VELAN's Cosmogony

8/9/2019 VELAN's Cosmogony

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The Multi-Universe CosmosA New Cosmological Theory on the Birth of the Cosmos, our Universe and Its Fate

A. Karel VelanMontreal, Canada

[email protected]

The present leading cosmological theory of the classical Big Bang with its various refinements, as well as the prevailing theory ofchaotic inflation, do not provide any explanation on the creation of the Singularity, matter and energy, the nature of the Nothingnessor the environment in which the Singularity appeared as well as the explosion process of the Singularity or an acceptable explanationfor the creation of cosmic structures (galaxies).

The most striking recent development in cosmology has come from explosion studies of supernovae which seemingly reveal thatthe expansion speed of the universe changes with time and presently the Universe accelerates, having a negative pressure tocounterbalance the energy density.

Here I present a few comments on the difficulties and issues published by the worlds leading cosmologists.

COSMOLOGY IN CONSTANT CHAOS (1)

ON THE BIG BANG THEORY

S. HAWKING (1995) (2)

"According to the general relativity, there should be a singularity in our past. At this singularity, the field equations could not bedefined. This, classical general relative brings about its own downfall: it predicts that it cant predict the universe. The only way tohave a scientific theory is if the laws of physics hold everywhere, including at the beginning of the universe. One can regard that asa triumph for the principles of democracy. Why should the beginning of the universe be exempt from the laws that apply to otherpoints? If all points are equal, one cant allow some to be more equal than others".

"The universe was created quite literally out of nothing, not just out of vacuum but of absolutely nothing at all, because there isnothing outside the universe."

A. GUTH (1997) (3)

"How did it start? The Big Bang theory does not really address this question as it describes the universe from immediately after itscreation onward."

"Given the present understanding of conservation laws, is there any hope for a scientific description of the creation of the universe?If conservation laws imply that "nothing can be created from nothing" as Lucretius put it, then how could the universe have comeinto being? If the creation of the universe is to be described by physical laws that embody the conservation of energy, then theuniverse must have the same energy as whatever it was created from."

"The Big Bang theory does not really address the origin as it describes the universe from immediately after its creation onwards."

P.J.E. PEEBLES (1995) (9)

"Roughly 15 billion years ago, all matter and energy we can observe was concentrated in a region smaller than a dime."

JOSEPH SILK (1997) (7)

"The very early universe might have been empty and contained only an intense gravitational field which itself created matter andradiation out of a vacuum of space-time."

ON COMPOSITION OF THE SINGULARITY


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"The expansion has had little influence on the size of galaxies or even clusters of galaxies bound by gravity; space is simply openingup between them. In this sense, the expansion is similar to a rising loaf of raisin bread, or a balloon."

HUBERT REEVES (1994) (9)

In Dernires Nouvelles du Cosmos (1994), "...Do galaxies themselves have a movement or are they simply carried along by theexpansion of space? A priori, both statements are possible..."

ON EXPANSION

ON CREATION OF COSMIC STRUCTURES (GALAXIES)

NATHALIE DERUELLE (1998) (9)

"The "standard" big bang model has a serious setback: it has difficulty explaining the existence of a multitude of material objectswhich populate the universe - the galaxies.

What is the origin of this dilemma? If we consider a volume of space-time containing a mass of particles equal to a cluster ofgalaxies, (1015 solar masses) this region could collapse gravitationally only if its small density variations were unstable and grewwith time. Galaxies appeared after the recombination era - after hydrogen and helium atoms formed - and when the photons whichwe observe today as the microwave background radiation (400 photons/cm3) decoupled from matter and were free to propagate.The temperature had cooled to 3,000K and objects were 1,000 times closer together than they are today. Consequently, the ratio ofdensity variations is 1,000 times greater now than it was back then.

If=1 as current theories predict, the ratio of density variations during the decoupling era should have been 1/1000 (10-3) what itis today. But this is where the standard big bang theory runs into difficulty. The temperature/density variations found by COBE, inthe cosmic microwave background radiation, were less than 1 part in 100,000 (10-5) - which is 100 times (10-2) too small toprecipitate gravitational collapse and galaxy formation."

ON CREATION OF MATTER AND ENERGY


"The very early universe might have been empty and contained only an intense gravitational field which itself created matter andradiation out of a vacuum of space-time."

J.D. BARROW (1993) (9)

"All mass in the universe was compressed into a state of infinite density."


"Roughly 15 billion years ago, all matter and energy we can observe was concentrated in a region smaller than a dime."

S. HAWKING (1995) (9)

"The very early universe was created quite literally out of nothing, not just out of the vacuum but out of absolutely nothing at all,because there is nothing outside the universe."


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A.H. GUTH (1997) (3)

"Conceivably, everything can be created from nothing. And "everything" might include a lot more than we can see. In the contextof inflationary cosmology, it is fair to say that the universe is the ultimate free lunch."If inflation is correct, then the inflationary mechanism is responsible for the creation of essentially all the matter and energy in theuniverse. The theory also implies that the observed universe is only a minute fraction of the entire universe, and it strongly suggeststhat there are perhaps an infinite number of other universes that are completely disconnected from our own."

ANDREI LINDE (1998) (9)

"Inflationary cosmology is still in the process of active development. It changes in parallel with the rapid development of the theoryof elementary particles. There exist some particle theories where inflation cannot apply.

It may happen also that some models will be in conflict with future astronomical observational data which may show, for example,that the universe is not flat but open, or the Hubble constant happens to be very large.

Many cosmologists believe that inflation or something very similar should be a necessary ingredient of any internally consistentcosmological theory."

ON INFLATION

ON CREATION OF COSMIC STRUCTURES

(GALAXIES) IN THE INFLATION THEORY


"The density fluctuations responsible for cosmic structure existed before radiation decoupled - but where did they come fromoriginally? Without the magic of inflation, any physical origin for fluctuations fails dramatically."

ANDREI LINDE (1994) (9)

"Density perturbations produced during inflation affected the distribution of matter in the universe by leaving their imprint on themicrowave background radiation. This imprint was detected by the COBE satellite in 1992.

As the universe expanded, early quantum fluctuations in the scalar field were stretched out until they were smooth; however, laterfluctuations were "frozen" on top of the older ones.

These later disturbances caused the density perturbations that are crucial for the subsequent formation of galaxies. In this way,inflation can simultaneously explain why the universe is so homogenous and still have the ripples in space discovered by COBE."

ALAN GUTH (1997) (3)

"In the standard big bang cosmology without inflation, an entire spectrum of density perturbations had to be included arbitrarily inthe hypothesized initial conditions, or else galaxies would never form. The mere fact that inflation provides a context in whichdensity perturbations can be calculated, rather than assumed, is itself a big step forward."

ON THE "ACCELERATING UNIVERSE" (9)

So far, the data gathered by the Supernova Cosmology Project, based on observations of more than 72 type Ia supernovae, pointsto neither a flat universe as depicted by inflation theories or a universe that is closed depicted by the Velan theory. Instead, the dataimply an open, accelerating universe with a positive cosmological constant (>0). Though these results are truly revolutionary, atpresent they are still being tested and remain highly speculative.


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I propose an entirely new approach to the origin of our universe, one of many in a Multi-Universe Cosmos. The newmodel eliminated the mysterious singularity at time 0, the origin of which and its explosion no one can explain.

It is the first cosmological theory (1) which goes beyond the creation of our own Universe, (2) introduces manyinnovations to explain the present mysteries: a) what was created first? The Cosmic Space-Time with all the prevailing

laws of physics; b) the Cosmic Space-Time contains a primordial radiation field which, together with "virtual particles"plays a major role in creation of matter and energy, resulting in the birth of universes in the Cosmos, (3) it is the firstcosmological theory where "the laws of physics hold everywhere, including at the beginning of the universe and at thesame time embody the conservation of energy" (as demanded by Stephen Hawking).

Then approximately 18 billion years ago, our Universe emerged from a superhot, dense fireball of matter and radiationcreated in the 4-dimensional cosmic space-time vacuum. A massive appearance of virtual particle pairs due to quantumfluctuations in the cosmic space-time (Quantum Field Theory) was followed by interaction with a powerful primordialcosmic radiation field, the missing link to any viable theory of creation, which provided the virtual particle pairs theirrest mass (new hypothesis), creating a large cloud of matter and radiation.

Gravitational implosion of the just created cloud led to the formation of a fireball with a much hotter and denser core.During the implosion, more elementary particles were created, now directly from radiation at temperatures far exceedingtheir threshold creation levels.

Finally, the enormous pressure created by the large thermal energy of the trapped superheated radiation and matter

overpowered the gravitational forces, causing a gigantic explosion of the entire fireball which initiated the expansion andevolution of our universe. As the universe expanded and cooled, it spawned galaxies, stars, planets and life as we observeon earth. While the Big Bang theory, despite its successes, cannot explain satisfactorily the origin of density ripples leadingto the formation of large structures, the new theory provides a unique and complete solution to this important issue.

Figure 1. Our Universe, one of many in the multi-universe cosmos.

