fuel requirement and reduces cost of

cultivation and give more yield than

conventional method. It is also necessary to

consider possible strategies leading to increased

water productivity (producing more crop per

drop) leading to efficient management of the

scarce water resources (Akhtar, 2006).

REFERENCES

Akhtar, M. R., 2006. Impact of resource

conservation technologies for

sustainability of irrigated agriculture in

Punjab-Pakistan. Journal of Agricultural

Research (Pakistan), 44 (3): 239-255

Erenstein, O., Malik, R. K. and Singh, S., 2007.

Adoption and impacts of zero-tillage in

the rice-wheat zone of irrigated Haryana,

India. Research report. New Delhi:

International Maize and Wheat

Improvement Center and Rice-Wheat

Consortium.

Hobbs, P. R., Sayre, K. D. and Ortiz-

Monasterio, I., 1998. Increasing wheat

yields sustainability through agronomic

means. CIMMYT.

Verma, U. N. and Srivastava, V. C., 1989.

Weed management in wheat under zero

and optimum tillage conditions. Indian

Journal of Agronomy, 34(2), pp:176-

179.

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Popular Article

Aerobic Rice Cultivation: An Eco-Friendly and Water Saving

Technology

Mousumi Malo

Assistant Director of Agriculture, Model Farm, Jayrambati - 722161, West Bengal

Corresponding Author

Mousumi Malo

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Aerobic rice, aerated soil, alternate wetting and drying, non-puddled, water saving

How to cite this article:

Malo, M. 2020. Aerobic rice cultivation: An eco-friendly and water saving technology. Vigyan Varta

1(4): 38-41

INTRODUCTION

ood and water are two of the most

essential requirements for survival, but

with an escalating demand for food and

forthcoming water catastrophe, a scarcity of

both the components may be on the horizon

unless newfangled technologies are developed.

The accelerating dearth of water resources has

prompted to the evolution and adoption of

aerobic rice cultivation technology that saves

water and enhances water productivity and

water use efficiency by abating the utilization

of water during land preparation and limiting

seepage, percolation and evaporation losses and

also it reduces labour requirement as well as

greenhouse gas emissions especially methane

from rice field. Rice consumes more than 50%

of the water used for irrigation in Asia as

reported by Barker et al. (1999) and it was also

documented that about 4000-5000 litres of

water is consumed for production of one kg rice

F

ABSTRACT

Scarcity of water is becoming austere in many rice cultivating regions in the world,

encouraging the introduction of water saving aerobic rice technology, which is direct seeded

in non-puddled, non-flooded as well as non-saturated well aerated soil without ponded water

with the use of external inputs such as supplementary irrigation, fertilizers & aiming at high

yields that can reduce water usage in rice production by as much as 50%. Main driving force

behind aerobic rice cultivation is economic water use and it is a better remedy for future

climate change under drought condition with lesser greenhouse gas (GHG) emission.

Notwithstanding the mechanism of growing rice with alternate wetting and drying method

needs to be further refined or developed and a broader acceptance of this system is anticipated

to safeguard rice production in water starved areas.

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as rice cultivation is a water intensive

enterprise. Per capita water availability has

dwindled from 5300 m3 year-1 in 1953 to 2500

m3 year-1 in 1990 and is expected to further

shrink to 1500 m3 year-1 by 2025 signifying

considerable reduction in water availability.

Researchers throughout the globe are now-a-

days taking on the challenging task of

developing rice production systems that can

cope up with the water inadequacy as over 17

million ha of Asia’s irrigated rice may

experience “physical water scarcity” and 22

million ha may encounter “economic water

scarcity” by the end of 2025 (Tuong and

Bouman, 2003).

What is Aerobic Rice?

Aerobic rice is a newly emerging, input

responsive and sustainable method of

cultivation for contiguous future to address

water deficiency and environmental safety

arising due to global warming where the high

yielding rice varieties are established by direct

seeding (dry or water soaked seed) in well

drained, well aerated, non-puddled and non-

saturated soils with 70% to 100% of water

holding capacity throughout growing season

that can be adopted in target areas such as tank

irrigated area, deep bore well/well irrigated area

and the places presumed to receive delayed

channel/river water i.e. in delta region during

kharif (June – July) and summer (February)

seasons. It is specifically well developed rice,

combining drought tolerant characteristics of

upland rice and yield potential of lowland rice

implying that aerobic rice is designated as

"improved upland rice" in terms of yield

potential, and "improved lowland rice" in terms

of drought tolerance. Aerobic rice varieties

have the ability to maintain rapid growth in

soils with moisture content at or below field

capacity in addition to the use of external inputs

such as supplementary irrigation along with

moderate application of fertilizers aiming to

produce yields of 4-6 t ha-1 (Parthasarathi et al.,

2012) and can save as much as 50% of

irrigation water in comparison with lowland

rice (Huaqi et al., 2003). The ecology for this

type of rice is intermediate between upland and

favourable shallow lowlands.

Basic principles of the system

Aerobic rice cultivation system involves a set

of practices for seed treatment, plant, soil, water

and weed management which are as follows:

• Direct seeding of treated seed in non-

puddled and non-flooded field

• It can be rainfed or fully irrigated or

supplementary irrigated

• Maintain water at just soil saturation level

(aerobic i.e. with oxygen)

• Effective and timely weed control is

crucial for success of this system

• Row to row spacing should be adopted at

20 or 25 cm with continuous sowing

• Use of best nutrient management practices

with FYM/compost/vermicompost etc.

Significance of aerobic rice cultivation

• Saves labour and water

• Direct seeding

• Saves seeds

• Cost effective

• Eco-friendly

• No need of puddling operation in field

• Aerobic condition in soil

• Nitrogen use efficiency is high

• Cost of cultivation is significantly low

• Efficient utilization of rainwater

• Soil structure is maintained

• Improves soil health

Advantages of aerobic rice over conventional

irrigated rice cultivation

• Direct seeding is recommended, so,

nursery preparation, puddling and

transplanting costs can be avoided.

• Rational use of water for field preparation

and irrigation helps in 35-45% of water

saving. Also, the reduction in number of

irrigations will help in cost cutting and

savings in power consumption.

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• In conventional lowland irrigated rice,

greenhouse gas like methane emission is

elevated but researchers proved that it is

reduced in case of aerobic rice.

• Maintenance of soil structure is beneficial

to non-rice crops in rotation and timely

sowing of succeeding crop after rice is

possible under aerobic rice cultivation

technology.

Management

• The usual establishment method is dry

direct seeding, but it also allows

conservation agriculture as used in upland

crops, such as mulching and minimum

tillage.

• Aerobic rice can be rainfed or irrigated.

Irrigation can be applied through flash-

flooding, furrow irrigation (or raised

beds), or sprinklers. Unlike flooded rice,

irrigation, when applied is not used to

flood the soil but to just bring the soil water

content in the root zone up to field

capacity.

• Site-specific nutrient management

(SSNM) can be used to determine the

optimal management of fertilizers. In the

absence of knowledge on SSNM, 70−90

kg N/ha could be a useful starting point to

obtain a yield of 4−6 t/ha. The first split

can best be given at 10−12 days after

emergence, the second at active tillering,

and the third at panicle initiation. The

application of phosphorus fertilizer can be

more critical to aerobic rice than to flooded

rice.

• Rice fields that are not permanently

flooded tend to experience high growth

and more species of weed. Appropriate

herbicide uses and additional manual or

mechanical weeding in the early phase of

crop growth, are therefore needed to

control weeds.

• Soil-borne pests and diseases such as

nematodes, root aphids, and fungi are

known to occur more in aerobic rice than

in flooded rice, especially in the tropics. It

is recommended to grow aerobic rice in

rotation with upland crops suitable in the

area.

Recommended rice varieties for aerobic rice

cultivation

Four varieties viz. CR Dhan 200/Piyari

(Odisha), CR Dhan 201 (Chhattisgarh and

Bihar), CR Dhan 202 (Jharkhand and Odisha),

CR Dhan 204 (Jharkhand and Tamil Nadu), are

suitable for aerobic rice cultivation, released

from Central Rice Research Institute, Cuttack.

Similarly, University of Agricultural Sciences,

Bangalore has released ARB 6, MAS 26 and

MAS 946-1 for Karnataka state.

CONCLUSION

The concept of aerobic rice methodology holds

a promising situation and better remedy for

future climate change under drought condition

with lesser greenhouse gas emission for farmers

in water scarce environments where water

availability at the farm level is too low or where

water is too expensive to grow flooded lowland

rice. However, more varieties need to be

evaluated and their nitrogen requirement should

be assessed. It is unambiguous that aerobic rice

cultivation has been identified as a potential

new technology which can reduce water use

and recognized as an economically attractive

crop. But, the major hurdle of mounting weed

pressure must be removed to make its

cultivation more effective in terms of net

returns from farmer’s investments and

utilization of precious water resources.

REFERENCES

Barker, R., Dawe, D., Tuong, T. P., Bhuiyan, S.

I. and Guerra, L. C., 1999. The outlook

for water resources in the year 2020:

challenges for research on water

management in rice production.

