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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes
Word Count : 2491 words
Contents Page Number
Introduction 1
1 Analysis of Features
1.1 Storytelling as Genre 2
1.2 Fluency for Storytelling 2
1.3 Structural Features 3
1.4 Lexico-Grammatical Features 5
2 Learning Problems and Teaching Issues & Suggestions for Teaching
2.1.1 Improving fluency 6
2.2.1 Pauses / Repetition 7
2.3.1 Evaluative Comment 7
2.4.1 Implementing Lexico-Grammatical Features 8
Conclusion 9
Bibliography 10
Appendix 1 11
Appendix 2 12
Appendix 3 15
Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
IntroductionThis essay focuses on helping learners develop speaking skills, in particular the sub-skill of storytelling, specifically recounting personal anecdotes and incidents. I will narrow the scope to tackle storytelling as conversational and thus interactional, rather than solely monologic.
Fluency for socialising has been prioritised by my current learners (see Appendix 1) who described frustration at difficulties encountered engaging in social conversation. I hope to harness this to motivate them, encouraging development in their ability to interact socially and represent themselves satisfactorily in doing so.
Regarding my own development, I have set myself the objective of learning to develop more meaningful communicative fluency tasks based on recent feedback on my practice. In researching solutions to the learner problems identified I hope to develop in this area by selecting and presenting tasks which meet that goal.
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
1. Analysis of Features
1.1 Storytelling as Genre
1.1.1. Genre: StructurePurpose
Storytelling, as a long-turn talk-type in dyadic or multi-party conversation, can be described as a genre in that it is staged, goal-oriented and involves a social process. Thus it conforms to Martin's Systemic Funtional Linguistics Framework (Martin 1984:25) and also features a schematic narrative structure as the staging is sequential, each stage (either optional or obligatory) building towards achieving the genre's aim. The social process of mutually negotiating the genre depends on the purpose (didactic, cultural, social etc.) of the spoken interaction, the function of which may be e.g. to amuse. I agree with Richards (2008:2) that storytelling's primary purpose is social rather than achievement, focusing on the speaker establishing a 'comfortable zone of interaction' (Thornbury&Slade 2006:2) and presenting oneself to interlocutors. The anecdote's message serves this broader objective.
1.1.2. Storytelling Genre Characteristics
According to Ochs, stories 'depict a temporal transition from one state of affairs to another' (1997). Personal anecdotes specifically describe past true events at a remove from current circumstances and feature real characters.
Storytelling features identifiable 'chunks' characteristic of the genre, described as 'acquired output' (Johnson 1996). These are predominantly used by the main speaker in monologic sections but also by interlocutors e.g.backchannelling. Each speaker's utterances depend on interlocutors' preceding remarks thus both 'reception and production play a part' (Widdowson 1978:59) creating 'confluence' (McCarthy2009:15).
Other elements of the genre include: conversational register and conventions; role relationships and appropriate degrees of formality and politeness; and representation of the speaker's identity. The latter is communicated in the speaker's evaluation of events conveyed in comments dispersed throughout the narrative structure, and is crucial to the social function of the genre (Thornbury&Slade 2006:169).
1.2 Fluency for Storytelling
McCarthy (ibid) defines fluency more convincingly than Ellis (1994) who fixates on temporal variables i.e.rate, and hesitation phenomena i.e.repetition, thus underestimating the significance of perception and interaction.
McCarthy asserts that fluency constitutes:- speed of delivery and location, distribution, frequency and length of pauses- automaticity (retrieval ability of known pre-assembled units articulated quickly and
consistently with time-buying benefit, quick responses in conversation)- perceptions of fluency by a) teachers b) public and peers in real-world contexts
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
While fast speech rate is demonstrated by e.g. learners who have studied abroad, it is worth noting that rate depends on both context and genre. Pauses are indicative of disruption to speakers' performance but may imply cognitive effort rather than communicative breakdown. Both are subject to 'harmonising of tempo' (a speaker fine-tunes rate and pauses to match interlocutors). Towell's assertion that run-length is fluency's defining characteristic (1996:112) is valid in my view, as long runs suggest fluency (Richards 2008) thus impacting on interlocutors' perceptions. In terms of storytelling as an interactional speech event, fluency is co-created by turn-taking in a joint effort to respond timeously and smoothly to preceding utterances, fill uncomfortable silences and prevent long pauses. Backchannelling is fundamental to this and Bavelas et al (2000) showed how the 'active involvement of listeners enhances speakers' oral narrative skills, alleviating pressure to fill silences.
