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Training and motivation: The function of implementation intentions, goal orientation and errorsfor performance
Heimbeck, D.
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Citation for published version (APA):Heimbeck, D. (1999). Training and motivation: The function of implementation intentions, goal orientation anderrors for performance. FMG-Afdeling Psychologie/UvA.
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Download date: 16 Mar 2021
The Intention to Continue One's Education in the Course of
Time: The Model of Action Phases
Tested in an Applied Setting1
Introduction
The theoretical framework for this study is based on the model of action phases
by Gollwitzer (1990; Heckhausen, 1989, 1991). This longitudinal study analyzes the
effects of expected value, goal intentions and implementation intentions on successful
goal realization. The intention to participate in a training program in order to continue
one's education represents a complex goal which was studied here in an applied setting.
After the fall of communism in the former Eastern bloc, people in East Germany
were confronted with far-reaching economic changes as innumerable companies closed
down and hundreds of thousands lost their jobs. The structural change was accompanied
by a host of technological innovations rendering vocational qualifications obsolete.
Under these circumstances, further education seemed to be one of the most promising
means to acquire the knowledge necessary to adapt to the demands of the market and
prevent unemployment.
In a survey conducted in East Germany shortly after the reunification of West
and East Germany, the majority of people expressed their interest in continuing their
education. However, only 26 % of those persons interviewed who had wished to receive
further education actually participated in a training course within the next six months
This chapter is based on Heimbeck, Brandstätter, Malzacher and Frese (1999).
Chapter 2
(Frese & Immler, 1994). If one agrees that continuing education is an appropriate
reaction to this situation - especially since at that time training programs cost very little
and were readily available - one should want all people considering a vocational
program to realize their goals. Therefore, one would want to know what facilitates the
realization of these goals. The model of action phases and especially the concept of
implementation intentions offer a theoretical perspective towards the process of goal
pursuit beyond the process of goal setting. From an applied point of view, it seems
worthwhile to analyze these assumptions in an applied setting with relevant goals such
as continuing one's education.
Numerous motivational and social psychological theories deal with the
determinants of successful goal striving. One group of theories (e.g., theory of planned
behavior, Ajzen, 1985; theory of reasoned action, Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; value-
instrumentality-expectancy theory, Vroom, 1964) focuses on the process of forming an
intention (goal setting). It is postulated that the intention to execute a certain behavior is
the best predictor of future behavior. A second group of theories (e.g., self-regulation
model of motivation, Bandura, 1991; action control theory, Kuhl, 1992; Kuhl &
Beckmann, 1994; goal setting theory, Locke & Latham, 1990) is concerned with the
regulation of goal-directed behavior (goal striving). These theorists posit that forming
an intention is just one prerequisite for making progress toward a goal since often one is
confronted with a host of implementational problems.
The model of action phases (Gollwitzer, 1990; Heckhausen, 1989, 1991)
encompasses both theoretical views by analyzing goal setting and goal striving within a
single theoretical framework. It provides a temporal perspective that begins with the
awakening of a person's wishes prior to goal setting and continues through to the
evaluative thoughts people have once goal striving has led to some outcome. The course
of goal striving is construed as consisting of four action phases: pre-decisional, pre-
actional, actional, and post-actional (in chronological order). Furthermore, each phase
of this model is associated with a typical task: setting preferences between competing
Action Phases Model
wishes and desires in the pre-decisional phase; promoting the initiation of goal-directed
actions in the pre-actional phase; bringing goal-directed actions to a successful end in
the actional phase, and evaluating what has been achieved in the post-actional phase.
Pre-decisional phase. Establishing preferences between competing wishes in the
pre-decisional phase is thought to result in the forming of a so called goal intention.
Such intentions take the format of „I intend to achieve x." The x specifies an outcome a
person feels committed to get via his/her own behavior. As in other theories on goal
setting (e.g., Ajzen, 1985; Atkinson, 1964; Feather, 1982; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975;
Vroom, 1964), an expectancy-value framework is employed to explain the forming of a
goal intention. People are thought to deliberate on the feasibility and desirability of
relevant action outcomes and finally, commit themselves to a valued outcome, when the
subjective probability to achieve it is sufficiently high (i.e., high expected value of the
goal).
