V Roberts Dissertation Final 230516

1

LOCUS OF CONTROL AND THE ACHIEVEMENT OF SHORT TERM CAREER GOALS

By

Vivien Roberts

201237253

MINOR-DISSERTATION

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree

MASTERS IN PHILOSOPHY Personal and Professional Leadership

in the FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT

at the

UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG

Supervisor: DR. LMM HEWITT

i

DECLARATION OF INTENT AND ADHERENCE

I, the undersigned, hereby declare that:

1. The contents of this document is my own work.

2. I adhered to the ethical obligations and principles of research ethics, as

prescribed by the facultys guidelines for ethics in research, during all

phases of the research process.

Vivien Roberts ________________________________

PRINCIPAL RESEARCHER

________________________________

SIGNATURE

________________________________

PLACE

________________________________

DATE

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to extend my gratitude and appreciation to the following people

who contributed hugely to the successful completion of this research

project:

My patient husband, Glen G. Roberts, who endlessly supported me

throughout this period without a murmur. He repeatedly demonstrated

his tireless commitment in providing comforts as I dedicated hours of

our time to this study. Thank you Glen.

My supervisor Dr Magda Hewitt who provided exhaustive direction and

feedback and yet managed to motivate and spur me forward. She was

my strength and this study would not have been completed without her

constant input. I am almost through Magda.

All those who prepared me for this journey of discovery. I loved every

moment and celebrate the changes. Thank you.

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ABSTRACT

Statistics South Africa (2015) reports that the unemployment rate in South-

Africa averaged 25.27 percent from 2000 until 2015. Nearly 1.3 million

unemployed people are between the ages of 15 and 34 years. Many

interventions are on offer to assist this group with their endeavours to find full

time employment. This study involved putting job-seekers through the Career

Workshop Programme (CWP), a job search intervention that prepares job-

seekers to confidently attempt to penetrate the job-market. The assumption of

this study was that a job search intervention like a CWP may assist

unemployed people to achieve their short-term career goals.

Behaviourally, research has shown that a higher internal locus of control (LoC)

influences functional career thinking and that confidence levels, beliefs and

perceptions around career expectations are positively orientated towards

career efficacy (Austin & Cilliers, 2011; Breeding, 2008). The key focus of this

study was to determine to what extent biographical factors and LoC contribute

to unemployed people achieving their short-term career goals, if they have

attended a CWP. Autonomy was included in the assessment because of the

role autonomy plays in problem-solving and being able to work independently

towards achieving goals. LoC assessments were done before and after the

CWP intervention and results were interpreted to ascertain the relationship

between the CWP and LoC, as well as the relationship between LoC and

achieving of short-term career goals.

The study was quantitative in nature, and a cross-sectional field survey, ex

post facto study design was employed. A sample size of N = 149 participants

was obtained. Various statistical analysis was performed to test assumptions.

The results of the study revealed that there is no significant difference in the

mean scores of internal LoC and external LoC for males and females.

Significant relationships between autonomy and LoC is reported, between age

and autonomy, and between age and LoC.

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There was no significant difference in the scores for autonomy, internal LoC

and external LoC based on the skills of the participant. It was also found that

there was not a significant difference between the scores of autonomy, internal

LoC and external LoC with reference to the participants education levels.

In terms of time taken to achieve career goals, it was found that there were

significant differences in the mean scores for autonomy and external LoC

between the period 0 to 4 months time taken to achieve career goals, and the

time period 5 to 8 months time taken to achieve career goals.

An interesting outcome in LoC is that there was an increase in external LoC

and a decrease in internal LoC after the CWP intervention, which is contrary

to the literature quoted to support the initial hypothesis.

From a theoretical perspective it was concluded that the outcomes of this study

were not all supportive of the literature used to base the initial hypotheses on.

This study informs that there are further factors influencing LoC and autonomy.

Conclusions drawn are that the literature reported that a shift in LoC is

successfully indicated in those who have participated in job search intervention

to achieve their career goals. Economic benefits have also been proven to be

evident in those who have participated in job search training. However this

studys results showed that the elements influencing LoC (internal and

external) and autonomy as proven in previous literature did not necessarily

create or influence the shifts expected from using the CWP intervention in the

study. Autonomy was positively influenced by the CWP intervention; and age

and time period taken to achieve career goals were determining factors in the

outcomes.

It is recommended that the findings of this research be made available to

organisations including employers who want to play a role in developing

careers.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CWP Career Workshop Program

ERS Employment Resource Services

GLM General Linear Model

LCI Locus of Control Instrument

LSD Least Significant Difference

NPCR National Planning Commission Report

vi

Table of Contents

DECLARATION OF INTENT AND ADHERENCE ...................................................... I

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... II

ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................. III

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................ V

LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... X

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................... XI

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCING THE PROBLEM ......................................................... 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... 1

1.2 KEY FOCUS OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 1

1.3 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY............................................................................. 1

1.4 EMPIRICAL RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ................................................................... 3

1.5 THE THEORETICAL STUDY OBJECTIVES .............................................................. 4

1.6 MOTIVATION FOR STUDY ..................................................................................... 4

1.7 PROPOSED CONTRIBUTION OF THE STUDY ......................................................... 6

1.7.1 Theoretical contributions. ............................................................................ 6

1.7.2 Practical contributions. ............................................................................... 6

1.7.3 Methodological contributions. .................................................................... 6

1.8 SYNTHESIS ........................................................................................................ 7

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................... 8

2.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................... 8

2.2.1 LOCUS OF CONTROL AS A CONSTRUCT .......................................................... 8

2.3 BIOGRAPHICAL DATA AND LOC ........................................................................ 10

2.3.1 Gender and LoC. .................................................................................... 11

2.3.2 Age and LoC. ......................................................................................... 12

2.3.3 Skills and LoC. ....................................................................................... 12

2.3.4 Educational levels and LoC. ................................................................. 13

2.4 AUTONOMY AND LOC ....................................................................................... 13

2.5 LOC AND ACHIEVEMENT OF SHORT-TERM CAREER GOALS ............................... 14

2.6 LOC AND TRAINING INTERVENTIONS ................................................................. 16

2.7 LOC, ACHIEVEMENT OF SHORT TERM GOALS AND CWP AS MEDIATOR ............ 17

2.8 SYNTHESIS ........................................................................................................ 19

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CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHOD ....................................................................... 20

3.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 20

3.2 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS ................................................................................... 20

3.3 RESEARCH APPROACH .................................................................................... 21

3.4 RESEARCH DESIGN .......................................................................................... 22

3.4.1 Cross-sectional field survey. .................................................................. 22

3.4.2 Ex post facto research. .......................................................................... 22

3.5 RESEARCH METHOD ........................................................................................ 22

3.5.1 Population. ............................................................................................. 23

3.5.1.1 Sample and participants. ............................................................... 23

3.5.2 Biographical data of the sample N = 149. ............................................. 23

3.6.1 Background and rationale for inclusion. ................................................ 29

3.6.2 Composition of the instrument. .............................................................. 29

3.6.3 Validity and reliability of the instrument. ................................................ 30

3.7 RESEARCH PROCEDURE .................................................................................. 30

3.8 CAPTURING AND EDITING THE DATA ................................................................. 31

3.9 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 32

3.9.1 Parametric and non-parametric techniques. ......................................... 33

3.10 ETHICS ........................................................................................................ 35

3.11 SYNTHESIS .................................................................................................. 35

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS OF THE STUDY ................................................................ 37

4.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................. 37

4.2 RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS .................................................................................. 37