1.3 Structural Features
In storytelling one speaker takes a long turn, recounting events using conversational monologic chunks, constraining interlocutors to give way or collaborate until completion of all stages in the sequence is achieved. This is an unspoken rule indicative of 'socially sanctioned ways in which genres unfold' (Thornbury&Slade 2006:147).
According to Labov&Waletsky (1967) the constituent stages of personal anecdotes are sequenced as follows:
Abstract*announces and contextualises story within conversatione.g. "speaking of..."
Orientation circumstances i.e.where, when
Complication problem
Evaluationindicates speaker's attitude to events (not isolated segment, distributed throught text)
Resolution how problem was resolved
Coda* links story to present
* optional stage
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
From this structure Slade developed a more nuanced version featuring anecdote sub-categories:
Sub-category Stages Function
Beginning Middle End
NarrativeAbstract* Orientation
Complication Evaluation Resolution
Coda*entertain, amuse, elicit sympathy
AnecdoteAbstract* Orientation
Remarkable Event ReactionCoda*
share extraordinary event and reaction
ExemplumAbstract* Orientation
IncidentInterpretationCoda*
prescriptive, didactic
RecountAbstract* Orientation
Record of Events Reorientation*report, recall, reminisce
Adapted from Eggins&Slade 1997:236
N.B Orientation is the only obligatory stage common to all sub-categories, though Evaluation, being non-discrete, is dispersed throughout all phases of all sub-categories.
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
1.4 Lexico-Grammatical Features
The linguistic features for each stage are as follows though this list is not exhaustive (see Appendix 2 for exemplification):
Stage Key Features
Beginning Abstract descriptive adjectives, reference to genre, topic information
Orientationpast tenses/present tenses for immediacy simple&progressive; first-person pronouns; time/place references; parataxis; supplementary background information, material process verbs
Middle (Events)
Complicationmaterial/verbal process verbs, adverbal markers of non-specific past time, (negative) modals past tense, conditionals, adversative conjunctions, causal conjunctions, past tenses/present tenses for immediacy simple&progressive, reported/direct speech, discourse markers, descriptive adjectives, additive conjunctions, sequencing adverbials
Resolution
Remarkable Event
Incident
Record of events
End Reaction
questions, present simple stative verbs, evaluatory language, comment adverbs, evaluative adjectives&adverbs, reported thoughts&feelings,first-person pronouns
Interpretation
Coda
Reorientation
Evaluation
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
2. Learning Problems/Teaching Issues and Suggestions for Teaching
2.1.1 Improving fluencyThe majority of A2-C1 learners I teach in Germany insist improving fluency is their highest priority. They describe the main difficulty as an inability to retrieve the right word at the right time. Whether learning general or business English, many express frustration at the detrimental impact this exerts on their ability to engage socially in spontaneous conversation. Treating this as a lexical gap would involve helping learners acquire lexis and develop strategies for retaining vocabulary. However, in terms of telling personal anecdotes as a speaking sub-skill and mainstay of conversation, focusing on lexical chunks (common collocations, word pairs, idioms, phrasal verbs, sayings) and lexical bundles (semi-fixed expressions stitching narratives together) is beneficial (see Appendix 2). These buy time for the speaker to put together the next stage of the utterance and give the impression of fluency.
2.1.2 Solutiona)Aim: to help raise learners' awareness of lexical chunks typically employed in telling personal anecdotes, to help learners use them in conversation and improve fluency, this activity encourages noticing chunks in a transcript, guessing meanings and consulting dictionaries to check and confirm assumptions.
b)Procedure (adapted from Thornbury 2005:55): before distributing a transcript of personal anecdote in authentic conversation, elicit phrases to
introduce anecdotes into conversation e.g. "that reminds me of the time..." introduce concept of chunks as 'combinations of words that often occur together' learners predict what chunks might end the transcript anecdote distribute transcript; learners confirm predictions then identify and underline all potential lexical
chunks in the extract learners consult dictionaries to check underlined chunks' meanings where chunks are not listed, encourage learners to note related useful expressions feedback: learners share and compare findings learners identify 3 chunks to use in an anecdote they want to recount
c) Commentary: Numerous authors cite the importance of awareness-raising activities (e.g. Thornbury 2005:41). Consciously using prediction, based on schemata associated with the genre conventions of the text-type, encourages learners to formulate and test assumptions. For learners reluctant to make predictions, using a familiar text type will be beneficial. For learners requiring specificity, the task could be narrowed to identifying certain chunk types i.e.phrasal verbs. Consulting resources encourages learner autonomy. Logically the next task is a productive activity in which learners recount personal anecdotes, incorporating and personalising the selected chunks. Ideally learners should be made aware that using chunks helps reduce cognitive effort, promoting fluency.