Forming a goal intention represents a crucial transition point as it causes a
thorough change in the cognitive functioning (mind-set) of a person (for an overview,
Gollwitzer, 1990). Cognitive orientation in the pre-decisional phase, the so called
deliberative mind-set, is characterized by an open-mindedness toward all kinds of
incoming information as well as an impartial analysis of a goal's feasibility and
desirability. In contrast, the so-called implemental mind-set, the predominant cognitive
orientation in the pre-actional and actional phases, is characterized by a closed-minded
focus on information relevant for implementing the goal as well as a biased perception
of the goal's desirability and feasibility. The cognitive characteristics of the different
mind-sets are thought to be adaptable to the solution of the specific task at hand (i.e.,
goal setting vs. goal striving). There is ample evidence for the postulated characteristics
of the deliberative and implemental mind-set (Gollwitzer, Heckhausen, & Steller, 1990;
Gollwitzer & Kinney, 1989; Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). For example, in a study
by Taylor and Gollwitzer (1995, Study 3), participants were asked to report their
thoughts after having deliberated on either an unresolved decision or a goal they already
felt committed to. While pre-decisional participants listed an equal number of
10 Chapter 2
advantages and disadvantages with respect to the goal in question, post-decisional
participants listed significantly more advantages than disadvantages (see also
Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987).
Our first hypothesis centers on the change in mind-set after having formed a
goal intention. We predict that participants in the pre-decisional phase are more
balanced with regard to the advantages and disadvantages of continuing their education.
In contrast, participant in the post-decisional, or pre-actional, phase are positively biased
with regard to the advantages and disadvantages of continuing their education.
Hi: Individuals who have not yet formed a binding goal intention report an equal
number of advantages and disadvantages (deliberative mind-set). Individuals
who have already formed a binding goal intention report more advantages than
disadvantages with respect to continuing their education (implemental mind
set).
Pre-actional phase. The initiation of goal-directed actions is the focus in the
pre-actional phase is, representing another hurdle on the way to goal achievement. Often
goal intentions cannot be realized immediately and people procrastinate. There are
several reasons for this. First, relevant opportunities to act may not yet be available
(e.g., no courses for the desired training are currently offered) or may sometimes escape
our attention (e.g., being wrapped up in demanding ruminations or emotional
experiences). Moreover, we may fail to seize opportunities because we did not respond
in time (e.g., when the opportunity to enroll in a course is available only for a short
period of time). Second, there may be conflicts between various ways of acting on the
goal intention (e.g., one cannot make up one's mind on which kind of training one
would want to participate in). Finally, implementing one's goal intention is only simple
when the necessary behaviors are well practiced or routine. More often than not,
however, this is not the case, and initiating one's goal pursuit requires a complex
sequence of action steps.
It is assumed that these implementational problems may be alleviated by the
self-regulatory tool of forming implementation intentions. They represent a specific type
Action Phases Model 11
of intention and take the form of „I intend to do y when situation z is encountered." In
an implementation intention, an anticipated future situation (opportunity) is linked to a
certain goal-directed behavior. Thus, harboring an implementation intention commits an
individual to execute specific goal-directed behaviors when the critical opportunity is
encountered. Gollwitzer (1993) suggested that by forming implementation intentions,
the control of one's goal-striving is delegated to the critical situation that instigates
goal-directed behavior in a way that is similar to situational elicitation of habitual
behavior.
Actional phase. Action initiation represents the crucial transition point when a
person enters the actional phase. The focus of the actional phase is now to bring goal-
directed actions to a successful end. As research conducted by Lewin (1926) and
colleagues (e.g., Mahler, 1933; Ovsiankina, 1928) shows, once an intended goal pursuit
has been initiated, interruptions do not lead to withdrawal but to resumption of the
respective behavior. Thus, forming implementation intentions may not only promote the
initiation of goal-directed behaviors but also further successful goal achievement.