In this paper I explore dramatically new ideas on the origin ofthe Cosmos and our Universe as one of many, a uniquecosmological model free of an initial singularity, yetcompatible with the large-scale features of the Universe whichwe observe today.

Section 1 outlines the concept of the 4-dimensional CosmicSpace-Time continuum with the same features as found in ourUniverse but containing a primordial radiation field.

The particle creation process and the birth of our Universe as alarge fireball is developed in Section 2. Section 3 covers thephysics of the gravitational implosion leading to the giganticexplosion and expansion of the fireball.

The consequences of the ensuing explosion of the fireball oncurrent observational discoveries are discussed in Section 4,including the formation of large structures. Section 5 concludeswith the description of the fate of the Universe.

All relevant sections contain the mathematical calculations ofthermal and gravitational energies in the imploding andexploding fireball, the expansion speeds and the parametersrelated to the fate of the universe. Using well established lawsof physics and formulas and respecting the laws of conservationof energy that "nothing can be created from nothing", except theinitial Cosmic Primordial Space-Time.

INTRODUCTION

THE MULTI-UNIVERSE COSMOSA NEW COSMOLOGICAL THEORY ON THE BIRTH OF THE COSMOS

AND THE HISTORY AND FATE OF OUR UNIVERSEby A. Karel Velan, P. Eng.


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First there was Nothingness.To ask what conditions prevailedis meaningless as there was nospace, no matter, no energy, notime - only Nothingness - a deepmystery beyond human

comprehension.

Then, by an unknown process orDivine Power, a secret of naturethat may remain forever amystery to intelligent beings, theNothingness was transformedinto the 4-dimensional CosmicSpace-Time Continuum, togetherwith all the laws of physics andnature known to us, and maybeothers, to self-govern allsubsequent events in the Cosmos,including the creation of

universes. Time started to click.To designate the Cosmic Space-Time as 4-dimensional is anotherway of saying that the Cosmosbecame a world of events, not just points in space, and itrequired 4 numbers to designateeach event: 3 dimensions forspace (x, y, z) and 1 for time (t).

The Cosmos at this stage was in profound darkness with nomatter but it contained 3 basic characteristics designed to createlarge clouds of matter and radiation which, by gravity, were

transformed into fire balls, or baby universes:1. Tiny space cells of 10-33 cm undergo dynamic fluctuationsin their topology. They vibrate, expand and collapse in a mostactive way just as in our own vacuum of space-time incompliance with General Relativity. (Figure 2)

2. Virtual particles (Figure 2) emerge from the vacuum, whichhas a very small but non-zero energy, appearing spontaneouslyas particle-antiparticle pairs such as electrons and positrons.Their lifetime is extremely short, 10-23 to 10-10 second beforedisappearing back into the vacuum. Such virtual particle pairs,however, can be brought into permanent existence by theapplication of an energy input equal to the rest mass of theparticles, in accordance with the equivalence equation of

Einstein:E = Mc2

. (3)The density of virtual particles in cosmic space-time, equal tothe space-time in our universe in accordance with the QuantumField Theory of 1094 g/cm3 is enormous. Theoretically, lessthan 1 cm3 of cosmic space-time has the potential to create thetotal mass of our universe of 5.71056 g in presence of anequivalent energy providing the virtual particles their rest mass.As the energy equivalent of 1 gram of matter is 5.61023 GeV,it would require an energy of 5.710565.61023 or 321079GeV to create our universe from 1cm3 of cosmic space-time.(3) (8)

The lifetime of virtual particles (t) can be calculated fromHeisenbergs equation of quantum uncertainty, which relatestime and energy in the following way: t = -h/E, where -h isPlancks constant and t and E are the uncertainties of timeand energy. For the smallest particle pair of an electron-positronand a mass of 0.00102 GeV, the lifetime is 10-10 second. (3) (8)

3. The cosmic primordial energy field (Figure 2)a major hypothesis introduced in the new theory, is apowerful electromagnetic field with an energy density of1012 - 1014 GeV/cm3 which permeates the inter-universecosmic space-time and provides the missing link to any theoryof creation that is consistent with energy conservation. Virtualparticle pairs are transformed into real matter - antimatterparticle pairs when the primordial radiation field interacts.

Direct detection of the primordial radiation field in our universeis difficult because it is shielded by a curved region of space-

time outside our universe, created by the tremendous amount ofmass-energy contained within. However, as I first predicted in1985, the primordial gamma radiation can occasionally enterour universe from the cosmic space-time by penetrating thesurrounding space-time shell and in my view accounts for thesuper energetic rays and cosmic radiation observable burstsdetected by space probes. (7)

Figure 2. THE 4-DIMENSIONAL COSMIC SPACE-TIMEQuantum fluctuations of space are depicted graphically on top and the primordialradiation field (vertical waves) is shown together with virtual particle pairs (+,)appearing spontaneously, interacting and annihilating.

SECTION 1

THE CREATION OF THE 4-DIMENSIONAL COSMIC SPACE-TIME CONTINUUM

VIRTUALPARTICLE

PAIRS

PRIMORDIALRADIATION

FIELD


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Figure 4. Curved space spherearound universes.

They expand, evolve and collapse - some becoming black

holes and others beginning a new cycle of expansion. If one

could stand 20 billion light-years away, in the gravitationally

curved space-time surrounding our universe, it would look

like a sphere covered with galaxies (Figure 3). However, this

view would be obscured by a sphere of radiation, located

ahead of the expanding universe, which escaped at the speed

of light during the radiation decoupling era, some 815,000

years after the initial explosion.

Figure 3. Our universe in the Multi-Universe Cosmos.

Over the eons, primordial space-time transformed itself intoa vast cosmos containing millions of universes each withits own initial configuration, and each in various stages ofdevelopment. Some illuminate the profound darkness of the"inter-universe" space-time continuum, appearing likeflashes of light or shining like mighty galaxies; others areopaque or invisible.

Created at different times, each universe is filled with matter and

radiation, some similar in structure to our own. Some are still

young and active, full of galaxies and stars: all are guided

from birth by the same universal physical laws.

Each of these universes are self-contained

units and do not influence one another

(Figure 4). Space-time is gravitationally

curved around each one, and each has a

horizon or maximum spherical space in

which it can expand. The radius (R) of the

shell can be calculated from the equation:

R = GM/c2 where G is the gravitational

constant, M is the total mass and c is the

speed of light.In 1950, Einstein said:

"It is imaginable that the proof will

be given that the world is spherical

if its density (dc) is

greater than critical (dc=3H0

2____

8G )(1)

;

it is hardly imaginable

that one could prove it is

pseudospherical."[3]

H0

= Hubble constant,

G = gravitational constant

THE MULTI-UNIVERSE COSMOS


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FIGURE 5. THE PARTICLE CREATION PROCESSA cloud of elementary particle pairs is being bo rne from

virtual particles (+, ) acquiring their rest mass from theprim ordial radiation field (vertical waves).

SECTION 2

THE BIRTH OF OUR UNIVERSE

THE PARTICLE CREATION PROCESS FROM VIRTUAL PARTICLES AND PRIMORDIAL RADIATION

Total mass produced in GeV

MTGeV

= VSP

Ed

= 4.18 1066 1013

= 4.18 1079 GeVTotal mass produced in grams

MT 4.18 1079

MTg = = ~ 1056 g

5.6 1023 5.6 1023

The remaining mass of the new universe was created in the

imploding fireball directly from photons at threshold

temperatures (see page 9).

About 18 billion years ago, an area of the cosmic space-time

vacuum underwent sudden dynamic quantum fluctuations of

extreme intensity. Small space-time cells of 10-33 cm

vibrated, expanded, attained maximum size, collapsed and

exploded most actively.

Suddenly, whether by pure chance or determined by divine

power, a secret of nature that may remain forever a mystery

to intelligent beings, the particle creation process was

triggered following established laws of nature.

The powerful topological distortions were passed on from one

area to another like tidal waves. This wave effect caused the

simultaneous, widespread appearance of virtual particle pairs

of electrons, electron-neutrinos, up & down quarks (u, d) and

their anti-particles. These were all swept up by the primordial

radiation field, and a great transformation of virtual particles

to real particles ensued. (Figure 5)

Many other types of particles and anti-particles appeared butwere quickly annihilated, due to their very short lifetimes into

photons.

The powerful cosmic radiation field provided the virtual

particles with their rest mass necessary to release them into

the real world following the equivalent formula of Einstein

M = E/c2. (4) Meanwhile, a sea of photons originated from

the primordial radiation and from the annihilation of particle-

antiparticle pairs. In seconds, a vast dense cloud of radiation

and elementary particles had formed. (Figure 2, 5)

The photons, electrons, electron-neutrinos, and quarks (which

were later confined in protons and neutrons) became the

building blocks of our universe.

As there was no other justification established, so far, for the

presence of virtual particles in the cosmic space-time, it is

logical to conclude that their high density presence together

with the cosmic primordial radiation field was assigned a

major role in the creation process of universes. Space-time in

our Universe is an extension of the cosmic space-time.