4.3 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS .................................................................................... 38

4.3.1 Phase 1 - Descriptive statistical analysis. ............................................. 38

4.3.2 Phase 2 Statistical analysis. ............................................................... 40

4.3.2.1 Gender, autonomy and LoC. ......................................................... 41

4.3.2.2 Inter-correlations between autonomy, age, internal LoC and

external LoC. .................................................................................................. 43

4.3.2.3 Skilled/semi-skilled, autonomy and LoC after the CWP intervention.

46

4.3.2.4 Educational level, autonomy and LoC after the CWP. .................. 48

viii

4.3.2.5 Analysis of variance results for achieving career goals according to

autonomy, internal LoC and external LoC with time periods. ....................... 51

4.3.3 Phase 3 statistical analysis- linear model. .......................................... 56

4.3.3.1 Autonomy before and after CWP intervention General Linear

Model. 57

4.3.3.2 Internal LoC before and after CWP intervention General Linear

Model. 62

4.3.3.3 External LoC before and after the CWP intervention General

Linear Model................................................................................................... 66

4.4 SYNTHESIS ...................................................................................................... 70

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....... 72

5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 72

5.2 LITERATURE FINDINGS ..................................................................................... 72

5.3 EMPIRICAL FINDINGS ........................................................................................ 74

5.4 SYNTHESIS ...................................................................................................... 76

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................. 77

6.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 77

6.2 OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS .......................................................................... 77

6.3 CONCLUSIONS ................................................................................................. 78

6.3.1 Theoretical conclusions. ........................................................................ 79

6.3.2 Practical conclusions. ............................................................................ 79

6.3.3 Methodological conclusions. .................................................................. 79

6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................................... 80

6.4.1 Theoretical recommendations. .............................................................. 80

6.4.2 Practical recommendation ....................................................................... 80

6.4.3 Methodological recommendations. ........................................................ 80

6.5 CONTRIBUTION ................................................................................................ 81

6.5.1 Theoretical contribution. ......................................................................... 81

6.5.2 Practical contribution. ............................................................................. 81

6.5.3 Methodological contribution. .................................................................. 81

6.6 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY. ............................................................................ 82

6.7 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE STUDY. ................................................................. 82

6.8 FINAL CONCLUSION THE RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ......................................... 82

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REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 84

ANNEXURE A: CONSENT FORM ........................................................................... 94

ANNEXURE B: LCI RESULTS ................................................................................. 95

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LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 1: PROPOSED CONCEPTUAL MODEL .................................................................. 3

FIGURE 2: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS - SKILLS LEVEL .................................... 25

FIGURE 3: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS LEVEL OF EDUCATION, N=149 .......... 26

FIGURE 4: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS HOME LANGUAGE, N=149 ................. 27

FIGURE 5: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS YEARS OF WORK EXPERIENCE .......... 28

FIGURE 6: PROFILE PLOTS ........................................................................................... 46

FIGURE 7: AUTONOMY SCORES IN RELATION TO ACHIEVING SHORT-TERM CAREER

GOALS OVER TIME PERIODS ................................................................................ 55

FIGURE 8: : INTERNAL LOC SCORES IN RELATION TO ACHIEVING SHORT-TERM CAREER

GOALS OVER TIME PERIODS ................................................................................ 56

FIGURE 9: PROFILE PLOT ............................................................................................. 60

FIGURE 10: PROFILE PLOT ........................................................................................... 65

FIGURE 11: PROFILE PLOT ........................................................................................... 69

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LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS - AGE, N=149 ........................................ 24

TABLE 2: SAMPLE PROFILE OF PARTICIPANTS - GENDER .............................................. 24

TABLE 3: SAMPLE PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS - PREVIOUS CWP, N=149 .................... 25

TABLE 4: PARAMETRIC AND NON-PARAMETRIC TECHNIQUES (ADAPTED FROM: PALLANT,

2007) .................................................................................................................. 33

TABLE 5 SUMMARY FOR AUTONOMY, LOC RESULTS BEFORE AND AFTER CWP

INTERVENTION ..................................................................................................... 39

TABLE 6: GENDER, AUTONOMY, INTERNAL LOC AND EXTERNAL LOC, GROUP STATISTICS

............................................................................................................................ 41

TABLE 7: LEVENES TEST FOR EQUALITY OF VARIANCES .............................................. 42

TABLE 8: PEARSON PRODUCT-MOMENT CORRELATION CO-EFFICIENT BETWEEN THE

AUTONOMY SCORE, INTERNAL LOC SCORE, EXTERNAL LOC SCORE AND AGE

SCORE ................................................................................................................. 44

TABLE 9: SKILLED AND UNSKILLED SCORES FOR AUTONOMY, INTERNAL LOC AND

EXTERNAL LOC AFTER THE CWP INTERVENTION ................................................. 47

TABLE 10: LEVENES TEST FOR EQUALITY OF VARIANCES ............................................ 48

TABLE 11: EDUCATION LEVELS, GROUP STATISTICS .................................................... 49

TABLE 12: LEVENES TEST FOR EQUALITY OF VARIANCES ............................................ 50

TABLE 13: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR AUTONOMY, INTERNAL LOC AND EXTERNAL

LOC WITH TIME PERIODS ..................................................................................... 52

TABLE 14: LEVENES TEST OF HOMOGENEITY OF VARIANCES FOR AUTONOMY, INTERNAL

LOC AND EXTERNAL LOC AFTER THE CWP INTERVENTION .................................. 53

TABLE 15: ANOVA FOR ACHIEVING SHORT-TERM CAREER GOALS PER TIME PERIOD .. 53

TABLE 16: WELCH ROBUST TEST OF EQUALITY OF MEANS ........................................... 54

TABLE 17: POST HOC LSD TESTS - MULTIPLE COMPARISONS OF LOC AND AUTONOMY 54

TABLE 18: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS ............................................................................ 57

TABLE 19: MULTIVARIATE TEST .................................................................................... 57

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TABLE 20: MAUCHLYS TEST OF SPHERICITY ................................................................ 58

TABLE 21: TESTS OF WITHIN SUBJECTS EFFECTS ........................................................ 58

TABLE 22: TESTS OF WITHIN-SUBJECT CONTRAST ....................................................... 59

TABLE 23: TESTS OF MEASURES OF BETWEEN-SUBJECTS EFFECTS ............................ 59


TABLE 25: RANKS TEST ............................................................................................... 61

TABLE 26: FINAL STATISTICS........................................................................................ 61


TABLE 28: MULTIVARIATE TESTS .................................................................................. 62


TABLE 30: TEST OF WITHIN-SUBJECTS EFFECTS .......................................................... 63

TABLE 31: TESTS OF WITHIN-SUBJECTS CONTRASTS ................................................... 64

TABLE 32: TESTS OF BETWEEN-SUBJECTS EFFECTS .................................................... 64


TABLE 34: RANKS TEST ............................................................................................... 65



TABLE 37: MULTIVARIATE TESTS .................................................................................. 66


TABLE 39: TEST OF WITHIN-SUBJECT EFFECTS ............................................................ 67

TABLE 40: TESTS OF WITHIN-SUBJECTS CONTRASTS ................................................... 68

TABLE 41: TESTS OF MEASURES OF BETWEEN-SUBJECTS EFFECTS ............................ 68



TABLE 44: WILCOXON RANKS TEST.............................................................................. 70


1

Chapter 1: Introducing the Problem

1.1 Introduction

In this chapter a background and motivation to the study will be provided. The

research question will be set against this background. The following aspects

will be addressed namely: the key focus of the study; the background to the

problem; the research question; theoretical, methodological and empirical

objectives; as well as a motivation for the study and the proposed value of the

research. This chapter concludes with the proposed value add of the study.

