Vehicle Registrations in Turkey - boun.edu.trweb1.boun.edu.tr/halimgurgenci/L9_4.pdf · 3 ©2006...

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©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey)

Energy and Environment

Professor Halim Gürgenci(visitor from the University of Queensland)

Rm 4245; Phone : (212) 359 [email protected]


REFERENCESThe first textbook was always on my desk when I was preparing these lecture notes. I

also list wikipedia, which was the source for many of the images and animations plus many useful tidbits of information.

Specific references are supplied on every slide except when the slide content is part of common mechanical engineering lore and can be found in any relevant textbook.

• Fay, James A, and Golomb, Dan S, Energy and the Environment, Oxford University Press (2002).

• Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page)


Module 8

Transportation


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1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004

Vehicle Registrations in Turkey

http://www.tuik.gov.tr

Includes cars, trucks, buses, motorcycles, and tractors

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Aut

omob

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Land

vehi

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Min

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Types of Vehicles

http://www.tuik.gov.tr

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Internal Combustion Engines

• Spark-Ignition (otto cycle)– Two-stroke– Four-stroke

• Compression-Ignition (diesel cycle)


Four-Stroke Engine

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1 – Intake

2 – Compression

3 – Combustion (Power Stroke)

4 - Exhaust


Some Facts• Combustion takes place in about 50o, which is

2.31 ms at a crankshaft speed of 3600 RPM• The air and fuel are premixed• Combustion is initiated by a spark

– Knocking is an issue because of the advancing flame front started by the spark

• To reduce power, the inlet is throttled (reducing the amount of air+fuel mixture)

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Two-Stroke Engine

-Exhaust and Intake are combined and fresh charge displaces the combustion products

-Lower fuel efficiency and noise make these less and less desirable

-Their use is limited to lawnmovers and small vehicles like motorcycles

-Honda has recently announced that they are phasing out their 2-stroke engine designs and all new Honda motorcycles will be based on 4-stroke cycles


Compression-Ignition (Diesel)• The charge is introduced at the end of the compression stroke

and self-ignites as it enters the combustion chamber– No knocking

• The A/F ratio must be well above the stoichiometric ratio to allow all fuel molecules meet oxygen molecules for combustion

• The power is adjusted by metering the fuel• Higher compression ratios are possible because knocking is

not an issue higher thermal efficiencies• Old diesel engines had high soot (unburned particles) in their

exhaust. They are getting better.


Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI)

Homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engines have the potential to provide high, diesel-like efficiencies and very low emissions. In an HCCI engine, a dilute, premixed fuel/air charge autoignites and burns volumetrically as a result of being compressed by the piston. The charge is made dilute either by being very lean, or by mixing with recycled exhaust gases (http://www.ca.sandia.gov/crf/research/combustionEngines/EGR.php )

This technology is still at developmental stage.

New Scientist©2006 Halim Gürgenci, The University of Queensland (Australia) and Bogazici University (Istanbul, Turkey)

Engine Powere

bBMEP VP N

n×

= ×

BMEP Avg pressure through the cycle (called Brake Mean Effective Pressure)

Ve Engine displacement (Cylinder volume x No of cylinders)

n Number of crank revs per cycle (2 for 4-stroke; 1 for 2-stroke engines)

N Crankshaft speed

Pb Brake Power (available on the engine output shaft before the transmission)

For cars running Spark-Ignition (SI) cycles, BMEP = 1 – 1.5 MPa. The BMEP stays more or less constant across the speed range.

Note that the two-stroke engine delivers twice the power at the same BMEP and volume. That is why it is suitable for small engines (albeit at the cost of reduced efficiency and increased pollution).

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BMEP and Brake Power

Fay&Golomb, Figure 8.4


Thermal and Fuel Efficiency• SI cycle efficiency < 31%• LHVgasoline = 43.55 MJ/kg• SGgasoline=0.72• Best BSFC = 0.27 kg/kWh

• CI cycle efficiency < 44%• LHVdiesel = 41.18 MJ/kg• SGdiesel=0.85• Best BSFC = 0.20 kg/kWh

1[kg/MJ][MJ/kg]th

BSFCLHVη

=×


Vehicle Performance

The engine should provide enough power to overcome the resistance to motion (air drag, rolling fraction, gravity) and to accelerate the vehicle.

eng air roll grav accW W W W W= + + +


Air Drag3

2air DVW C A ρ

=

CD Drag coefficient determined by CFD or wind tunnel(1) testing, ~ 0.25–0.50

A Frontal area, m2

r Density of air, kg/m3

V Vehicle velocity, m/s(1) http://wright.nasa.gov/airplane/tunnlint.html has an excellent computer simulation of the wind tunnel Wright brothers built to test their airplane in 1901. Not exactly related here but I thought I should include it.