The required energy for transformation can be calculated

using Einsteins formula E = mc2. In case of an electron-

positron pair, it is 1 million electron volts. The heavier quarks

(3 quarks to 1 proton or neutron) have a mass of ~.313 GeV.

Quark-antiquark pairs are produced at an energy level above

~.616 GeV.

As the energy density of the primordial radiation field was

Ed = 1012-1014 GeV/cm3, the cosmic space-time involved in

the process was equivalent to a ball with a radius R = 1022 cm.

As the energy equivalent to 1g of mass is 5.61023 GeV wecan calculate the created mass of particles as follows:

Volume of the sphere active in the creation process:

VSP=43

R3 = 43

(1022)3= 4.18 1066 cm3


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Figure 6. The embryonic universe, a cloud of m atter and radiation turned into a sphere created by gravit y.

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THE CLOUD OF PARTICLES BECOMES SPHERICAL

THE CREATION PROCESS IS IN FULL COMPLI-

ANCE WITH ALL THE LAWS OF NATURE ANDEMBODYING THE CONSERVATION OF ENERGY.

The just created, massive and dense cloud of particles and

radiation turned into a sphere subjected to rapid implosion

under gravitational forces created by the mass density of

matter and radiation. The pressure of the radiation which is

proportionate to the 4th power of temperature was too weak to

resist.

At the early stage, particles and antiparticles annihilated each

other into photons while other particle pairs from virtualparticles were created, maintaining a balance, the number of

photons being about the same as the number of particles.

The kinetic energy (Mv2/2) of the infalling particles towards

the centre at increasing velocities, as well as the powerful

collisions between particles and scattering of photons by

electrons and quarks were all turning into thermal energy,

substantially increasing the temperature.

The entire creation process in this new theory of creation

complies with the laws of physics which hold everywhere and

all field equations can be defined.

OTHER KNOWN CREATION PROCESSES ARE

VIOLATING THE LAW OF CONSERVATION OFENERGY.

1. BIG BANG.

E. Tryon 1973

The universe was created from a virtual particle.

R. Brout 1978

A fluctuation in space-time created a superparticle with

1019 GeV mass which triggered more and more

superparticles and finally a fireball which exploded.

A. Vilenkin 1982

The universe appeared from literally nothing by quantum

tunneling to a non-empty space.

S. Hawkings 1995The universe was created out of nothing, because there is

nothing outside the universe.

A. Guth 1997The Big bang theory does not address the

origin as it describes the universe only after its creation.

2. CHAOTIC INFLATION A. Linde 1994

Vacuum of space-time has a scalar field called inflaton.

As the scalar field evolves it produces many inflationary

domains. Some will sprout inflationary bubbles. When

inflation stops, its energy disintegrates into elementary

particles of matter and another big bang follows.


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What was a primordial ball in the beginning soon turned intoa superheated fireball with the implosion continuing at a rapidpace. Photons moving at speed of light, unable to escape,were scattered at collisions with electrons and quarks,contributing to the ever-increasing temperature and pressureof the fireball, their energy increasing with the fourth powerof temperature (E= aT4). Due to the intensive gravitationalforces, a much denser and hotter core was developing.

THE HOT PARTICLE CREATION PROCESS

With the considerable increase of temperature in the fireball,the energy of photons reached levels where particles of mattercan be produced by collisions of photons without interactionwith virtual particles. All elementary particles have what iscalled the threshold or creation temperature which can becalculated from the equation:

Mc2(1) T= [6]

k

where T= Temperature, Mc

2

= rest mass in MeV andk= Boltzmann constant = 0.00008617 eV/K

PARTICLE SYMBOL REST MASS Mc2 in MeV THRESHOLD TEMPERATURE IN K

PHOTON N/A N/A

ELECTRON-NEUTRINO e ? 1 eV ?ELECTRON-ANTINEUTRINO

_

e ? 1 eV ?

ELECTRON e- 0.511 5.93 109POSITRON e+ 0.511 5.93 109

QUARK u, d ~ 312.75 3,692 1012

ANTIQUARK

u,

d ~ 312.75 3,692 1012

Figure 7. The superheated fireball with a denser

and hotter core.

When the temperature of the cosmic fireball reached12109 K, more electron-positron pairs were produced,directly from radiation and at 71012 K, heavy pairs of quarksand antiquarks. Under these enormously high temperatureand density levels, the number of particles was controlled bythe thermal equilibrium between particles and radiation whichprevailed in the imploding hot cosmic soup.

Soon the temperature of the fireball surpassed considerablythe threshold temperature of the heaviest elementary particlesof matter and reached a thousand trillion K (1015 K) with anenergy level of 100 GeV per photon. The particles of matterand radiation were squeezed into an enormous density of

3.341015 g/cm3 (compared to nuclear density of 1014 g/cm3).The core was even much denser and hotter at 1019 K.

The particle creation process reached its final stage and it isassumed that the high prevailing energy allowed thetransformation of antimatter into matter. Positrons, antiquarksand antineutrinos turned into electrons, quarks and neutrinos.Nature must have had a preference for matter to allowCP symmetry to be violated. How else could antiparticlesdisappear?

The superheated cosmic soup contained at this timeapproximately 31080 quarks, 1080 electrons, 1089 neutrinos

and 1076 photons for a total mass of 1.61056 g withapproximately 25% of it in the core. There were less photonsin my theory than in the standard Big Bang model due to thehot particle creation process in the fireball consumingphotons. The moment of a gigantic explosion of the fireballwas nearing.

RADIUS AND DENSITY OF THE FIREBALL

AT 1017 K AVERAGE TEMPERATURE

Volume Vq of 3 1080 quarks (largest particle)with a quark radius of 0.5 10-13 cm

Vq = 43 Rq3 3 1080= 4

3 (0.5 10-13)3 3 1080 = 1.57 1041 cm3

The radiusRFB can be calculated from the volume.

43

RFB3 = 1.57 1041 RFB =3 37.5 1039 = 3.34 1013 cm.

With a total mass of the fireballMFB = 5.7 1056 g

5.7 1056the density was dFB = = 3.6 1015 g/cm31.57 1041

RadiusRFB = 3.34 1013 cmDensitydFB = 3.6 1015 g/cm3

THRESHOLD TEMPERATURES FOR ELEMENTARY PARTICLES OF THE COSMOS

A SUPERHEATED FIREBALL WITH A DENSER AND HOTTER CORE.THE HOT PARTICLE CREATION PROCESS


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THE INTERACTING FORCES DURING THEEXPLOSION OF THE FIRE BALL

1015 K

GRAVITYGRAVITY 19K10

THE COREMASS .4 1056 gTEMPERATURE 1019 KDENSITY 4.1 1018 g/cm3RADIUS 8.4 1012 cm

FIREBALLMASS 5.7 1056 gTEMPERATURE AV. 1017 KDENSITY 3.6 1015 g/cm3RADIUS 3.34 1013 cm

I N ERG S FI REBA LL THE C ORE

5.11 1092 7.9 1095

1.18 1095 2.95 10102

1.Gravitation of matterand radiation

2. Thermal energy ofmatter and radiation

The explosion of the fireball took place from the center,similar to supernova explosions of large stars. As the outerenvelope of the fireball reached the quark-electron density(3.61015 g/cm3), its core density was 1018 g/cm3 or more.All the electrons, quarks, neutrinos and photons in the coremerged to form a single gigantic nucleus. In this form,particles show a strong resistance to further compression.This, however, did not stop the particles in the outer layers ofthe fireball from imploding further and squeezing the coreeven more.

At the surface of the hard core, the particles stopped suddenly,but not fully. The compressibility of elementary particles islow at this density, but not zero. The momentum of theparticles, falling at very high speed, compressed the core toabout 10 times the equilibrium density (1018 g/cm3) - or whatcan be called the point of "maximum squeeze".

The outer layer of the core rebounded, like a hard rubber ballthat was compressed and released, setting off huge soundshock waves and releasing gravitational energy. The outward

pressure generated by the thermal energy of matter andradiation at the core was 2.9 10102 erg 10 million timesgreater than the gravitational energy (7 1095erg); and about10 billion times greater than the energy of the envelope(1092 erg) as calculated below. The shock waves and the over-powering outward pressure triggered a titanic cosmicexplosion, setting the "baby universe" on an 18 billion yearpath of expansion and evolution.

In the fireball, at temperature way above the threshold level

(1017 K) electrons and quarks behaved like photons.[5]

As the volume of quarks surpassed the volume of radiation,

particles of matter contributed decisively to the total thermal

energy, while the mass density of the hot radiation contributed

to gravitation. For comparison, the energy which set the

universe expanding was 10

102

erg about 10

46

times greaterthan the most powerful supernova detonation known.

While the size of the universe in the classical Big Bang theory

[5] was only 10-33 cm or smaller than an electron (10-17 cm)

10-45 seconds after the Big Bang, the fireball in our theory

before explosion had already a sizeable radius of

3.341013 cm or 300 times larger than the sun.

The mathematical computations which follow, using proven

formulas for thermal and gravitational forces, arrive at

meaningful results and substantiate the described events.