1.2 Key Focus of the Study

Since 1995, Employment Resource Services (ERS) in South Africa has offered

job search skills training intervention in the form of a Career Workshop

Programme (CWP). The aim of the CWP intervention is to help people identify

employment goals and develop the skills they need to compete for education

and employment opportunities.

Behaviourally, research has shown that a higher internal locus of control (LoC)

influences functional career thinking and that confidence levels, beliefs and

perceptions around career expectations are positively orientated towards

career efficacy (Austin, & Cilliers, 2011; Breeding, 2008).

The key focus of this study is to determine to what extent do biographical

factors and LoC contribute to people achieving their short-term career goals if

they have attended a CWP.

Next the background to the study will be discussed.

1.3 Background to the Study

Statistics released in May 2015 show that the unemployment rate in South

Africa for the first quarter of 2015 reached its highest level of 26.4% since

2003; and goes as high as 36.1% when statistics take discouraged work

seekers into account. 7.7 million people were without jobs or have stopped

2

looking for work and 5.2 million people couldnt find a job (Statistics South

Africa, 2015). On the other hand, South Africa has a staggering 1 746 144 in-

demand scarce skills job opportunities (Department of Higher Education and

Training, 2012) as well as an estimated 600 000 unemployed graduates

(Kamhunga, 2012).

According to Statistic South Africa (2015) almost half the South African

population is under 25 years old and the youth unemployment rate is almost

50% - almost double the national unemployment rate. The World Economic

Forum released the 2014 Global Risks report (2014) in which South Africa was

named as having the worlds third highest unemployment rate for youth ranging

from 15 to 24 years of age. The National Planning Commission Report (2011,

p85) averred that if a young person in South Africa does not have a job by the

age of twenty-four he is unlikely to get one at all, and that if unresolved, this

trend poses the single greatest risk to social stability.

ERS offers CWP intervention that is held over two days for a total of twelve

hours. CWP participants are unemployed, underemployed or plan to embark

on some form of education or skills training program. They are typically literate

males and females of disadvantaged groups who have concerns regarding

their income (too low or non-existent) and careers. They are also usually from

the Gauteng province and they may have been encouraged to attend the

training by their ecclesiastical leaders.

The four main objectives of the CWP are to 1) Identify skills and strengths with

the purpose of matching them to a desired job goal, 2) Set and plan towards a

career goal, 3) Prepare job-seekers to successfully approach the competitive

job-market, and 4) Coach them through the process until they are placed into

employment. The CWP addresses the building of the necessary level of

confidence that is required for job seekers as they prepare to penetrate the

labour market. It covers aspects of behaviour necessary for individuals to be

self-reliant, provide for themselves, their families and go on to become

contributing citizens in their communities.

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The assumption is that a CWP intervention creates an awareness within

individuals and increases their sense of control, and this in turn enables

participants to act within their circle of influence, exercise personal leadership

and start to behave proactively in terms of achieving their short-term career

goals. Becoming employed appears to be linked to proactive job search and

career planning behaviours (Brown, Cober, Kane, Levy, & Shalhoop, 2006).

A short-term career goal, for the purpose of this research is defined as

accomplishing intermediate career objectives required for the achieving and

preparing of long-term career employment. In the following section the main

research objective as well as secondary research objectives will be presented.

1.4 Empirical Research Objectives

The main research objective is to investigate if there is a relationship between

biographical data, LoC, a CWP as an intervention and the achievement of

short-term career goals. It is suggested that LoC has a mediating effect

between biographical data and the achievement of short term career goals. A

further suggestion is that the relationship between LoC and the achievement

of short term career goals is positively mediated by a CWP as intervention.

Figure 1 provides a highlevel overview of the proposed conceptual model.

Figure 1: Proposed Conceptual Model

4

Based on this the following sub - research objectives are set:

RQ1: To determine participant biographical data and its

relationship with locus of control

RQ2: To determine the relationship between the CWP intervention

and achievement of short term career goals

1.5 The Theoretical Study Objectives

Literature objective 1: To explore the theoretical construct LoC.

Literature objective 2: To explore the theoretical relationship

between biographical data and LoC.


between LoC (independent variable) and achievement of short-

term career goals (dependent variable).


between a CWP intervention and achieving of short-term career

goals.


between LoC (independent variable) and achievement of short-

term goals (dependent variable) with CWP intervention as a

mediator variable.

In the next section a motivation for the study will be provided.

1.6 Motivation for Study

In his State of the Nation address in February 2016, President Jacob Zuma

stated that because of slow economic growth there was a need for job growth

and that this resulted in graduates being at home instead of being able to work.

He asked that South Africans work together to provide opportunities for the

youth, with emphasis on the fact that the government was unable to perform

this task alone (President Zuma, 2016). In President Zumas 2014 State of the

Nation address (President Zuma, 2014) he discussed the success of the

Expanded Public Works Programme where over four million employment

5

opportunities were created in the last five years, claiming that the new phase

of this programme would create six million employment opportunities by 2019.

President Zuma also announced that the local government-based Community

Work Programme would grow to deliver one million employment opportunities

also by the end of 2019. The involvement of communities is key to alleviating

unemployment.

A study done in the United States of America (USA) by Bartowski, Call, Heaton

and Forste (2007) revealed that not enough people using ERS were making

use of the CWP. ERS plans to respond to President Zumas invitation by

exploring ways to extend the CWP to a wider audience and making it freely

available to government, communities and employers.

In 2011, the government introduced the concept of a youth wage subsidy in

the form of an allowance aimed at supporting young job seekers while they are

actively seeking employment (National Planning Commission Report, 2011).

In October 2013, the Youth Wage Subsidy Bill (Employment Tax Incentive Bill,

2013) was adopted and the plan was to begin implementation in 2014. The

CWP could be used as part of an integrated training and development initiative

for youth applying for the subsidy.

Unemployment has been proven to have a detrimental effect on ones

wellbeing. Jahoda (1982) proposed the latent deprivation model to account for

the decrease in wellbeing in those who are unemployed. She tells of the

distress experienced by people who are out of work because they are losing

out on the psychological advantages of being employed. Jahoda (1982) also

tells of the importance of employment in terms of adding meaning to life.

Africans, females and young people continue to suffer most from the triple trials

of unemployment, poverty and inequality, President Zuma said, but working

together, solutions are possible (President Zuma, 2012).

Next, the proposed contribution of the study will be discussed.

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1.7 Proposed Contribution of the Study

This part of the discussion will cover the theoretical, practical and

methodological contributions of this research.

1.7.1 Theoretical contributions.

This study investigates LoC in relation to a job-search intervention programme;

biographical data such as gender, age and language; and achieving short-term

career goals. The study aims to theoretically contribute by confirming existing

knowledge about the relationship between LoC, a job-search intervention and

achieving short-term

1.7.2 Practical contributions.

This study could result in a conceptual career training framework being

developed that could include triangulation with various partners and platforms

thereby reaching and impacting a broad range of unemployed and

underemployed people.

The economy requires inflows to cover outflows and one of the challenges in

South Africa is the low tax base (Visser, 2014). People who are employed end

up engaging in society and pay their taxes and at this stage become a part of

society that contributes to the economy rather than take from the economic

pool. As more people become employed the numbers of discouraged work

seekers and other potential labour market participants decrease and add to

the labour force pool. This in turn will expand the tax base which will facilitate

meeting the increasing financial demand.

