,uw ffi. 1lit ;t 5! 30 ~

1"J Ji' '* *IJ 5R -m ;It- #. ~~ 30 ~ ,uw ffi. 1lit ;t 5! 30 ~

1"J Ji' '* *IJ 5R -m ;It- #. ~~ 30 ~

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation

and practice testing at the beginning level

Chinese vocabulary instruction

Yongan Wu (University of North Florida, U. S. A.)

Abstract: This study examines the effect of practice testing on short­

term and long-term memorization of phonetic and semantic values of Chi­

nese words with beginning level Chinese language learners who received

new vocabulary through both aural and visual signals. Practice testing was

proved to have a small to moderate effect on participants' short-term memo­

ry and a considerably large effect for long-term memorization, compared to

traditional methods which provided no test until the end of the learning

process. These findings should serve to encourage teachers to incorporate

practice tests containing innovative questions into their classes.

Key word: practice testing; mixed-sensory mode; vocabulary; CFL

~~~g~JJ\!~A;fO~>J ifj!~5~MA M~& 9=t)CiP] rc $i~

JkJ :gmi ~: ;f.. *.Jit 1£ iLfJ1!:1l. n ~r is<. it-~ l..;m.ii fo ~ 't .¥.. .IJllAib\, ~ lit

~~~«~~~, ~~.~~, ~ •• A~.~~M~ •• n~it-.~it­.~&~.*~*~~~~a •. M.A~, ~#~~*~~~~ff •• ~.~.~~~,M~ •• n~.~~~~.L~tL~.M,n~** ~~.M.~.~~M.~~ft.~"A.~~.t*m~s •• ~.~ ,f!1§], Y;(~~.~~i: .

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation

and practice testing at the beginning level

Chinese vocabulary instruction

Yongan Wu (University of North Florida, U. S. A.)

Abstract: This study examines the effect of practice testing on short­

term and long-term memorization of phonetic and semantic values of Chi­

nese words with beginning level Chinese language learners who received

new vocabulary through both aural and visual signals. Practice testing was

proved to have a small to moderate effect on participants' short-term memo­

ry and a considerably large effect for long-term memorization, compared to

traditional methods which provided no test until the end of the learning

process. These findings should serve to encourage teachers to incorporate

practice tests containing innovative questions into their classes.

Key word: practice testing; mixed-sensory mode; vocabulary; CFL

~~~g~JJ\!~A;fO~>J ifj!~5~MA M~& 9=t)CiP] rc $i~

JkJ :gmi ~: ;f.. *.Jit 1£ iLfJ1!:1l. n ~r is<. it-~ l..;m.ii fo ~ 't .¥.. .IJllAib\, ~ lit

~~~«~~~, ~~.~~, ~ •• A~.~~M~ •• n~it-.~it­.~&~.*~*~~~~a •. M.A~, ~#~~*~~~~ff •• ~.~.~~~,M~ •• n~.~~~~.L~tL~.M,n~** ~~.M.~.~~M.~~ft.~"A.~~.t*m~s •• ~.~ ,f!1§], Y;(~~.~~i: .

I 828

tal schemas and codes.

Review of Literature

For beginning CFL (Chinese as a Foreign Language) learners, a

character appears to be either an amalgam of different, distinct graphic u­

nits or a visualization of a single, solitary graphic concept (Li &. Lee

2006) . It then becomes a particularly challenging task for CFL learners to

create, maintain and integrate such an extensive schema into their working

memory, especially one that arbitrarily links the graphic features and se­

mantic values of numerous characters (Zhang 2009) . In order to lower the

load on learners' working memory, scholars are actively searching for ef­

fective instructional methods so that novel, complex information can be re­

tained longer. One noticeable branch of research stems from the theory that

the human mind processes and stores information above two independent

slave cognitive systems, namely, the verbal system for words and the vis­

ual system for images and analog representations (Baddeley & Hitch 1974;

Bjorn et al. 2012; Paivio 1986) . The feasibility of dividing the verbal form

into two modes, i. e., written words (text) and auditory signals (vocali­

zation of text), provides the principal rationale to employ more than one

presentation mode as an instructional means to enhance the rate and relia­

bility of the entire encoding process in case a singular mode causes a detri­

mental overflow in the cognitive system (Andres & Petersen 2002; Tab­

bers et al. 2004) .

During the last decade, a few studies have been conducted for the pur­

pose of adapting such a modality effect into the domain of CFL. By presen­

ting characters visually on screen and their pronunciation and meaning au­

rally through headphones, researchers can effectively isolate, compare and

confirm the superiority of the modality effect on character learning. Among

many well known experiments, three studies are particularly relevant. The

first one was conducted by Jin (2006) to measure and compare the reten­

tion of characters among learners of different linguistic backgrounds by

highlighting the various parts or values of characters in textual, ·aural and

animated forms. The results suggest that an aural mode is better than tradi-

I 828

tal schemas and codes.