To my knowledge it is the only meaningful mathematical

computation ever presented to back up a theory of cosmology

using the same laws of physics applying to the universe,

as well as to its birth.

10

Figure 8. The explosion of the fireball.

Figure 9. The interacting forces in the fireball.

CONDITIONS IN THE FIREBALL

Total Gravitational Energy

G M2T(2) EGRAV = ergsRFB

whereMT is total mass of particles of matterMm and

radiationMRT , RFB = radius = 3.34 1013 cm,and G the gravitational constant = 6.673 10-8 cm3/g sec2

MT =Mm +MRT g

Mass of particles of matterMm = 1.6 1056 gRadiation density

aT4(3) dr = g/cm

3 where a = 7.5647 10-15 erg/cm3 K4c2

T= 1017 K, c = 2.997 1010 cm/secaT4

(4) Mass of radiation MRT = VPH gc2

where VPH is the volume of all photons

SECTION 3THE EXPLOSION OF THE FIREBALL


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(5) Number of photons in 1 cm3 = 20.3 T3

Total number of photonsNPH = 1076

NPH(6) Total volume of photons VPH = cm

3

20.3 T3

7.5647 10-15 T4 1076MRT = g

(2.997 1010)2 20.3 T3or

MRT = 4.1 10-37 TNPT g

= 4.1 10-37 1017 1076 = 4.1 1056g

Total Mass MT =MP +MRT = 5.7 1056 g

G M2TTotal gravitational energy = = 5.11 1092 ergs

RFB

(7) Total Thermal Energy ERT = aT4 Vq ergs

Particles of matter at this high temperature behaved equal

to photons and the largest volume in the plasma was

occupied by quarks.

Volume Vq of 3 1080 quarks (largest particles) with a quarkradius of 0.5 10-13 cm:

Vq =43 Rq

3 3 1080 = 43 (0.5 10-13)3 3 1080

= 1.571041 cm3

ERT= 7.5610-1510681.57 1041=1.181095 ergs

The Thermal Energy was one thousand times larger than

gravity overall.

ERT = 1.18 1095 >EGRAV = 5.11 1092 ergs

CONDITIONS IN THE CORE

The thermal energy of radiation and particles of matter was evenmore overwhelming in the core at temperature of T=1019 Kwith approximately 25% of the total mass. A calculation with10% of total mass does not change the principle of the model.

GM2CTGravitational Energy EGRAV = Rc

whereMCT is total mass ofMP (particles) +MRT (radiation)MP = 0.4 1056 g (25%) aT4

MRT = VPH gc2

Number of photons in 1 cm3 = 20.3 T3Total of photonsNPH = .25 1076 = 2.5 1075

NPVPH = 20.3 T3

aT4 NPHMRT = = 4.110-37 TNPH gc2 20.3 T3 = 4.110-37 1019 2.51075 = 1058 g

orMCT = 1058 g

The contribution of radiation to the total mass was 102 largerthan those of particles of matter

Density of the core d = 4.1 1018 g/cm3

Volume of core

MCT particles 1058

Vc = = = 2.5 1039 cm3density 4.1 1018

3 3RadiusRe =3

Vc =

3

2.5 1039 = 8.41012 cm

4 4

6.67 10-8 (1058)2EGRAV = = 7.9 1095 ergs

8.4 1012

Total gravitational Energy = 7.9 1095 ergs

Thermal Energy ERT = aT4 Vc ergs (T= 1019)

Vc = Volume of quarks

= 43

Rq3 Nq= 4

3(0.5 10-13)3 .75 1080 = 3.9 1040 cm3

ERT = 7.56 10-15 1076 3.9 1040 = 2.95 10102 ergs

Thermal Energy was 107 or 10 million times larger

than Gravitation 2.95 10102 > 107 than 7.9 1095

and overpowered gravity

Alternative with 10% of mass in the core:

MP = .1 1.6 1056 g = 1.6 1055 g

MCT =MP + MRT = 1.6 1055 + 1058 = 1058 g

Vc =43

Rq3Nq = 43 (.510-13)3 .3 1080 = 1.6 1040

ERT = 7.56 10-15 1076 1.6 1040 = 1.4 10102 ergs

ERT = 1.4 10102 >EGRAV = 3.6 1095

There are no significant differences in the overall results

with 10, 15, 20 or 25% of the total mass in the core.

1. SUPERNOVA METHOD

The thermal energy 2.9510102 ergs of the core turned intokinetic energy Wk and propelled the particles of matter andradiation to the initial speed u. The relationship between amoving mass m at relativistic velocities u, the rest massMo and total energy W is:

To comply with the law of energy conservation in relativisticdynamics we subtract the static energy Moc

2 of particlesfrom total energy and obtain the final equations for kineticenergy Wk and initial speed u.

1(8) KINETIC ENERGY Wk= Mo

2 ( -1 ) ergs1- u2

c2

Mo2c6(9) INITIAL SPEED u = c2 - cm/sec

(Wk +Moc2)2

THE INITIAL VELOCITY OF THE EXPANDING

UNIVERSE AFTER THE EXPLOSION

The initial speed of the expanding universe of particles of

matter and radiation, after the explosion, can be determined in

two ways. The first approach is to apply the formulas used in

supernova explosions of large stars 30-50 Mo [10].

The thermal energy of the core is dumped into the

envelope of the fireball and using relativistic equations for

kinetic energy the initial speed of the explosion is determined.

The second approach is to use the virial theorem which takes

into consideration the gravitational forces, acting in opposite

direction.

MoM= g,

1- u2

c2

1 Moc2W= Mc2 = erg,

2 1- u2

c2

Mo2c6u = c2 - cm/secW2


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12

2. THE VIRIAL THEOREM METHOD [2]

The virial theorem method can also be used to obtain the

initial expansion velocity taking the effect of gravitational

energy. Its simplest equation formula is:

(10) 2Wk=EGRAV = 3PV

where Wk is total kinetic energy, EGRAV is totalgravitational (potential) energy, P is pressure at boundaryand V is the volume. With P surface pressure equal to 0

the gravitational or potential energy EGRAV is:

GM2(11) EGRAV = R

equation (10) takes form

GM2 GM2(12) Wk= or R = (radius)2R 2Wk

Equation (12) can be differentiated:

(13) Wk GM2 R = t 2R2 t

where derivative of radius R with respect to t is theexpansion speed resulting from energy imbalance of thesystem. Denoting velocity as u and the time rate of thermal

energy propelling the expansion as

E (power) we get fromequation (9).

(14) 2

ER2

u = GMo

2

Substituting for relativistic meaning of moving mass we obtain

2

ER2 u2(15) u = 1- orGMo

2 c2

(16) GMo2 u

E= or2R2 1- u

2c2

1070 9.2 x 1076

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

0.75

10.999...C

Wk [erg]1080 1090 10100

u/c

Figure 10. Initial speed scaled with the speed of lightu/c plotted against the kinetic energy Wkof the expandinguniverse with m ass 2 1056 g.

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

u/c

1x1085 1x1086 1x1087 1x1088 1x1089 1x1090 1x1091E [erg/sec].

0.999...C

Figure 11. Initial speed scaled with the speed of lightu/cplot ted against the Energy Time Rate of the expandinguniverse of mass 2 1056 g.

u mo2c4

=

1 - c (Wk+moc2)2

( )

( )Figure 12. Relationship between velocity and mass.

VELOCITY IMPLICATION ON MASS OF MATTER

The close to speed of light velocity after explosion increasedthe original mass of the universe 22.4 times. Todaysexpansion speed is still 200,000 km/s and the mass of theuniverse 1.34 times the original rest mass. All this is in fullcompliance with the Einstein theory of special relativity.

1

2

3

4

5

6

100 000 200 000 PRESENT

300 000EXPLOSION (.999 c)

Velocity (km/s)

Mass(kg)

solving Eq. (16) for u yields

GMo2c2 G2Mo

4 c2 + 16

E2R4(17) u = -1+

4

ER2 G Mo2 c

with G = 6.67 10-8 cm3/g sec2 R = 4.3 1013 cmMo = 2 1056 g c = 2.9973 1010 cm

The initial speeds in relation to the Energy Time Rate plottedon the diagram (Figure 11) for the mass 21056 g clearlyindicate that there was sufficient thermal energy to propel the

newly created universe of particles of matter and radiation to aspeed of 0.999 of light.

[ ]The initial speeds in relation to the kinetic energy plotted onthe diagram (Figure 10) for a mass of 21056 g clearlyindicate that there was sufficient thermal energy to propel thenewly created universe of particles of matter and radiation toa speed of 0.999 of light.


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13

JUST AFTER THE EXPLOSION

The temperature of the hot electron-quark-gluon plasma, justafter explosion, was in the range of 1017 K and was rapidlycooling down, inversely proportional to the rate of expansion ofthe universe, or radiusR (T ~ 1/R ). In other words, when theuniverse was a billion times hotter than it is at present

(3 K), it was a billion times smaller. Radiation dominated andmade the fireball nontransparent, foggy, and opaque. Allparticles intensively collided with each other and scattered thephotons and neutrinos, preventing their escape. The photonsmoved with the speed of light between collisions with electronsand quarks and scattered. Nevertheless, the radiation redshiftedwith the expansion of the universe. Due to frequent collisions,all particles had the same temperature and the universe was infull thermal equilibrium.