1.7.3 Methodological contributions.

Frese, Lumpkin, Rauch and Dess (2009) suggested that outcomes may vary

because of the differences in the research design or methodological

preferences. It is difficult to make general deductions when examining single

studies that include single samples, particularly if response rates are low. The

attempt in this research is supported to use existing models with existing,

7

improved measuring instruments, so as to build or confirm on current

methodologies.

1.8 Synthesis

Chapter 1 introduced the key focus of the study background was provided. The

empirical research objective was set and sub-research objecitves were

formulated. Proposed contributions were stated.

Chapter 2 will explore the literature as stated in Chapter 1

8

Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter a background, key focus of the study a motivation,

empirical and theoretical objectives and potential value add of the study were

discussed. In this chapter the literature will be explored regarding the

theoretical construct LoC, the theoretical relationship between biographical

data and LoC and the theoretical relationship between LoC and achievement

of short-term career goals. Added to that, the theoretical relationship between

a CWP intervention and achieving of short-term career goals, and the

theoretical relationship between LoC and achievement of short-term career

goals will also be discussed.

2.2.1 Locus of Control as a Construct

Rotter (1954) was the first to conceptualise LoC in his social-learning theory of

personality. LoC is one of the most widely studied concepts in psychology

(Judge, & Bono, 2001). His studies investigated how reinforcement, regard

and gratification affect the individuals outcomes in their lives. According to

Rotters theory it is through these possibilities of reward and punishment that

people come to hold beliefs around reasons for their behavior and the

outcomes in their lives. Rotters theory avers that reinforcement, regard and

gratification results in the degree to which people perceive themselves

dependent on their own control of outcomes or whether they are at the mercy

of external forces. Lefcourt (1976) refers to an individuals LoC as their basic

motivational force. LoC therefore describes the extent to which peoples

positive and negative conditioning and behaviour are strengthened through

their orientation towards either internal or external control. OBrien (1986, p.

52) defines LoC as a generalised expectancy about the extent to which

reinforcements are under internal or external control.

The LoC continuum has an external focus at the one extreme and an internal

focus on the other extreme. People who are orientated towards external control

9

believe that their behavior is guided by forces such as chance, luck, social

structures and powerful others and they therefore perceive they have little

control of the outcomes in their lives. For example, someone with external LoC

who results in poor scores on an assessment may blame the low scores on

the questionnaire and believe the assessment was too difficult. Or they may

believe they didnt have enough time to prepare. Externals are not able to see

how their choices result in outcomes in their lives and blame factors outside of

themselves (Rotter, 1954; Lefcourt 1976).

People who are orientated towards an internal focus believe they are

themselves responsible for how life works out for them through their individual

actions, choices and initiative (Bothma, & Schepers, 1997; Heady, 2008). An

internal with low scores may believe they didnt do enough to prepare, looking

primarily to their own abilities and efforts when allocating blame. Internals

believe they can influence an outcome and that their choices have outcomes

that they have the potential to influence. Those with internal LoC look within

themselves for solutions and believe that their own efforts result in improved

prospects, they see obstacles as opportunities (Strauser, Ketz, & Keim, 2002;

Jansen, & Carton, 1999). Internals are usually high achievers and dont rely

on chance.

Having a sense of control is about recognising that events that impact on us

can be controlled and we decide whether or not those outside influences

determine our choices and behaviour. LoC therefore relates to the expected

results of actions (Rotter, 1966; Lefcourt, 1976) rather than the specific actions.

The construct is multi-dimensional and has become an effective tool in the

study of an individuals personality to indicate the individuals perception of

internal or external forces representing the cause and effect of behaviour

(Erwee, 1986; Judge, & Bono, 2001).

To perceive that one has some control over ones destiny and that one is able

to influence ones outcomes is seen as more desirable psychologically as this

is empowering to the individual through his self-agency, personal control and

10

self- determination. However, although research indicates that people with a

greater internal LoC are more successful in terms of achievement there are

many complexities that ought to be considered as extreme internal locus of

control could lead to arrogance, instability or depression in the individual

unless he has greater self-efficacy (Strauser, Ketz, & Keim, 2002).

Rotters later studies (1966) resulted in LoC being attributed to either ones

ability (resulting from internal causes), or ones good fortune (resulting from

external causes). Individuals with internal LoC look to themselves to make

things happen and those with external LoC are under the opinion that events

that come up in their lives are not within their control.

Autonomy was included in this study because of the positive correlation

between Autonomy and internal LoC (Schepers & Hassett, 2006). Studies

show that those with higher autonomy have more meaningful job involvement

and less problems at work. They are able to shape their work experience and

enjoy greater job fulfilment (Chen, Cheung, Macau, Chio, & Chan, 2013).

The first theoretical objective has been achieved namely to explore the

construct LoC. Next, the theoretical relationship between biographical data

and LoC will be explored.

2.3 Biographical Data and LoC

Biographical data relate to the facts surrounding the lives of the participants

used in the study; facts such as gender (male or female), age, home language,

are they skilled or unskilled and what qualifications they have. Biographics are

determinate factors in LoC. For example, research done by Shearer and Moore

(1978) revealed that beliefs around control by powerful others were more

prevalent amongst certain race groups. Wenzel (1992) predicts that external

LoC is more prevalent among the homeless, female, non-white groups.

Studies by Shearer and Moore (1978) revealed that beliefs around control by

powerful others were more prevalent amongst certain race groups.

11

Patterns of either external or internal LoC orientation have been found to exist

particularly where there are social problems. For instance, amongst

disadvantaged groups LoC has been found to be external (Lefcourt, & Ladwig,

1965) as well as in the homeless and victims of violence (Wright, 1989).

Wenzel (1992) concludes that external LoC is more prevalent among the

homeless, female, non-white groups. This study had participants from all

language groups. There were many participants who were non-South Africans

and could be regarded as disadvantaged in terms of their employment status

because they are non-nationals who dont understand or speak English very

well.

Based on the above the following hypothesis was formulated:

Hypothesis H1: There are differences between participants biographical

data (independent variables) and LoC (dependent variable).

Next the theoretical relationship between biographical data namely, gender;

age; skills; educational levels; and autonomy (independent variables) and LoC

(dependent variable) will be explored and hypotheses will be formulated.

2.3.1 Gender and LoC.

Diverse findings have come up in studies to determine the perception of men

and women in terms of powerful others exerting control over them. In one study

women appear to have more external LoC (Mahler, 1974), and in another, it

appears that men have more external LoC than women (Levenson, 1972). In

a study done by Ward (2011) results showed no evidence of moderation in

terms of gender in relation to sense of control. However some research

revealed that there is an association between higher earnings and internally

oriented females (Groves, 2005; Semykina, & Linz, 2007).

In another more recent study there appears to be no relationship between LoC

and job search activities in women, yet in the same study it was found that men

who increased job search hours had slightly increased internal LoC scores

(Caliendo, Cobb-Clark, & Uhlendorff, 2015).

12

Hypothesis H1.1: There is a relationship between gender (independent

variable) and LoC (dependant variable).

Next the theoretical relationship between age (independent variable) and LoC

(dependent variable) will be explored.

2.3.2 Age and LoC.

A comparable relationship exists between sense of control and performance

expectations across the age groups of 18 to 81 year olds (Soederberg Miller,

2010). The same studies also revealed that increased beliefs around sense of

control in older adults appears to be connected to increased performance

expectations (Soederberg Miller, 2010). Other studies show that there is

susceptibility in older adults to be affected by their sense of control in terms of

goal achievement (West, & Yassuda, 2004).