Indeed, the completion rate of such diverse goal intentions as a personal project (e.g.,
getting to know someone) or the experimentally induced goal intention of writing a
report about Christmas Eve could be markedly increased with the use of implementation
intentions (Gollwitzer & Brandstätter, 1997, Studies 1 and 2; see also Gollwitzer, 1996;
Gollwitzer & Schaal, 1998).
The following hypotheses concentrate on the successful application of this
model into the field with regard to a complex goal such as continuing one's education.
Following the line of reasoning of the action phase model, one can assume that
individuals will more likely realize their goal to continue their education if they a)
evaluate the goal as highly desirable and feasible (high expected value), b) commit
themselves to the goal by forming a goal intention and c) furnish their goal intention
with an implementation intention. We expect the goal intention to mediate the influence
of positive desirability and feasibility (high expected value) on the formation of an
12 Chapter 2
implementation intention. Furthermore, we hypothesize that an implementation
intention mediates the influence of goal intention on goal realization.
H2: Goal intentions mediate the influence of high expected value on
implementation intentions and implementation intentions mediate the influence
of goal intentions on goal realization.
We also expect that goal intentions and implementation intentions develop their
positive effects on goal realization only if the goal's desirability and feasibility is
evaluated as highly positive (high expected value). In other words, goal intentions and
implementation intentions must be based on a high expected value to become effective.
Without a solid motivational basis, forming a goal intention and an implementation
intention should have no effect on goal achievement. Thus, we predicted an interaction
between expected value on the one hand and goal intention and implementation
intention on the other hand.
H3: Goal intentions and implementation intentions interact with expected value
with regard to goal realization. Goal intentions and implementation intentions
affect goal realization positively only if expected value is high.
Method
Sample
The sample of this study consists of a sub-sample of 136 individuals who
participated in a larger longitudinal study (with 478 as the total number of
participants)2.
All 478 participants of the longitudinal study were asked about their job-related plans.
Those 136 participants who declared they had considered continuing their education
2 Project AHUS, Aktives Handeln in einer Umbruchsituation ['Active Actions in a Radical Change Situation'], principal investigator Prof. Frese. Other publications are: Fay and Frese (in press); Frese, Erbe, Heinbokel, Grefe, Rybowiak, and Weike (1994); Frese, Fay, Hillburger, Leng, and Tag (1997 Frese and Pliiddemann, (1993); Speier and Frese (1997). The topic of continuing one's education was not published yet.
Action Phases Model 13
were then interviewed in more detail. Two years later, in the sixth wave of the study, it
was ascertained whether they had actually participated in some training program.
The longitudinal study was carried out in the capitol of Saxonia, in former East
Germany. The data we present in this study are based on interviews conducted during
the fifth (1993) and the sixth (1995) wave of the longitudinal study, which begun in
1990 directly after the monetary unification of East and West Germany. The main
objective of the longitudinal study was to document the work-related changes that
would take place in the transition from tight bureaucratic socialism to a social market
economy. Sample selection for the general longitudinal study was done by randomly
selecting streets, then selecting every third house and in each house, every fourth
apartment. Native Germans between the ages of 18 and 65 were invited to participate.
Further details on the random sampling procedures and general sample characteristics
have been reported by Frese, Kring, Soose, and Zempel (1996).
The decision to include individuals from the 478 participants in the fifth wave of
the longitudinal study in our sub-sample (investigating intention to continue one's
education) was based on participants' answers to the following two questions: first,
'What are your plans for the near future with respect to your professional career?' and
second, 'Have you ever thought of continuing your education?'. We included those
participants in our sub-sample who either spontaneously mentioned further education
when asked the first question, or gave an affirmative answer to the second question.
This led to inclusion of 136 individuals in the sub-sample.