The weak and electromagnetic forces acted as one unified forcewhile gravitation and the strong force were always acting.Thefree quarks were very close to each other and the temperaturewas too high for the gluons and the strong nuclear force to

contain them within protons and neutrons.

CONSERVATION LAWS WERE CONSERVED

The major conservation laws were respected during the creationprocess and in the expanding, hot universe now in full thermalequilibrium.

Conservation of Energy

The total energy of all particles never changed, thoughcollisions transferred energy from one particle to another.The energy of the primordial cosmic radiation field has beenpartially transformed into particles of matter. A portion ofradiation was trapped and became an important part of thenewly created universe. Today, it has cooled down to 3 K andlost its dominating role overtaken by matter when the universecooled down to 3,000 K.

Conservation of Electrical Charge

Today, the universe is electrically neutral. There are as manypositively charged protons (+1) as negatively charged electrons(-1). In the early universe, after the short annihilation period ofelectron-positron and quark-antiquark pairs, there was abalance between electrons (-1) and quarks u (+ 2

3) and d (-1

3) to

maintain the electrical neutrality of the young universe.

1 e- to 2 u and 1 d

-1 + (2 23) + (-13) = 0

Conservation of Baryon Number

A baryon number of +1 is given to protons and neutrons whileleptons and photons have a baryon number of 0. Antiprotonshave a baryon number of -1. The significance of the baryonnumber, which does not create an electrical, magnetic, orsimilar charge, lies in the requirement to be conserved ininteractions of particles.

The quarks u and d, which were contained in the early universe,have a baryon number of +1

3. There were three quarks (baryon

number +1) in the hot electron-quark soup for each electron(-1), and so, during the transformation of quarks into protonsand neutrons later, the baryon number was conserved.

Conservation ofLepton Number

At the creation process, there were as many electrons (lepton

number +1) as positrons (lepton number 1) and neutrinos(lepton number +1) as antineutrinos (lepton number 1), withthe result of a 0 lepton number during the birth of the universe.Quarks and hadrons have a 0 lepton number.

EVENTS IN THE FAST-EXPANDING AND COOLINGUNIVERSE

In order to determine the type of interactions and events thattook place in the fast-expanding and cooling universe, wemust establish the relationship between temperature, density,and energy of the particles.

The predominant role in the hot, early universe was played by

the energy of radiation, which changes with the fourth powerof temperature (T4) and was considerably greater than theenergy contained in the particles of matter, up to 3,000 Kwhen matter took over.

The energy of particles of matter relates to the EinsteinformulaE =mc2 and is expressed in the so-called rest mass:0.938 GeV for protons, approximately 0.312 GeV for quarksu and d, and 0.51110-3 GeV for electrons.

Density and Temperature

The behavior of particles and forces in the hot plasmadepended entirely on the prevailing density and temperature,and the temperature depended on the size of the universe

(T ~ 1/R), directly related to the time elapsed from theexplosion, time t= 0.

We have established that the energy of radiation Er is

Er = aT4 erg/cm3

where a = 7.564 10-15 erg/cm3 K4.

Therefore, density in accordance with the Einstein equationE = mc2 is

Er aT4

(18) dr = = = 0.8410-35T4 g/cm3

c2

c2

Equation 18 establishes the relationship between density andtemperature of radiation.

Time and Density

We must now establish the relationship between the timeelapsed from the explosion and density, which will give us thebasis to interrelate time, temperature, density andenergy of particles.

We will be using already known formulas from the Hubbleexpansion laws and the standard Newton formulas ofgravitation.

SECTION 4THE YOUNG UNIVERSE AFTER EXPLOSION OF THE FIREBALL IN THE VELAN COSMOLOGICAL MODEL


14/26

R

M

M1 (PE)

We take a sphere (Figure 13) with radius R containing the

mass M. The mass can be determined from its volume and

density d1:

4R3

M= d13

According to Newtons theory, the potential energy PE of the

massM1 on the rim of the sphere is:

M1MG M 14R2d1G

PE = = - R 3

where G is the gravitational constant.

The velocity v ofM1 according to Hubbles law is

v = HR

The kinetic energy KE of the motion ofM1 is

KE =12M1v

2 =12M1H

2R2

The total energyET ofM1 is

(19) ET = -PE +KE = M1R2 (

12H2 - 43 dcG )

IfM1 eventually ceases to expand in a closed universe with

slightly more than critical mass, ET must become 0.

Equation (19) therefore becomes

(20)12H2 =

43

dcG

and we can calculate the critical density dc

3H2dc = = 4.5 10

-30 g/cm3

8G

with H= 15 km/sec per 106 light-years.

From Eq. (20) we can establish that

8dG(21) H= ()

1/2

3

As the time after explosion tis reciprocal to the

Hubble constantH, we can write

1 3(22) t = ( )

1/2

H 8dG

We know that the density varies with the radius R or rate of

expansion and is inversely proportional to R 3 or ~ 1/R 3 for

matter and inversely proportional toR 4 or ~ 1/R 4 for radiation.

We can say that density varies inversely withR

1d ()n

R

where n = 3 for matter and n = 4 for radiation.

Taking Eq. (22) we finally arrive at the relationship between

expansion and density:

2 3(23) t = ()

1/2

n 8Gd

For the radiation-dominated period of the expanding

universe up to a temperature of 3,000 K, the final equation is

TIME3 10

8

(24) t r =12 ()

1/2

= 0.067 ( )1/2

sec8Gd d

For the matter-dominated period of T < 3,000 K

TIME3 10

8

(25) t m =23 ()

1/2

= 0.089 ( )1/2

sec8Gd d

Energy of Photons and Particles of Matter

In order to determine the energy Eph of a photon in electron

volts at a given temperature T, we proceed as follows

Eph = aT4 = 7.56 10-15 T4 erg/cm3

As 1 eV = 1.6 10-12 erg,

7.56 10-15

(26) Eph = T4 = 4.722 10-3 T4 eV

1.6 10-12

The number of photonsNis

N= 20.3 T3 photons/cm3

The energy of one photon is

Eph 4.722 10-3 T4

(27) = = = 0.232 10-3 T eVN 20.3 T3

The rest mass of energyEof particles

Proton 0.939 GeVu or d quark 0.313 GeVElectron 0.511 10-3 GeV

We have now established all of the required formulas tocalculate time, density, and energy of radiation and particles ata given temperature and can proceed to describe the majorevents that occurred in the early expanding universe afterexplosion.

14

Figure 13. A sphere wi th mass M, radius R, and mass M1at the perisphere


15/26

15

s1. T=1015 K

Elapsed Time [ Eq.23]

108

t= 0.067 ()1/2

= 7.3 10-10 secd

Energy of 1 photon

E1ph = 0.232 10-3 T= 0.232 1012 = 23.2 GeV

Energy of quark Eq = 0.313 GeV E1ph >Eq

The electromagnetic and weak force decoupled. Gravitationand the strong force were always active. Plasma of quarks,electrons, neutrinos and photons.

s2. T=1013 K

Density d= 0.84 10-35 1052 = 0.84 1017 g/cm3


108

t= 0.067 ()1/2

=7.3 10-6 secd

Energy of 1 photon

E1ph = 0.232 10-3 T= 0.232 1010 = 2.32 GeV

Energy of quark Eq = 0.313 GeV E1ph >Eq

All 4 forces active. Quarks too close to each other to be bound.

The universe is still in perfect thermal equilibrium filled withradiation and particles of matter in the form of electrons, aquark-gluon plasma, photons and neutrinos.

From the vast spaces of the cosmos, our universe at this stagewould look like a non-transparent ball of fog. Photons arescattered by electrons (Figure 14).

s3. T=1012 K

Quarks combine to create protons and neutrons

Density d= 0.84 10-35 1048 = 0.84 1013 g/cm3


108

t= 0.067 ()1/2

= 7.3 10-4 secd

Energy of 1 photon

E1ph = 0.232 10-3 T= 0.232 109 = 0.232 GeV

Energy of proton Epr = 0.939 GeV E1ph Ee

The free quarks u and d in the fireball did not enjoy theirasymtotic freedom for very long. They were free when theirseparation distances were less than 2 10-14 cm. Quarks ascolor singlets with specific charges and gluons responsiblefor forces acting between them could act as free particles.Now at temperatures of 1012 K, due to the rapid expansion,quarks came within 10-13 cm and even if they passed eachother at close to the speed of light they could not escapeconfinement. Interactions took place as fast as 10-23 secand the entire quark-gluon plasma turned into protonsand neutrons.

Figure 14. The young universe after explosion of the fireball in the Velan cosmological model.