In one study it was found that job searchers who were both younger and older

had greater success in finding work after completing a job search intervention

(Liu, Huang, & Wang, 2014).

Hypothesis H1.2: There is a relationship between age (independent


Next the theoretical relationship between skills (independent variable) and LoC

(dependent variable) will be explored.

2.3.3 Skills and LoC.

Individuals with an external LoC are less likely to believe that skills they may

attain will assist them in achieving goals. They assume that it does matter what

skill experience one may have, this will not get one any closer to achieving

ones desired outcomes in life. Those people who would perceive a link

between attaining skills and experience and achieving their career goals are

usually internals. Internals assume that if they practise their skills and gain

experience, this will push them closer to achieving (Fitzgerald, & Clark, 2013;

McGee, 2015; Breeding, 2008).

13

Hypothesis H1.3: There is a relationship between skills (independent


2.3.4 Educational levels and LoC.

Previous studies have indicated that internal LoC escalates the likelihood of

individuals advancing from high school and pursuing further education (Baron,

& Cobb-Clark 2010; Coleman, & DeLeire 2003). Research showed that those

who achieved 16 years and more of schooling when starting out on their

careers, scored higher on internal LoC, whereas externals had lesser years of

education (Ahn, 2015). From this it can be theorised that there is a relationship

between LoC and education levels achieved.

Scheiman and Plickerts (2008) research shows a direct correlation between

education and personal control. They go as far as saying that through receiving

an education one begins to develop an internal LoC because education leads

to one being able to control situations and circumstances.

Hypothesis H1.4: There is a relationship between educational level

(independent variable) and LoC (dependant variable)

The second theoretical study objective has been achieved namely to explore

the relationships between biographical data and LoC.

The next section in the literature review has been included in hindsight. During

the statistical analysis, the variable autonomy revealed significant relationships

with biographical factors and LoC. This prompted the researcher to explore

and include a literature section on autonomy and its relationship with

biographical factors and LoC.

2.4 Autonomy and LoC

Wolmans definition of autonomy is the tendency to attempt to master or be

effective in the environment, to impose ones wishes and designs on it

(Wolman, 1973, p. 37). Individuals who are autonomous find solutions to

14

problems, prefer to manage change, take advantage of opportunities to lead,

favour working alone and organising their work (Schepers, 2005).

Information taken from a recent study reveals that those internals who

demonstrate autonomous behaviour by submitting many job applications think

that they will have greater success at getting job offers (Caliendo, Cobb-Clark,

& Uhlendorff, 2015). An earlier study by Caliendo, Cobb-Clark and Uhlendorff

(2010) it was found that women and older workers more often believed that

problems that come up in their lives are outside of their ability to manage.

Research by Liu, Huang and Wang (2014) found that younger job seekers are

unclear about career goals and are less likely to solve problems around job

searching, whereas older job seekers faced, amongst other things, the

frustration of stereotyping which can be overcome through autonomous

behaviour.

Hypothesis H1.5: There is a relationship between autonomy (independent


Next the theoretical relationship between LoC (independent variable) and

achievement of short-term career goals (dependent variable) will be

discussed.

2.5 LoC and Achievement of Short-term Career Goals

A sense of control is an essential attribute in the context of achieving

employment goals, argues Warr (1999) and much research has been done to

explore the connection between job search outcomes and factors that

influence realization of career goals.

The confidence and behaviours that are required when making decisions

about and selecting employment goals are influenced by LoC (Breeding,

2008). Individuals who perceive they have low influence over their working

environments are apt to fare lower in terms of achieving employment goals

(Breeding, 2008; McGee 2015).

15

Internal LoC has also been proven to influence what job one would go into, as

well as schooling decisions, work experiences and employment (Heckman,

Stixrud, & Urzua, 2006). Similarly, LoC has been proven to influence the belief

of being able to enter employment as well as economic decisions related to

training interventions (Caliendo, Cobb-Clark, & Uhlendorff, 2010). Internal LoC

has been found to affect investments in educational interventions and

individuals with internal LoC anticipated higher returns when investing in their

education (Coleman, & Deleire, 2003). Internal LoC is an antecedent of

successful job search behaviour (Kanfer, Wanberg, & Kantrowitz, 2001).

Generally, predictions related to long and short term economic success can be

associated with LoC (Judge, & Hurst, 2007). An early study by Andrisani

(1981) found that those with internal LoC had higher wages after two years.

Groves (2005) produced evidence that higher internal LoC resulted in higher

wages for women. Duncan and Morgan (1981) replicated the study of

Andrisani (1977) and were not able to come up with firm evidence of this strong

link between internal LoC and wages, however Duncan and Duniform (1998)

were able to show how internal LoC is positively related to earnings after 20 to

25 years. High external LoC was found by Anger and Heineck (2009) to result

in forfeited earnings.

Breeding (2008) suggests consideration be given to helping individuals

develop a sense of control as it relates to their work. Where internally oriented

people are unable to exercise control over their immediate environment, it is

suggested that they may be more inclined towards an external LoC as a means

of coping (Taylor, Schepers, & Crous. 2006). By implication, the high stress

associated with being unemployed could result in an unemployed individual

having a more external LoC. It can thus be stated that a sense of control

impacts the life dimensions of work.

The third theoretical objective set has been completed namely to explore the

relationship between LoC (independent variable) and achievement of short-

16

term career goals (dependent variable). Based on the above the following

hypothesis was formulated:

Hypothesis H2: There is a relationship between LoC (independent

variable) and achievement of short-term career goals (dependant variable).

Next the fourth theoretical objective will be explored namely to explore the

theoretical relationship between LoC, CWP interventions and achieving of

short term career goals.

2.6 LoC and Training Interventions

Techniques ranging from summer camp curriculum to individual

psychotherapy are used to shift LoC, and job search interventions have been

used successfully with job seekers (Gardner, & Beatty, 1980). Adjustments to

LoC can be done through learned reinforcement (Rotter, 1966; Skinner, 2003).

Psychologists have developed counselling techniques which have helped

persons become more internal, state Gardner and Gardner (1974, p. 42).

It has been established through research that people scoring higher on internal

LoC put more effort into searching for jobs than externals (Caliendo, Cobb-

Clark, & Uhlendorff, 2015; McGee, 2015). The premise is that the more effort

job seekers put into finding a job the greater the opportunities for employment;

and they end up being employed earning higher wages.

Bartowski, Call, Heaton and Forste (2007) conducted a study on some aspects

of the CWP intervention taught by ERS and concluded that there were definite

economic benefits for those who received, specifically, the job interview

training in the CWP intervention. Results of their study also indicated that job

and perceived financial status of CWP participants improved (Bartowski, Call,

Heaton and Forste (2007). In a meta-analysis study, it was found that job

search intervention programs had a positive effect in influencing being hired;

and obstacles to being hired included lack of motivation to look for work (Liu,

Huang, & Wang, 2014).

17

The fourth theoretical objective set has been achieved namely to explore the

theoretical relationship between a CWP intervention and achieving of short-

term career goals. Based on the above the following hypothesis was set:

Hypothesis H3: There is a positive relationship between a CWP

intervention (independent variable) and achieving of short-term career goals

(dependent variable).

2.7 LoC, Achievement of Short Term Goals and CWP as Mediator

People who work from an internal LoC believe that they are in control of a

wide spectrum of influences in their lives, and internal LoC is indicated as

playing a role in job search activities (Ahn, 2015; Caliendo, Cobb-Clark, &

Uhlendorff, 2015; Judge, & Bono, 2001).

