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Video tools for community-level disaster risk reduction

Pablo Suarez1, Fabio Benavídez2, Andrea Santoro2 and Janot Mendler de Suarez3

ABSTRACTThere is a need to accelerate the dissemination of information and ideas that canfacilitate processes of disaster risk reduction at the community level. Advances inaccess to digital technology offer a superb opportunity to use audiovisual media forraising awareness, supporting capacity building, enhancing the transfer of bestpractices, and improving participatory processes. This paper outlines experiences andlessons learned from the use of audiovisual tools in other disciplines, and discussespotential courses of action for the disaster management field.

Fig. 1: Mobile projection equipment for an environmental education initiative in rural Malawi.

1. IntroductionRecent advances in science and technology have brought about remarkable progressin our ability to develop climatic forecasts (Wang et al., 2004). With predictionsranging from short-term tropical cyclone tracks (Goerss, Sampson, & Gross, 2004) tolong-term sea level rise caused by global warming (Cazenave & Nerem, 2004),humanity faces two new challenges: not just preparing for the foreseeable climate, butalso modifying decision-making processes in order to incorporate the availability of

1 Boston University Department of Geography. suarez@bu.edu (corresponding author)2 Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Departamento de Cine y Artes Audiovisuales3 GEF International Waters Learning, Exchange and Resource Network (IW:LEARN)

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new information. Forecasts carry many potential benefits for reducing vulnerability,and massive financial, technological and human resources are being invested inimproving their quality (Asrar, Kaye, & Morel, 2001). Regrettably, the mostvulnerable sectors of the global population rarely derive benefit from climatepredictions, either because the information doesn’t reach them, or because insufficientknowledge or resources preclude their ability to respond adequately.

One of the main challenges posed by global environmental change is the need tointegrate research and assessment into decision-making processes, particularly indeveloping countries. When dealing with issues involving uncertainty and high risks,such as natural hazards, this integration is especially difficult. Yet science can andshould be integrated into governance and public participation in a way that addressesthe complex challenges of risk management (Funtowicz & Natenzon, 2004). Ifscience is to contribute to sustainability, it needs to take policy processes into account,getting the end users into a sharper focus (Kates et al 2001).

The field of climate predictions offers a superb example of how researchers and userscan collaborate in reducing risks. Forecasts play a growing role in avoiding disasters(Dilley 2000), yet there are many ways in which they can become more useful(Hansen 2002). Particular attention should be given to impoverished communities:The poorest sectors of the global population tend to be most sensitive to climatevariability and change (UNDP 2003), and they often do not receive climatepredictions in time, or face severe constraints that impede its proper use (Patt andGwata 2002, Lemos et al. 2002).

Inequities in the patterns of flow and use of information remain a fundamentalchallenge of modern times (Lievrouw 2003), and it is indispensable to explore thepossibilities offered by modern technology to extend the benefits of availableinformation to all those who could take advantage of it. This is particularly relevant inthe realm of community-based disaster risk management. There is evidence thatparticipatory approaches to community-level risk management can significantlyimprove the benefits of using climate information (Patt et al. 2005). Yet most successstories are derived from pilot projects, and the challenges of scaling up are enormous.It is necessary to accelerate the process of replication and dissemination of bestpractices. Audiovisual media and communication technologies offer a superbopportunity to do so. While other disciplines, such as the health sciences, have beendedicating considerable efforts to developing and evaluating intervention strategiesthat involve the use of video, disaster research has yet to take audiovisual tools intoserious consideration.

Focusing on disaster prevention through the use of climate prediction, this papermakes a case for a more comprehensive use and evaluation of audiovisual tools forrisk management. The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 introduces theopportunities involving communication and use of climate forecasts, and identifiessome of the gaps that could be filled with audiovisual tools. Section 3 presents anoverview of the experiences and lessons learned by other disciplines in the use ofaudiovisual media for the promotion of change. Section 4 outlines possible uses ofvideo tools for disaster risk management. Conclusions and recommendations arepresented in Section 5.