MAJOR LANDMARK EVENTS IN THE HISTORY OF THE EXPANDING UNIVERSE


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16

Three quarks in three different color singlets became confinedinto "white" colorless protons and neutrons. The strongnuclear force of confinement, effected by gluons, is verypowerful. The force is approximately 15 tons strong incomparison to 10-11 ton for the electric force attracting anelectron to a proton in a hydrogen atom. Imagine 15 tonsacting on a small pointlike particle such as a quark with aradius of1

310-13 cm. The universe was transformed suddenly

from a quark-gluon-electron-photon-neutrino plasma to auniverse of protons, neutrons, electrons, photons, andneutrinos. It is assumed that at this time, much less than 1 secafter the explosion of the fireball, neutrons and protonsappeared in equal numbers. However, there was a continuoustransmutation of both nuclear particles into each other in weaknuclear force reactions:

p + e- n +e or n p + e- +e

As free neutrons have a half-life of only 10.5 min., more andmore neutrons decayed into protons. There were basicallytwo different transmutations of neutrons:

(1) the classical, so-called beta radioactive decay where twoneighboring neutrons produce a proton, electron, and anti-neutrino as shown in Figure 15, and

The universe still appeared as one unified cloud of matter andradiation, nontransparent and opaque, though the energy ofphotons dropped below the energy of protons but surpassedthe rest mass of electrons (0.00051 GeV). Its dense fogappearance was caused by scattering of photons by freeelectrons.

When a free electron was hit by an impinging photon, it wasaccelerated by the pulse of electromagnetic energy of thephoton and gained momentum, as shown in Figure 17.

Figure 15. Decay of neutrons in beta radiation process.

n p

n p

n

n

Figure 16. Neutrinoless decay of neutrons.

(2) the neutrinoless transformation where the neutrino fromthe first neutron is absorbed by the second neutron, asshown in Figure 16.

The photon lost some energy and momentum, resulting in achange of direction in propagation of electromagnetic energyor scattering of radiation. This process kept the entire universein thermal equilibrium. Radiation, which has more energythan the electrons, dominates and could not escape.

s4. T=1011 K

Neutrinos uncoupled.

Density d= 0.84 10-35 1044 = 0.84 109 g/cm3

Elapsed Time

108

t= 0.067 ()1/2

= 7.3 10-2 secd

Energy of 1 photon

E1ph = 0.232 10-3 T= 0.232 108 eV = 0.0232 GeV

Energy of electron Ee = 0.00051 GeV E1ph >Ee

At 1011

K, 7.310-2

sec after explosion when the radiationdensity dropped to 0.84109 g/cm3, neutrinos, which were infull thermal equilibrium with matter and radiation until thistime, uncoupled and moved out at the speed of light.

There were and still are 109 neutrinos for every nuclear particle inthe universe. They have lost considerable energy during theexpansion of the universe and may now have an energy of only0.001 eV or an equivalent temperature of less than 1.5 K.It is for this reason that they are very difficult to detect.

Though the neutrinos ceased to play an active role in particleinteractions, their energy continue to contribute to the overallgravitational field of the universe.

(photon)

(electron)

Figure 17. Scattering of photons by electrons.


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17

s5. T=109 K

Nucleosynthesis creation of helium nuclei.

Density d= 0.84 10-35 1036 = 8.4 g/cm3

Elapsed Time

108

t= 0.067 ()1/2

= 231 secd

Energy of 1 photonE1ph = 0.232 10

-3 T= 0.232 106 eV = 0.00023 GeV

Energy of electron Ee = 0.00051 GeV

For the first time the energy of a photon dropped below theenergy of an electron.

E1ph


18/26

18

There was obviously one electron present for each free orbound proton. The temperature was still much too high fornuclei to capture electrons and form atoms. Fast-movingphotons would knock out the electrons. Nuclei of heavierelements were not created during the nucleosynthesis as theuniverse was steadily expanding and cooling down.It remained a hot soup of matter and radiation, still in thermalequilibrium.The universe continued to expand and nothing eventful tookplace for nearly 815,000 years, when the temperature droppedto 3,000K.

s6. T= 3 103 K

Decoupling of radiation, creation of hydrogen

and helium gas

Density d= 0.84 10-35 81 1012 = 6.8 10-22 g/cm3

Elapsed Time

108

t= 0.067 ()1/2

= 0.0257 1015 secd

1 year = 3.155 107 sec

0.02571015t = = 815,000 years

3.155 107

Energy of 1 photon

E1ph = 0.232 10-3 T= 0.232 10-3 3 103 = 0.69 eV

Energy of 1 electron Ee = 0.51 106 eV

Ee > E1ph

At this stage, a significant event took place in the evolution ofthe universe. The temperature dropped to a level that made the

particle-photon scattering process lose its effect and finallyelectrons and nuclei could form stable atoms. Protonscaptured electrons and bound them through theelectrodynamic force, in compliance with quantumelectrodynamics, into atoms of hydrogen and nuclei ofhelium-captured electrons, and created stable atoms ofhelium. Suddenly the entire universe was transformed into aball of hydrogen (75%) and helium gas (24%) with traces ofdeuterium.

Radiation, whichbecame, much,much less energeticthan matter, thinningout with the fourthpower of expansionand not beingscattered by freeelectrons, suddenlydecoupled frommatter and escapedwith the speed oflight (Figure 19).

The universe became transparent and matter becamedominant. Local mass concentrations became morepronounced and the universe suddenly became a red super-giant with a brilliant red light in every part of the sky.

Every point of the universe at this time glowed with thebrilliance of the sun. The decoupling of radiation radicallychanged the behavior of matter. The small densityfluctuations in the early stages now become gravitationallyvery important. The enormous masses of gravitatinghydrogen and helium gas started to break up into individualgiant gas clouds, slowly drifting apart as the universecontinued its fast expansion.

A contributing factor to the breakup of the single mass intoindividual gas clouds was the sudden drop in pressure whenradiation decoupled and moved away with the speed of light.

s7. T= 3 K

Elapsed Timet = ~ 1 billion years

At this stage, individual gas clouds which formed earlier,

began to collapse gravitationally into protogalaxies and laterinto galaxies and stars.

The radiation temperature continued to drop as the universeexpanded and it is presently at 2.73 K. The universe expandedat this time 1000-fold for the radiation temperature to fallfrom 3,000 K to 2.73 K. Obviously, the wavelength of theradiation also expanded by a factor of 1,000. Matter, afterdecoupling of radiation, cooled much faster than radiation, asthe random motion of the atoms of hydrogen and heliumcould no longer keep up with the expansion of the universeand the larger and larger distances between the individualatoms.

In accordance with the theory of relativity, the photonsmoving at the speed of light lost the acquired energy slowerthan did particles of matter, now atoms of hydrogen andhelium gas, which moved at a lower speed. Matter wasrapidly losing its heat energy and had achieved the 3 Ktemperature, approximately 1 billion years after expansionand should, presently, theoretically have a temperature of lessthan 1 K. It is, however, possible that due to outside sourcesof heat and energy during the formation of galaxies and stars,matter heated up slightly.

Using contemporary theoretical physics, interpretingobservational astronomical data, and contributing with myown vision expressed in this theory of creation, we were ableto go back in time and witness the actual birth of our universein a cosmos containing other similar or perhaps differenttypes of universes and returned to the time when simplicityand symmetry still prevailed in the universe with nostructures, only hydrogen and helium gas, photons, andneutrinos.

Figure 19. Atoms of hydrogen andhelium and radiation.


19/26

19

FORMATION OF PROTOGALAXIES, GALAXIES ANDPROTOSTARS - BASIC PRINCIPLE ONLY

A completely smooth and uniform Universe, when it started toexpand, would remain so even after 18 billion years, cold anddull with no galaxies and stars, no chemical elements,no people.

Formation of structures as we observe them require ripples orlocal variations in density created in the early Universe toallow big enough gas clouds with slightly above average

density, expanding more slowly than average to condense outbecause of the extra gravity.

Cosmologists, defendants of the standard Big Bang theory,consider the primordial fluctuations of 10-5 discovered byCobe and corresponding to density fluctuations of matter,sufficient for formation of galaxies.

Others think that the Big Bang theory failed completely toexplain the formation of large structures and without themagic of inflation, any physical origin for fluctuations failsdramatically. [7]

FROM PRIMORDIAL RIPPLES TO COSMICSTRUCTURE IN 4 STEPS

In the Velan cosmological model, the creation of cosmicstructures such as galaxies and clusters can be easilyexplained.

STEP 1: The explosion of the primordial fireball took place

from the center, similar to supernova explosions of large stars.Just before the explosion, the core after the maximumsqueeze bounced back like a hard rubber ball, setting offgigantic shock waves which created the original densityirregularities in the electron-quark plasma.

STEP 2: The plasma expanded with near speed of light,increasing the mass of particles by more than 22 times, soondropping to 2 and now to 1.34 times. Variation in speedcaused variation in mass, adding to the density irregularities.

STEP 3: When the electromagnetic force decoupled at1015 K, electrically charged electrons and quarks were movedaround, further increasing the density irregularities.

STEP 4: During the decoupling of radiation at 3,000 K witha density of 3 billion photons per cm3, the pressure droppedconsiderably, moving the particles around once more andallowing gravity to complete the job. This obviously could notbe recorded on the spectrum of the cosmic backgroundradiation which decoupled.