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
2.2.1 Pauses / RepetitionMy B1/B2 class of German learners in the Facility Management department often struggle to recount stories on business or social topics with visitors to their location. Their narratives are punctuated with pauses and repetitions to buy time while planning what to say next. Research has shown that providing learners with planning time preparatory to relating a narrative in a TBL sequence has a dramatic impact on the frequency and length of pauses and also reduces repetition (Challenge&Change 1996:131).
2.2.2 Solutiona)Aim: to help learners optimise planning to take part in conversation and recount experiences with fewer pauses and repetitions.
b)Procedure (adapted from Willis&Willis 2007:105): show learners a selection of photos/images and have them match them to the following topics:
- my most memorable childhood experience- the most challenging thing I've ever done- the funniest person I know- the strangest thing I've ever seen- a place I enjoy/enjoyed spending time
learners select a topic and spend 5-10 minutes preparing to tell a partner about it while preparing, learners note 5-10 key words/phrases to help remember the story as they tell it learners recount story and answer questions while listening, partners note 5-10 key words teacher monitors for content to feedback then nominates partners to retell stories to class
c)Commentary: To engage in social interaction learners must feel comfortable recounting experiences and embarking on stories. Often anecdotes are told again to different audiences, and are refined and dramaticised. This activity provides an opportunity for learners to practice an anecdote and receive feedback. The task is authentic as it simulates a real-world speech act in a context where the outcome (building social bonds) is also of importance, being among classmates, so the activity is meaningful for learners. Planning can also be done at home and revised in class for lower-levels or complex anecdotes.
2.3.1 Evaluative CommentAs noted in 1.1.1 the main purpose of the storytelling genre is to convey aspects of the speaker's identity. As indicated in 1.2 the speaker's identity/attitude is signalled in evaluative comments (especially adverbs and adjectives) scattered throughout the text (see Appendix 2). Research has demonstrated that when learners are able to repeat a fluency task, the amount of evaluative comment can increase five-fold from the first account to the second retelling (Challenge&Change 1996:143). My B1 Italian learners struggled with this, though socialising plays a crucial role in their culture.
2.3.2 Solutiona)Aim: to help learners embed evaluative comment when recounting events to better fulfil the social function of storytelling.
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
b)Procedure (adapted from Willis&Willis 2007:106): Board questions to prime learners:
- What's your favourite kind of animal?- Have you ever had a pet or do you have one now?- How would you describe its character?- Do you have an interesting experience or story about an animal/pet?
learners do unguided planning: noting ideas and consulting dictionary (notes are set aside when telling anecdote)
talk about your pet to your partner, changing partner 3 times on a given signal each conversation lasts 8-10 minutes in pairs, learners write out an anecdote from their final conversation teacher provides feedback on written anecdotes then reads them aloud, correcting, recasting
and exploring questions which arise Language analysis highlights use of adjectives and adverbs for conveying speaker's assessment of
situations described in stories
c) Commentary: Providing planning time reduces the cognitive effort required for a task allowing learners to select or revise appropriate lexis, so on the first telling they can pay attention to content planning. On second and third tellings, having thought through the content of the narrative, learners can devote cognitive effort to monitoring and refining their stories, and will naturally tend to include more evaluative comment without explicit encouragement. Evaluative comment can be highlighted in the post-task language analysis, or between repetitions. Repeating a task in this way means learners are familiar with the task set up and do not need to focus on understanding new instructions. Allowing reflection time between repetitions may also benefit performance, and interacting with different partners caters to interpersonal learners, providing greater learning opportunities in encountering various approaches to the task.
2.4.1 Implementing Lexico-Grammatical FeaturesAs outlined above a broad range of lexico-grammatical features are required in telling anecdotes successfully. To help learners who experience difficulty with this feature of fluency, who are more introverted and reluctant to engage in conversation, fearing spontaneity of interactions (like my B1 Schwäbisch IT Dept. learners), guided planning can enhance performance. Using Discourse Structure Graphic Organisers (DSGO) to outline anecdote before recounting, helps learners present information coherently and logically, and introduce and differentiate main ideas from less salient information. It provides a framework for 'studial and analytic' (Tomlinson 1988) learners to plan the story's content in depth, providing security before telling the story to an interlocutor.