Southeast Asia, 1, pp.1-5.

Tuong, T. P. and Bouman, B. A. M., 2003. Rice

production in water-scarce

environments. Water Productivity in

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Agriculture: Limits and Opportunities

for Improvement, 1, pp.13-42.

Huaqi, W., Bouman, B. A. M., Zhao, D.,

Changgui, W. and Moya, P. F., 2002.

Aerobic rice in northern China:

opportunities and challenges. Water-wise

rice production. Los Baños

(Philippines): International Rice

Research Institute. p, pp.143-154.

Parthasarathi, T., Vanitha, K.,

Lakshamanakumar, P. and Kalaiyarasi,

D., 2012. Aerobic rice-mitigating water

stress for the future climate change.

International Journal of Agronomy and

Plant Production, 3(7), pp.241-254.

www.vigyanvarta.com Vol-1 Issue-4 Dadimi and Nishanth (2020)

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Popular Article

Q-Fever: A Neglected Zoonosis

Bhargavi Dadimi and Maria Anto Dani Nishanth

M.V.Sc Scholar, Division of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology

Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Bareilly, Uttar Pradesh

Corresponding Author

Dr. Bhargavi Dadimi

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Coxiella burnetii, ticks, zoonosis, pasteurization

How to cite this article:

Dadimi, B. and Nishanth, M. A. D. 2020. Q-Fever: a neglected zoonosis. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 42-46

INTRODUCTION

oxiella burnetii is an obligate

intracellular gram-negative pathogen.

It had been previously identified as a

rickettsial agent but has been recently

reclassified as Proteobacteria. It replicates in

host monocytes and macrophages. It has

enormous stability and can achieve high animal

concentrations. It is highly immune to

environmental conditions and other

disinfectants, as it forms unusual spore-like

structures. Coxiella burnetii occurs in two

antigenic phases which are critical for Q fever

diagnosis. Phase I is pathogenic and is present

in infected animals, or in nature. Phase II is less

pathogenic and is recovered in eggs or cell

cultures only after several lab passages.

Increased antibodies to the phase II antigens

indicate acute infection while chronic infection

is indicated by an increase in phase I.

History

Q "Querry" fever was first reported in 1935 by

Derrick in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia,

who identified febrile disease outbreaks in

workers at abattoirs. Burnet and his associate

Freeman successfully isolated the organism and

studied the disease's epidemiology. In 1938

C

ABSTRACT

Coxiella burnetii is an obligate intracellular pathogen that causes worldwide

zoonosis, Q-fever. Infection in animals is mostly persistent. Infection in humans is often

asymptomatic but can be manifested as acute or chronic infection. C. burnetii infection in

pregnant women may result in abortions, premature deliveries and still births. Infection in

nature is maintained and transmitted by ticks as the principal vector and reservoir. Cattle,

sheep and goat are the important source of infection to humans. Humans contract infection

mostly by aerosol in contact with contaminated environments and wind playing an important

role spreading the infection. Organism exists in two antigenic phases. Host factors such as

under-lying disease and cell-mediated immunity play a decisive role in the clinical expression

of Coxiella burnetii infection.

OPEN ACCESS

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Coxiella burnetii was named for the organism

in honor of Cox and Burnet.

Transmission

Aerosolization is the primary mode of

transmission in humans, and the most common

cause of infection in domestic ruminants.

Organisms are commonly found in airborne

droplets or dust contaminated with placental

tissues, birth fluids or infected animal excreta.

Shedding of the organisms into the atmosphere

occurs mainly during parturition; At delivery

approximately 109 bacteria per gram of the

placenta are released. Aerosol or direct

transmission can occur while processing

infected animals for feed, during necropsies, or

while assisting with parturition.

Owing to the persistence of the organism in the

atmosphere, dried infectious material can

contaminate water, dust, and soil; Fomites (i.e.,

newborn animals, fur, bedding, and clothing)

can also be contaminated and may serve as

infectious source. Infected mammary glands

may shed the organisms in milk, but this

organism is destroyed by pasteurization.

C. Burnetii has been isolated from several

arthropods naturally and experimentally

(mainly ticks, but also cockroaches,

mosquitoes, flies, fleas, lice, mites). About 40

species of ticks are infected with C. Burnetii

and transovarial transmission (mother to

offspring) and transstadial transmission

(between developmental stages) were recorded.

Infected arthropod feces may serve as a source

of infection with C. burnetii and can remain

infective for at least 19 months.

Usually animals develop Q fever through

exposure to other infected animals, either by

direct contact with polluted material or by

exposure to aerosols. Transmission from person

to person is extremely rare. Transplacental

transmission can result in congenital infection.

There were also records of transmission from

blood transfusions, bone marrow transplants,

and intradermal inoculations. Transmission via

sexual intercourse has been hypothesized.

Sexual transmission of Coxiella burnetii has

been documented in mice and guinea pigs and

hypothesized for a rare number of human cases.

Epidemiology

Q fever is a zoonosis which is distributed

worldwide. It has been recorded on all

continents except New Zealand, and it is

common in areas where animals’ reservoirs are

found. The reservoir of animals is large and

includes many wild and domestic mammals,

birds, and arthropods. The main reservoirs,

however, are called cattle, pigs, goats, and ticks.

Wildlife species recorded as reservoirs include

snowshoe hares, moose and white-tailed deer in

Nova Scotia, Alaskan wild Dall sheep and

Idaho and California black bears. Q fever poses

an occupational hazard for people in contact

with domestic animals, such as cattle, sheep and

goats. People at risk include farmers, livestock

producers, veterinarians, slaughterhouse

workers and people in contact with dairy

products, and culture and diagnostic laboratory

staff. Reports of intermittent cases have been

growing in people living in urban areas

following occasional contact with farm animals

or after interaction with infected pets, such as

dogs and cats.

Disease in Humans

In humans the time of incubation ranges from 2

to 40 days (mean around 20 days). Only as few

as one organism can cause illness. Human

beings are considered dead end hosts, and they

are the only species known to routinely develop

disease because of infection. Most Q fever

cases are asymptomatic; Only around 50 per

cent of all infected individuals exhibit clinical

signs of illness. The two clinical forms of

illness are acute (duration less than 6 months)

and chronic (duration longer than 6 months).

Acute disease symptoms can differ in severity

and duration; A febrile or flu-like illness often

occurs which is self-limiting. Signs include

fatigue, chills, "sweats," headache retro bulbar,

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tiredness, anorexia, malaise, myalgia, and chest

pain. Illness usually lasts from 1-3 weeks.

Pneumonia can occur in 30 to 50 per cent of

patients with symptomatic disease. In more

serious cases, pneumonitis with nonproductive

cough may be seen. Radiographs of pneumonic

patients mimic those of patients with etiologies

of viral pneumonia. Multiple rounded opacities

on x-ray of both lungs can be observed, and

pleural effusion can also be seen. In addition,

many patients who are clinically ill will have

irregular liver enzymes and some will develop

hepatitis, jaundice which is rare. Exanthema

(rash) occurs in about 10% of cases. Acute

infection can rarely cause meningoencephalitis

or pericarditis. Around 2% of acute infections

need hospitalization and mortality results in a

similar percentage. Chronic Q fever (duration

of infection beyond six months) occurs in 1 to

5 percent of those infected and is relatively rare.

It usually occurs in individuals with preexisting

heart valve disease. Immunocompromised

individuals and pregnant women are also at

significant risk for the chronic form.

Endocarditis is the main clinical presentation

and constitutes 60 to 70 per cent of all cases of

chronic Q fever. Infection may also affect the

liver which causes hepatitis or cirrhosis in

granulomatous form. Kupffer cells are

considered to be target cells for Coxiella. There

were also records of involvement in bone and

arteries. The chronic type can also develop in

patients who have had acute Q fever as early as

1 year or as long as 20 years after initial

infection.

Risk to Pregnant Women

Pregnant women who are diagnosed with C.

burnetii appear to be asymptomatic. The

organism may be transmitted transplacentally.

There may be neonatal death, premature birth,

low birth weight, or placentitis, depending on

the timing of the infection abortion. The

greatest risk is that of the first trimester.

Pregnant women also have an increased chance

of developing chronic infection with Q-fever.

Pregnant women with Q fever may pose a

degree of risk to medical staff.

Prognosis

Q fever is typically a self-limiting illness and

most cases resolve within two days to two

weeks. Approximately 50 to 60 per cent of

cases are considered asymptomatic, and

complications from the acute disease type are

rare. About 2 percent of Coxiella burnetii-

infected people experience serious disease and

need hospitalisation. Overall, if treated, the

mortality rate is 1 per cent or less. Chronic

Infectious Disease is usually fatal if untreated.

In patients with endocarditis, the fatality rate

can range from 45 to 65%; additionally, 50 to

60% need valve replacement surgery. Because

severe disease is rare the overall case-fatality

rate for Q fever ranges from <1 to 2.4%.