Figure 20. The explosion of the primordial fire ball.

Figure 21. The Hot Matter Top Down scenario

of layer structure formation.

The Velan model favors the HOT MATTER TOP DOWNscenario for the formation of large structures.The formation process calls first for a large cloud typically of3001018 light-years across to condense out, then collapsingto form a high density pancake with protogalaxies forming500 million to 1 billion years after the explosion of the fireballand finally evolving, after 2-3 billion years, into galaxies whenrotation balanced off gravity. The pancake then fragmentedand a cluster of galaxies was created. Later, clusters mergeinto superclusters with up to 1,000 galaxies and 3001018light-years across.


20/26

Figure 24. A high energyelectron attracting virtualpositrons from the vacuumof space-time.

Figure 23. Virtual particlesin vacuum become realparticles when the electricalfield of a capacitor p rovidestheir rest mass.

20

OBSERVATIONAL SUPPORT FOR THE VARIOUSHYPOTHESIS OF THE NEW VELANCOSMOLOGICAL THEORY

1. The expansion from an extremely hot and densebeginning.

a) A.R. Penzias and R.W. Wilsons discovery of the cosmicbackground radiation, which decoupled at a temperature of3,000 K, about 815,000 years after the explosion of thefireball.

b) The relative abundance of light elements (Hydrogen 75%and Helium 24%) formed by primordial nucleosynthesis.

c) There were 1,000 times more quasars and radio galaxies,2 to 3 billion years after the explosion of the fireball, thanthere are now.

d) Edwin Hubbles discovery in 1930, that the universeis expanding.

2. Galaxies receding through static space-time.One hypothesis of this new cosmological model is that galaxiesrecede through space, rather than being swept along by expand-ing space-time as suggested in the big bang theory. In fact, thereis substantial proof that galaxies do move through space.

a) Hubert Reeves writes, in Dernires Nouvelles du Cosmos(1994), Do galaxies themselves have a movement orare they simply carried along by the expansion of space?A priori, both statements are possible

b) The Andromeda galaxy located 2.2 million light-yearsaway, and our own Milky Way, are approaching each otherat about 100 km/s on a collision course.

c) All the galaxies in our local cluster are moving at a speedof 500 km/s, toward the Virgo Cluster as well togetherincluding the Hydra-Centaurus supercluster are moving at aspeed of over 600 km/s toward an enormous concentrationof galaxies called the Great Attractor or Great Wall.

d) Recently astronomers Lauer and Postman observed abillion light-year wide flow of galaxies moving against theoutward expansion of the universe.

Figure 22. Clusters of galaxies move towards the

Great Wall.

3. The Primordial Cosmic Radiation Field(the major hypothesis in the Velan Theory)

NASAs Compton Gamma Ray Observatory detected powerfulgamma ray bursts in 1992. Since these bursts of radiation were

isotropically distributed across the sky, they could be assumedto be of cosmological origin. At the time, NASA team leader,Dr. Gerald Fishman, declared that: this is a fundamentallynew aspect of the universe, because the discovery cannot beexplained by any existing theory.

In addition, the Flys Eye observatory in Utah detected cosmicrays in the upper atmosphere with an energy of 31011 GeV!Several similar events have been detected by other cosmic rayobservatories around the world. Some astronomers suggest that

this powerful cosmic radiation bursts originate from collidingneutron stars. These collisions would have to occur, however,consistently in many randomly located galaxies, to account fortheir even distribution.

Perhaps a more reliable explanation might be that the observedgamma ray bursts and cosmic ray events represent penetrationsof the primordial cosmic radiation into our universe. As theprimordial radiation interacts with distant clumps of matter, itreleases great bursts of energy and the powerful cosmic rays of31011 GeV could as well be the result of interaction with theprimordial radiation, resulting in the enormous level of energy.

Unless another reliable explanation will be forthcoming for the

detected high energy gamma ray bursts and cosmic rays, it is

conceivable that we are observing penetrations of theprimordial, cosmic radiation into our universe.

4. Do virtual particles & quarks exist?

The existence of virtual particles appearing out of the vacuumof space-time has been proven in laboratory experiments usingelectrically loaded capacitors.

a) Virtual electrons and positrons are separated by an electricfield of loaded capacitors in vacuum, which also provides thevirtual particles with mass. They then appear as particles ofreal matter attracted to the two plates of opposite charge.(Figure 23.)

b) Laboratory experiments also indicate that when two highenergy electrons come closer than 10-11 cm, their force ofrepulsion is weaker than that calculated by Coulombs law.The explanation is that a high energy electron attractsvirtual positrons, shown schematically in Figure 24.This causes the vacuum around the electron to becomepolarized which results in a partially shielded charge.Such an electron is called "dressed" or physical, in contrastto a "naked" electron, which has an ideal charge thatcomplies with Coulombs law.


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confinement in protons, neutrons and mesons. Collidingnuclei of lead (208 protons and neutrons) at near speed oflight with a thin stationary foil of lead has shown(Figure 27) that more than 1,600 particles sprayed outfrom a single collision, carrying evidence of a quark-gluon plasma. The tremendous energy and pressure of theplasma caused it to explode outward. When temperatureand density dropped, the quarks rapidly paired off againinto protons and neutrons.

5. The Missing Mass or Dark Matter?

After years of observation at optical, radio, microwave,infrared, ultraviolet, x-ray and gamma ray wavelengths, it hasbeen determined that only 15% of the universe is detectable.Since 95% of the mass is non-luminous, various exotic heavyparticles have been postulated to account for part of it. Theseinclude axions, and super-symmetry particles the mirrorcounterparts of standard particles, like quarks and electrons,but with much greater masses. So far none of these have beendetected and the theory is highly speculative.

In recent years, however, large concentrations of previouslyunobserved ordinary matter have been found, therebyreducing the need for dark matter. These discoveriesinclude supergiant galaxies that contain 100 trillion stars andmeasure 40 times the diameter of the Milky Way; as well asa new class of previously unseen, low surface brightnessgalaxies which exist by the millions.

Until recently, the largest known galaxy was Markarion 348,1.3 million light-years wide, or 13 times larger than our ownMilky Way and 100,000 light-years across. A newlydiscovered galaxy in the cluster Abell 2029 is about 6 millionlight-years in diameter and contains more than100 trillion stars.

In addition, giant agglomerations of supergalaxies, at least500 million light-years long and 15 million light-years wide,called great walls or great attractors, have been observed andare most probably evenly spread through the entire universe.Thirteen more great walls and the first cluster of great wallshave also been seen stretching out in a line of over 7 billionlight-years long. To these gigantic clusters of clusters ofgalaxies we must add the enormous mass contained inpowerful quasars formed earlier in the universe, small darkstars, brown dwarfs, billions of white dwarfs, remnant coresof stars of less than 8 solar masses which lived fast and diedyoung, billions of large black holes, remnant cores of largeshort-lived stars 650 solar masses, and 1089 neutrinos with asmall mass which fill the universe.

According to recent discoveries, the electron-neutrino has apossible rest mass of 1 eV. If this could be confirmed,

the total mass contribution from 1089 neutrinos would be:

Me = 1 eV 1089 = 1089eV

since 1eV = 1.72 10-33 g,Me = 1.72 10

-33 1089 = 1.72 1056 g

Even at 0.5 eV the mass of neutrinos would contributeconsiderably to the missing mass.

We must also add the increased mass of matter moving atrelativistic velocities in the Velan theory 22.4 increase atexplosion time at a velocity of 0.999c and today 1.34 at speedof 200,000 km/s.

21

c) In 1988, at CERN (Centre europen pour la recherchenuclaire) a quark-gluon plasma was created by collidingrelativistic sulfur ions against stationary ions of gold(Figure 25, 26). The resulting "fireball" of quarks andgluons was extremely dense and short-lived - lasting only6.510-23 second. Similar experiments have been repeatedin recent years (19931999 at CERN) confirming that atextreme energy densities, quarks can exist freely without

Figure 26 Quark-gluon p lasma at Cern, Geneva.1988

Figure 25 Soup of quarks (dark grey) is set free fromprotons and neutrons (light grey) when they collided.

Figure 27 Quark-gluon p lasma at Cern, Geneva.1993-1999


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CONTRACTION

New

unive

rse

expa

nds

R=3.3

4x1013cm

2.5

x101

0 cm/s

1x1010

cm/s

EXPA

NSION

3x1028c

m

Present

71.55618

Standstill

1.2

5x1028cm

Time cycle

Billions of years

Averag

eexpa

nsio

nsp

eed

Explosionof the

fireball

EXPLOSIO

N

(29) 1 R 8Gd kc2 ( )2

- + = 0R2 t 3 R2

where kfor a closed universe is 1 and dis density. TheRrepresents a radius of a spherical universe at any moment t.