Of the 136 participants who were included in our sub-sample, 56.3 % were
female and 43.7 % were male. Their mean age was 38 years, ranging from 20 to 64
years. Of the participants, 73.9 % had ajob, 11.2% were unemployed, 2.9 % were early
retired, 0.7 % worked less than 10 hours a week, 2.2% studied at the university, 5.2 %
were participating in a (vocational) retraining course, 1.5 % were on parental leave, and
2.4 % of the participants were in unclassified situations. An indication of the radical
change people in East Germany went through can be drawn from the following facts:
14 Chapter 2
58.7 % of the participants had already experienced unemployment during the last four
years, and 65 % of those, who had a job, expected to lose it sometime in the future.
Procedure
Participants were interviewed in their homes by undergraduate and graduate
students who were thoroughly trained in giving structured interviews. The standardized
interview covered all aspects of participants' intentions to continue their education. The
interview also included a variety of questions on participants' occupational situation.
Additionally, participants filled out a questionnaire tapping a number of personality
dimensions and demographic information. Participants received money for their
participation. We report here only that part of the interview that is relevant for the
present study.
Participants' answers were recorded as detailed as possible though no verbatim
records were taken. Written records were then rated according to a detailed rating
guideline, including rating anchors to every item.
Measures
In order to tap the different theoretical constructs of the action phase model, a
number of questions was asked. The order in which these questions are described here
differs somewhat from the order in which they were addressed in the interview. Unless
otherwise noted, interviewees' answers were coded on a five-point scale (1 = not at all,
2 = somewhat, 3 = medium, 4 = much, 5 = very much).
Advantages and disadvantages of continuing one's education. Participants were
asked to spontaneously name the advantages and disadvantages of receiving further
education. Their open answers were rated as absolute numbers of pros and cons.
Expected value. This index included perceived feasibility and desirability of
participants' goals to continue their education. Four items addressed the feasibility
aspect of the goal: (a) How certain is it that you will successfully finish the training
Action Phases Model 15
program once you have started it?, (b) How likely is it that you will have to face
difficulties?, (c) How successfully do you think you will cope with these difficulties?
and (d) How many opportunities for further education are there in your neighborhood?
These items were averaged to form an index of the goal's feasibility (since we
calculated an index and not a scale we do not report Cronbach's alpha). Similarly, we
measured the perceived desirability of the goal with three items: (a) How important is it
for you to continue your education?, (b) How important is further education for your
professional development? and (c) How likely is it that further education will lead to an
improvement of your professional situation? These items were averaged to form a
desirability index. Finally, we formed a composite score called expected value of the
goal by multiplying the indices of feasibility and desirability.
Goal intention. In order to ascertain whether subjects had already formed a goal
intention to continue their education, they were asked to mark an 80-millimeter
horizontal line with "I have the idea to do so" at the beginning of the line, "I am
determined to do so" at 45 mm, and "I already started to do so" at the end of the line.
The variable was then dichotomized at the decision point differentiating between people
who had not made up their minds yet and those who had already formed a goal
intention.
Implementation intention. All participants were asked the following two
questions: (a) Have you already committed yourself to when you will start to act on your
intention to continue your education? and (b) Have you already committed yourself to
where you will act on your intention to continue your education? (answers coded on 3-
point scales ranging from 1 = not at all, 2 = only very little commitment, 3 = strong
commitment). The answers to these two items were averaged and formed an index
(therefore no alphas are reported). A value equal or smaller than 2 was interpreted as a
lack of implementation intention, the value of 3 was interpreted as the existence of
implementation intentions. All participants were asked about having an implementation
intention although not all had already formed a goal intention.
16 Chapter 2
Degree of goal realization. The degree of realizing the goal to continue one's
education was ascertained two years later, in the sixth wave of the longitudinal study.
Again, an interview approach was used. We asked the participants of our sub-sample,
whether they had realized their goals in one form or another. Answers were coded on a
5-point scale (1 = not realized at all, 2 = only very partially realized, 3 = realized to
some extent, 4 = almost completely realized, 5 = completely realized).