Diagnosis

In humans, Q fever is usually diagnosed with

serology (increase in the amount of antibody

titer) that can be achieved as early as the second

week of illness. Q-fever serological tests

include IFA (immunofluorescence assay), CF

(complement fixation), ELISA (enzyme-linked

immunosorbent assay), and microagglutination.

The most accurate and commonly used

approach is Indirect IFA. C. burnetii may also

be identified in infected tissue by IHC

(immunohistochemistry) and DNA detection

methods (PCR-polymerase chain reaction).

Isolation of the organism is rarely done due to

the risk C. burnetii poses for laboratory

personnel. Clinical signs and patient history can

also aid in diagnosis.

Treatment

Doxycycycline is the antibiotic medication of

choice. Treatment with antibiotics is most

successful if started within the first three days

of illness. For chronic disease, treatment may

be necessary for 2 to 3 years. Doxycycline and

quinolones are contraindicated in pregnant

women but in some cases, long-term co-

trimoxazole treatment (the combination of

trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole) has prevented

fetal death. People recovering from Q fever are

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thought to develop long-term (maybe lifelong)

immunity.

Animal Disease

The most common reservoirs of Q fever are

sheep, cattle, and goats. For animals, the

incubation time is variable. The infected

animals may be asymptomatic; reproductive

failure is typically the only symptom seen when

clinical illness occurs. This can include

abortions, stillbirths, retention of placentas,

infertility, frail newborns and milk cattle

mastitis. Lambs that are born after abortions by

Coxiella may be carried to term. However,

ewes can remain infected chronically, and tend

to shed organisms. After parturition, organisms

can be shed several days in milk and feces. The

dogs, cats, horses, pigs, and most species of

mammals and fowls may carry Coxiella

burnetii. Animals can get infected with tick

bite, placenta or milk consumption from

infected ruminants, or by the aerosol route.

Most infections are asymptomatic; however,

the most symptoms are related to reproductive

failure. Still births and weak offspring are

commonly reported

PM Lesions

Placentitis is the most characteristic lesion in

ruminants. The placenta is typically leathery

and thickened. It may contain large amounts of

creamy, white-yellow exudates at the edges of

cotyledons and in the intercotyledonary area.

Lesions are usually non-specific in aborted

fetuses.

Diagnosis and Treatment

C. burnetii can be detected in Vaginal

secretions, placenta or its fluids, aborted

fetuses, milk, urine, and feces Identification of

the organism can be achieved with Modified

Ziehl-Neelson or Gimenez stains but is not

normally detected by Gram stain. IHC can also

confirm bacterial identity. PCR techniques are

also available in some laboratories. Several

serological tests are also available (i.e.,

immunofluorescence (IFA), enzyme-linked

immunosorbent assays (ELISA) and

complement fixation (CF). The complement

fixation test is done most. Although organism

isolation can be achieved in a variety of

methods, it is hazardous for laboratory staff,

and must be performed in a Laboratory at

Biosafety level 3. So, it is seldom used.

Little is known about the effectiveness of

antibiotic treatment in animals. In the weeks

preceding parturition in enzootic herds

tetracycline was administered in water. This is

thought to help minimize shedding in birthing

materials. Antimicrobial therapy may not

eradicate carrier state of infection with C.

burnetii but can suppress abortion numbers.

Prevention and Control

Effective husbandry plays a large part in

preventing and managing this disease. Tick

avoidance should be used to help prevent the

disease from spreading. Animals about to give

birth should be separated from the rest of the

herd. Fetal membranes and the aborted fetuses

should be disposed of either by burying or

burning immediately. New or sick animals

should be isolated from the rest of the herd until

it can be determined that the animals are not

contagious or do not pose risk of infection.

Vaccinations for humans and animals have

been developed for this disease. However, they

are not currently licensed for use in the United

States.

Pasteurization of milk from cows, sheep, and

goats is important in stopping the spread of Q

fever by contaminated milk sources. The

amount of C. burnetii in the environment can be

greatly reduced by thorough cleaning. A 10%

bleach solution should be used to disinfect areas

after cleaning where animals give birth.

Eradication is impossible because of

environmental stability, infectivity for wild

animals, asymptomatic and carrier state in

animals and people, and arthropods.

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REFERENCES

Marrie, T. J. and Raoult, D., 2000. Coxiella

burnetii (Q fever). Mandell, Douglas and

Bennett's, Principles and Practice of

Infectious Diseases, pp:2043-50.

Kazar, J., 2005. Coxiella burnetii infection.

Annals of the New York Academy of

Sciences, 1063(1), pp:105-114.

Angelakis, E. and Raoult, D., 2010. Q fever.

Veterinary Microbiology, 140(3-4),

pp:297-309.

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Opportunities and Challenges in Digital Marketing

K. Ashok1 and B. Naresh2

1Ph.D Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension, NDRI, Karnal 2Ph.D Scholar, Department of Agricultural Extension, PAU, Ludhiana

Corresponding Author

K. Ashok

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Digital marketing, National Agriculture Market (e-NAM), Agricultural commodities

How to cite this article:

Ashok, K. and Naresh, B. 2020. Opportunities and challenges in digital marketing. Vigyan Varta 1(4):

47-50

INTRODUCTION

igital marketing pertains to the

application of marketing principles

and techniques via electronic media

and more specifically internet. It includes

mobile phones, display advertising, and any

other digital medium. Digital marketing is

growing with a rapid pace not only in India but

throughout the planet also. While all other D

ABSTRACT

One of the problems facing by the farmers in India is how to market their products beyond

their locality. Digital marketing can be the best possible solution where in the past few years,

the internet and digital marketing activities have become one of the fastest growing

technologies that plays a key role in the day-to-day activities of human being. The tele density

of the rural areas increased nearly 60% and of the total households using the services of the

internet and mobile phones which, poses serious challenge and opportunity to look forward

for digital marketing. It has many opportunities like global reach, direct communication, lower

cost, measurable results, 24-hour marketing and highly personalized content. Since, it is at the

beginning stage of its adoption, there are certain challenges like poor infrastructure, farmer’s

unwillingness towards new technology, illiteracy, internet connectivity and the conventional

approach of extension services, need to overcome by the farmers, extension agents and other

stakeholders. National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) could also be a pan-India electronic

trading portal which networks the prevailing APMC mandis to form a unified national

marketplace for agricultural commodities. Its main vision is to plug uniformity in agriculture

marketing by streamlining of procedures across the integrated markets, removing information

asymmetry between buyers and sellers and promoting real time price discovery supported

actual demand and supply.

OPEN ACCESS

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Industry are battling a rate of growth of 5-10%,

Digital marketing industry is booming high and

already achieved rate of growth of 30% last

year and estimated growth for year 2016 is 40%

and the most important part is that growth rate

is not going to be stagnant in coming years

(Suguna and Selladurai, 2017). It is about using

all possible digital media, tools, technologies

and methods to market valuable offerings to the

customers by conversing internet, digital

technology options, distributed customer

intelligence, creativity, talent and needs with

the companies’ capabilities and resources so

that long term sustainable competencies can be

generated. Therefore, digital marketing is one

of the most emerging technologies in IT and E-

Commerce sector. Many businesses are

producing great results with digital marketing

and its flexible and cost-effective nature makes

it particularly suitable for small businesses

(Suguna and Selladurai, 2017).

Opportunities of Digital Marketing:

1. Global Reach:

An internet site can reach anyone within the

world who has internet access. This allows

finding new markets and competing globally

for less than a little investment.

2. Direct communication:

Farmers will be able to contact the dealers or

wholesalers on their own thus eliminating the

need of middlemen which will result in benefits

such as standard commodity prices and profits

for the farmers, timely availability of crops and

reduction in scarcity.

3. Lower Cost:

A thoughtfully planned, and effectively

targeted e-marketing campaign can reach the

proper customers at a way lower cost than

traditional marketing methods.

4. Traceable, Measurable Results:

Marketing by email or banner advertising

makes it easier to establish how effective your

campaign has been. You can obtain detailed

information about customers ‘responses to your

advertising.

5. 24-Hour Marketing:

With a website the customers can find out about

their company’s products even if the office is

closed.

6. Personalization:

If the customer database is linked to the

website, then whenever someone visits the site,

one can greet them with targeted offers. The

more they buy from you, the more you will

refine your customer profile and market

effectively to them.

7. Greater engagement:

With digital marketing you'll encourage your

prospects, clients and followers to need action,

visit your website, examine your products and

services, rate them, buy them and supply

feedback which is visible to your market.

Digital Approach: E- Transition Way:

With the developments in information,

communication, and technology the planet is

witnessing sustainable development in

agriculture and even agribusiness because it

provides cost effective way of responding to the

needs of agriculture community (Nayak and

Bankapur, 2014). Immense use of modern

technology in information dissemination in the

farming community and providing business

opportunities in rural areas as resulted a

transition in the form of developing agro-

portals, information kiosk, e-procurements etc.