http://fantasygoat.livejournal.com/8178.html

Picture on the web – designed in a wind tunnel? Computers can be used to predict forces on planes as well as cars

http://www.engineers.auckland.ac.nz/~snor007/cfd.html

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Rolling Friction

http://webphysics.davidson.edu/faculty/dmb/PY430/Friction/rolling.html

As seen on the left, the tyres deform in motion. Due to this deformation, the net resultant force on the tyre coming from the road acts slightly to the front of the centre, generating a torque resisting motion. The engine has to generate the power to compensate for this force :

roll RW C mgV=

where m and V are the vehicle mass and speed, respectively.

Tyre Type CR Ordinary car tyre on concrete 0.010 – 0.015 Car on stone plates 0.020 Car bus on asphalt 0.030 Train wheels – steel on steel 0.001 – 0.0025 Tram wheels on standard rails 0.005 from wikipedia

CR depends on the elasticity of the tyre and the road. The following table can be used.


Hill climbingWhile climbing, the engine has to provide the torque required to overcome the force of gravity:

singravW mgV θ=


AccelerationThe difference between the engine power and the resistance to motion goes to accelerate the vehicle:

( )acc eng air roll gravW mVV I W W W Wωω= + = − + +

where m and V are the vehicle mass and the velocity, respectively.

I and ω represent the acceleration of rotating components such as the crankshaft, tyres, etc. They are usually represented by a small correction ε on the vehicle mass and

( )(1 )acc eng air roll gravW m VV W W W Wε= + = − + +


The Fuel EconomyThe Turkish Law requires the car vendors to provide data on the fuel economy and the CO2emissions for the cars they are selling (Yeni Binek Otomobillerin Yakit Ekonomisi Ve CO2Emisyonu Konusunda Tüketicilerin Bilgilendirilmesine İlişkin Yönetmelik, Resmi Gazete Tarihi: 28/12/2003). The Turkish codes comply with the European Union testing standards for definition of fuel economy and CO2 emissions.

Summary from a larger table on the American Fuel Economy Web Site. The fuel economy is given as MPG(miles per gallon).

City represents urban driving – the car started in the morning (after being parked all night) and driven in stop-and-go rush hour traffic.

Highway represents a mixture of rural and interstate highway driving in a warmed-up vehicle, typical of longer trips in freeflowing traffic.

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Improving Fuel Economy• Improve Vehicle Performance

– Reduce vehicle mass by smaller cars and/or lighter materials– Reduce aerodynamic resistance

• Limited by the laws of physics but there is usually no mass penalty for reduced drag– Rolling resistance

• New tyres can be made with smaller CR but degrades with time• Improve engine performance

– Intake stroke losses– Turbocharging fits more air/fuel – smaller engine means smaller vehicle mass– Use CI instead of SI

• the trade-off between increased efficiency and increased engine mass• the diesel has higher emissions (being addressed with new cars)

– Continuously-Variable Transmission – Use the best “gear ratio” at all speeds• Hybrid cars

– The fuel replacement must justify the extra mass required by the hybrid system


Electric VehiclesThe electrically-powered trolley-buses, trams, and trains have been with us for a long time. These are powered by overhead cables and therefore constrained to specific routes.

A Dutch trolley bus (wikipedia) A street tram in Hannover (wikipedia)

The challenge for free-range elecric vehicles is the on-board storage of electricity. At the current level of storage technology (90-180 kJ/kg), the electric vehicle is not a feasible option unless it is favoured for other reasons, for example to avoid air pollution in crowded cities.


Hybrid Electric VehiclesICE Internal Combustion Engine

MG1 Motor / Generator 1 (typically "closer" to the engine and "smaller")

MG2 Motor / Generator 2

R, C, S Ring, Carrier (Planet) and Sun Gear


Exhaust Emissions

Fay&Golomb, Figure 8.9

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Emission Legislation - USAIn most countries, the exhaust emissions are tightly controlled by legislation that is getting increasingly stringent.

US and European codes are important. US has traditionally been more concerned with particulate matter and NOx emissions than the fuel economy. California has the most stringent emission standards of the world. The two codes are converting at the heavy-duty end but there are still significant differences at the light vehicle end.