By using the definition of the velocity in the form:

R(30) u =

t

The equation (29) can be rewritten in the form:

u2 GM(31) = + constant

2 R

When the universe will come to a standstill:

R(32) = 0

tTaking a time derivative of Eq. (29) and substituting it intoEq. (28) yields the following relation:

(33) R A( )2

= - kc2t R

22

In the new theory, the initial expansion speed of .999 c is

decreasing continuously and the universe will eventually come

to a halt, reverse its movement under its own gravity and

collapse into a fireball. Soon after, an explosion will set up the

universe on a new cycle of expansion and its glorious

evolution. For a closed universe the OMEGA () constantof density must be larger than 1 (>1).

d0 todays density0 = = > 1dcrit critical density

With a Hubble constant of 58 km sec -1 Mpc-1 and an

18 billion year universe, the complete cycle would amount to

71.5 billion years.

The maximum expansion radius of the universe Rmax and the

elapsed time since the explosion of the fireball tmax can be

calculated from two familiar equations describing the

expansion of a gaseous sphere.

(28) 1 R 2 2R k c2 ( )2

+ ( )2

+ = 0R2 t R t2 R2

Figure 28. The fate of the universe.

SECTION 5THE FATE OF THE UNIVERSE


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WhereA is the integration constant to be determined frominitial values. For our case ofk= 1 the positive expansionvanishes and is replaced by contraction atRm, when Eq. (33)takes zero value. In that case it can be rewritten as:

(34) Rm =Ac2

To evaluate Eq. (34) we need to find the constant A.By applying the present epoch values to Eq. (33) we findthat:

(35) A = 2 q0H

02 R03

Eq. (26) and (27) gives

2(36) Rmax = q0H02R

03

c2

By substituting Eq. (36) into Eq. (28) we finally obtain theequation for maximum radiusRmax :

2 q0c k3

(37) Rmax = H

0(2 q

0- 1)3

In order to obtain Eq. (37), q0

was introduced and is called

decelarion parameter defined as:

1 2R0(38) q0

= - R

0H2 t2

The deceleration parameter relates the deceleration of theuniverse to its radius the same way as Hubbles constant Hrelates the velocity of the universe and can be determinedfrom observations and expressed by formula:

4Gd0(39) q

0=

3H2

Equation (39) was obtained by subtracting Eq. (28) from

Eq. (29) and substituting in Eq. (38).

Also, the time tmax elapsed before the maximum radius isreached can be derived as shown in [3] from governingequation Eq. (29) in the following form:

q0

(40) tmax = 1-2 q0-3/2

H

With H= 20 10-19 sec-1, c = 3 1010 m/seck= 1 (for closed universe) and q0 = 1 we get

Eq. (37) evaluated as:

2 1 3 1010 13Rmax = = 3.37 10

26m

20 10 -19 (2 1-1)3

Rmax = 3.37 1028 cm

and Equation (40)

1tmax = 3.14 1-2 1-3/2 = 1.76 1018 sec

20 10-19

1 year = 3.155 107 seconds

1.76 1018tmax = = 0.56 1011 years

3.155 107

tmax = 56 109 or 56 billion years

Average deceleration over 56 billion years:

299,999 = 5305 km/sec/1 billion years

56

Speed of recession after 18 billion years 200,000 km/sec

Average speed over 18 billion years 2.5 1010 cm/sec

Present Radius

v 2.5 1010 1024R0 = = = 1.25 1028 cm

H0 20 105

R0 = 1.25 1028 cm

Todays Densityd0

4R03M= d0 g3whereMis the mass of the universe

Only particles of matter contribute now to the mass energy

of matter as the radiation mass energy at prevailing temper-

ature is relatively low. It nevertheless played a major role

when the universe was very hot (above 109 K).

R0 = 1.25 1028 cm

M = 1.6 1056 g3 1.6 1056 3

d0 = = 4R03 4 1.9 1084

d0 = 1.96 10-29 g/cm3

d0 1.96 10-290 = = = 2.45 > 1dcrit 8 10-30

for 0 >1 the universe is closed.

23

Years from Todaysexplosion: 18 billion radius: 1.25 1028 cm

Years to MaximumStandstill: 32 billion radius: 3 1028 cm

Average Averagespeed up speed toto now: 250,000 km/sec standstill: 125,000 km/sec

Figure 2. A closed universe in the

Velan cosmological theory.


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24

The theory introduced the following 5 new ideas/hypotheses:

1. Our Universe was created in a new environment, the cosmic 4-dimensional spacetime of the Multi-Universe Cosmos,

contrary to Nothingness, the environment in all other present and past cosmological theories.

2. The primordial cosmic radiation field or the missing link to any viable theory of creation, not violating the law of

conservation of energy.

3. The massive interaction of virtual particles contained in the cosmic space-time with the primordial cosmic radiation

field as a basis for creation of universes.

4. The hot particle creation process during the gravitational implosion of a baby universe before explosion

5. Galaxies recede through space-time rather than being swept along by the expanding space-time in all other

cosmological theories.

1. It eliminates the need for the mysterious primordial singularity, the origin of which was never explained.

2. The new model probes further into the past than anyone has previously ventured explaining

the origins of matter and radiation.

3. Its hypotheses are well within the framework of established physics.

4. It does not violate the conservation laws of mass and energy;

5. It accounts for the observed structure of the universe.

6. It provides clear and cogent mathematical explanations to substantiate scientific arguments.

7. The theory breaks through the theoretical constraints of the Big Bang Singularity Modelfilling the gap in the understanding of the universe.

8. The new multi-universe theory postulates that the cosmic fireball was initially quite sizeable, with a radius of

2.171013 cm, or 300 times larger than the sun while in the big bang theory the initial size was only 10-33 cm (smallerthan an electron) 10-45 sec. after the explosion. While both theories account for the observed expansion of the universe,

the multi-universe theory does so by means of fairly well-understood physical principles.

1. The multi-universe theory makes a number of measurable predictions which can be put to the test as more sophisticated

technology becomes available. Perhaps the gravitational wave observatories of the future might even be able to seethe relic vibrations of space-time caused by the explosion of the fireball.

2. We need the reconciliation within a single framework of the following theories: Quantum Mechanics (duality of wave

particle), Special Relativity (space-time geometry, motion), Newtonian Mechanics (universal gravitation, acceleration),

Quantum Field Theory (Virtual Particles) and General Relativity (dynamic space time, equivalence principle).

3. While the parameters of the multi-universe model (such as mass, time, energy and velocity) may change as more precise

observational data emerge, the basic principles of the theory should remain unaffected.

WHAT ARE THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE NEW THEORY TOWARDS THE EVERLASTING QUEST OFHUMANITY TO DISCOVER THE SECRETS OF NATURE AND ITS ORIGINS?

WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF THE MULTI-UNIVERSE COSMOS THEORYOVER OTHER CURRENTLY PROPOSED MODELS?

WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF THE THEORY?


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25

THE STANDARD THE CHAOTIC THE MULTI-UNIVERSEQUESTION - PARAMETERS BIG BANG MODEL INFLATION - A. LINDE COSMOS - A.K. VELAN

What happened before? ?

Other Universes created inthe Big Bang cosmic space-time

Origin of the Universe Singularity ?A fireball of matter and radiation

created in cosmic space-time

Origin of the Singularity ? ? Singularity eliminated

Environment around Nothingness Nothingness The 4-dimensionalthe Universe cosmic space-time

Contents of the singularity Not fully defined Mainly radiation energy Not applicable

The creation process of matter ? Radiation from nothing, From virtual particles & cosmicand radiation matter later primordial radiation in

from radiation the cosmic space-time

Violation of conservation laws Yes Yes Full compliance

Who created nothingness? ? ? Not applicable

Who c reated the 4-dimensionalNot applicable Not applicable ? The Creator ?cosmic space-time?

Explanation for the Big Bang No explanat ion. What for ce?

Thermal forc es overcameexplosion of the Singularity could overcome infinite gravity gravitation

W hat expands? Space-time carrying galaxies Space-time carrying galaxies The galaxies expand in space-time

Expansion speed at the Big Bang Up to 1026 times speed of light Up to 101012 t imes speed of light 0.999 of speed of light

Violation of Einstein theory? No. Space can expand>c No. Space can expand>c No. Expansion speed


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[1] Ferreira, P.G.: The Quintessence of Cosmology, Cern Courier, June 1999

[2] Hawking, S.W. and R. Penrose: The Nature of Space and Time, Princeton Press, New Jersey 1995

[3] Guth, A.H.: The Inflationary Universe, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts 1997

[4] Einstein, A: The Meaning of Relativity, Methuen, London 1951

[5] Rees, M.: Before the Beginning, Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass. 1997

[6] Weinberg, S.: The First Three Minutes, Basic Books Inc., New York 1988

[7] Silk, J.: The Big Bang, W.H. Frieman, New York 1997

[8] Velan, A.K.: The Multi-Universe Cosmos, Plenum, New York 1992

[9] Velan, A.K.: The Multi-Universe Cosmos, Velan Inc., Montreal 2001

[8] McMahon, A.J.: Astrophysics and Space Science, Prentice Hall, New York 1965

REFERENCES

VELAN's Cosmogony

Documents

Transcript of VELAN's Cosmogony