Some of the initiatives related to agricultural

marketing are mentioned below:

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www.kisan.com

This is a fanatical site for marketing the

agricultural produce is to market real time

interaction among interdependent sectors of

agri market. One can purchase and buy various

farm products using this site.

www.krishiworld.com It considers itself

because the first agri multilingual portal. It has

information on various aspects of agriculture,

chat feature and market trends within the state

of Maharashtra.

www.Ikisan.com

Ikisan is being developed as a comprehensive

agri portal to deal with the knowledge and

business requirements of varied players within

the agri arena viz., farmers, trade channel

partners and agri input/output companies.

Leveraging information technology and

extensive field presence, ikisan is being

positioned as an information/knowledge

exchange and an e-marketplace.

e-Choupal

The e-choupal is multilingual, web-based e-

procurement solution providing comprehensive

information targeted at the farmer. It is a part of

ITC ltd, a techno-business pioneer’s rural

developmental initiative.

e-NAM National Agriculture Market

(eNAM)

Could also be a pan-India electronic trading

portal which networks the prevailing APMC

mandis to form a unified national marketplace

for agricultural commodities.

Vision

To promote uniformity in agriculture marketing

by streamlining of procedures across the

integrated markets, removing information

asymmetry between buyers and sellers and

promoting real time price discovery supported

actual demand and supply.

Mission

Integration of APMCs across the country

through a typical online market platform to

facilitate pan-India trade agriculture

commodities, providing better price discovery

through transparent auction process supported

quality of produce along with timely online

payment.

Challenges of Digital Marketing

• When it comes to the infrastructure for the

agribusiness, we can safely say that it is

below par when compared to other

economies.

• Connectivity is the biggest issue and one

of the many hindrances which crop up

when trying to establish digital modes in

farming.

• Illiteracy and unwillingness of the farmers

to opt for new methods is another

challenge which needs to be cleared.

• Nearly 72 percent of farmers do not have

any source of information which can help

them adopt the latest technologies for

better production and marketing.

• It is imperative that farmers cannot market

themselves and hence must reach out to

agencies.

CONCLUSION

Indian context is full of technology gaps

between marketer and customers. In some

places, customers are not ready for the advance

technology-based business transformation, so

marketer must move quite slowly. This includes

most of the rural part of Indian states. In some

part of India customers are so demanding to use

technologically advanced products and services

that marketers are under pressure to innovate.

Reasons for these gaps may attribute to

educational or literacy gap, poor infrastructural

expansion, uneven regional economic

development, linguistic variability, unevenly

scattered population (problem of reach),

exposure gaps etc. These gaps can be tackled by

creating proper infrastructure and awareness

about the digital platforms and conducting

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trainings, demonstrations on how to use them

efficiently.

REFERENCES

Nayak, S. N. and Bankapur, V. M., E-

Transition Challenges in Agricultural

Marketing: Key Initiatives in Rural

Development.

Suguna, M., and Selladurai, V. 2017.

Challenges and opportunities of digital

marketing in India.

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Antibiotics Use in Poultry in India

Snehal Lonare

PhD Scholar, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, GADVASU, Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Corresponding Author

Snehal Lonare

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Antibiotic, Antibiotic resistance, Livestock, Poultry, India

How to cite this article:

Lonare, S. 2020. Antibiotics use in Poultry in India. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 51-54

INTRODUCTION

ntibiotics are widely used in poultry

for treatment of diseases and also as

growth promoters (Castanon, 2007;

Mathew et al., 2009; Sivagami et al., 2020).

Use of antibiotics as growth promoters dates

back to 1910s, when the scientists had come up

with an alternative to fulfil the needs of meat

products of the increasing population (Dibner

and Richards, 2005).Such use of antibiotics in

poultry production was found favourable to

farmers and the economy as well, because it

was improving poultry performance effectively

and economically (Agyare et al., 2018).

Farmers had therefore started opting for

inexpensive antibiotics compared to expensive

animal proteins, from here antibiotics were

found to be routinely used in poultry

production.

Poultry is the most widespread food industries

in the world. Chicken being one of the most

farmed species, with about 90 billion tons of

chicken meat produced per year (Agyare et al.,

2018). India stands 4th in chicken production

and 3rd in egg production. Chicken is the most

consumed meat in India as it is cheaper and has

no religious taboos. In many developing

countries like India use of antibiotics in food

animals remain unregulated (Usui et al., 2014).

Such large scale and inadvertent use of

antibiotics has led to the development of

A

ABSTRACT

Poultry is one of the largest food industries in the world. Antibiotics are widely used in poultry

for treatment of diseases and as well as growth promoters. Such large scale and inadvertent

use of antibiotics has led to the development of antibiotic resistance. Antibiotic resistance had

led to treatment failure, economic losses, and dissemination of antibiotic resistance in the

environment which has further led to antibiotic resistance transmission to humans via the food

chain leading to serious consequences on public health. India is a global hotspot of antibiotic

resistance. To prevent rise of antibiotic resistance, guidelines and regulations are been set-up

by government of India, but they are not stringently followed. Therefore, strict monitoring and

surveillance of antibiotic use in Poultry is the need of the hour.

OPEN ACCESS

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“antibiotic resistance” in the pathogenic as well

as commensal bacteria.

Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotic resistance can be defined as, capacity

of the micro-organism to resist the killing

effects of antibiotic to which it was earlier

susceptible (Mahalmani et al., 2019).

Antibiotic resistance had led to treatment

failure, economic losses, and dissemination of

antibiotic resistance in the environment has led

to further transmission to humans via the food

chain leading to serious consequences on public

health (Dahouda et al., 2009). There are also

concerns regarding presence of antibiotic

residues in meat and eggs (Aalipour et al.,

2013; Darwish et al., 2013).

Rampant use of antibiotics has led India to

emerge as global hotspot for antibiotic

resistance. In a study it was said that, use of

antibiotics would increase by 82% in India by

2030, particularly in chickens it is expected to

triple by 2030. Most widely used antibiotics

globally are penicillin, tetracycline, and

quinolones. These are the drugs widely used in

humans. To prevent cross-resistance, World

health organization (WHO) has categorised

them as critically important drugs and has

restricted use of such antibiotics in Veterinary

medicine. These also include ampicillin,

vamoxycillin, cefadroxil, chlortetracycline,

doxycycline, erythromycin, flumequine

gentamycin, vancomycin, oxytetracycline,

spiramycin, sulfadiazine, sulfadimethoxine.

(Van Boeckel et al., 2015).

To prevent rising antimicrobial resistance,

many countries have banned use of antibiotics

as growth promoters, which are essential in

human medicine (Hansard,1969). Keeping this

in mind, in India FSSAI had also fixed

tolerance limits and withdrawal periods for

antibiotic use in animal food such as meat, eggs,

seafood and milk (Mahalmani et al., 2019).

There are also regulations governing the use of

anti-microbial in livestock, but there is no

stringent implementation of these protocols,

with most wide-spread use of antibiotics non-

therapeutically in poultry. Organisation for

Economic Cooperation and Development

(OECD) estimates that the number of

antimicrobials used in food animals will

escalate globally from 63,151 tons in 2010 to

105,596 tons by 2030 - an increase of 67%.

Study by (Agyare et al., 2018) reported that

multidrug resistant bacteria have been found in

poultry, poultry products, carcasses, litter and

faecal matter of birds and these pose a risk to

both handlers, consumers and a threat to global

and public health.

Two classes of antibiotics that FDA deems

critically important to human medicine,

especially for treating foodborne illness in

humans: fluoroquinolones and cephalosporin,

have already been phased-out of chicken

production for several years. The industry also

supports FDA’s proposed Veterinary Feed

Directive (VFD) that ensures that all antibiotics

administered to food producing animals are

only done so under the supervision and

prescription of licensed veterinarians.

Antibiotics Withdrawal period

Amoxicillin Laying hens: 9 days

(Khattab et al., 2010)

Ampicillin Meat: 1 day (AMPICILLIN

50% WSP – Kepro)

Colistin

7 days (Colistin-Article-35-

Referral-Annexes-i-Ii-

Iii_en.Pdf)

Chlortetracycline 24 hours prior to slaughter

(Zoetis)

Ciprofloxacin 23 days (Khan et al.,)

Doxycycline Meat: 5 days

(Anx_104648_en.Pdf)

Enrofloxacin

1-3 days (Baytril-10-Oral-

Solution-Associated-Names-

Annex-i-Ii-Iii-Iv_en.Pdf)

Erythromycin

For meat: 3 days, For eggs:

6 days [ERYTHROMYCIN

(Water Soluble Powder)]

Gentamycin 7 days (Gentamicin 4-

10%.Pdf)

Oxytetracycline 11-13 days (Khatun et al.,

2018)

Sulfonamide 5 days (Khatun et al., 2018)

Tylosin For eggs: 0 day

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Prevention

To prevent this, various steps should be adopted

like,

• Educating farmers regarding antibiotic

usage through awareness campaign

• Promoting the use of alternatives such as

probiotics, prebiotics and ionophores

instead of antibiotics

• Active surveillance

• Monitoring procurement and use of

antibiotics

• Bringing all the essential antibiotics under

Schedule H

• Following the policies strictly

• Following withdrawal periods strictly

• Promoting hygiene and sanitary measures

at farm level

• Effective and prompt Veterinary care

CONCLUSION

As poultry food demand is escalating, so is

antibiotic usage. It is important to supply safe

and wholesome protein rich diet to the growing

population. Therefore, effective monitoring of

antibiotic usage and keeping it under control

(only for treatment) to prevent rise of antibiotic

resistance in the poultry industry is vital. We

further need awareness campaigns to be

organised for farmers and extension workers to

get laboratory research to the field levels for

farmers for adoption of better alternatives to

antibiotics. Surveillance data for antibiotic use

may also be warranted.