Review of Literature

For beginning CFL (Chinese as a Foreign Language) learners, a

character appears to be either an amalgam of different, distinct graphic u­

nits or a visualization of a single, solitary graphic concept (Li &. Lee

2006) . It then becomes a particularly challenging task for CFL learners to

create, maintain and integrate such an extensive schema into their working

memory, especially one that arbitrarily links the graphic features and se­

mantic values of numerous characters (Zhang 2009) . In order to lower the

load on learners' working memory, scholars are actively searching for ef­

fective instructional methods so that novel, complex information can be re­

tained longer. One noticeable branch of research stems from the theory that

the human mind processes and stores information above two independent

slave cognitive systems, namely, the verbal system for words and the vis­

ual system for images and analog representations (Baddeley & Hitch 1974;

Bjorn et al. 2012; Paivio 1986) . The feasibility of dividing the verbal form

into two modes, i. e., written words (text) and auditory signals (vocali­

zation of text), provides the principal rationale to employ more than one

presentation mode as an instructional means to enhance the rate and relia­

bility of the entire encoding process in case a singular mode causes a detri­

mental overflow in the cognitive system (Andres & Petersen 2002; Tab­

bers et al. 2004) .

During the last decade, a few studies have been conducted for the pur­

pose of adapting such a modality effect into the domain of CFL. By presen­

ting characters visually on screen and their pronunciation and meaning au­

rally through headphones, researchers can effectively isolate, compare and

confirm the superiority of the modality effect on character learning. Among

many well known experiments, three studies are particularly relevant. The

first one was conducted by Jin (2006) to measure and compare the reten­

tion of characters among learners of different linguistic backgrounds by

highlighting the various parts or values of characters in textual, ·aural and

animated forms. The results suggest that an aural mode is better than tradi-

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

tional methods because it produces a significantly higher correctness rate in

tasks to distinguish semantic. orthographic and phonological distractors.

regardless of the participants' linguistic backgrounds. The second study

conducted by Chung (2008) compared the effect of the MSM presentation

in character instruction as he presented 20 characters in random order and

their prompts (pronunciations and meanings in English) to a group of be­

ginning CFL learners. who were then asked to pronounce these characters

and translate them into English at the end of the presentation. Two weeks

later, in a surprise delayed test, learners were asked to perform the same

task. The treatment group who heard pronunciations and the accompanying

English meanings through headphones scored higher in meaning recall tests

on both rounds compared to the control group which only received prompts

in textual form. The third study by Chuang and Ku (2011) examined be­

ginning level CFL learners' ability to retain Chinese characters' graphic fea­

tures under two conditions, 1) the text group saw the character and read

an introduction in English about the character's etymological formation;

and 2) the narration group saw the character and heard the same introduc­

tion in English delivered as an auditory input. An immediate and a delayed

post-test were given and there was not a significant difference between the

text and narration group, but all participants tested higher in the immedi­

ate post- test rather than in the delayed test.

ln short. the first two studies validate the effectiveness of using MSM

presentation in CFL vocabulary instruction and the third illustrates an im­

portant property of the method that touches on an intrinsic deficiency ag­

gravated by the lapse of time, i. e., the inconvenience, and oftentimes

impossibility, in reviewing material delivered inMSM because of technical

difficulties in promptly locating the target information in audio andvideo

SOurces. Repetition is a natural choice, yet its effect is limited and superfi­

cial, not to mention the fact that it can easily negatively effect students'

learning interests.

One possible technique involves making use of practice tests. Scholars

long ago discovered that tests can lead to significant learning activity (Ab­

bott 1909) . They refresh students' memory and deepen comprehension

~

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

tional methods because it produces a significantly higher correctness rate in

tasks to distinguish semantic. orthographic and phonological distractors.

regardless of the participants' linguistic backgrounds. The second study

conducted by Chung (2008) compared the effect of the MSM presentation

in character instruction as he presented 20 characters in random order and

their prompts (pronunciations and meanings in English) to a group of be­

ginning CFL learners. who were then asked to pronounce these characters

and translate them into English at the end of the presentation. Two weeks

later, in a surprise delayed test, learners were asked to perform the same

task. The treatment group who heard pronunciations and the accompanying

English meanings through headphones scored higher in meaning recall tests

on both rounds compared to the control group which only received prompts

in textual form. The third study by Chuang and Ku (2011) examined be­

ginning level CFL learners' ability to retain Chinese characters' graphic fea­

tures under two conditions, 1) the text group saw the character and read

an introduction in English about the character's etymological formation;

and 2) the narration group saw the character and heard the same introduc­

tion in English delivered as an auditory input. An immediate and a delayed

post-test were given and there was not a significant difference between the

text and narration group, but all participants tested higher in the immedi­

ate post- test rather than in the delayed test.

ln short. the first two studies validate the effectiveness of using MSM

presentation in CFL vocabulary instruction and the third illustrates an im­

portant property of the method that touches on an intrinsic deficiency ag­

gravated by the lapse of time, i. e., the inconvenience, and oftentimes

impossibility, in reviewing material delivered inMSM because of technical

difficulties in promptly locating the target information in audio andvideo

SOurces. Repetition is a natural choice, yet its effect is limited and superfi­

cial, not to mention the fact that it can easily negatively effect students'

learning interests.