Results
Characteristics of the Sub-Sample
In the sixth wave of the longitudinal study we were able to contact 128
individuals out of the 136 individuals who had been interviewed on their goals to
continue their education two years earlier. These 128 individuals represent 94% of the
sub-sample in the fifth wave. Thus, the attrition rate in our sub-sample was 6%.
We compared the 136 participants who indicated an interest in continuing their
education with the remaining 342 individuals who did not with respect to several
demographic and job-related variables. Our sub-sample included more women (56.6%
in the sub-sample compared to 43.4% in the total sample; %2 = 4.91(1), /x.05) and
younger people (Mslib= 39 years versus Mmai = 44 years; t = 5.11, p<.001). Participants
in our sub-sample had more complex jobs (Mmb= 3.62 versus M,otai = 3.43; t = 2.20,
p<.05 ) and jobs with a higher degree of control (Mmb= 3.75 versus Mmai = 3.56; t =
2.14, p<.05). Participants with the goal to continue their education expressed a stronger
desire for a better job (Msub= 2.38 versus M,otai = 2.14; t = 2.83, p<.0\) and had more
frequently participated in some further education in the past (57.8% in the sub-sample
versus 39.1% in the total sample; ^2 = 9.99(1), p<.00l). However, there were no
differences with respect to their level of education (college years, university degree) and
Action Phases Model 17
to their prior occupational training. Both samples had equal experiences with
unemployment and job changes during the last year. Participants from both samples
reported the same level of expectancy in becoming unemployed in the near future.
Cognitive Characteristics of Pre- and Post-decisional Phases (Hypothesis 1)
Our first hypothesis focused on a specific cognitive orientation (mind-set;
Gollwitzer, 1990; Gollwitzer, Heckhausen, & Steller, 1990; Gollwitzer & Kinney,
1989) of participants in the pre- and post-decisional phases. We expected that
participants who had already formed a goal intention should spontaneously list more
advantages (pros) of further education than disadvantages (cons) compared to those
participants who had not yet formed a goal intention. This pattern should result in a
more positively-tuned ratio of advantages to disadvantages. There was an overall
tendency in participants to name more advantages than disadvantages. Therefore, we
calculated the natural logarithm of the ratio advantages/disadvantages for each person.
An ANOVA was run with this ratio measure as the dependent variable and the
dichotomic measure of having formed a goal intention or not as the independent
variable. An equal number of advantages and disadvantages was represented by
ln(advantages/disadvantages) = 0. Pre-decisional ratios were closer to zero (M = 0.92)
than post-decisional ratios (M = 1.46); F(l,134) = 4.91, p = .03. This result speaks for a
more positively biased cognitive orientation in participants during the post-decisional
phase - implemental mind-set.
Goal Intention and Implementation Intention as Mediators (Hypothesis 2)
Hypothesis 2 predicted that goal intentions mediate the impact of the expected
value on implementation intention. Similarly, implementation intentions were supposed
to mediate the impact of goal intentions on goal realization. Means, medians, standard
deviations, and intercorrelations of the relevant variables are given in Table 1.
Chapter 2
Table 1
Median, Means, Standard Deviations and Intercorrelations of the Action Phase
Variables
Variables ~MD M SD 1 2 3 4
1 Expected value a 14.67 15.12 4.46 — 2 Goal intention b 45 39.99 28.08 .25** — 3 Implementation intention 2 2.04 .65 .31*** 59*** — 4 Degree of goal realization 3 2.82 1.42 .17+ .23* .29** —
Note.a The index ranged from 1 to 25. The scale was ranging from 0 to 80 with 45 representing the decision point of forming a goal intention. N= 128-136. +p < .10; *p < .05; **/>< .01 ;***/?< .001.
Expected value, goal intention, and implementation intention are positively
correlated with each other. Correlation coefficients range from r = .25 (p<.0l) for
expected value with goal intention and r = .31 (p<.00l) with implementation intention.