REFERENCES

Aalipour, F., Mirlohi, M. and Jalali, M., 2013.

Prevalence of antibiotic residues in

commercial milk and its variation by

season and thermal processing methods.

International Journal of Environmental

Health Engineering, 2(1), p:41.

Agyare, C., Boamah, V. E., Zumbi, C. N. and

Osei, F.B., 2018. Antibiotic use in

poultry production and its effects on

bacterial resistance. In Antimicrobial

Resistance-A Global Threat.

IntechOpen.

Castanon, J. I. R., 2007. History of the use of

antibiotic as growth promoters in

European poultry feeds. Poultry Science,

86(11), pp:2466-2471.

Darwish, W. S., Eldaly, E. A., El-Abbasy, M.

T., Ikenaka, Y., Nakayama, S. and

Ishizuka, M., 2013. Antibiotic residues

in food: the African scenario. Japanese

Journal of Veterinary Research,

61(Supplement), pp: S13-S22.

Dibner, J. J. and Richards, J. D., 2005.

Antibiotic growth promoters in

agriculture: history and mode of action.

Poultry Science, 84(4), pp:634-643.

Khan, D. G. J., Khan, D. R. A., Majeed, D. I.,

Siddiqui, D. F. A., & Khan, D. S. The

frequent use in poultry and its

consequences on human health. 5.

Khattab, W. O., Elderea, H. B., Salem, E. G.

and Gomaa, N. F., 2010. Transmission of

administered amoxicillin drug residues

from laying chicken to their commercial

eggs. Journal of the Egyptian Public

Health Association, 85(5-6), pp:297-316.

Khatun, R., Howlader, A. J., Ahmed, S., Islam,

N., Alam, K., Haider, S., Mahmud, M. S.

and Hasan, M. A., 2018. Validation of

the declared withdrawal periods of

antibiotics. Universal Journal of Public

Health, 6, pp:14-22.

Mahalmani, V. M., Sarma, P., Prakash, A. and

Medhi, B., 2019. Positive list of

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Divyapriya, G. and Nambi, I. M., 2020.

Antibiotic usage, residues and resistance

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Engineering, 8(1), p:102221.

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Obata, Y., Uemae, T., Ngoc, P. T.,

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Makita, K. and Muramatsu, Y., 2014.

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Indonesia and Thailand). Journal of

Veterinary Medical Science, pp:13-0423.

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Grenfell, B. T., Levin, S. A., Robinson,

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pp:5649-5654.

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Consumer Behaviour in Online Shopping

Meenakshi Tamta1 and B. Naresh Kumar2

1Ph.D Scholar, Department of Apparel and Textile Science, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab 2Ph.D Scholar, Department of Agriculture Extension, PAU, Ludhiana, Punjab

Corresponding Author

Meenakshi Tamta

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Consumer Behaviour, Online shopping, Preference, Awareness, Product

How to cite this article:

Tamta, M. and Kumar, B. N. 2020. Consumer behaviour in online shopping. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 55-59

INTRODUCTION

nline shopping is becoming

increasingly popular around the world.

It has been developed with new ideas

and has brought about many opportunities for

both consumers and online retailers. Consumer

behaviour is the study of individuals, groups,

process and organizations they use to secure,

select, and arrange products, services,

experiences, or ideas to satisfy the consumer

and society (Kuester and Sabine, 2012). The

rise of online consumers is due to the growth in

the adoption of wideband technology

amalgamated with a change in consumer

behaviour. All along the past decade, the

internet is the fast-developing media and online

shopping is the most rapid developing e-

commerce area. Millions of e-commerce

websites and Apps are being created around the

world to sell products and services to

consumers online. Online shopping has been

offering more satisfaction to today’s consumers

looking for convenience. Consumer attitudes

toward online shopping usually been

determined by two factors; one is trust, and

another is perceived benefits (Hoque, Ali, &

Mahfuz, 2015). Therefore, trust and perceived

benefits seem to be the critical conjectures of

O

ABSTRACT

Online shopping has obtained very important position in the 21st century as most of the people

are busy, loaded with hectic schedule. In such a situation online shopping became the easiest

and most suitable mode for their shopping. Consumer Behaviours a complex and challenging

field to analyze by the marketer as preferences vary over a period of time. The traditional

method of purchase is replaced with online mode facilitating the consumer anytime purchase

providing all the benefits under a single roof. Consumer Behaviour towards Online Shopping

with due considerations with the product related dimensions. Demographic profiles of the

respondents, awareness to online shopping, influence of product dimensions on online

shopping behaviour.

OPEN ACCESS

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consumer behavior toward online shopping

(Al-Debei, Akroush, & Ashouri, 2015).

Traditional Marketing vs E-Marketing

Internet Marketing is More Measureable

Branding is important and traditional marketing

does have benefits when it comes to branding.

However, marketers today are smarter and

more sophisticated. They see the value of

measuring results and brand awareness is more

difficult to measure then real visitors to website

and real conversions. Marketers want to make

sure every penny is spent wisely. Internet

marketing allows to see exactly what you are

paying for. Traditional marketing takes a little

more trust that the impact of your efforts is

helping your bottom line. With Internet

marketing you can see real facts and every

detail that leads to reaching your goals.

Internet Marketing Makes Strategic

Decisions Based on Facts

Internet marketing can make decisions based on

detailed analytics. It is the smartest and most

talented traditional agency with great ideas and

plenty of experience, but they will have a

difficult time showing real data that leads to

achieving your goals. The best way to really

know how effective your marketing approach is

to see exactly what the audience is responding

positively too. Internet marketing allows you to

study every detail about your audience in real

time. You can study data from every phase in

your conversion funnel that includes how

people found your website; what they do once

they are on your site; and what led to your

conversations. You can adjust your campaign at

any point to increase the effectiveness of your

campaign.

Internet Marketing Is Better at Reaching

Your Target Audience

Traditional marketing is known for its reach to

a mass audience. There are ways that traditional

marketing can target certain demographics

depending on a television channel or show,

radio station genre or industry magazine.

However, traditional marketing will never be

able to target as precisely as Internet marketing.

With Internet marketing you can target even the

smallest audience based on a variety of things.

Internet Marketing is a Constant Source

When we hear or see a television or radio ad it

is there one minute and then it is gone. If you

catch an ad in passing and you missed some

information you cannot go back and review it.

Print is a little better for this, but newspapers

and magazines do get thrown out after a week

or month. Internet marketing provides you a

permanent address online that people can visit

anytime they want. Even if someone does not

know about your company, they can do

searches based on what you offer and find you

in the search engines.

Internet Marketing Provides Better Word-

of-Mouth

Word-of-mouth is still the most effective

marketing for producing conversions. Social

Media is an aspect of Internet marketing that

allows people to build a community and let

others spread positive feedback about the

product or service. People will normally trust

word-of-mouth much more than traditional ads

that tries to convince them about the benefits of

a product or service.

Internet Marketing Can Increase

Conversions More

No matter what your goal, Internet marketing

can increase your conversions month after

month. The reason Internet marketing is more

effective at delivering conversions is that you

can study every detail of what is working and

what might not be working. It takes the

guessing game out of it. You can continue to

place more emphasis on the tactics that are

working and eliminate anything that is not

effective. Internet marketing also provides an

environment where you can safely test new

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ideas so that you are always pushing to improve

your campaign's performance. Traditional

marketing develops a campaign and then hopes

that it will work. This makes it difficult for

traditional agencies to test new ideas or even

investigate all of the details to determine the

effectiveness of a campaign.

Consumer Behaviour in Online Market:

Indian Context

Time Convenience

People feel that time convenience is an

important ingredient which motivates them to

buy online. It can be indicated that most people

consider time convenience as a major reason for

buying online. The next reason was place

convenience as people could shop online from

the convenience of their home or office.

Ease of Price Comparison

Most of the people feel that the online shopping

offers place convenience. On ease of price

comparison as people can compare the price

across retail formats and certainly across all

online retailers.

Variety

Selection of variety of material is also

remarkable feature of online shopping. One can

get several brands and product from different

seller at one place. Latest international trends

without spending money of airfare are easily

available in online store.

Problems Faced by Customers While

Shopping Online

1. Product Quality

This is the most common problem faced by

customers who shop online regularly. The

quality of the product is often not up to the mark

with what is presented in the pictures. The

checks on registration are poor and selling

poor-quality in the name of brands is becoming

increasingly common.

Possible Solution: The possible solution for

this, make your products undergo a usability

test where they are evaluated for their

usefulness and effectiveness.