2. The gap between availability and use of climate predictions

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The goal of climate-related predictions and assessments is to provide this informationand knowledge in a form that is accessible and useful to decision-makers. Thisrequires identifying the target audience and conducting the work in such a way that itfits with their cognitive capabilities, choice opportunities, and level of experiencewith the scientific information (Patt & Dessai, 2005). As pointed out by the NationalResearch Council (Stern & Easterling, 1999), organizations must reach an agreedinterpretation of available information, specify tasks, roles, responsibilities andrelationships between tasks, develop appropriate lines of communication, and haveaccess to sufficient resources to act appropriately. Ultimately, it is indispensable toimprove the process of information flow and use among vulnerable communities and,in short, ‘to realize the potential of being educable’ (Slovic, Fischoff, & Lichtenstein,1982).

While climate research keeps producing better forecasts, much needs to beinvestigated in terms of how decision makers will actually respond to new predictions(Duerden, 2004). The mere availability of information is not enough to guarantee itsappropriate communication and use at the individual or organizational level (Pielke &Conant, 2003). There is a need to better understand these potential obstacles in orderto anticipate the challenges and better implement mechanisms that can translateforecasts into action aimed at improving social welfare (Shogren, 2002).There are many accounts of hazard warnings which, although received by the targetpopulation, have not been appropriately understood and/or acted upon. In all suchcases, what needs to be explored is a social relational failure rather than atechnological one. The dreadful effects of the recent tsunami on coastal areas of theIndian Ocean highlighted the criticality of communication of early warnings formitigating the impacts of natural hazards (Marris, 2005; Woo & Aspinall, 2005).While the focus of early warning initiatives tends to be on the production anddissemination of timely predictions, it is clear that inadequate institutional and humanresponse to the availability of the forecast can also have devastating effects(Cyranoski, 2005).Buckland (1991) distinguishes between three conceptualizations of information:“information-as-thing”; “information-as-knowledge”; and “information-as-process”.Marginalized communities would benefit from integrating these three approaches:The dissemination of predictions at the local and regional levels could be embeddedin a larger process aimed at (a) seeking to facilitate the flow of forecast content, (b)strengthening the local understanding of strengths and limitations in climatepredictions (including an acknowledgement of uncertainties), and (c) identifying andaddressing the bottlenecks in the process of communication and use of forecasts,while exploring opportunities to address the root causes of vulnerability. The“bundles of powers” framework as defined by Ribot and Peluso (2003) can be used tointegrate these three conceptualizations of information by identifying theconstellations of means, relations, and processes that enable various actors to derivebenefits from access to climate forecasts.How can this integration be achieved, given the enormity of the task ahead? The sheernumber of dispersed, vulnerable communities makes it very challenging for existinginstitutional structures to assist communities in taking full advantage of availableclimate predictions. Audiovisual media can help to generate awareness, acceleratecapacity building, and trigger participatory processes.

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3. Use of audiovisual tools in other disciplinesThe field of disaster studies attempts to rigorously assess the impacts of a variety ofintervention strategies in order to improve decision making. Yet, unlike practitionersin many other disciplines, the disaster community has yet to recognize and act uponthe enormous potential of audiovisual media to promote desirable change. Thissection provides some examples of how the health and other disciplines haveconsidered the use of video tools to further their goals.3.1. Video and health risk managementThere is an abundant body of literature exploring, reporting and rigorously analyzingthe use of video tools for health risk management. A clear example is a workcommissioned by the Health Education Authority of the UK, which systematicallyreviewed 175 studies of video-based projects with a view to assessing the value ofvideo as a tool for health promotion and education (Eiser and Eiser 1996). The report,which gives examples of well-planned and well-evaluated projects, concludes thataudiovisual tools can produce changes in attitudes and knowledge, and outlines thekey elements for successful initiatives.Many articles in peer-reviewed journals offer statistically rigorous analysis of thevalue of video interventions among communities that are particularly at risk. Forexample Bohon (1994) evaluates the impact of ''Cuida Su Salud Mental'' a video onmental health, and concludes that subjects exposed to it exhibited more knowledge,F(1, 62) = 10.61, p = 0.002, and less risky attitudes, F(1, 62) = 4.29, p = 0.043, thanthe control video group. These results support the use of this particular video as aproductive and cost-effective mental health intervention that can be used to reach alarge segment of the Spanish speaking community. Loue et al (1996) discuss aninnovative approach to HIV prevention in US Asian Pacific Islander communities,which includes a culturally sensitive and appropriate HIV-related video. Borrayo(2004) reports on the results of methods used during the basic and formative researchphases in producing a breast cancer educational video for low-literacy Latinas in theUS. An 8-min video was created in an Entertainment-Education soap opera format.The purpose of the video was to create awareness about breast cancer and to motivatelow-literacy Latinas to consider engaging in mammography screening.