2.4.2 Solutiona)Aim: to help learners incorporate appropriate lexico-grammatical features into anecdotes using DSGOs
b)Procedure: Distribute a semi-completed DSGO Relate anecdote and have learners complete missing details on worksheet Feedback: share and compare completed notes Have learners select a topic as in 2.2.2b)
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
Learners use new worksheets (Appendix 1) to plan/flesh-out own anecdote Teacher monitors, consults and assists Learners rehearse stories silently with, then without DSGO. Learners recount anecdotes in groups (no notes allowed); responding to questions (listeners are
tasked with choosing the most exciting/funny/scary story) After first telling, learners check DSGO for missed details/add to notes if necessary Change groups, retell anecdotes, respond to questions Feedback: tell your partner about the most exciting/funny/scary anecdote you heard
c) Commentary: According to Willis&Willis, visualising information 'within a framework can help learners process and organise information in a more structured way' reducing cognitive effort and providing a sense of security, lowering the affective filter (2007). As learners 'engage at a deeper level of information processing' (Jiang 2012), using DSGOs develops knowledge of discourse structures, also facilitating acquisition of skills. Although this task-type caters to academically-inclined learners, visual mapping is universally appealing. The benefits of planning and changing partners are outlined above. Providing a reason for listening makes the communicative task meaningful for all involved.
Conclusion
My research has revealed that recounting personal anecdotes is important for learners in conveying identity when interacting socially. This is communicated through the anecdote's message and the attitude expressed by speakers towards events. Therefore, employing techniques to encourage learners to use and develop language for evaluative comment is valid. The genre is collaborative, following patterns which can be exploited to help learners develop fluency. Improving fluency, by learning and using lexical chunks and bundles, addresses one of the more highly prioritised needs expressed by many learners, and may also benefit other speaking sub-skills.
In the short term I aim to focus on using planning and task repetition for helping learners recount anecdotes. Long term, using and being able to implement strategies for retaining and retrieving lexis and lexical chunks would be beneficial.
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
Bibliography:
Research materials
Bavelas, J. B., Coates, L. & Johnson, T. 2000 Listeners as co-narrators. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79 (6): 941- 952
Eggins, S. & Slade, D 1997 Analysing Casual Conversation. London: Equinox (previously published by Cassell).
Ellis, R. 1994 The Study of Second Language Acquisition: OUPJiang, X. 2012 Effects of discourse structure graphic organisers on EFL reading comprehension. Reading in a Foreign Language, Volume 24(No.1)
Johnson, K 1996 Language Teaching ad Skill Learning Oxford: Blackwell
Labov, W & Waletzky, J. 1967 Narrative analysis: Oral versions of personal experience. In Helm, J. (ed) Essays in the Verbal and Visual Arts. Seattle: University of Washington Press
Martin, J. 1984 Language, register and genre in Christie, F. (ed) Children Writing: A Reader. Geelong, Vic: Deakin University Press
McCarthy, M Rethinking Spoken Fluency Estudios de lingüística inglesa aplicada ELIA 9, 2009, pp. 11-29
Ochs, E. 1997 Narrative. In ven Dijk, T. (ed) Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction. Volume 1: Discourse as Structure and Process. London: Sage
Richards, J. 2008 Teaching Listening and Speaking: CUP
This American Life episode 241: 20 Acts in 60 Minutes Act Two - No, Of Course I Know You. (2003, July 11) Retrieved from http://www.thisamericanlife.org/radio-archives/episode/241/20-acts-in-60-minutes
Thornbury, S. & Slade, D. 2006 Conversation: From Description to Pedagogy: CUP
Tomlinson, B (Ed.) 1998 Materials Development in Language Teaching: CUP
Towell , R., Hawkins, R., & Bazergui, N. 1996 The development of fluency in advanced learners of French. Applied Linguistics, 17, 84-119
Widdowson, H. 1978 Teaching Language as Communication: OUP
Willis, D. & Willis, J . 1996 Challenge and Change in Language Teaching: Macmillan
Resource Materials
Keller, E. & Warner, S. 1988 Conversation Gambits: Heinle ELT
Thornbury, S. 2005 How to Teach Speaking: Longman
Willis, D. & Willis, J 2007 Doing Task-based Teaching: OUP
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
AppendicesAppendix 1: Needs Analysis - Goals
A group/ class negotiation to determine needs revealed the following goals:
Level of Need Goal for English language learning★★★ Reading and understanding Media★★★ Socialising / parties
★★ Meetings (understand & respond)★★ Discussing / debates / complaining / persuading etc.