Looking for a job is becoming an increasingly common experience (Fugate,

Kinicki, & Ashforth, 2004) and job seekers oriented towards internal LoC

perceive themselves positively as being self-efficacious. This facilitates self-

determination (Breeding, 2008) which makes for an apparent link between

successful job search outcomes and proactive behaviour (De Vos, De

Clippeleer, & Dewilde, 2009). A recent study by Caliendo, Cobb-Clark and

Uhlendorff (2015) avers that job seekers have subjective views about the

number of job offers they receive in relation to the effort they put into their job

search.

Fugate, Kinicki, and Scheck (2002) aver that people who are highly

employable have a perceived high sense of control and believe that they have

many career options open to them, and they pursue those options readily.

Asserting themselves in this way reduces their uncertainty which adds to their

sense of control. Ashford and Black (1996) suggest that those who have a high

sense of control easily explore wider career options. Carter and Cook (1995)

and Stolz-Loike (1996) state that individuals with high internal LoC plan more

and are proactive regarding transitioning between jobs. They are also more

18

adaptable and engaged in improving their standing in life (De Vos, De

Clippeleer, & Dewilde, 2009; Caliendo, Cobb-Clark, & Uhlendorff, 2015).

Participants in this study come from different countries, speak different

languages, are of varying ages and gender, and have different levels of

education and skills. Fugate, Kinicki, and Scheck (2002) hypothesise that

highly employable people have many career options available to them

because they assert themselves and pursue all avenues of employment

that are open to them. This reduces uncertainty and thereby increases

their sense of control. Wenzel (1992) predicted that external LoC is more

prevalent among the homeless, female, non-white groups. Many job

seekers in South Africa may be at a disadvantage in terms of their

employment status because of language limitations if they are non-

nationals or if they havent learned English well enough to speak or

understand.

Individuals with an external LoC are less likely to believe that skills they

may attain will assist them in achieving their goals, and people with an

internal LoC believe that they are in control of a wide spectrum of

influences in their lives (Bothma, & Schepers, 1997; Heady, 2008; Strauser,

Ketz, & Keim, 2002; Jansen, & Carton, 1999).

The fifth theoretical objective namely, to explore the theoretical relationship

between LoC (independent variable) and achievement of short-term goals

(dependent variable) with CWP intervention as a (mediator variable) has been

explored. Based on the above the following hypothesis was formulated:

Hypothesis H4: There is a relationship between LoC (independent

variable) and achievement of short-term career goals (dependent variable)

with CWP intervention as a positive mediating factor.

19

2.8 Synthesis

Chapter two presented a literature review which explored the relationships

between biographical factors and LoC. The role of CWP interventions was

explored as well as the achievement of short term career goals. According to

Rotter (1966), it is through the possibility of rewards and punishment that

people develop and maintain beliefs around explanations for their behaviour

and the outcomes in their lives.

The theoretical objectives as set out in this chapter have been used to

develop the hypotheses for this study, and will be discussed further in the

chapters to follow. In the next chapter, the research design and

methodology of this research will be explored and discussed.

20

Chapter 3: Research Method

3.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter the literature objectives were explored and research

hypotheses were set.

This chapter deals with the research design and research method which is

used in an attempt to answer the research questions as set in Chapter 1. More

specifically the following areas will be outlined: research design, research

approach, research method (which refers to the population, location of the

data, measuring instruments, research procedure and statistical analysis).

The key focus of the study was to determine what the relationship is between

LoC and peoples achievement of their short-term career goals, a job-search

intervention and the achievement of short term career goals.

3.2 Research Hypothesis

The following research hypotheses were set in Chapter 2:

Hypothesis H1A: There are differences between participants biographical


Hypothesis H1.1A: There is a relationship between gender (independent


Hypothesis H1.2A: There is a relationship between age (independent


Hypothesis H1.3A: There is a relationship between skills (independent


Hypothesis H1.4A: There is a relationship between educational level

(independent variable) and LoC (dependant variable).

21

Hypothesis H1.5A: There is a relationship between autonomy (independent


Hypothesis H2A: There is a relationship between LoC (independent

variable) and achievement of short-term career goals (dependant variable).

Hypothesis H3A: There is a relationship between a CWP intervention

(independent variable) and achieving of short-term career goals (dependent

variable).

Hypothesis H4A: There is a relationship between LoC (independent

variable) and achievement of short-term career goals (dependent variable)

with CWP intervention as a positive mediating factor.

3.3 Research Approach

The research approach is the way the research will be structured and executed

and depends on the focus of the study (Welman, Kruger, & Mitchell (2007). A

quantitative approach was adopted. The quantitative researcher analyses

data by looking at the particular elements, first in isolation, and then in various

combinations with other elements (Mouton, 1996, p. 169). When using a

quantitative approach, the focus is on comparisons and relationships between

variables and constructs under observation (Cresswell, 2003). Quantitative

studies work with numerical data; aggregating, comparing and summarising;

making it possible to obtain averages and analyse complex formulas and

mathematical models (Babbie, 2010). Using a quantitative approach allowed

the researcher to test for underlying theories composed of variables

(measured in numbers) and then analysing it using statistical methods to test

if the predictive nature of the underlying theories holds to be true. For this study

a quantitative approach was further used to allow the researcher to conduct

statistical analysis.

22

3.4 Research Design

The research design is determined once the researcher knows what is being

explored and is the plan that will result in obtaining the necessary answers

most efficiently and effectively (Babbie, 2010). It specifies the methods and

procedures for collecting and analysing information needed to solve the

research problem and is to do with the development of a strategy when

implementing scientific investigation. Zikmund (2003) writes that the research

design is a structural framework of activities for the research project. In the

next section the research approach will be discussed.

3.4.1 Cross-sectional field survey.

The cross sectional component of this research approach consisted of using a

criterion-group design where the participants were investigated at the same

time in terms of the variables (Welman, Kruger, & Mitchell, 2007). This

approach was also useful to investigate the relationships between the

variables (Zikmund, 2003) biographical data, LoC and the CWP intervention.

3.4.2 Ex post facto research.

Ex post facto research is a study where exploration done after-the-fact, and

where the researcher has not interfered with or manipulated information in the

research process. Ex post facto research tests cause and effect associations.

(Salkind, 2010). The researcher conducted ex post facto research by analysing

the results after the fact and report on it as such. Therefore the results holds

true for that specific period of time.

3.5 Research Method

The research method refers to the range of techniques that are available to

us to collect evidence about the social world (Henn, Weinstein, & Foard, 2009,

p. 10) and will be discussed under the following headings: the population,

sampling and participants.

23

3.5.1 Population.

The target population refers to the specific group of population elements to be

studied who are relevant to the research project (Zikmund, 2003). The

population consists of all unemployed considered as youth between the ages

of 15 to 34 years of age in South Africa, N = 1.3 m

3.5.1.1 Sample and participants.

The number of participants in a sample group allow for the findings to be

generalised to the greater population (Denscombe, 2010). The sample were

people who were referred or approached the ERS offices wanting to do the

CWP intervention and who were seeking assistance with achieving their career

goals. Seven groups of 20 per group once a month over a period of seven

months were approached to partake in the study. A convenient sample

(Welman, Kruger, & Mitchell, 2007) size of n = 149 participants were obtained.

The researcher obtained permission from the CWP organisers and the CWP

participants to test the set hypothesis.