Audiovisual tools have also been used and evaluated in the developing world: Martinet al. (2005) report on an educational video for tuberculosis awareness in The Gambiausing participatory methods and integrated formative evaluation. The video was wellreceived and described as informative, entertaining and professional. Audiences wereable to identify the key messages. Their prevailing attitudes about tuberculosis werechallenged, and many participants expressed a desire to act on their new knowledge.Rimm (2003) describes the process involved in making an educational video toinform rural communities in Tanzania about the health risks and prevention of porcinecysticercosis (a parasitic disease). The paper highlights the importance of determiningthe target audience, the film's core message, the construction of the 'story', scriptdevelopment, the filming and editing activities, and, importantly, the development ofstrategies for production and use of the film as extension material. Martin et al. (2005)indicate that five major themes emerged from evaluation of their project onparticipatory process: collaboration, knowledge sharing, networking, ownership and acommon desire to sustain the project goals for video dissemination.

Mitchell et al. (2001) evaluate four channels used in a community-based HIV/AIDSintervention in rural Uganda (drama, video, community educators and leaflets). Over

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85% of the community rated the video as relevant and realistic. However, since themessages 'taken home' were not always those intended by the project team, theauthors suggest that a multi-channel approach may be required to overcomeweaknesses inherent in individual channels. Along similar lines, Mathews et al.(2002) evaluate a video-based health education strategy to improve partnernotification in the context of sexually transmitted diseases in a rural district inKwaZulu Natal, South Africa. A before/after quantitative study design was used tomeasure the effect of an audiovisual presentation of a compelling love drama, posters,and pamphlets. The intervention phase showed improvements on several measures ofself efficacy about notifying casual partners, such as a belief among index patientsthat a greater proportion of their casual partners would see the importance of seekingtreatment as a result of their notification interaction. The authors conclude that, withsome needed adjustments, this intervention could provide a highly acceptable, costeffective model for health education in clinics in developing countries.

It is important to note that audiovisual tools can also lead to undesirable outcomes ifcontextual aspects are not taken into consideration. For example Jahn et al. (2001)found evidence that an outbreak of meningitis in a rural village in southern Tanzaniawas related to a social event at which a video had been shown in a windowless andovercrowded storeroom.In addition to community-based approaches to using video, much can be learned fromthe health field in terms of other approaches to risk management and capacitybuilding involving audiovisual media. For example Whitehead (2002) discusses theenormous potential for mass media resources to reach certain audiences and influencetheir health-related behaviours. Similarly, DeJong (2002) describes key principles ofhealth-related media campaigns, including the integration of information andadvocacy approaches to create a climate of support for institutional, community andpolicy changes aimed at altering the environment in which people make decisions. Ina work addressing medical communication, Losh (2005) reports on training usingscenarios illustrated in short videos. After the training sessions, teachers and studentswere surveyed to assess the effectiveness of the video tools. The majority of studentsfelt that the educational design stimulated discussion and improved theirunderstanding of communication skills. Faculty found the educational design usefuland 95% felt that the curriculum and videotape contributed to their own education.Gray (1996) deals with an issue more closely related to disaster response: the authordescribes the making and testing of a 40 minute video to educate staff about a hospitaldisaster plan. A multiple choice questionnaire was used to compare information recallin a group who had seen the video and a group who had read the written plan. Thevideo group scored significantly higher than the reading group (P < 0.01), with meanscores of 72% and 45% respectively. Videos improved recall of emergencyprocedures proving to have an impact that was absent in written disaster plans.3.2. Video and anthropological researchWith its focus on understanding cultures and the elements that can trigger culturalchange, anthropologists have long embraced the use of video to document, investigateand even intervene on human groups. The best-known early example is theethnographic work “Nanook of the North” (Flaherty 1922), cited by most filmhistorians as the first feature-length documentary. Much work has been developedsince then on video, research and culture (both in video and written form). Ofparticular relevance to disaster risk management is the realm of participatory video, a

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methodology increasingly used in community development and anthropologicalresearch. Participatory video has the potential to create spaces for transformation byproviding a practice of looking 'alongside' rather than 'at' research subjects (Kindon2003). This approach may be a very useful way to understand the thinking process ofindividuals who do not embrace the recommendations of disaster experts in risk-proneareas.