One possible technique involves making use of practice tests. Scholars

long ago discovered that tests can lead to significant learning activity (Ab­

bott 1909) . They refresh students' memory and deepen comprehension

~

830

since test questions require them to search, reconnect and reconfigure their

mental schema for answers (Pyc &. Rawson 2009; Roediger. 1II & Karpicke 2006) . Practice testing provides advantages in a number of cogni­

tive tasks (Cull 2000; Glover 1989; McDaniela et a!. 2007; Wheeler et

a!. 2003) . Among the advantages. those affecting beginning level vocabu­

lary learning was investigated by two recent studies. Sean (2010) selected

twenty simple Chinese characters (two to four strokes each) paired with

English translations and asked participants with no Chinese language expe­

rience to learn and practice. They then wrote the characters from memory

10 minutes later and then again 24 hours later. The result demonstrated

that those "who had practiced retrieval were more accurate at writing/

drawing the Chinese characters than were those who had studied repeated­

ly" (p. 1009). regardless of their learning conditions. In a similar vein.

the study conducted by Karpicke and Roediger III (2008) employed a more

elaborative research design to observe students' performance in the follow­

ing four conditions: repeatedly studying and being tested; repeatedly

studying without being further tested; repeatedly being tested without fur­

ther studying; no further studying while still being tested. A list of 40

Swahili-English word pairs was administrated and the results proved that

repeated testing lead to a stronger long-term memory in the delayed recall

test a week later.

Method

A total number of 63 beginning level CFL students enrolled at two

public universities in the U. S. participated in this study. To minimize

differences between instructors and schools. instructors followed the same

textbook. synchronized their teaching schedules and collaborated on home­

work and quiz preparation. Participants were assigned to either a treatment

group or a control group. Both groups received a list of 40 unlearned disyl­

labic words that were loosely related to their Chinese proficien­

cy. Participants had already learned 30 % of the characters in these

words. Character complexity was also controlled to reflect the learning situ­

ation of beginning level Chinese students. namely. only 20% of the char-

830

since test questions require them to search, reconnect and reconfigure their

mental schema for answers (Pyc &. Rawson 2009; Roediger. 1II & Karpicke 2006) . Practice testing provides advantages in a number of cogni­

tive tasks (Cull 2000; Glover 1989; McDaniela et a!. 2007; Wheeler et

a!. 2003) . Among the advantages. those affecting beginning level vocabu­

lary learning was investigated by two recent studies. Sean (2010) selected

twenty simple Chinese characters (two to four strokes each) paired with

English translations and asked participants with no Chinese language expe­

rience to learn and practice. They then wrote the characters from memory

10 minutes later and then again 24 hours later. The result demonstrated

that those "who had practiced retrieval were more accurate at writing/

drawing the Chinese characters than were those who had studied repeated­

ly" (p. 1009). regardless of their learning conditions. In a similar vein.

the study conducted by Karpicke and Roediger III (2008) employed a more

elaborative research design to observe students' performance in the follow­

ing four conditions: repeatedly studying and being tested; repeatedly

studying without being further tested; repeatedly being tested without fur­

ther studying; no further studying while still being tested. A list of 40

Swahili-English word pairs was administrated and the results proved that

repeated testing lead to a stronger long-term memory in the delayed recall

test a week later.

Method

A total number of 63 beginning level CFL students enrolled at two

public universities in the U. S. participated in this study. To minimize

differences between instructors and schools. instructors followed the same

textbook. synchronized their teaching schedules and collaborated on home­

work and quiz preparation. Participants were assigned to either a treatment

group or a control group. Both groups received a list of 40 unlearned disyl­

labic words that were loosely related to their Chinese proficien­

cy. Participants had already learned 30 % of the characters in these

words. Character complexity was also controlled to reflect the learning situ­

ation of beginning level Chinese students. namely. only 20% of the char-

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

acters had 12 strokes or more. The author only analyzed the data of those

who were not of a Chinese or East Asian linguistic background and the ex­

clusion reduced the number of participants down to 30 for the treatment

group and 27 for the control group. Participants in the control group learn­

ed the words presented in mixed sensory mode with hyperlinks employed to

deliver the vocalization of words and their English equivalents. In one vo­

cabulary study session. students had 20 minutes to browse. take notes

and review. They received one study session in four consecutive days and a

vocabulary test was given immediately after the fourth day's study ses­

sion. No textbook. notes or reference of any kind was allowed. Another

round of tests was given a week after without prior notice. Both tests de­

manded students to provide the English meaning and pinyin for 20 words

randomly chosen from the 40-word pool.