US codes specify the emissions by g/mile. The baseline is given by the “Tier 1” standard. Further limitations are specified under the following categories:

TLEV – Transitional Low Emission Vehicle

LEV – Low Emission Vehicle

ULEV – Ultra-Low Emission Vehicle

SULEV – Super-Ultra Low Emission Vehicle

ZEV – Zero Emission Vehicle

Since 2005, US has been phasing in “Tier II”, which introduces more string versions of the above, e.g. TLEV-II, LEV-II, etc, and some new ones.


Emission Legislation - EuropeThe following has been introduced over the past decade:

Euro 1 (1993) for passenger cars - 91/441/EEC [2] (also 93/59/EEC)

Euro 2 (1996) for passenger cars - 94/12/EC (& 96/69/EC)

Euro 3 (2000) for any vehicle - 98/69/EC

Euro 4 (2005) for any vehicle - 98/69/EC (& 2002/80/EC)

Euro 5 (2008/9) for any vehicle - (COM(2005) 683

Compliance is determined by running the engine at a standardised test cycle. Noncompliant vehicles cannot be sold in the EU, but new standards do not apply to vehicles already on the roads.


Diesel Emission Limits - EU

wikipedia


EU Emission Limits for Petrol Cars

wikipedia

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EURO 93*15.0415.0415.0415.0415.0415.041399'dan

küçük

EURO 93EURO 93* %100

EURO 93* %60

EURO 93 * %30

15.0415.0415.041400 - 1599

EURO 93EURO 93EURO 93EURO 93EURO 93*15.0415.041600 - 1799

EURO 93EURO 93EURO 93EURO 93EURO 93EURO 93*15.04*1800 ve üstü

01.01.200001.01.199901.01.199801.01.199

701.01.199601.01.199501.01.199

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ÜRETİM BAŞLANGICI

1999199819971996199519941993

PROTOTİP ONAY YILI

UYGULAMA TARİHLERİ

MOTOR SİLİNDİR

HACMİ (cc)

Turkish Automotive Industry“Türkiye’de Temiz Araçlar Kapsamında Fırsatlar ve Engeller” by Hulya Ercan, 04 Mayıs 2006


SGMSGM--2000/77 2000/77 –– 03.12.2000 , SGM03.12.2000 , SGM--2001/7 2001/7 –– 17.06.2001 ve SGM17.06.2001 ve SGM--2001/12 2001/12 ––22.10.2001 Tebli22.10.2001 Tebliğğlerine Glerine Gööre Emisyon Mevzuatre Emisyon Mevzuatıı::

Benzinli AraBenzinli AraççlarlarFaz III (98/69/ATve 1999/102/AT ile deFaz III (98/69/ATve 1999/102/AT ile değğiişşik 70/220/AT OBD hariik 70/220/AT OBD hariçç))Yeni AraYeni Araççlar lar 01.01.2001 01.01.2001 Mevcut AraMevcut Araççlar lar 30.09.2001 30.09.2001 (01.07.2001) (SGM/2001/7)(SGM/2001/7)

Hafif Dizel AraHafif Dizel Araççlarlar(91/441/AT ile de(91/441/AT ile değğiişşik 70/220/AT veya R 83.01) ik 70/220/AT veya R 83.01) Yeni AraYeni Araççlar lar 01.01.2001 01.01.2001 Mevcut AraMevcut Araççlar lar 31.12.2002 31.12.2002 (01.01.2002)(01.01.2002) (SGM/2001/12)(SGM/2001/12)

AAğığır Dizel Arar Dizel AraççlarlarFaz I (91/542/AT ile deFaz I (91/542/AT ile değğiişşik 88/77/AT veya R 49.02)ik 88/77/AT veya R 49.02)Yeni AraYeni Araççlar lar 01.01.2001 01.01.2001 Mevcut AraMevcut Araççlar lar 31.12.2002 31.12.2002 (01.10.2001)(01.10.2001) (SGM/2001/12)(SGM/2001/12)

Turkish Emissions Codes“Türkiye’de Temiz Araçlar Kapsamında Fırsatlar ve Engeller” by Hulya Ercan, 04 Mayıs 2006


TebliTebliğğlerden sonra Ylerden sonra Yöönetmelikler yaynetmelikler yayıınlanmnlanmışışttıır. Bunlar;r. Bunlar;

70/220/AT Y70/220/AT Yöönetmelinetmeliğği (24.09.2003 i (24.09.2003 –– 25239 say25239 sayııllıı R.G)R.G)AkaryakAkaryakııt kalitesi ile ilgili 98/70/AT Yt kalitesi ile ilgili 98/70/AT Yöönetmelinetmeliğğinde belirtilen tedbirlerin inde belirtilen tedbirlerin yyüürrüürlrlüüğğe girie girişşiyleiyle