There is a high positive correlation of r = .59 (p<.001) for goal intention with
implementation intention. Correlations between degree of goal realization and expected
value, goal intention and implementation intention are smaller and range from r = .17
(p<.10) with expected value, r = .23 (p<.05) with goal intentions and r = .29 (jx.01)
with implementation intention.
Following the procedure recommended by Baron and Kenny (1986), three
regression equations were calculated for the mediation test: first, regressing the
mediator on the independent variable; second, regressing the dependent variable on the
independent variable, and third, regressing the dependent variable on both the
independent variable and on the mediator. Table 2 displays the results of the three
regression analyses testing goal intentions as mediators.
Action Phases Model 19
Table 2
Regression Analyses Testing Goal Intention as Mediator
Equation Dependent Variable Independent Variable ßa R2 AR2
1. Goal intention Expected value .25** .06**
2. Implementation intention Expected value 31*** 10***
3. Implementation intention Expected value .18*
Goal intention 55*** Q Q * * * 2g*#*
Note. a standardized beta coefficients; *p<.05\ **p<.01; *** /x.001
Table 3
Regression Analyses Testing Implementation Intentions as Mediator
Equation Dependent Variable Independent Variable ßa R2 AR2
1. Implementation intention Goal intention 59*** 35***
2. Goal realization Goal intention .23* .05*
3. Goal realization Goal intention .08 n.s.
Implementation intention .25* .09* .04*
Note. a standardized beta coefficients; */x.05; ** p<.Q\; ***/?<.001.
The results support the hypothesis that goal intention mediates the effect of
expected value on implementation intentions. Table 2 shows that all conditions
necessary for a mediation hold the predicted direction: expected value affects the
mediator (goal intention) in the first equation; expected value affects the dependent
variable (implementation intention) in the second equation, and the effect of expected
value (as the independent variable) on implementation intention (as the dependent
variable) decreases when goal intention as the mediator is controlled (from ß = .31,
/?<.001 in the second equation to ß = .18,/?<.05 in the third equation ).
The same analyses were conducted testing the second mediation model with
goal intention as independent variable, implementation intention as the mediator and
goal realization as the dependent variable. Table 3 presents the results of three
regression analyses testing the mediating function of implementation intentions.
20 Chapter 2
The results support the second part of Hypothesis 2 that states that
implementation intention is a mediator for the effect of goal intention on goal
realization. All equations show the predicted direction: first, goal intentions affect the
mediator - implementation intention; second, goal intention affects the degree of goal
realization, and third, goal intention as independent variable has no significant effect on
degree of goal realization anymore when the mediator (implementation intention) is
controlled (from ß = .23, p<.05 in the second equation to ß = .08, n.s. in the third
equation).
Realization of Training Goals as a Function of Expected Value, Goal Intention and
Implementation Intention (Hypothesis 3)
Hypothesis 3 predicted that goal intentions and implementation intentions
develop their positive effects on goal realization only if the goal's desirability and
feasibility is evaluated as highly positive (high expected value). Since this hypothesis
implies an interaction of expected value with goal intention and implementation
intention, respectively, we used a 2 (low vs. high expected value; median split) x 2 (goal
intention; no/yes, i.e., below and above the decision point) x 2 (implementation
intentions; no/yes) ANOVA design with degree of goal realization as dependent
variable. We used residualized variables of goal intention and implementation intention
in the ANOVA to be on the conservative side. This is in line with our hypothesis, which
centers on the effect of goal intention on goal realization over and above the effect of
expected value and on the effect implementation intention has on goal realization over
and above the effects of expected value and goal intention. Tables 4 and 5 display the
results of the ANOVA.