The treatment group followed the exact procedure and received identi­

cal material to the control group. but they were asked to complete a 15-

question long practice test right after the study session in the first three

days. The major portion of the practice test tried to assess their memory of

the sounds and meaning from a variety of angles. instead of grinding out

pinyin and English equivalents from one Chinese word to another. For ex­

ample. some questions regarded the recall of words with a first tone + fourth tone structure, or words that can be categorized along with the con­

cept "farm", or words that contain at least one u*" (tree) radical, just

to name a few.

Result

The author conducted a 2 X 2 one-between-one-within subjects ANO­

VA test to measure the effect of practice testing amongst participants who

received MSM presentation. Participants' scores on the vocabulary test were

the dependent variable. The opportunities to take practice tests is a be­

tween-groups factor and the time (day 4 and a week after day 4) is the

within group factor. A significant main effect was found for practice testing

(F=4.94. p < . 05) . Two follow up independent T-tests revealed that the

treatment and control group did not sCOre differently when they exited the

831

-Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

acters had 12 strokes or more. The author only analyzed the data of those

who were not of a Chinese or East Asian linguistic background and the ex­

clusion reduced the number of participants down to 30 for the treatment

group and 27 for the control group. Participants in the control group learn­

ed the words presented in mixed sensory mode with hyperlinks employed to

deliver the vocalization of words and their English equivalents. In one vo­

cabulary study session. students had 20 minutes to browse. take notes

and review. They received one study session in four consecutive days and a

vocabulary test was given immediately after the fourth day's study ses­

sion. No textbook. notes or reference of any kind was allowed. Another

round of tests was given a week after without prior notice. Both tests de­

manded students to provide the English meaning and pinyin for 20 words

randomly chosen from the 40-word pool.

The treatment group followed the exact procedure and received identi­

cal material to the control group. but they were asked to complete a 15-

question long practice test right after the study session in the first three

days. The major portion of the practice test tried to assess their memory of

the sounds and meaning from a variety of angles. instead of grinding out

pinyin and English equivalents from one Chinese word to another. For ex­

ample. some questions regarded the recall of words with a first tone + fourth tone structure, or words that can be categorized along with the con­

cept "farm", or words that contain at least one u*" (tree) radical, just

to name a few.

Result

The author conducted a 2 X 2 one-between-one-within subjects ANO­

VA test to measure the effect of practice testing amongst participants who

received MSM presentation. Participants' scores on the vocabulary test were

the dependent variable. The opportunities to take practice tests is a be­

tween-groups factor and the time (day 4 and a week after day 4) is the

within group factor. A significant main effect was found for practice testing

(F=4.94. p < . 05) . Two follow up independent T-tests revealed that the

treatment and control group did not sCOre differently when they exited the

831

-

832

study (t~ 1. 37, p ~. 19), while the difference started to reveal itself a

week later (t~2. 16, p <. 05) with a medium effect size (d~O. 57), and

those who received practice testing (M~24.13, SD~8.17) made signifi­

cantly fewer errors than those in the control group (M ~ 19. 37, SD ~

8.49) . Also, the main effect for time was found to be significant (F~

25.20, p <. 05), with a small effect to medium size (partial 'f/2 ~. 31) and

a high observed power at. 98. The follow up contrast analysis suggests that

participants made significantly fewer mistakes at the immediate end of the

study compared with themselves than a week later, (t~ 3.01, p <.05)

for the treatment group and (t~4. 00, P < .05) for the control group,

with a medium effect size (d~O. 55) for the treatment group and a large

effect size (d~O. 78) for the control group. The interaction of practice tes­

ting and time was not significant (F~1. 15, p~. 28) .

Discussion

This study proves that vocabulary instruction should not happen in i­

solation without stimulation from more than one sense. The aural signals

accompanying the visual images not only prevented the detrimental tenden­

cy of overloading the working memory when three values of a word (the

orthographic, the phonological and the semantic) were simultaneously

presented to the participants, but also helped participants differentiate and

distribute each value to multiple mental schemas where they could be enco­

ded without interference from similar codes. Beginning level learners find

this skill of being able to encode and store information in separate tableau

particularly valuable because according to them many Chinese words seem

to look or sound extremely similar. In addition, Chinese is a tonal language

and its native speakers always emphasize the accuracy of a given word's

tone. In the absence of aural input, CFL learners by and large resort to

rote memorization and tedious repetition to retain the tonal features of a

word. Studies have long shown that the retention of information in the

long-term memory does not depend on how long information is processed

butrather at what depth it is processed (Arthur 1997; Fergus & Robert

1972; Loaiza et al. 2011) . MSM presentation therefore deserves more at-

832

study (t~ 1. 37, p ~. 19), while the difference started to reveal itself a

week later (t~2. 16, p <. 05) with a medium effect size (d~O. 57), and

those who received practice testing (M~24.13, SD~8.17) made signifi­

cantly fewer errors than those in the control group (M ~ 19. 37, SD ~

8.49) . Also, the main effect for time was found to be significant (F~

25.20, p <. 05), with a small effect to medium size (partial 'f/2 ~. 31) and

a high observed power at. 98. The follow up contrast analysis suggests that

participants made significantly fewer mistakes at the immediate end of the

study compared with themselves than a week later, (t~ 3.01, p <.05)

for the treatment group and (t~4. 00, P < .05) for the control group,

with a medium effect size (d~O. 55) for the treatment group and a large

effect size (d~O. 78) for the control group. The interaction of practice tes­

ting and time was not significant (F~1. 15, p~. 28) .