Yeni araYeni araççlar lar 01.01.2007 01.01.2007 Mevcut araMevcut araççlar lar 01.01.200801.01.2008

88/77/AT Y88/77/AT Yöönetmelinetmeliğği ( 24.06.2003 i ( 24.06.2003 –– 25148 say25148 sayııllıı R.G) R.G) Yeni araYeni araççlar; lar; 01.01.2007 01.01.2007 Mevcut araMevcut araççlar;lar; 01.01.200801.01.2008

72/306/AT Dizel Motorlardan Çıkan Kirletici Emisyonlar80/1268/AT CO2 Emisyonları ve Yakıt Tüketimi80/1269/AT Motor Gücü

More Turkish Codes on Exhaust Emissions“Türkiye’de Temiz Araçlar Kapsamında Fırsatlar ve Engeller” by Hulya Ercan, 04 Mayıs 2006


AyrAyrııca ca ÇÇevre ve Orman Bakanlevre ve Orman Bakanlığıığı TarafTarafıından ndan YayYayıınlanan Ynlanan Yöönetmelikler:netmelikler:

•• 98/70/AT Benzin ve Motorin Kalitesi Y98/70/AT Benzin ve Motorin Kalitesi Yöönetmelinetmeliğğii(11.06.2004 (11.06.2004 –– 25489 say25489 sayııllıı R.G)R.G)

•• Trafikte Seyreden Motorlu Kara TaTrafikte Seyreden Motorlu Kara Taşışıtlartlarıından ndan kaynaklanan Egzoz Gazkaynaklanan Egzoz Gazıı EmisyonlarEmisyonlarıınnıın Kontroln Kontrolüüne ne Dair YDair Yöönetmeliknetmelik (08.07.2005 (08.07.2005 –– 25869 say25869 sayııllıı R.G)R.G)

Turkish Fuel Standards“Türkiye’de Temiz Araçlar Kapsamında Fırsatlar ve Engeller” by Hulya Ercan, 04 Mayıs 2006

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Alternative Fuels


Gasoline Prices in Turkey


Ethanol-Gasoline Comparison

Sinor, J & Bailey, B 1993, 'Current and Potential Future Performance of Ethanol Fuels', SAE Paper, vol. 930376. (quoted by Andrew Prout’s Thesis at UQ)


Engine Wear with EthanolPure ethanol and gasoline behave similarly. Extra wear is caused by water. Unfortunately, ethanol is more likely to contain water as part of the production process and also because it absorbs water.

Yahagi, Y & Mizutani, Y 1984, 'Corrosive Wear of Steel in Gasoline-Ethanol-Water Mixtures',Wear, vol. 97, pp. 17-25. (quoted by Andrew Prout)

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Corrosion with EthanolAustralian studies (see Andrew Prout’s Thesis) observed no appreciable wear and corrosion at 10% ethanol. Wear on some engine components were observed at 20% ethanol. This is most likely due to the water content in ethanol.


Ethanol Production Ethanol in US is produced from corn; in Brazil from sugar cane.

In USA, 103 ethanol plants has the capacity to produce 5000 million gallons of ethanol peryear, mostly from corn.

According to a 1995 study by the US Dept of Agriculture(1), , The US corn yield is about 110-120 bu/acre, which is 0.70-0.75 kg/m2 or 1.7-1.9 t/dönüm (2). Average ethanol conversion is about 2.5 gallons/bushel or 0.37 liters of ethanol from one kg of corn.

(1) Estimating the Net Energy Balance of Corn Ethanol. By Hosein Shapouri, James A. Duffield, and Michael S. Graboski. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Office of Energy and New Uses. Agricultural Economic Report No. 721.

(2) 1 bushel of corn is exactly 56 pounds or about 25.4 kg. 1 US gallon = 3.78 litres.


Energy budget for Ethanol?ScienceDailyCom reports : Pimentel and Tad W. Patzek, professor of civil and environmental engineering at Berkeley, conducted a detailed analysis of the energy input-yield ratios of producing ethanol from corn, switch grass and wood biomass as well as for producing biodiesel from soybean and sunflower plants. Their report is published in Natural Resources Research (Vol. 14:1, 65-76):

• corn requires 29 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced;

• switch grass requires 45 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced; and

• wood biomass requires 57 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced.

They had similar results for biodiesel:

• soybean plants requires 27 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced, and

•sunflower plants requires 118 percent more fossil energy than the fuel produced

Other people differ with Pimental and Patzek but their numbers seem to add up.