2. Delivery Time is Not Clear

So many times, the delivery time is not clearly

stated in the order process. Often, consumers do

not know when the product will be delivered.

Consumers buy a product and the e-Commerce

businesses do not even state the time of

delivery. Many a times, these orders take more

time than expected to be delivered. Customers

often complain that the delivery boys do not

even call them before arriving to deliver the

product. The best thing is to check with the

website about the estimated time of arrival of a

certain product before you place the order.

Possible Solution: A message should be sent to

the customer when the order is shipped and then

when it is expected to be delivered so that the

customer is prepared to receive it.

3. Payment Preferences are Limited

This is another common problem. A lot of

times, consumers do not know how to make the

payment if the debit cards they use are not

available as an option. More so, customers are

often stuck with the payment options when

Cash on Delivery is not available. With online

frauds picking up steam, most customers prefer

paying cash on delivery as they are sharing their

card details. This is a common complaint by

many customers these days.

Possible Solution: An e-security seal like

TRUSTe on the website can help earn the trust

of the consumer opting for e-payments on the

website. Further, use of e-payments offers

convenience to the buyers and hence leads to

increase in sales.

4. Payment Confirmation Missing

Another challenge is to find a payment gateway

that is smooth. Sometimes when the customers

are directed to the payment page, their money

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is deducted and suddenly, the page shuts off

without any notice to the consumer. Then

chasing the company for a refund is a different

challenge altogether. Also, sometimes the

website asks too many secret questions or too

much info before the customer can make the

payment. This too can increase the perceived

inconvenience during the purchase and leads to

an abandoned cart.

Possible Solution: A quick fix is to email

payment confirmation to the customer. If a

customer gets an email confirming the order,

they are not worried about the outcome. They

know they are paying for an order that has been

placed successfully. Also, keep the payment

process simple and easy to execute without

including too many stages.

5. The trouble with Hidden costs

This is another common issue customer face

even with leading e-commerce development

companies. Online marketplaces do not tell

customers the hidden costs on so many things.

For instance, the customer is lured into buying

something that says is cost at a certain price.

Within minutes, they are paying a lot more to

get the product delivered, tax charges,

additional shipping, etc. This eventually leads

the customer to pay a lot more than he or she

had expected.

Possible Solution: A simple solution is to keep

the charges so apparent that the customers do

not feel cheated and buy the products of their

interest for sure.

6. Unclear Website Policies

Many shopping websites do not even have clear

and concise website policies for return and

refund. Consumers get confused due to vague

stipulations about a refund and return. When the

policies section is not defined properly, sellers

reject a consumer’s claim to return or get a

refund. This is among the biggest challenges

that many customers face online. A lot of these

websites have no clear outline on the warranty

and guarantee of products.

Possible Solution: The website policies and

other information should be available in

different languages for people to understand

them better and clearly.

7. Problem of Plenty

The online world provides too many options

and it can be overwhelming for the customer to

make a choice. The absence of support that

most customers are used to in the in-store

experience is missing and this can influence

purchase decision.

Possible Solution: Give proper product

specification in the same format for all products

so it is easy to compare them. Instead of

overloading the customer with information,

give minimal but useful information. A

shopping comparison tool can help buyers

simplify their purchases decisions. Also, a live

chat option to offer queries always is

comforting for buyers to make that final click.

Futuristic Innovations That Can Boost the

‘Online Shopping’

• Currently in India no web portal provides an

option to deliver a product within 24 Hours

of ordering it, even by levying a little extra

charge for Fast Delivery Service. (Minimum

Time taken by any company is 48 hours).

• Furthermore, the sites can put a ‘voice

search’ option so that customers who cannot

spell correctly in English can search the

products by voice.

• Even ‘Image Search’ is one of the futuristic

innovations in the cases when customers do

have a digital image but do not know the

name of the product exactly.

• Soon with technological advancements

these portals can put 360° 3D body scan

which will exactly show the fitting of the

apparels and the customer need not worry

about the fitting of the apparel.

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CONCLUSION

The online shopping is becoming more popular

day by day with the increase in the usage of

internet. Understanding customers’ needs and

desires for online buying, the selling has

become challenging task for marketers.

Specially understanding the consumers

attitudes towards online shopping, making

improvement in the factors that influence

consumers to shop online and working on those

factors will help marketers to gain the

competitive advantage over the others. Online

shopping is the best way to purchase any item

but be careful because there may be some fake

products on different sites. New innovations in

online shopping system can boost the online

shopping business in India.

REFERENCES

Kuester, S., 2012. MKT 301: Strategic

marketing & marketing in specific

industry contexts. University of

Mannheim, 110, pp:393-404.

Al-Debei, M. M., Akroush, M. N. and Ashouri,

M. I., 2015. Consumer attitudes towards

online shopping. Internet Research. 25(5), pp:707–733.

Hoque, M. R., Ali, M. A. and Mahfuz, M. A.,

2015. An Empirical Investigation on the

adoption of e-Commerce in Bangladesh.

Asia Pacific Journal of Information

Systems, 25(1), pp:1-24.

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Quinoa: Need for Everyone and Food for Everyone

LK Sanodiya1, Umesha C2, Shivani Kumari3 and M. R. Meshram4

1,4Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, Naini Agricultural Institute, SHUATS, Prayagraj (U.P.) 2Assistant Professor, Department of Agronomy, Naini Agricultural Institute, SHUATS, Prayagraj (U.P.) 3Ph.D. Scholar, Department of Agronomy, School of Agricultural Sciences and Rural Development

(SASRD), Nagaland University, Medziphema (Nagaland)

Corresponding Author

L K Sanodiya

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

Quinoa food, nutritional security, cultivation practices, food sustainability

How to cite this article:

Sanodiya, L. K., Umesha, C., Kumari, S. and Meshram, M. R. 2020. Quinoa: need for everyone and food

for everyone. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 60-64

INTRODUCTION

uinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), an

underutilized Andean crop, has gained

worldwide attention because of its

ability to grow in various stress conditions, such

as soil salinity, acidity, drought and frost,

exhibiting a high level of resistance to these

environmental stress factors. Environmental

stresses, such as water stress, temperature stress

and salt stress, also happen to be among the

major productivity constraints in the Indian

subcontinent often causing extensive crop

losses. The situation is compounded by the fact

that agriculture is the mainstay of the economy

in most of the countries in the region. Quinoa is

an important food source for human

consumption in the Andean region and has

immense industrial value. The crop grows in

different ecological zones, from sea level to

2000–4000m above sea level (Bhargava

2007a).

Q

ABSTRACT

Quinoa is considered as strategic crop with higher potential in contributing to food and

nutritional security due to higher nutritional quality, genetic variability, adaptability to adverse

climate and soil conditions and economically low production cost or cultural adaptability to

Indian farming system. Great potential of the crop is not yet fully exploited under Indian

condition mainly because of lack of research on biotic and non-biotic stresses. As the people

are conscious about their health, quinoa is gaining the increased demands in domestic and

international market. Introduction of quinoa in the cropping systems adds to additional

income to the farmer as the B:C ratio is improved. The cultivation of quinoa provides an

alternative for countries with limited food production which are therefore forced to import or

receive food aid.

OPEN ACCESS

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Quinoa is a pseudo-cereal crop sometimes a

pseudo oilseed because of its high fat content.

It is member of Chenopodiaceae family which

has been cultivated from thousands of years for

its nutritious grain and leaves (Pearsall, 1992).

Quinoa is an herbaceous annual broad-leaved

plant adaptable to the marginal lands. It is 1-2-

meter-tall plant with deep penetrating root

system. Quinoa seeds comes in several colors

including black, red, white and yellow, are rich

in protein and essential amino acids particularly

methionine, threonine and lysine which are

limiting amino acids in most cereal grains

(Bhargava et al., 2007b). The organization of

the United Nations for Food and Agriculture

(FAO) has declared the year 2013 as the

‘International year of Quinoa’ (FAO, 2013).

Quinoa is mainly used for cooking, baking, and

various products for people allergic from

gluten; animal feed, green fodder, and pellets

(Jacobson, 2003). Quinoa is an underutilized

crop which is gaining attention due to its well

adaptability to environmental stress factors like

drought, soil salinity and frost. Various

cultivars of quinoa are known for its

adaptability to agro-ecological zones ranging

from sea level to an altitude to over 4000 m and

relative humidity from 40% to 88% in

temperature from 8 to 38°C. Commercial

potential of quinoa remains untapped despite its

nutritional superiority, wider adaptability and

rusticity. Quinoa has been introduced to

Europe, North America, Asia, and Africa.

Seeds are coated with saponin which offers

some protection against pest such as birds or

insects and diseases (Bhargava et al., 2007a).

Improved cultivation practices and tie up with

other sectors would help in the development

and commercialization of quinoa at large scale.

Nutritional Value of Quinoa

Quinoa is considered as a healthy food crop

because it is good source of many nutrients. In

addition, quinoa is a good source of quality

protein, dietary fibre, polyunsaturated fats and

minerals. While quinoa is a nutritious food, it is

important to consume it as a part of a balanced

diet to obtain good overall nutrition. It is

comparable in energy to similar foods such as

maize, rice and wheat. Comparative nutritional

composition of quinoa with that of Maize, Rice

and Wheat is depicted in Table below.