Action Phases Model 21
Table 4
Goal Realization as Function of Expected Value, Residualized Goal Intention and
Residualized Implementation Intention
No goal intention formed Goal intention formed
No No
implementation Implementation implementation Implementation
intention formed intention formed intention formed intention formed
Low expected value 2.63 2.54 2.79 2.57
n = 12 n = 14 n =21 n = 15
High expected value 1.94 3.08 3.21 3.75
« = 1 8 n =18 n = 12 n =18
Table 5
ANOVA of Goal Realization with Expected Value, Residualized Goal Intention, and
Implementation Intention as Factors
Sum of squares df Mean square F P
Main effects (Combined) 19.86 3 6.62 3.59 .02
Expected value (EV) 4.38 1 4.38 2.37 .13
Goal Intentionres (GIres) 10.93 1 10.93 5.92 .02
Implementation Intentionres (IIres) 5.50 1 5.50 2.98 .09
2-way (Combined) 14.72 3 4.91 2.66 .05
interactions
EV x GIrcs 5.71 1 5.71 3.10 .08
EV x IIres 7.54 1 7.54 4.09 .05
o i r e s X l l r e s 1.07 1 1.07 .58 .45
3-way EV x GIres x IIres .42 1 .42 .23 .63
interaction
Model 34.99 7 5.00 2.71 .01
Residual 221.44 120 1.85
Total 256.44 127 2.02
Note. EV = Expected Value; GIres = residualized Goal Intention; IIres = residualized Implementation Intention.
22 Chapter 2
Table 5 shows a significant main effect for goal intention on goal realization and
a marginally significant main effect of implementation intention on goal realization.
Additionally, we find two interaction effects which support Hypothesis 3. Figures 1 and
2 illustrate the interaction between expected value and goal intention and
implementation intention.
Figure I. Degree of Goal Realization as a Function of Expected Value x Goal Intention
| 3.6
| 3A
S 3.2
% 3
S 2.8 o 2.6
I" a 2.2
-Goal Intention
- No Goal Intention
Low Expected Value High Expected Value
Figure 2. Degree of Goal Realization as a Function of Expected Value x Goal Intention
3.6 ! 3.4 3.2 -
3 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2
- Implementation Intention
No Implementation Intention
Low Expected Value High Expected Value
When expected value is low, goal intention has no effect on goal realization. In
combination with high expected value, however, goal intention's contribution is
marginally significant to goal realization (for the interaction between expected value
and goal intention, F(l, 120) = 3.10,/? = .081). The same interaction was found for
implementation intention: implementation intention does not affect goal realization
when expected value is low. In contrast, implementation intention increases goal
Action Phases Model 23
realization when expected value is high (for the interaction between expected value and
implementation intention, F(l, 120) = 4.09, p = .045). The lowest degree of goal
completion (M = 1.94) is found for participants who have not formed a binding goal
intention to continue their education and also lack an implementation intention (see
Table 4). In contrast, having formed a goal intention and additionally, having furnished
the goal intention with an implementation intention led to a drastic increase in the goal
realization (M = 3.75).
Discussion
In the present study we successfully applied the action phases model
(Gollwitzer, 1990; Heckhausen, 1989, 1991), which originated in basic research, to an
everyday and complex context such as the intention to continue one's education. The
crucial test of the action phase model was that people be more successful in
transforming their ideas into action when they adhered to the postulated sequence of
action phases. We also tested the mediating function of goal intentions and
implementation intentions. Goal intentions mediated the influence of expected value on
forming a goal intention. Similarly, implementation intentions mediated the influence of
goal intentions on goal realization. Furthermore, we analyzed the moderating function
of expected value, representing the motivational basis for the effects of goal intentions
and implementation intentions on goal realization. More specifically, we found that
participants interested in further education benefited from the effects of goal and
implementation intentions only if their endeavor had a solid motivational basis (i.e.,
high expected value). Additionally, we were able to replicate the findings with regard to
different cognitive orientations, or mind-sets, in an applied context.
Thus, the results confirmed our hypotheses. Goal intentions mediated the
influence of the motivational basis (expected value of a goal) on forming an
implementation intention. More importantly, we showed that implementation intentions
24 Chapter 2
mediated the impact goal intentions have on goal realization. This finding emphasizes
the importance of specifying the when and where on conducting goal-directed actions
(implementation intentions) as an effective self-regulatory tool to facilitate the
achievement of a goal the person is or feels committed to (goal intention).