Wang and Burris (1997) describe an innovative methodology called “photovoice”,which puts cameras in the hands of constituents who seldom have access to those whomake decisions over their lives. It is a process by which people can identify,represent, and enhance their community. As a practice based in the production ofknowledge, photovoice has three main goals: (1) to enable people to record andreflect their community's strengths and concerns, (2) to promote critical dialogue andknowledge about important issues through large and small group discussion ofaudiovisual materials, and (3) to reach policymakers to advocate as informed from agrassroots perspective. Photovoice may have value for risk reduction initiatives at thecommunity level, particularly in the realms of participatory needs assessment, assetmapping, and program planning.3.3. Other video interventions

There are many other documented initiatives involving the use of audiovisual toolsfor awareness and training. For example Kandil (2004) presents the systematicdevelopment of an awareness and communication multimedia package in solid wastemanagement that was produced for Egyptian technical secondary schools.

The multimedia package included a video film that stresses the economic andenvironmental benefits of recycling. The feedback from the pilot schools wascollected to monitor the implementation and impact of this package. The packagewas adopted by the Ministry of Education and was distributed to technical secondaryschools in Egypt.O'Toole and McConkey (1998) report on a training program for personnel peoplewith disabilities and their families through a community-based rehabilitation programin Guyana, South America. The program has three components: (a) identification oftraining needs of families and support workers; (b) production of video-based trainingpackages on specific topics; and (c) the utilization of available personnel to act aslocal tutors. This strategy has resulted in over 7000 volunteers, health workers,teachers, families and villagers having access to information and skills whichotherwise they would be denied.The phenomenal advances in communications technology allow for affordable, basicrecording or projection equipment for awareness raising and education of targetedaudiences in diverse locations. An environmental management project in Malawi(Figure 1) uses basic audiovisual projection equipment in combination with all-terrainvehicles to reach rural communities with educational videos (Jamal 2005).

3.4. Disasters and audiovisual mediaDisasters have of course always attracted the attention of the media. However, mostof the resulting audiovisual products simply report or document catastrophic events.The issue of inadequate use of technical knowledge on the part of communicators anddecision-makers has been a recurrent theme in debates on disaster risk management(see for example Demarchi 1991). Henderson-Sellers (1998) analyzes the processesinvolved in this miscommunication of science to and through the media in the case of

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an Australian report describing the potential for changes in tropical cyclone intensityin a greenhouse-warmed world. The author compares such process with the children'sgame in which a simple statement is modified, sometimes beyond recognition, byrepetition without understanding or correction. Scientists who communicate warninginformation must recognize, anticipate and address the background, commitments,values, needs and expectations of those they communicate with.Perez-Lugo (2001) criticizes the literature about disasters and the media because ittends to propose only three actors in the process of effective disaster management: theexperts and government officials that generate disaster information, the media thattransmit it, and the public, who is expected to receive the information and actaccordingly. He concludes that a more comprehensive approach is needed tounderstand and affect the role of media in disaster reduction.There have been some notable initiatives involving video and disaster riskmanagement. “We’re still here” (Wisner and Berger 2002) is a lively and highlyinformative 30-minute look at the human mismanagement that has made Mexico Citya magnet for "natural" disasters. Narrated by a wise-cracking skeleton, the video takesbriskly through a discouraging history of sloppy landfill, inadequate engineering,rapid urban growth, governmental arrogance, and disastrous earthquakes. Thedocumentary ends by showing what can be done about it: community-level activismhas slowly laid the groundwork for the necessary infrastructure and awareness.“Forces of Nature” (Casey 2004) is a 40-minute IMAX documentary which allowsaudiences to experience the spectacle of tornadoes, floods, erupting volcanoes,hurricanes and their aftermath. Viewers also gain insight, as they learn how thesenatural disasters occur and what scientists and engineers are doing to predict andprepare for events and to minimize damage in the future.A video on gender issues in disasters, titled "South Asian Women: Facing Disasters,Securing Life" (Duryog Nivaran )relates the stories of four South Asian women fromBangladesh , Nepal , Pakistan and Sri Lanka , portraying them as survivors andinnovators, as they face disasters such as cyclones, epidemics and civil conflict. Thevideo is aimed at policy makers, practitioners of disaster management and the media,to influence policy decisions and to create awareness on disaster mitigation, withwomen assuming a more active role.Little has been done to rigorously report the impact of audiovisual media on riskperceptions and disaster risk management. In a paper on the National Tsunami HazardMitigation Program, (NTHMP), Dengler (2005) emphasizes that education activities,materials, and programs are an essential tool for near-source tsunami mitigation.Education programs have been developed in all five Pacific States and include print,electronic and video/film products. An additional education component promotesmedia coverage of tsunamis. Assessment surveys conducted in Oregon, Washington,and Northern California show an increase in tsunami awareness and recognition oftsunami hazards among the general population since the NTHMP inception. A reportby Reusswig et al. (2005) evaluates the changes in perception of climate changecaused by “The Day After Tomorrow”, a highly spectacular and fictitious disasterfilm. 1118 people were asked questions before and after the film, and telephoneinterviews were conducted four weeks later inquiring about climate change and itsdangers, public and personal policy consequences, and film related issues. Theauthors find that the film seems to have improved the public perception of science andthe political role of scientists.