Nutritional

Value Quinoa Maize Rice Wheat

Energy

(kcal/100g) 399 408 372 392

Protein

(g/100g) 16.5 10.2 7.6 14.3

Fat (g/100g) 6.3 4.7 2.2 2.3

Total

Carbohydrate

(g/100g)

69.0 81.1 80.4 78.4

Iron

(mg/100g) 13.2 2.1 0.7 3.8

Zinc

(mg/100g) 4.4 2.9 0.6 4.7

Calcium 148.7 17.1 6.9 50.3

Iron 13.2 2.1 0.7 3.8

Magnesium 249.6 137.1 73.5 169.4

Thiamine 0.2-0.4 0.42 0.06 0.45-

0.49

Riboflavin 0.2-0.3 0.1 0.06 0.17

Folic acid 0.0781 0.026 0.020 0.078

Phosphorus 383.7 292.6 137.8 467.7

Potassium 926.7 377.1 118.3 578.3

Niacin 0.5-0.7 1.8 1.9 5.5

Source: Koziol (1992)

Medicinal Use: Quinoa leaves, stems and

grains have been used traditionally by the

indigenous peoples of the Andes for medicinal

purposes i.e. healing wounds, reducing

swelling, soothing pain (toothache) and

disinfecting the urinary tract. They are also used

in bone setting, internal bleeding and as insect

repellents.

The taxonomic classification of Quinoa

Kingdom: Plantae

Order: Caryophyllales

Family: Amaranthaceae

Subfamily: Chenopodioideae

Genus: Chenopodium

Species: Chenopodium quinoa

willd

Chromosome

number: 2n=36

Quinoa Chenopodium quinoa

willd

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Nutraceutical Use: A quinoa protein

concentrate which is food or pharmaceutical

grade has the potential use as an ingredient in

human or animal nutrition supplements.

Pharmaceutical Use: Saponins extracted from

the bitter quinoa variety has properties that can

induce changes in intestinal permeability and

assist in the absorption of particular

medications.

Industrial Use: Quinoa starch has excellent

stability in freeze thaw conditions and could

provide an alternative to chemically modified

starches. The starch has special potential for

industrial use because of the small size of the

starch grain, for example in aerosol production,

pulps, self-copy paper, dessert foods, excipients

in the plastics industry, talcs and anti-off-set

powders. In addition to the industrial use of the

quinoa grain, the saponins from the pericarp of

the bitter quinoa variety can be used in different

beneficial forms. They can be also extracted

from the pericarp of bitter quinoa form a foam

in aqueous solutions, leading to possible

applications in detergents, toothpaste,

shampoos or soaps. The use of saponin as a bio-

pesticide was also shown to have potential in a

successful demonstration.

Ideal cropping requisites for Quinoa

Soil: It suits well in loamy soil having good

drainage and high organic matter content, with

moderate slopes and average nutrient content. It

prefers neutral soils although it is usually grown

in alkaline (up to pH 9) and acid soils (up to pH

4.5).

Seed rate: For commercial planting, 8 to 12

kg/ha of seeds are used since most of the

planting is made manually. A desirable

population of quinoa plants result from this

quantity of seed would be between 100,000 and

160,000 plants/ha. Through seedbeds and

transplanting it is possible to reduce seeds to 1-

2 kg/ha.

Varieties of quinoa: It has been selected by

farmers themselves or by native or indigenous

communities which can be grouped into:

• small white grain quinoas

• sweet quinoas, low in saponin

• bitter quinoas, high in saponin

Climate: It prefers desert, warm and dry, cold

and dry, temperate and rainy, temperate with

high relative humidity, and Puna grassland and

high mountain areas. There are certain varieties

or ecotypes adapted to each climate.

Water: It is an efficient water user despite

being a C3 plant, as it has physiological

mechanisms which enable it to avoid moisture

and to tolerate and resist a lack of soil moisture.

Temperature: The ideal average temperature

ranges around 15-20°C, although it can

withstand extreme temperature ranging from

38°C to -8°C.

Radiation: It withstands intense solar radiation

enabling it to gain the hours of heat needed to

complete its growth and productive period.

Photoperiod: There are certain varieties or

ecotypes that are short day, long-day or

insensitive to photoperiod.

Altitude: It grows from sea level up to about

4,000 meters.

Sowing and Seed: Sowing is one of the most

important activities because the emergence of

seedlings which impacts plant density and final

yields depends on this stage. Quinoa seeds are

sown at different times, depending on the place

to be sown, the variety’s traits and soil

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moisture. Seed rates vary between 6 to 8 kg / ha

according to sowing method and spacing.

Intercultural Operation in Quinoa Farming

When quinoa crop is grown in wide row

spacing, plants branch easily and their growth

is hastened as well as the growth of weeds,

therefore inter-row cultivation should be

carried out. Usually, mechanical weeding is

done in quinoa cultivation. When the plant

attains a height of 20 to 25 cm, first weeding is

done. Thinning is also recommended if the

seedlings are clustered together or need to be

moved to spaces with a greater availability of

water.

Important pests and diseases of quinoa

As a crop, quinoa is a newcomer to the world

scenario, and there are lesser studies on specific

pests and diseases. Principle quinoa pests and

diseases deals with two of the most significant

pest complexes, the “noctuid complex” and the

“moth complex”. Major disease affecting

quinoa on a global scale is downy mildew.

Pest

Helicoverpa quinoa: It is one of the most

common and widespread quinoa pests which is

responsible for sizeable yield losses up to 20%.

It is also reasonable to assume that reports of

quinoa infestations of H. gelotopoeon in other

countries involve H. quinoa.

Copitarsia incommode: Copitarsia incommoda

is one of the principal quinoa’s pests, especially

in the area around Lake which cause economic

losses of around 30%. The polyphagous

behaviour of this insect, i.e. that it feeds on

various plant species, and the fact that it is

present in many areas around the world, make

it a potentially highly destructive pest anywhere

quinoa cultivation is introduced and developed.

Disease

Downy mildew: The disease primarily affects

foliage (leaves), although symptoms may also

appear on the stems, branches, inflorescence

and grains. Initial symptoms appear on the

leaves as small, irregular spots that may be

chlorotic, yellow, pink, red, orange or grey,

depending on the plant colour.

Control

• The selection of varieties for traits of

resistance, early maturity and large grains

is feasible through breeding.

• Farming practices

• Eco-friendly fungicides

Integrated management and control strategies

are practised because every situation is unique

and requires different measures for effective

control.

Control measures

a) Crop rotation: Crop rotation is a practice

that aims to avoid soil fertility exhaustion and

break the pest life cycle because moths

overwinter in the pupal stage. Crop rotation

requires that soil be ploughed before planting a

new crop in order that the pupae be exposed to

birds and other predators.

b) Light traps: Light traps are devices which

attract adult moths to capture and kill them. The

basic design is a bright light source and a

capture mechanism containing water and a

small amount of detergent to reduce the surface

tension and prevent the insects from escaping.

c) Using pheromone traps: In recent years,

pest management strategies include the use of

pheromone traps to attract male moths.

d) Use of bio-insecticides and eco-friendly

pesticides: Bio insecticides and eco-friendly

pesticides are generally used in organic

farming. They are biodegradable and do not

harm the environment.

Yield

Generally, on an average yield of 500 Kg to

1500 Kg of grains can be expected. However,

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with proper farm management practices,

fertilization and improved varieties, yield of up

to 5 tonnes per hectare of quinoa grain can be

achieved and green manure or fodder of 5 to 10

tonnes per hectare can be obtained.

CONCLUSION

Quinoa ‘magic crop’ is an amazing wheat-free

substitute to starchy grains which has potential

to improve and enhance the food and nutritional

security in India. The grain is used to make

flour, soup, breakfast, cereal and alcohol, while

the flour is utilized in making biscuits, bread

and processed food. Quinoa starch having small

grains and high viscosity, can be exploited for

various industrial applications. Less awareness,

seed unavailability and high prices are major

constraints in quinoa cultivation. So, if

government would focus on promotion and

cultivation of quinoa, the cost of quinoa can be

hugely reduced, making it available for the

common people. It would help in increasing

self-sufficiency and nutritional improvement to

fight against one of the major challenges in

India ‘hunger’.

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Bhargava, A., Shukla, S. and Ohri, D., 2007a.

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on yield and quality components of

quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa) leaves.

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77(11), p:748-751.

Bhargava, A., Shukla, S. and Ohri, D., 2007.

Genetic variability and interrelationship

among various morphological and

quality traits in quinoa (Chenopodium

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101(1), pp:104-116.

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for quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa

Willd.). Food Reviews International,

19(1-2), pp:167-177.

Pearsall, D. M., 1984. The origins of plant

cultivation in South America.

Smithsonian Institute Press, Washington,

DC. pp:173-205.

Kozioł, M. J., 1992. Chemical composition and

nutritional evaluation of quinoa

(Chenopodium quinoa Willd.). Journal

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pp:35-68.