Discussion

This study proves that vocabulary instruction should not happen in i­

solation without stimulation from more than one sense. The aural signals

accompanying the visual images not only prevented the detrimental tenden­

cy of overloading the working memory when three values of a word (the

orthographic, the phonological and the semantic) were simultaneously

presented to the participants, but also helped participants differentiate and

distribute each value to multiple mental schemas where they could be enco­

ded without interference from similar codes. Beginning level learners find

this skill of being able to encode and store information in separate tableau

particularly valuable because according to them many Chinese words seem

to look or sound extremely similar. In addition, Chinese is a tonal language

and its native speakers always emphasize the accuracy of a given word's

tone. In the absence of aural input, CFL learners by and large resort to

rote memorization and tedious repetition to retain the tonal features of a

word. Studies have long shown that the retention of information in the

long-term memory does not depend on how long information is processed

butrather at what depth it is processed (Arthur 1997; Fergus & Robert

1972; Loaiza et al. 2011) . MSM presentation therefore deserves more at-

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

tention so deeper and more connected information processing can be a­

chieved by novice learners who are new to a foreign language.

This study also confirmed the advantage of using practice testing a­

mong beginning level CFL learners to improve their long-term retention of

information so they can better understand and pronounce words in Chi­

nese. The results challenge conventional wisdom that marks the capacity to

recall novel information from memory as the terminal point of learning and

isin accordance with studies in similar areas (Rawson &. Dunlosky 2012).

It suggests that even after students have mastered a certain skill or inter­

nalized new information, the durability of the learning is questionable in

the long term when there is no established mechanism to reevaluate and re­

inforce what has already been learned. The rate of forgetting among partici­

pants from the control group ought to serve as a wakeup call for both

students and teachers alike to face the issue that the capability to learn

short-term does not equate to the capacity to use such information long

term.

Time is another factor both teachers and students must pay close at­

tention to for the purpose of achieving better, longer retention. Without

the necessary reinforcement between the immediate and delayed post-test,

the auxiliary function of the modality effect in mnemonics quickly dissipates

and lapses into insignificance. Studies have proven that externally supplied

mnemonic aids, such as visual illustrations of characters (Kuo & Hooper

2004) or instructor provided explanations (Shen 2004), do help partici­

pants score higher with a better short-term retention rate in pronunciation

and naming task, but can not be observed again after an extended period of

time.

References

[lJ Abbott, Edwina, "On the Analysis of the Factors of Recall in

the Learning Process." Psychological Monographs 11. 1 (1909): 159

-177.

[2J Abraham, Lee. "Computer-Mediated Glosses in Second Lan­

guage Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary Learning: A Meta-

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

tention so deeper and more connected information processing can be a­

chieved by novice learners who are new to a foreign language.

This study also confirmed the advantage of using practice testing a­

mong beginning level CFL learners to improve their long-term retention of

information so they can better understand and pronounce words in Chi­

nese. The results challenge conventional wisdom that marks the capacity to

recall novel information from memory as the terminal point of learning and

isin accordance with studies in similar areas (Rawson &. Dunlosky 2012).

It suggests that even after students have mastered a certain skill or inter­

nalized new information, the durability of the learning is questionable in

the long term when there is no established mechanism to reevaluate and re­

inforce what has already been learned. The rate of forgetting among partici­

pants from the control group ought to serve as a wakeup call for both

students and teachers alike to face the issue that the capability to learn

short-term does not equate to the capacity to use such information long

term.

Time is another factor both teachers and students must pay close at­

tention to for the purpose of achieving better, longer retention. Without

the necessary reinforcement between the immediate and delayed post-test,

the auxiliary function of the modality effect in mnemonics quickly dissipates

and lapses into insignificance. Studies have proven that externally supplied

mnemonic aids, such as visual illustrations of characters (Kuo & Hooper

2004) or instructor provided explanations (Shen 2004), do help partici­

pants score higher with a better short-term retention rate in pronunciation

and naming task, but can not be observed again after an extended period of

time.

References

[lJ Abbott, Edwina, "On the Analysis of the Factors of Recall in

the Learning Process." Psychological Monographs 11. 1 (1909): 159

-177.

[2J Abraham, Lee. "Computer-Mediated Glosses in Second Lan­

guage Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary Learning: A Meta-

834

Analysis." Computer Assisted Language Learning 21. 3 (2008): 199

-226.