Ethanol Conflict

Environmental Management News, 19 September 2006

SEVERAL experts are arguing that use of food crops and livestock feed to produce ethanol and biodiesel could push up food prices.

A Reuters report last week said one-fifth of this year's corn crop in the US would be used to produce ethanol for use in vehicles.

"In our rush to secure our energy security, we could easily neglect the fundamental need for food security," Reuters quoted Dan Glickman, who was agriculture secretary during the Clinton administration, as telling a House of Representatives sub-committee on agriculture.

Glickman said US ethanol output could double to 10 billion gallons (around 13.8 billion litres) annually by 2010, pushing corn prices to record levels.

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Cost of corn• Corn prices go up and down. Lately, they have been going up

due to demand from ethanol in USA• The price reached $3/bu in June 2006; some predict prices of

$5/bu in the future• The average ethanol conversion is 2.5 ga/bu• Corn cost in ethanol is then around $1/ga or ¢26/L.• The corn prices in the past lagged behind the petroleum prices

(see next slide). This might change if ethanol from corn stays.• The corn price in Turkey is around 30 yeni kurus/kg, which

translates to $5/bu. Ethanol in Turkey will cost more than US ethanol because Turkish corn costs more.


Turkish corn to cost more in 2006

Mısır fiyatı 36 YKr'ye çıktı

KONYA - Türkiye Ziraat Odaları Birliği (TZOB) Yönetim Kurulu Üyesi ve Konya'nın merkez Meram ilçesi Ziraat Odası BaşkanıMustafa Hepokur, genelde tavuk yemi olarak kullanılan mısır fiyatının, kuş gribi nedeniyle geçen yıl yetiştirenleri zarara uğrattığını, bu yıl ise 36 YKr seviyelerine yükselerek yüzünü güldürdüğünü belirtti. Hepokur şunları söyledi: "Geçtiğimiz yıl 28-30 YKr civarında satılan mısırın fiyatı, şimdi 36 YKr seviyelerine çıktı. Bunda, yeniden toparlanan tavukçuluk sektörünün mısır talebini artırmasının payı büyük. Mısır üreticilerimizin durumu geçtiğimiz yıla göre daha iyi. Mısır fiyatı bu seviye ya da biraz daha yukarıda seyrederse durumdan memnun oluruz. Ancak fiyatın düşmesi durumunda mısır üreticisi yine zarar eder.“

www.dunyagazetesi.com.tr 29/09/2006 08:35:12


Corn Prices in Canada

http://www.ontariocorn.org/facts/spec0796.html , a special report posted on the web site of Ontario Corn Producers’ Association.


Biofuels in TurkeyTarım ve Köyişleri Bakanlığı tarafından hazırlanan ‘Ulusal Biyoyakıt Raporu’ndan:

Ülkemizde Biyoetanol ağırlıklı olarak şeker fabrikalarında melastan üretilmektedir. Ülkemizin yıllık benzin tüketimi 4.5 milyon m3 ‘tür. TSE standartlarında kabul edildiği gibi % 5 karışım esas alınarak hesaplandığında yıllık 225 000 m3 biyoetanole ihtiyaçvardır. Mevcut teknoloji ile 1 lt biyoetanol için 2.5 kg buğday kullanılması gerekir. Biyoetanol üretiminin artırılabilmesi için hammadde üretim miktarlarının artırılmasıgerekir. Biyoetanol üretimi için en uygun hammaddeler mısır ve buğdaydır. Her iki ürünün üretimlerinin de ülkemizde artırılma imkanı vardır. Mısır üretiminin 5 yıl içerisinde 8 milyon tona, buğday üretiminin de 23 milyon tona çıkartılması mümkündür.

Yıllık motorin tüketiminin yaklaşık 10 milyon ton olduğu ülkemizde % 2 lik karıştırma oranı için biyodizel ihtiyacı 200 000 m3, ’dür.

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Gas-To-LiquidSouth African Sasol is building the world’s largest facility in Qatar to convert reservoir gas to diesel fuel.

Qatar plant will open at the end of 2006 and will generate the equivalent of 34000 barrels a day at a capital investment of about US$1b (EMN,24/11/06).

The Qatar process is sketched in the diagram on the left. Note that the bottom part (the actual GTL process) can be implemented with any methane-rich gas including the syngas that can be obtained by coal gasification.

Vehicle Registrations in Turkey - boun.edu.trweb1.boun.edu.tr/halimgurgenci/L9_4.pdf · 3 ©2006...

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Transcript of Vehicle Registrations in Turkey - boun.edu.trweb1.boun.edu.tr/halimgurgenci/L9_4.pdf · 3 ©2006...