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Popular Article

FMD Virus: Its Genome Organization, Genetic and Antigenic Variations in

FMD Carrier State

Biswa Ranjan Jena1 and Aishwarya Dash2

1Department of Veterinary Clinical Medicine, C. V. Sc & A.H., OUAT, Bhubaneswar 2Department of Animal Genetics and Breeding, National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal,

Haryana

Corresponding Author

Biswa Ranjan Jena

Email: [email protected]

Keywords

FMD virus, FMD carrier state, Genetic variation in FMD, Antigenic variation in FMD

How to cite this article:

Jena, B. R., and Dash, A. 2020. FMD Virus: its genome organization, genetic and antigenic variations in

FMD carrier state. Vigyan Varta 1(4): 65-68

ABSTRACT

Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV) is the causative organism of the infectious disease i.e.

Foot-and-mouth Disease (FMD), which is a highly contagious disease of transboundary

importance. FMDV belongs to the Aphthovirus under the family Picornaviridae and consists of

seven immunologically distinct serotypes named as Serotype O, A, Asia-1, and SAT-1, -2 and -

3. FMDV consists of a ss RNA which is about 8.4 kb in length and consists of single Open

reading Frame (ORF) and 2 Untranslated regions (UTRs) at 5’ & 3’ ends of the genome. The

ORF is translated into various structural and non-structural proteins, which are responsible for

the formation of outer skeleton of the virus and other cellular events involved in the life cycle

of the virus. The clinical symptoms exhibited due to FMDV infection are vesicle formation in

the tongue, feet, teat and snout etc., drop in milk yield, inappetence etc. These clinical

symptoms usually disappear within 2 weeks post-infection due to appearance of neutralizing

antibody. However, in a substantial proportion of affected animals, the virus continues to

multiply locally (virus persistence) at the dorsal soft palate and nasopharyngeal region and

these animals are known as FMD carrier animals. Although, some studies on genetic and

antigenic variation of FMDV have correlated with some possible phenomenon responsible for

virus persistence, the exact mechanism is still a debatable topic. The antigenic variation is

responsible for the failure of cross-protection between different serotypes and also between

strains under one serotype, which may lead to virus persistence after acute infection. However,

the ongoing innovations in next generation sequencing and advanced bioinformatics tools may

clarify the phenomena in future.

OPEN ACCESS

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INTRODUCTION

Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD) is an acute,

highly contagious viral disease of various

domestic and wild cloven-hooved animals,

which has a severe impact on economic status

limiting the trade of animals and animal

products throughout the world. FMD is caused

by Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus (FMDV).

The disease is clinically characterized by fever,

drop in milk production, lameness and vesicles

on the mouth, feet, snout and teats of infected

animals (Alexanderson et al., 2003). High

mortality is sometimes seen in young animals

as it affects the myocardium of heart, but in

adult animals’ mortality is exceptionally low.

However, morbidity is extremely high causing

weight loss, decreased draught power and

decreased milk production resulting severe

economic losses.

Taxonomy of FMDV

Family: Picornaviridae

Genus: Aphthovirus

Serotypes: 7 immunologically distinct

serotypes viz. O, A, C, Asia-1, Southern

African Territories (SAT)- 1, 2 & 3.

Genome Organization of FMDV

FMDV is a positive sense ssRNA virus. The

RNA is about 8.4 kb in length and consists of

single Open reading Frame (ORF) and 2

Untranslated regions (UTRs) at 5’ & 3’ ends of

the genome (Jamal and Belsham, 2013) with a

small viral protein of 25 amino acids length

called “VPg” covalently linked to 5’ end of the

RNA molecule. The 5’ UTR contains a highly

structured ‘S’ fragment that forms a large

hairpin structure and prevents the digestion of

viral genome by host cell exonuclease and this

S segment is followed by an internal Poly-

ribocytidylate (Poly C) tract of variable length.

ORF is the major portion of the viral genome.

It is divided into 4 regions viz. L, P1, P2 & P3

encoding for a single polyprotein, which is

cleaved by viral protease to yield various

structural and non-structural proteins (NSP).

The L region encodes for 2 overlapping L-

proteins, Lab & Lb. The P1 region encodes for

4 structural proteins (VP1, VP2, VP3 and VP4)

which forms the outer skeleton of the virus. The

P2 region encodes for 3 NSPs (2A, 2B and 2C)

and P3 region encodes for NSPs 3A, 3B1-3,

3Cpro and 3Dpol. These NSPs are associated

with virus life cycle inside the infected cells.

The 3’ UTR contains 2 stem loop structures

(SLI & SLII) and a genetically encoded Poly A

tract. This UTR at 3’ end is responsible for viral

infectivity as it binds several viral and host

proteins and required for negative stranded

RNA synthesis.

Carrier State

FMDV is mainly transmitted from affected to

naïve animals through aerosol inoculation

except in pigs where oral transmission occurs

predominantly. Early viral replication occurs in

nasopharyngeal region which is followed by

Genome Organization of FMD Virus

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viremia resulting widespread distribution of

virus to various tissues particularly the

cornified stratified squamous epithelium of oral

cavity and skin including the feet, teats and

snout where vesicles are formed and other

clinical symptoms are exhibited. However,

FMDV elicits a rapid humoral immune

response where virus neutralizing antibodies

appear in the serum and viremia is cleared

shortly after the appearance of these antibodies.

But in substantial proportion of affected

animals the virus persists for a prolonged period

and multiply locally at the epithelium of upper

respiratory tract mainly at the oro-pharyngeal

region: a condition referred to as ‘FMDV

persistence’ or ‘Carrier State’. This carrier state

has major economic drawbacks in international

trades and it also jeopardizes the declaration of

FMD free status in a country or a zone.

Genetic & antigenic variations in FMD

carriers

Antigenic variation acts as a major obstacle for

FMD control because it leads to the failure of

cross-protection between the serotypes and

sometimes between the strains within the

serotypes. There are many evidences of genetic

and antigenic variations in the FMDV isolated

from carrier animals. However, many studies

have reported that no specific mutations in the

viral genome were constantly associated with

persistent infection. Alterations to the FMDV

genome affecting its antigenicity, occurs

continuously during persistent infection but

such changes leading to evolution of novel viral

lineages are unknown. The significant genomic

variation of FMDV is due to low fidelity of the

RNA replication machinery along with a lack

of constraints on certain regions and potential

selection mechanism on other regions.

Recombination between different FMDV

genomes replicating within the same cell is also

a contributing factor for genetic variation but its

role in generating in vivo variants has very

limited evidence. One example of this type of

recombinant is O1 Burgwedel strain reported in

1987, due to recombination between O1

Kaufbeuren (vaccine strain) and a C1 type. Two

investigations have identified two different

amino acid substitutions viz. VP1 Q172R and

VP2 Y80H consistently in the viruses recovered

from oro-pharyngeal fluid (OPF) of carrier

animals. An important driver of viral evolution

is selection pressure, which may differ in

different host species or through different

phases of infection viz. acute clinical infection

and persistent infection within the same host.

Many studies described FMDV as a quasi-

species, defined as a swarm of viruses driven by

various selection pressures. One study reported

that the dynamic appearance and disappearance

of virus populations coupled with substitution

at the major antigenic site suggested the

existence of an antigenic selection process

during persistent infection. Biswal et al. (2019)

isolated genome sequences of FMDV from

carrier cattle and buffalo and performed

phylogenetic and parsimony analysis. He

demonstrated separate clustering of cattle

derived isolates from buffalo derived isolates

suggesting the host defined, species specific

selection pressure upon FMDV evolution.

Another result from this study was buffalo

derived isolates descended in a single lineage

from the outbreak virus whereas cattle derived

isolates descended in five separate lineages

from the outbreak virus, which suggested

differential selection pressures between the host

species. Although many studies have

investigated about the genetic and antigenic

variation of FMDV during the carrier state but

the contribution of viral genomic changes on

the establishments and maintenance of

persistent infection are still unclear. However,

the ongoing innovations in next generation

sequencing and advanced bioinformatics tools

may clarify the phenomena in future.

CONCLUSION

FMD is highly contagious disease affecting

ruminants which cause a great loss to economy

of a nation. FMDV carrier state promotes

international trade barriers and prevents the

declaration of FMD free status. Alterations to

the FMDV genome affects its antigenicity

which may leads to persistence of virus and

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establishment of carrier state. However, this

genetic and antigenic variations in carrier

animals need a detailed study with the advanced

bioinformatics tools.

REFERENCES

Alexandersen, S., Zhang, Z., Donaldson, A. I.

and Garland, A. J. M., 2003. The

pathogenesis and diagnosis of foot-and-

mouth disease. Journal of Comparative

Pathology, 129(1), pp:1-36.

Jamal, S. M. and Belsham, G. J., 2013. Foot-

and-mouth disease: past, present and

future. Veterinary Research, 44(1),

p:116.

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Mohapatra, J. K., Patidar, S., Sharma, M.

K., Bertram, M. R., Brito, B., Rodriguez,

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Genetic and antigenic variation of foot-

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