[3J Andres, Haywardand Petersen, Candice. "Presentation Media,

Information Complexity, and Learning Outcomes." Journal of Educational

Technology Systems 30. 3 (2002): 225-246.

[4J Arthur, Glenberg. "What Memory is for: Creating Meaning in

the Service of Action." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 20. 1 (1997): 41

-50.

[5J Bai, Jianhua. "Making Multimedia an Integral Part of Curricular

Innovation." Journal of Chinese Language Teachers Association 38.2

(2003): 1- 16.

[6J Bassetti, Benedetta. "Orthographic Input and Phonological Rep­

resentations in Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language." Written Lan­

guage and Literacy 9. 1 (2006): 95-114.

[7J Bjorn, Kakkuri, Irma, Pirkko, and Leppanen, Paavo H. T.

"Accelerating Early Language Development with Multi-Sensory Training."

Early Child Development and Care 182. 3-4 (2012): 435-451.

[8J Chan, Jason. "When Does Retrieval Induce Forgetting and

When Does It Induce Facilitation? Implications for Retrieval Inhibition,

Testing Effect, and Text Processing." Journal of Memory and Language

61. 2 (2009): 153-170.

[9J Chuang, Hui-Ya and Ku , Heng-Yu. "The Effect of Computer­

Based Multimedia Instruction with Chinese Character Recognition." Edu­

cational Media International 48. 1 (2011): 27-41.

[10J Chung, Kevin. "Effective Use of Hanyu Pinyin and English

Translations as Extra Stimulus Prompts on Learning of Chinese

Characters." Educational Psychology Review 22. 2 (2002): 150-164.

[l1J Chung, Kevin. "What Effect Do Mixed Sensory Mode Instruc­

tional Formats Have on Both Novice and Experienced Learners of Chinese

Characters?" Learning and Instruction 18. 1 (2008): 96-108.

[12J Cull, William. "Untangling the Benefits of Multiple Study Op­

portunities and Repeated Testing for Cued Recall." Applied Cognitive Psy­

chology &. Marketing 14. 3 (2000): 215-235.

834

Analysis." Computer Assisted Language Learning 21. 3 (2008): 199

-226.

[3J Andres, Haywardand Petersen, Candice. "Presentation Media,

Information Complexity, and Learning Outcomes." Journal of Educational

Technology Systems 30. 3 (2002): 225-246.

[4J Arthur, Glenberg. "What Memory is for: Creating Meaning in

the Service of Action." Behavioral and Brain Sciences 20. 1 (1997): 41

-50.

[5J Bai, Jianhua. "Making Multimedia an Integral Part of Curricular

Innovation." Journal of Chinese Language Teachers Association 38.2

(2003): 1- 16.

[6J Bassetti, Benedetta. "Orthographic Input and Phonological Rep­

resentations in Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Language." Written Lan­

guage and Literacy 9. 1 (2006): 95-114.

[7J Bjorn, Kakkuri, Irma, Pirkko, and Leppanen, Paavo H. T.

"Accelerating Early Language Development with Multi-Sensory Training."

Early Child Development and Care 182. 3-4 (2012): 435-451.

[8J Chan, Jason. "When Does Retrieval Induce Forgetting and

When Does It Induce Facilitation? Implications for Retrieval Inhibition,

Testing Effect, and Text Processing." Journal of Memory and Language

61. 2 (2009): 153-170.

[9J Chuang, Hui-Ya and Ku , Heng-Yu. "The Effect of Computer­

Based Multimedia Instruction with Chinese Character Recognition." Edu­

cational Media International 48. 1 (2011): 27-41.

[10J Chung, Kevin. "Effective Use of Hanyu Pinyin and English

Translations as Extra Stimulus Prompts on Learning of Chinese

Characters." Educational Psychology Review 22. 2 (2002): 150-164.

[l1J Chung, Kevin. "What Effect Do Mixed Sensory Mode Instruc­

tional Formats Have on Both Novice and Experienced Learners of Chinese

Characters?" Learning and Instruction 18. 1 (2008): 96-108.

[12J Cull, William. "Untangling the Benefits of Multiple Study Op­

portunities and Repeated Testing for Cued Recall." Applied Cognitive Psy­

chology &. Marketing 14. 3 (2000): 215-235.

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

[13J Fergus, Craik and Robert, Lockhart. "Levels of Processing:

A Framework for Memory Research. " Journal of Verbal Learning and

Verbal Behavior 11. 6 (1972): 671-684.

[14J Glover, John. "The" testing" phenomenon: Not Gone but

Nearly Forgotten." Journal of Educational Psychology 81. 3 (989): 392

-399.

[15J Jin, Honggang. "Empirical Evidence on Character Recognition

in Multimedia Chinese Tasks." Concentric: Studies in English literature

and Linguistics 29.2 (2003): 36 - 58.