3.5.2 Biographical data of the sample N = 149.

The definition of biographical data provided by Lautenschlager (1994, p. 392)

is factual kinds of questions about life and work experiences as well as to

items involving opinions, values, beliefs, and attitudes that reflect a historical

perspective. Lautenschlager (1994) postulated that biographical data is useful

in research to anticipate how people are likely to behave and perform in the

future based on assumptions regarding their past behaviour. Table 1 below

presents the profile of the participants.

24

Table 1: Sample Profile of Participants - Age, N=149

Age Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent

Valid

25

Figure 2: Sample Profile of Participants - Skills Level

Skill level as shown in Figure 2 above was noted to determine whether or not

it influenced achieving of career goals as well as to reveal the relationship

between LoC and skill level. The percentages in Figure 2 above represent

each participants subjective interpretation of how they rate their own skill level.

Table 3: Sample Profile of Respondents - Previous CWP, N=149

Previous CWP Percent

Valid 0 71

1 to 2 20

3 to 4 8

5 or more 1

Total 100.0

Respondents who previously went through a CWP intervention were noted for

the value of determining whether or not this made a difference to them

achieving their career goal. They were grouped into categories as stated in

Table 3 above.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Unskilled Semi Skilled Skilled "No Answer Stated"

Skills Levels

26

The number of respondents who indicated they have never done a CWP

intervention was N = 105. One respondent indicated he had attended the CWP

intervention more than five times.

Figure 3: Sample Profile of Participants Level of Education, N=149

Figure 3 above addressed the education levels of the participants. Of the

participants 74.5% have either grade 10 a certificate or a diploma.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

27

In Figure 4 below one can get a sense of the many languages in South Africa.

Figure 4: Sample Profile of Participants Home Language, N=149

Figure 4 above reveals that the N =149 participants reported a total of N =21

home languages spoken between them. The highest number of participants

(22%) speak isiZulu in their homes, and the next highest, 18.8%, speak

English.

Next, years of work experience is discussed.

0

5

10

15

20

25

Afr

ika

an

s

Be

mb

a

Ch

ew

a

Da

ma

ra

En

gli

sh

Fre

nch

IGB

O

Ka

can

ga

Lug

an

da

Nd

eb

ele

N S

oth

o

Po

rtu

gu

ese

Se

pe

di

Se

soth

o

Sh

on

a

S S

oth

o

Ve

nd

a

Tsw

an

a

Xh

osa

Yo

rub

a

Zu

lu

"No

A

nsw

er

Sta

ted

"

Home Language

28

Figure 5: Sample Profile of Participants Years of Work Experience

Years of work experience was recorded and categorised as shown in Figure 5

above. Of importance is that the highest number of job seekers (81%) had less

than three years work experience.

This section concludes the descriptive statistics of the sample respondents.

3.6 Measuring Instrument Self-Administered Structured

Questionnaire

A fourth edition LoC Instrument (LCI) designed by Professor Johann M.

Schepers and distributed by Jopie Van Rooyen and Partners SA (Pty) Ltd was

used in this study. The LoC Instrument scored autonomy, internal LoC and

external LoC. In further research by Schepers, Gropp and Geldenhuys (2006)

the validity of the LCI was carried out with improvements made on previous

editions. As a result of the further research the previous LCI underwent

comprehensive revision and was expanded to include 88 items associated with

emotional intelligence, sense of coherence and self-actualisation. The three-

factor structure of the LCI were confirmed as being autonomy, external control

and internal control, and thus the construct validity of the scale was confirmed

(Schepers, Gropp, & Geldenhuys, 2006).

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

0 to 3 4 to 6 7 to 10 >10 5.00 "No Answer

Stated"

Years of Work Experience

29

It was administered to participants before and after the CWP two day

intervention. It is well acknowledged that such an instrument cannot be

administered in such a short period (two days) before and after the

intervention. However the researcher, as will be explained, used the data

obtained after the intervention, for statistical analysis and merely reports on

the outcome obtained before the intervention

Participants were required to respond to questions without thinking too long

about the answers, but rather giving their spontaneous reactions. Responses

were not right or wrong, they were about how the participants felt about the

answers to the questions. Due to license agreement the researcher may not

publish the instrument nor draw any inferences from it. The results obtained

were merely used for statistical analysis purposes.

3.6.1 Background and rationale for inclusion.

The rationale for inclusion was merely to determine if an intervention like the

CWP, even if it is a two day intervention can create awareness and motivation

in participants to take responsibility for achieving their short term career goals.

3.6.2 Composition of the instrument.

The LCI has 88 items that are rated by participants on a seven point Likert

scale. These 88 items pertain to an individuals expectation of reinforcement

of his/her behaviour arising from the social environment (Schepers, 2005, p.

1).

Following are some examples of items asked:

How readily would you tackle a problem if there is a chance that you

might fail?

To what extent should a person decide on his own work routine?

To what extent do failures spur you on to work harder and improve

your performance?

To what extent does Lady Luck play a role in your life?

30

How much does success depend on hard work?

How strongly do you believe that only those people who are at the

right place at the right time get promoted?

How often do you doubt the correctness of the decisions that you

have taken?

3.6.3 Validity and reliability of the instrument.

The development and validation of the LCI has been tested in five studies, the

last one of which has a sample of N = 3033 participants and has consistently

produced promising results. Schepers and Hassett (2006) reported highly

acceptable reliabilities that ranged from Cronbach alphas between .721 to

.861 as well as acceptable face and content validities (Schepers, Gropp, &

Geldenhuys, 2006; Schepers, & Hassett, 2006).

3.7 Research Procedure

The researcher first obtained permission to conduct the study to test her

hypothesis. ERS scheduled CWP interventions and advertised them on the

public bulletin boards in the Parktown, Johannesburg Employment Resource

Centre. Invitations were not restricted to those who are unemployed and

included anyone who believed they could benefit from the job search skills

training intervention. Participants signed up for the training, indicating which

dates best suited them.

They arrived on the pre-arranged dates and registered for the CWP

intervention. Before each CWP intervention started each respondent was

briefed on the study being conducted and invited to participate in the study.

Confidentiality was stressed and it was explained to participants that the

results of their assessment would be made available to them on request.

However the researcher made it very clear that should the participant which to

obtain the results it may only be done via a registered industrial psychologist.

31

After the explanation of the study was given, each respondent was given a

Consent form (refer to Annexure A for an example) that they signed agreeing

that their information could be used for the study. On the Consent form are

sections to be completed regarding their biographical data. Once the Consent

forms, including biographical data were completed, the LCI assessment was

explained to them by a registered psychometric and they were given time to

complete the LCI assessment.

After the allotted time was taken for participants to complete the LCI, the forms

were gathered and participants started with the CWP intervention training. The

CWP was held over two days. At the end of the second day each participant

went through the same LCI assessment again, for the second time, also

administered under the supervision of a registered psychometric.

Next, after a three month waiting period a telephonic follow up was done with

each participant every month for eight months after completion of the CWP

intervention. This phone call was to determine how the respondent was doing

in terms of achieving their short-term goals. The information was solicited

through them each being asked the following question:

If you have got and started a job, started an education program or

started your own business, what was the date you started?

The answer to this question was used to determine how long it took for each

respondent to achieve his/her short-term career goal. Answers were taken

down and if the respondent had not achieved their short-term career goal they

were called again a month later. These calls were made every month for eight

months unless short-term career goals were achieved. Of the total sample of

N = 149 the researcher was unable to contact N = 40 via telephone.