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4. Potential uses of video for community-level disaster managementCurrent practice seldom reflects a synthesis between disaster management andcommunity planning, and this is one of the reasons why hazard awareness is absentfrom local decision-making processes (Pearce 2003). The literature from otherdisciplines, described in the previous section, suggests that audiovisual tools canassist not only in raising disaster awareness at the local level, but also facilitateprocesses aimed at preparing for and responding to natural hazards, particularlyclimate related hazards. Four areas emerge as possible dimensions for videointervention among vulnerable communities: disaster awareness, training, communityplanning, and advocacy.Disaster awarenessThe potential of audiovisual media to increase awareness about climate hazards anddisasters is immense. From mass media products for large TV audiences to targetedvideo projections with mobile equipment to reach dispersed rural communities indeveloping countries, film can communicate in a simple yet convincing manner thethreats posed by nature, and the disasters that may result if proper action is notundertaken. Of particular relevance is the fact that visual tools can be much moresuccessful than oral or written channels in explaining the basic science behind climatepredictions among vulnerable communities where illiteracy is significant and thereisn’t much awareness about the predictability of extreme events.TrainingReaching out to the multiple communities and individuals at risk requires scaling upsuccessful pilot projects, which in turn demands significant numbers of qualifiedpersonnel. Audiovisual tools can help accelerate the process of training workshopfacilitators, community disaster managers and other key roles, particularly among thenon-governmental organizations that depend on networks of volunteers to prepare forand respond to disasters.AdvocacyMany of the bottlenecks faced by disaster risk management could be moreappropriately addressed with better access to human and financial resources. Videomaterials conceived as advocacy tools can help mobilize these resources by raisingthe visibility and relevance of preparing for and responding to natural hazards.

Community planningAudiovisual tools can support participatory processes aimed at reducing the risk ofdisasters, as well as generate support for local-level disaster management initiatives.Video tools could be devised to encourage fruitful dialogue and the conceptualizationand materialization of risk reduction plans by showing how the climate problem iscommon to people in different regions -and how a variety of strategies can addressrelevant threats.

5. Concluding remarksThe magnitude of the challenges involving climate-related risk reduction at thecommunity level requires innovative approaches. The field of disaster risk

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management has a lot to learn from other disciplines in terms of the potential ofaudiovisual tools for promoting informed decision making. The growing affordabilityof technologies for collecting, processing, storing and disseminating audiovisualmaterial deserves much more attention among disaster practitioners. This paper hasdiscussed some of the opportunities offered by new climate predictions and outlinedpotential uses of video tools for community-based disaster management, inspired byexperiences in other realms such as the health sciences and anthropological research.By beginning to chart the interface between audiovisual media and disaster riskreduction, we hope that these ideas can assist those seeking to blend research andaction. Communication strategies are undoubtedly essential for any attempt to bringthe advantages of science and technology to the most vulnerable sectors of the globalpopulation.

AcknowledgementsThe ideas presented in this paper emerged during a research project supported by theProVention Consortium (Applied Research Grant for Disaster Risk Reduction).Our deepest gratitude goes to workshop participants in the communities of El Zanjónand Xai-Xai. This work benefited greatly from conversations with Anthony Patt,Jamil Simon, Marie-Ange Sylvain, Parker Shipton, Richard Klein, Sanjeev Chatterjeeand the Red Cross Disaster Preparedness teams in Argentina and Mozambique.

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