[16J Jin, Honggang. "Multimedia Effects and Chinese Character

Processing: An Empirical Study of CFL Learners from Three Different Or­

thographic Backgrounds" Journal of Chinese Language Teachers Associa­

tion 41. 3 (2006): 35-56.

[17 J Jones, Linda. "Supporting Student Differences in Listening

Comprehension and Vocabulary Learning with Multimedia Annotations. "

CALICO Journal 26. 2 (2009): 267-289.

[18J KANG, SEAN. "Enhancing vi suo spat ial Learning: The Bene­

fit of Retrieval Practice." Memory &. Cognition 38.8 (2010): 1009

-1017.

[19J Karpicke, Jeffrey. and Roediger, Henry lIi. "The Critical Im­

portance of Retrieval for Learning." Science 319. 5865 (2008): 966 - 968.

[20J Ke, Chuanren. "Effects of Strategies on the Learning of Chi­

nese Characters among Foreign Language Students." Journal of the Chi­

nese Language Teachers Association 33. 2 (1998): 93-112.

[21J Kuo, Mei-Liang and Hooper, Simon. "The Effects of Visual

and Verbal Coding Mnemonics on Learning Chinese Characters in Comput­

er-Based Instruction." Educational Technology Research and Development

52.3 (2004): 23 - 38.

[22J Lee, ChangHoan. "Testing the Role of Phonology in Reading:

Focus on Sentence Processing." Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 38. 4

(2009): 333-344.

[23J Li, Junhong and Lee, Kunshan "The Graphic Factor in the

Teaching and Learning of Chinese Characters." Journal of Chinese Lan-

Integrating mixed-sensory mode presentation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

[13J Fergus, Craik and Robert, Lockhart. "Levels of Processing:

A Framework for Memory Research. " Journal of Verbal Learning and

Verbal Behavior 11. 6 (1972): 671-684.

[14J Glover, John. "The" testing" phenomenon: Not Gone but

Nearly Forgotten." Journal of Educational Psychology 81. 3 (989): 392

-399.

[15J Jin, Honggang. "Empirical Evidence on Character Recognition

in Multimedia Chinese Tasks." Concentric: Studies in English literature

and Linguistics 29.2 (2003): 36 - 58.

[16J Jin, Honggang. "Multimedia Effects and Chinese Character

Processing: An Empirical Study of CFL Learners from Three Different Or­

thographic Backgrounds" Journal of Chinese Language Teachers Associa­

tion 41. 3 (2006): 35-56.

[17 J Jones, Linda. "Supporting Student Differences in Listening

Comprehension and Vocabulary Learning with Multimedia Annotations. "

CALICO Journal 26. 2 (2009): 267-289.

[18J KANG, SEAN. "Enhancing vi suo spat ial Learning: The Bene­

fit of Retrieval Practice." Memory &. Cognition 38.8 (2010): 1009

-1017.

[19J Karpicke, Jeffrey. and Roediger, Henry lIi. "The Critical Im­

portance of Retrieval for Learning." Science 319. 5865 (2008): 966 - 968.

[20J Ke, Chuanren. "Effects of Strategies on the Learning of Chi­

nese Characters among Foreign Language Students." Journal of the Chi­

nese Language Teachers Association 33. 2 (1998): 93-112.

[21J Kuo, Mei-Liang and Hooper, Simon. "The Effects of Visual

and Verbal Coding Mnemonics on Learning Chinese Characters in Comput­

er-Based Instruction." Educational Technology Research and Development

52.3 (2004): 23 - 38.

[22J Lee, ChangHoan. "Testing the Role of Phonology in Reading:

Focus on Sentence Processing." Journal of Psycholinguistic Research 38. 4

(2009): 333-344.

[23J Li, Junhong and Lee, Kunshan "The Graphic Factor in the

Teaching and Learning of Chinese Characters." Journal of Chinese Lan-

836

guage Teachers Association 41. 1 (2006), 79 - 92.

[ 24 J Loaiza. Vanessa. McCabe. David. Youngblood, Jessie.

Rose. Nathan. and Myerson. Joel. "The Influence of Levels of Process­

ing on Recall from Working Memory and Delayed Recall Tasks." Journal

of Experimental Psychology, Learning. Memory. and Cognition. 37. 5

(2011), 1258- 1263.

[25J McDaniela. Mark. Andersonb. Janis. Derbisha. Mary. and

Morrisettec. Nova. "Testing the Testing Effect in the Classroom." Euro­

pean Journal of Cognitive Psychology 19.4- 5 (2007), 494- 513.

[ 26 J Paivio. Allan. Mental Representation, A Dual-Coding Ap­

proach. New York, Oxford University Press. 1986. Print Pyc. Mary.

and Rawson. Katherine. "Testing the Retrieval Effort Hypothesis, Does

Greater Difficulty Correctly Recalling Information Lead to Higher Levels of

Memory?" Journal of Memory &. Language 60.4 (2009), 437-447.