3.8 Capturing and Editing the Data

The biographical data taken from the consent forms of each of the N =149

participants were gathered and captured onto an excel spreadsheet. The pre

32

and post LCI assessments were gathered and the scores of the LCI were

captured onto a spreadsheet provided by Jopie Van Rooyen and Partners SA

(Pty) Ltd who analysed and reported the scores. The LoC pre and post scores

were added to the excel spreadsheet containing biographical data which are

available on request (Annexure B electronically).

The results of the monthly telephone calls to each respondent regarding their

achieving of their short-term employment goals were also recorded and

transcribed and responses were added to the excel spreadsheet.

This datasheet was given to the University of Johannesburg (UJ) STATKON

Department for processing. Missing data were accounted for and only

complete sets of information were used. Where applicable the mean average

was used to compensate for missing data. All information was logically

grouped and used for further statistical analysis.

STATKON assigned a registered Industrial Psychologist Dr Jurgen to analyse

and interpret the results. This resulted in Dr Jurgen suggesting that autonomy

as a variable of interest to be subjected to further statistical analysis. Although,

it was not the intent of the study to focus on autonomy it added depth to the

statistical analysis and led to the formulation of additional hypothesis and

revealed interesting results. The findings will be discussed in Chapter 4.

Next the statistical techniques used will briefly be discussed. The findings will

be presented in Chapter 4.

3.9 Statistical Analysis

The statistical analysis consisted of descriptive statistics which enabled the

researcher to draw inferences about the sample. Analysis in quantitative

research applies a combination of statistical and mathematical techniques

which focus individually on certain variables (Mouton, 1996). To interpret the

data is to associate findings with existing theories or to create a new

hypothesis; to bring it all together (Mouton, 1996, p. 161).

33

3.9.1 Parametric and non-parametric techniques.

When comparing differences amongst groups various techniques can be used

(Pallant, 2007); these techniques are grouped into parametric and non-

parametric techniques. If the assumption is that normality exist in the scores

of the groups one intends to compare then parametric test will be used. Non-

parametric test do not use these assumptions and are therefore more suitable

to use for small groups. The disadvantage is that these tests may not be

sensitive to differences amongst the groups. Table 4 below illustrates the types

of techniques that results under both.

Where the sample did not meet parametric assumptions the researcher used

the corresponding non-parametric test alternative. It is recognised (Pallant,

2010) that the Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney U, and Chi-Square are not as

sensitive as their parametric alternative.

Table 4: Parametric and Non-Parametric Techniques (Adapted from: Pallant,

2007)

Parametric Techniques Non-Parametric Techniques

Independent sample t-test Mann-Whitney U test

Paired Sample t-test Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test

One-way between groups ANOVA Kruskal-Walis Test

None Chi-square for level of fit

Two-way analysis of variance (Between groups) None

Mixed between-within groups (ANAVO None

Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) None

Analysis of Co-variance None

It is generally accepted (Zikmund, Babin, Carr, & Griffin, 2013) that the

accuracy of research is directly related to the size of the sample. Although the

sample size seemed small N = 149 it was decided to go ahead and use test

from both parametric and non-parametric. It was also noted that the sample

was small and might thus affected the generalisation of results.

34

T-testing is used when the average deviation between two mean scores is not

known (Zikmund, 2003). The paired sample t-tests compared the pre-

intervention mean locus of control scores of the sample with the post-

intervention mean locus of control scores of the same sample to determine

standard deviation. Any differences were attributed to the CWP intervention.

In a study such as this one where there was an assumption of dependence

between the dependent (criterion) and independent (predictor) variables, a

multiple regression analysis technique of analysing data was used (Cooper, &

Schindler, 2011). Multiple regression is a dependency technique for data

analysis where values are predicted for dependent variables from values for

independent variables, and it also tests and explains causal theories (Babbie,

2010). Biographical data gathered in this study was included in the

interpretation to determine relationships between the variables. A multivariate

analysis examined the effect of independent variables on a dependent

variable, including which variables had a greater or lesser effect (Cooper, &

Schindler, 2011).

Biographical data on each respondent, as well as the data obtained from the

telephone calls to determine whether or not they achieved their short-term

career goals, facilitated investigation of how male and female participants in

different age groups, with differing home languages differed in terms of sense

of control. Other inferences were also drawn regarding the correlational

relationships between variables.

In this study multiple regression analysis was used to evaluate which of the

variables influenced or predicted the achieving of short-term career goals the

best. Multiple regression analysis also determined the association of the

effects of the independent variables (gender, age, home language, education

level, skill level, employment status and whether they have done the CWP

intervention before) with the achieving of short-term career goals (the

dependent variable) (Zikmund, 2003).

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3.10 Ethics

When conducting any form of research study, particularly one that involves

participants, it is important to ensure that one maintains a high level of ethics.

This includes; disclosing all aspects of the research to the respondent,

maintaining anonymity should they ask, not plagiarising, and ensuring that one

does not commit academic fraud.

Ethical considerations fall within the four rights of participants who participated

in this study. Those rights are:

The right not to be harmed

The right of full disclosure

The right of self-determination (to participate or withdraw at any time)

The right of privacy, anonymity and confidentiality (Cooper, & Schindler

2011).

Participants were informed of their rights when they were invited to participate

in the study and the invitation was presented in a manner that was free from

coercion. All participants signed a consent form and they were assured that all

information will be kept confidential. No direct reference was made to those

who participated in the research. The LCI assessments were administered

under the supervision of a registered psychometric and each participants was

informed that they would be given the results of their LCI assessment if they

requested it.

3.11 Synthesis

This chapter included a discussion and explanation of the research design and

approach using convenient samples of participants. The cross-sectional

component of this research approach consisted of using a criterion-group

design where groups were investigated at the same time in terms of one or

more variable. The research method was explained including a discussion on

the sampling and the items of biographical data that were gathered.

36

The telephonic interviews that were done on each respondent was explained

along with an outline of the process of gathering and compiling all the

biographical information. The spreadsheet containing the information was

explained and identified, and the procedure for preparing the data for analysis

was given. As the statistical techniques employed to determine relationships

between variables. T-testing as well as ANOVA testing was explained.

Tables and figures illustrating the samples profiles, such as age, gender, skill

level, previous CWP, years of experience, level of education and home

language were presented. It was explained that the measuring instrument for

this study was a self-administered structured questionnaire, the LCI, designed

by Professor Johann M. Schepers. It was administered by registered

psychometrists from the firm Jopie Van Rooyen and Partners SA (Pty) Ltd.

The total number of participants was N = 149. Finally the ethical considerations

of the study were considered including rights of participants. Next, in Chapter

4 the findings of the statistical analyses will be reported on.

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Chapter 4: Results of the Study

4.1 Introduction

In the previous chapter the research design followed in this study was outlined.

The sample was discussed. The measuring instrument was motivated and

explained, the research process and the statistical techniques used were

outlined. This chapter reports on the findings obtained.

The primary research objective was to investigate if there is a relationship

between biographical data, LoC, a CWP as an intervention and the

achievement of short-term career goals. It is further suggested that LoC has a

mediating effect between biographical data and the achievement of short-term

career goals. The relationship between LoC and the achievement of short-term

career goals is further positively mediated by a CWP as intervention. The

hypotheses formulated in Chapter 2 are provided.

4.2 Research Hypothesis

Hypothesis H1A: There are differences between participants biographical


Hypothesis H1.1A: There is a relationship between gender (independent

variable) and LoC (dependant variable)

Hypothesis H1.2A: There is a relationship between age (independent


Hypothesis H1.3A: There is a relationship between skills (independent

variable) and LoC (dep

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