★ General writing★ Casual conversation (on phone)★ Negotiate★ Understand TV / media
☆ Grammar / pronunciation / new expressions / correction
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
Appendix 2: Sample Anecdote (semi-conversational)
Transcribed anecdote structured as in Eggins&Slade 1997:236 – selected lexico-grammatical language (and collocations, lexical bundles etc.) in bold
Selected evaluative comments in green
Stage Key Features
This American Life episode 241:20 Acts in 60 MinutesAnecdote TranscriptORIGINALLY AIRED 07.11.2003
Act Two. No, Of Course I Know You.
Beginning Abstractdescriptive adjectives, reference to genre, topic information
Orientation past tenses/present tenses for immediacy both simple/progressive; first person pronouns; time/place references; parataxis; supplementary background information, material process verbs
Tate DonovanWe're sitting around waiting for it to start. And I'm not a very recognizable actor. I'm an actor who works but I never get recognized. So all of a sudden, the 10 minutes we're sitting there waiting for it to start, three or four people come up to me and recognize me. They know exactly who I am and they were quoting lines from a television show I was on. And like, hey, you were Joshua on Friends. And I've always admired stars who are really gracious. So you always think, you know, that's what I want to be like. I want to be really friendly when I'm famous. So I wanted to be friendly and sweet and go out to the people. They don't have to come to me all the time.Starlee KineSo for a little window of time though you were exactly the kind of celebrity that you wanted to always be? You were gracious and reserved.
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
Tate DonovanYeah, and warm, you know what I mean? I wasn't like one of these distant celebrities. I was like, hey, I was genuine. They all left thinking, that guy's a really great guy. He's so sweet. I was exactly how I wanted to be. I was doing it. I was doing great.
Middle (Events)
Complicationmaterial/verbal process verbs, adverbal markers of non-specific past time, (negative) modals past tense, conditionals, adversative conjunctions, causal conjunctions, past tenses/present tenses for immediacy both simple/progressive, reported/direct speech, discourse markers, descriptive adjectives, additive conjunctions, sequencing adverbials
Resolution
Remarkable Event
And then / the kid with the camera came along.This nervous kid. I don't know, he must have been 16 years old. He was in a rented tuxedo, unbelievably shy and awkward, and he's got acne. And he's got a camera in his hand. And underneath the marquee is his date who is literally in a prom dress and she's got a corsage. And she's really nervous and clutching her hands. And he comes up to me and mumbles something about a picture. And I just feel for him so I'm like, absolutely, my gosh, sure. No problem, my God, you poor thing.And I go up to his girlfriend and I wrap my arms around her and I'm like hey, where are you from? Fantastic, going to see the play? That's great. And the guy's not taking the photograph very quickly. He's just staring at me. And he's got his camera in his hands, and it's down by his chin. And she's very stiff and awkward. And I don't know what to do so I just lean across and I kiss her on the cheek.
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
And I'm like, all right, come on, take the picture. Hurry up.And finally he snaps it. And I'm like, OK, it was really wonderful to meet you. And he just stammered over to me and was like, "Could you take a picture of us?"And the whole time he just wanted me to take a picture of him and his girlfriend underneath the awning of the play. He didn't want a picture of me.
Incident
Record of events
End Reaction
questions, present simple stative verbs, evaluatory language, comment adverbs, evaluative adjectives & adverbs, reported thoughts & feelings,first person pronouns
He had no idea who I was.They were in shock. I don't think they had ever come across a human being acting this way.
Interpretation
Coda
I mean / could you imagine if you asked someone to take a picture and you just get in it yourself and kiss them?
Reorientation
Evaluation*Evaluative comments marked in green
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Helping learners improve their fluency in recounting personal anecdotes Elizabeth Hampel
Appendix 3: Discourse Structure Graphic Organiser – Anecdote
My Anecdote: First Ideas Add Detail ExampleAbstract Well the strangest
thing I've seen in a long time
Orientation was in northern Italy, a place called Ivrea, a
few years ago.Remarkable Event There was a festival
where all the neighbourhoods of the town battle each other
by throwing huge blood oranges at each other. It lasts a whole
week!Reaction I couldn't believe it,
but I joined in and only got hit once. The whole place was ankle deep in orange mush, and
the smell was incredible.
Coda I think it's a bit like that Spanish tomato
festival, do you know the one I mean?
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