Second, goal intentions and implementation intentions affected goal
achievement and furthermore, we saw the moderating function of expected value as was
hypothesized. When continuing one's education was feasible and desirable for the
person (i.e., high expected value), the degree of goal completion depended on forming a
goal intention and on forming an implementation intention. Those participants who had
a goal intention with respect to continuing their education, or who had committed
themselves to when and where to act on their goal (implementation intention), realized
their goal to a greater extent than participants without a binding goal intention or an
implementation intention. However, when continuing education was not really feasible
and desirable for the person (i.e., low expected value), it made no difference with
respect to the degree of goal realization whether a goal intention or an implementation
intention was formed. Surprisingly, there were 18 participants who did not form a goal
intention or an implementation intention even though they evaluated further education
as highly desirable and feasible. These participants showed the lowest degree of goal
realization, even lower than those participants who reported only low expected value
with regard to further education.
The results are remarkable with regard to the timeframe in which they were
collected: information on goal realization were measured two years after the interviews
on the anteceding conditions (i.e., expected value, goal intention, implementation
intention). Thus, the idea that participants just tried to be consistent with previously
expressed intentions when reporting on their educational activities, can be excluded.
Action Phases Model 25
In addition, we demonstrated that forming a goal intention is accompanied by a
change in the cognitive representation of relevant incentives. As predicted, pre-
decisional participants were more balanced with respect to pros and cons of further
education than post-decisional participants who showed a stronger bias toward positive
aspects of continuing their education. This is in line with earlier findings in the area of
mind-set research (Gollwitzer, Heckhausen, & Steller, 1990; Gollwitzer & Kinney,
1989; Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987).
Strengths and limitations. The longitudinal design in a natural environment
represents a strong point of this study. Within a timeframe of two years, the
theoretically-derived aspects of intentions were measured in an everyday context and
focused on a complex task such as continuing one's education. The extensive timeframe
of two years made it possible to include actual behavior as the dependent variable in this
study, even though all measures were self-reported. A limitation of this study was the
fact that there were no data collected that could provide information on the nature of
barriers and hurdles participants where confronted with when thinking about continuing
their education. This information might have explained why intentions were not put into
action in spite of having a goal intention, an implementation intention and high
expected value. This information could also be helpful in: (a) further plan interventions
in order to facilitate successful goal achievement, and (b) to plan and design education
programs, that take these potential barriers into account.
Implications f or theory and practice. Our study stresses again the importance of
goals in self-regulation (Frese & Zapf, 1994; Frese & Sabini, 1985). As is already
documented in the literature, goals change cognitive functioning in a way that is
functional for successful goal achievement (e.g., Gollwitzer & Bargh, 1996; Gollwitzer
& Moskowitz, 1996; Higgins & Sorrentino, 1990; Klinger, Barta, & Maxeiner, 1980;
Sorrentino & Higgins, 1986). Moreover, formation of a goal intention sets the stage for
a variety of self-regulatory mechanisms (e.g., discrepancy reduction, Bandura, 1991;
action control strategies; Kuhl, 1984, 1992; Kühl & Beckmann, 1994; Locke & Latham,
26 . Chapter 2
1990). Implementation intentions are one kind of willful strategy people may employ to
ensure successful goal achievement. Implementation intentions define concrete aspects
of goal-directed behavior, and thus lead to a specification of the respective goal.
Nevertheless, this way of specifying a goal must not be confused with the concept of
goal specification that Locke and Latham (1990) discuss in their goal setting theory.
With respect to potential interventions, our study has interesting implications.
Most importantly, one must get people who already have positive attitudes toward
further education to form a binding goal intention and to commit themselves to the
concrete aspects of goal-directed behavior. Thus, people need not only be informed
about potential courses but also be provided with training that exemplifies the benefits
of forming goal intentions and implementation intentions.