[ 27J Rawson. Katherine, and Dunlosky. John. "When is Practice

Testing Most Effective for Improving the Durability and Efficiency of

Student Learning?" Educational Psychology Review 24. 3 (2012), 419

- 435.

[28J Roediger. Henry III. Pooja. Agarwal. Mark. McDaniel. and

Kathleen McDermott. "Test-Enhanced Learning in the Classroom, Long­

Term Improvements from Quizzing." Journal of experimental psychology,

Human memory and learning 17.4 (2011), 382-395.

[29J Roediger. Henry III. and Karpicke. Jeffery. "The Power of

Testing Memory, Basic Research and Implications for Educational

Practice." Perspectives on Psychological Science 1. 3 (2006), 181-210.

[30J Shen. Helen. "Level of Cognitive Processing, Effects on Char­

acter Learning among Non-Native Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Lan­

guage." Language and Education 18. 2 (2004), 167-182.

[31J Tabbers. Huib. Martens. Rob. and van Merrienboer. Jeo­

reno "Multimedia Instructions and Cognitive Load Theory, Effects of Mo­

dality and Cueing. " British Journal of Educational Psychology 74.1

(2004), 71-81.

[ 32 J Wheeler. Mark. Ewers. Michael. and Buonanno. Joseph.

836

guage Teachers Association 41. 1 (2006), 79 - 92.

[ 24 J Loaiza. Vanessa. McCabe. David. Youngblood, Jessie.

Rose. Nathan. and Myerson. Joel. "The Influence of Levels of Process­

ing on Recall from Working Memory and Delayed Recall Tasks." Journal

of Experimental Psychology, Learning. Memory. and Cognition. 37. 5

(2011), 1258- 1263.

[25J McDaniela. Mark. Andersonb. Janis. Derbisha. Mary. and

Morrisettec. Nova. "Testing the Testing Effect in the Classroom." Euro­

pean Journal of Cognitive Psychology 19.4- 5 (2007), 494- 513.

[ 26 J Paivio. Allan. Mental Representation, A Dual-Coding Ap­

proach. New York, Oxford University Press. 1986. Print Pyc. Mary.

and Rawson. Katherine. "Testing the Retrieval Effort Hypothesis, Does

Greater Difficulty Correctly Recalling Information Lead to Higher Levels of

Memory?" Journal of Memory &. Language 60.4 (2009), 437-447.

[ 27J Rawson. Katherine, and Dunlosky. John. "When is Practice

Testing Most Effective for Improving the Durability and Efficiency of

Student Learning?" Educational Psychology Review 24. 3 (2012), 419

- 435.

[28J Roediger. Henry III. Pooja. Agarwal. Mark. McDaniel. and

Kathleen McDermott. "Test-Enhanced Learning in the Classroom, Long­

Term Improvements from Quizzing." Journal of experimental psychology,

Human memory and learning 17.4 (2011), 382-395.

[29J Roediger. Henry III. and Karpicke. Jeffery. "The Power of

Testing Memory, Basic Research and Implications for Educational

Practice." Perspectives on Psychological Science 1. 3 (2006), 181-210.

[30J Shen. Helen. "Level of Cognitive Processing, Effects on Char­

acter Learning among Non-Native Learners of Chinese as a Foreign Lan­

guage." Language and Education 18. 2 (2004), 167-182.

[31J Tabbers. Huib. Martens. Rob. and van Merrienboer. Jeo­

reno "Multimedia Instructions and Cognitive Load Theory, Effects of Mo­

dality and Cueing. " British Journal of Educational Psychology 74.1

(2004), 71-81.

[ 32 J Wheeler. Mark. Ewers. Michael. and Buonanno. Joseph.

Integrating mixed-sensory mode pres~ntation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

"Different Rates of Forgetting Following Study versus Test Trials." Mem­

ory &. Cognition 11. 6 (2003): 571-580.

[33J Zhang, Zhengsheng. "Myth, Reality and Character Instruction

in the 21st Century." lournal of Chinese Language Teachers Association

44. 1 (2009): 69-80.

Author's Description

Yongan Wu, Ph. D., completed his master's and doctoral degree at

University of Oklahoma. He is teaching Chinese at University of North

Florida. His research interests include second language acquisition and

cross-cui tural studies.

837

Integrating mixed-sensory mode pres~ntation and practice testing

at the beginning level Chinese vocabulary instruction

"Different Rates of Forgetting Following Study versus Test Trials." Mem­

ory &. Cognition 11. 6 (2003): 571-580.

[33J Zhang, Zhengsheng. "Myth, Reality and Character Instruction

in the 21st Century." lournal of Chinese Language Teachers Association

44. 1 (2009): 69-80.

Author's Description

Yongan Wu, Ph. D., completed his master's and doctoral degree at

University of Oklahoma. He is teaching Chinese at University of North

Florida. His research interests include second language acquisition and

cross-cui tural studies.

837